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= = Locomotion = = =
As with most macropods , the tammar wallaby moves around by hopping . This species has a hopping frequency of 3 @.@ 5 strides per second , with a stride length of 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ( 2 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 9 ft ) . When hopping , proximal muscles at the knee and hip joints generate most of the power for each leap , which are delivered by multi @-@ joint muscles at the ankle . As it lands , the energy of the jump is converted into strain energy made when its leg tendons are stretched . As it leaps back off the ground , the tammar can recover much of this energy for reuse though elastic recoil .
The amount of energy stored in the tendons increases with the animal 's speed and the weight of the load it is carrying . This is particularly helpful for mothers carrying young , and explains why tammars can increase their hopping speed without using more energy . The tammar shares this characteristic with other plains @-@ dwelling macropods like the red kangaroo . By comparison , rock wallabies , such as the yellow @-@ footed rock @-@ wallaby , have traded efficient energy saving for greater tendon thickness ; an adaption for steep rocky terrain as it allows them to leap higher and lowers the risk of their tendons rupturing .
= = = Senses = = =
The tammar has 324 ° peripheral vision and 50 ° binocular vision . It can distinguish black / white gratings of different widths and in different light conditions better than most other small mammals , such as rabbits . It is nevertheless not as good as a cat or a human . Tammars appear to have some colour vision : its eyes have only blue sensitive and green sensitive photoreceptor cones , allowing it to see colour in the blue @-@ green band of the colour spectrum , but not the longer wavelengths of the red @-@ yellow band . Nevertheless , in the band where it can see colour , it can differentiate between two monochromatic colours with wavelengths as close as 20 nm ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 8 m ) apart . The pinna ( ear ) of the tammar is mobile , allowing it to track sounds from different parts of its surroundings without moving its head . A tammar can point its pinna at a sound source and increase its eardrum 's sound pressure by 25 – 30 dB at 5 kHz . When the pinna moves away from the sound source , the animal 's hearing level quickly drops . When born , a tammar 's sense of smell is already developed ; this allows the newborn to find its mother 's pouch by the scent .
= = = Thermoregulation and water turnover = = =
Tammars lick their forearms and pant to keep cool in hot weather . They breathe more heavily and lose more water when the temperature is over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Tammars can 't survive in temperatures above 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) and must find cooler surroundings . To prevent dehydration , tammars urinate less and reabsorb water from the distal colon , which gives them relatively dry feces . Being able to concentrate more urine in their kidneys allows them to survive on seawater .
= = = Sudden deaths = = =
In late 1998 , 120 – 130 tammar wallabies died suddenly in research facilities and zoos in New South Wales and Queensland , perishing less than twelve hours after exhibiting the first symptoms , with most exhibiting no symptoms at all . Post mortem examination revealed haemorrhage of muscle , and abdominal and thoracic organs . The syndrome is known as tammar sudden death syndrome and the pathogen is an orbivirus of the family Reoviridae . It does not occur south of Sydney . Captive populations of tammar wallabies in New South Wales have subsequently suffered infections in summer months . No treatment has been attempted due to the rapid progression of the disease .
= = Ecology and life history = =
Mostly nocturnal , tammar wallabies spend much of their time foraging . In winter their home ranges are about 16 ha ( 40 acres ) , but in the dry summers they range further afield to search for quality food , needing about 42 ha ( 100 acres ) of space . Tammar home ranges overlap with those of conspecifics .
During the day , tammars stay close to scrub for shade and move out to more open grassland by nightfall . Like all macropods , the tammar is herbivorous . They are known to both graze and browse , but the latter is less effective , as they commonly drop leaves when chewing on them . When eating large leaves , tammars handle them with their forelimbs . This species spends more time chewing its food than other similar sized macropods , which likely aids digestion . Tammars commonly feed on acacia seeds . Other species consumed include heart @-@ leaved poison ( Gastrolobium bilobum ) , small @-@ flowered wallaby grass ( Austrodanthonia setacea ) , and marri ( Corymbia calophylla ) . Tammars survive on several islands that have no fresh water , subsisting on seawater and the moisture in plants .
The tammar rests in two positions : a " sitting tail forward " position , in which the hind legs are outstretched with tail brought forward in between , the body prone and the head above ground ; and a " lying " position , in which the animal lies on its side with the head touching the ground . The former position is typically used during the day for long periods , and the latter position is used at night for brief periods . Tammars are known to live in stable groups , which lessens the chance of an individual being taken by a predator . As the group increases in size , tammars spend more time foraging , grooming and interacting and less time being vigilant and moving around . Predators of the tammar include dingos , feral cats , red foxes and wedge @-@ tailed eagles . They may also have been preyed upon by the extinct thylacine . Tammars appear to respond more to the sight than the sound of predators . They can also use their acute sense of smell to detect a predator . When a predator is detected , a tammar will alert others by thumping its foot . When lost , young tammars are known to emit a coarse screeching call and adult females may respond with a similar call .
= = = Breeding and development = = =
The tammar wallaby has a promiscuous mating system . It is a seasonal breeder and births largely occur during late January and early February . During the breeding season , the male 's prostate and bulbourethral gland enlarge . However , there does not appear to be any seasonal difference in the weight of the testes . Around two weeks before the first births , the males will begin sniffing the uro @-@ genital openings and pouches of the females to determine their reproductive status . After giving birth , females enter estrus and allow males to mate with them . However , a male that attempts to mate with an estrous female may face aggression from other males . A male can achieve reproductive success by mate @-@ guarding . During the estrous period , males establish a dominance hierarchy and the higher ranking males will try to prevent subordinates from mating with estrous females . Several males may pursue a single female .
The female tammar can conceive shortly after giving birth . Tammars undergo embryonic diapause and the blastocyst remains dormant for nearly a year . For the first half of the year , the presence of the joey in the pouch prevents the blastocyst from developing and experiments have shown that removing the joey within this first half will stimulate the blastocyst 's development . However , after this the blastocyst remains dormant even after the joey has left . It begins to develop by the summer solstice in the end of December and the female gives birth around one month later . After birth the newborn young climbs unaided by its mother from the birth canal to the pouch .
When it reaches the pouch , the underdeveloped joey suckles the teat of one of the four mammary glands while the others recede . The joey remains attached to the teat for 100 – 125 days , after which it ceases its attachment but remains in the pouch and continues to suckle , but more intermittently . The joey begins to leave the pouch and eat grass at around 200 days when it is more developed . It still suckles , more forcefully but less regularly . By 250 days , the joey no longer needs the pouch , and it is fully weaned at around 300 – 350 days . The tammar wallaby has been observed to engage in alloparental care , in which an adult may adopt another 's young . Male tammars may live for around 11 years , while females live for 14 years .
= = Population dynamics and conservation = =
The tammar wallaby is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN , because of its abundance and presumably stable population . However , the fragmentation of its range has led to high amounts of inbreeding and morphological abnormalities in some populations .
Since European occupation , tammar wallaby populations on both mainland Australia and some of the islands have been greatly reduced or even eradicated . In the early 20th century , the mainland population of tammars in Western Australia was described as numerous in much of the southwest , but declining in the cultivated areas , particularly to the north . Clearings made for wheat and sheep caused the population to decline further . From the 19th century , tammars in the Eyre Peninsula and around Adelaide were decimated by mobs of hunters organised to protect crops and pastures . As a result , they were extinct in the areas around Adelaide by the 1920s , and in the Eyre Peninsula around the 1970s . Tammars from Flinders Island and St Peter Island were eradicated in a similar manner .
Tammars from these areas were introduced to Kawau Island in New Zealand by colonial administrator Sir George Grey in 1870 . Since then , they have flourished to the point where their foraging has damaged indigenous plants . Pest control operators have used sodium fluoroacetate , a naturally occurring rodenticide , to control their populations , a practice which has been controversial because of its possible effect on organisms not targeted , including humans . Cyanide pellets have been used as an alternative . In 1985 , tammars were introduced to the North Island of the Houtman Abrolhos and have made similar impacts on native vegetation . Their numbers grew to 450 individuals , but by 2008 culling efforts appeared to have reduced their numbers to 25 individuals . In 2003 , the Monarto Zoo temporarily housed 85 tammars from New Zealand awaiting reintroduction to the Innes National Park on the Yorke Peninsula in South Australia . Four releases have been made , and a stable wild population of 100 – 120 animals now exists . Tammars have also been successfully translocated to other areas , such as Nambung National Park and Avon Valley National Park in Western Australia .
= = = Resistance to sodium fluoroacetate = = =
Different tammar populations have varying levels of resistance to sodium fluoroacetate . Mainland Western tammars appear to be the most resistant , while those on Kangaroo Island are much more vulnerable . Tammars from New Zealand are also vulnerable , as the poison has been successfully used to control their populations . Tammars from East and West Wallabi Islands and Garden Island , which do not have plants containing sodium fluoroacetate , are less resistant than mainland Western tammars but are more resistant than those from Kangaroo Island . This suggests that tammars originated in South Australia and developed a resistance to sodium fluoroacetate when they reached Western Australia , where the poison is found in plants .
= = Use in science = =
= = = Model organism = = =
The tammar wallaby is a model organism for studying marsupial biology , as well as mammal biology in general . It has been used in the fields of reproductive biology , immunology , metabolism , neurobiology and many others . Its " seasonal and lactational control of its reproduction " make its reproduction particularly suited for study . Tammars are inexpensive to keep in captivity and are easy to handle . They also breed well , especially if there is at least one male for five females . Tammars used for scientific study are generally housed in outdoor pens with access to water and shelter , which is closer to their natural habitat than a laboratory .
The genomes of marsupials are of great interest to scientists studying comparative genomics , and the study of tammars has provided much information about the genetics of marsupials and mammals in general . Marsupials are at a convenient degree of evolutionary divergence from humans ; mice are too close and have not developed many different functions , while birds are genetically too remote . Key immune genes from the tammar wallaby were isolated and studied in 2009 , and the full genome was sequenced in 2011 . Sequencing of the tammar genome found " innovation in reproductive and lactational genes , rapid evolution of germ cell genes , and incomplete , locus @-@ specific X inactivation " . The researchers also found new HOX genes that control gene expression , as well as novel microRNAs . The tammar genome appears to have more rearrangements than those of both the human and the gray short @-@ tailed opossum , another sequenced marsupial .
= = = Potential pharmaceutical use = = =
A compound in the milk of the tammar wallaby called AGG01 has the potential to be a new and powerful antibiotic . AGG01 is a protein , and in laboratory tests has proven to be 100 times more effective than penicillin . It has killed over 99 % of the pathogenic bacteria , ( both Gram @-@ positive and Gram @-@ negative ) , that it was incubated with , including Salmonella , Proteus vulgaris and Staphylococcus aureus . It also killed one species of fungus . Subsequent analysis of the genome has led to the discovery of several cathelicidin peptides , which could also be used as antibiotics .
= = = Gut microbiota related with greenhouse effect = = =
The foregut of the tammar wallaby contains species of bacteria belonging to the phyla Firmicutes , Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria . Within the phylum Proteobacteria , species of the family Succinivibrionaceae are the most abundant and a new species named WG – 1 was discovered . WG – 1 is a capnophilic bacterium . This has important environmental implications as the bacteria produces less methane than others and does not require CO2 to survive . Research suggests that this information could be used to reduce carbon production in livestock .
= Gná and Hófvarpnir =
In Norse mythology , Gná is a goddess who runs errands in other worlds for the goddess Frigg and rides the flying , sea @-@ treading horse Hófvarpnir ( Old Norse " he who throws his hoofs about " , " hoof @-@ thrower " or " hoof kicker " ) . Gná and Hófvarpnir are attested in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholarly theories have been proposed about Gná as a " goddess of fullness " and as potentially cognate to Fama from Roman mythology . Hófvarpnir and the eight @-@ legged steed Sleipnir have been cited examples of transcendent horses in Norse mythology .
= = Attestations = =
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur . High lists Gná thirteenth , and says that Frigg sends her off to different worlds to run errands . High adds that Gná rides the horse Hófvarpnir , and that this horse has the ability to ride through the air and atop the sea . High continues that " once some Vanir saw her path as she rode through the air " and that an unnamed one of these Vanir says , in verse :
" What flies there ?
What fares there ?
or moves through the air ? "
Gná responds in verse , in doing so providing the parentage of Hófvarpnir ; the horses Hamskerpir and Garðrofa :
" I fly not
though I fare
and move through the air
on Hofvarpnir
the one whom Hamskerpir got
with Gardrofa . "
The source for these stanzas is not provided and they are otherwise unattested . High ends his description of Gná by saying that " from Gna 's name comes the custom of saying that something gnaefir [ looms ] when it rises up high . " In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Gná is included among a list of 27 ásynjur names .
= = Theories = =
Rudolf Simek says that the etymology that Snorri presents in Gylfaginning for the name Gná may not be correct , yet it is unclear what the name may otherwise mean , though Gná has also been etymologically theorized as a " goddess of fullness . " John Lindow calls the verse exchange between the Vanir and Gná " strange " and points out that it 's unclear why it should specifically be the Vanir that witness Gná flying through the air .
Ulla Loumand cites Hófvarpnir and the eight @-@ legged horse Sleipnir as " prime examples " of horses in Norse mythology as being able to " mediate between earth and sky , between Ásgarðr , Miðgarðr and Útgarðr and between the world of mortal men and the underworld . " In the 19th century , Jacob Grimm proposed a cognate in the personified rumor in Roman mythology ; Fama . However , Grimm notes that unlike Fama , Gná is not described as winged but rather that Hófvarpnir , like the winged @-@ horse Pegasus , may have been .
= No Church in the Wild =
" No Church in the Wild " is a song by American hip hop artists Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z from their first collaborative album Watch the Throne ( 2011 ) . It is the first track on the album and features vocals from Odd Future 's Frank Ocean and The @-@ Dream , although the latter is uncredited for his contributions to the song . The song explores themes of religion and decadence . The track received highly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Ocean 's vocal hooks , the depth of the verses , the cinematic production and the song 's power as an opening track .
The track was released as the seventh and final single from Watch the Throne . The song peaked at number 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and entered the top 40 on both the US Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . The song received a music video directed by Romain Gavras released on May 29 , 2012 . The video does not feature any of the performers featured on the song and instead features anarchic riot footage and large street fights . The video received positive reviews from critics who praised the visuals of the video and the unique aesthetic presented in the video .
Jay @-@ Z and West performed the song as part of the setlist of their Watch the Throne Tour and Ocean performed his portion of the song on several different occasions during his November 2011 tour through North America and Europe . " No Church in the Wild " was featured in the theatrical trailers for the 2012 action film Safe House and the 2013 film adaptation of The Great Gatsby . The song itself has debuted at # 18 on the US Billboard YouTube 100 music video chart in July 2012 . The song received a nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration and Best Short Form Music Video at the 55th Grammy Awards to be held in February 2013 . It later won in the category of Best Rap / Sung Collaboration , marking this Jay @-@ Z 's sixth win & Kanye 's fourth win in this category .
= = Background = =
Jay @-@ Z and Kanye West are American rappers who have collaborated on several tracks together , such as singles like " Swagga Like Us " , " Run This Town " , and " Monster " . In 2010 , they began production and recording on a collaborative record Watch the Throne . Frank Ocean is an R & B recording artist who released his debut mixtape Nostalgia , Ultra in early 2011 to critical acclaim . The release of the mixtape interested West , who was reported to be a large fan . West invited Ocean to write and sing on two songs off of the record . Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " and the songs were recorded in New York . The production of the track was handled by 88 @-@ Keys and Kanye West . 88 @-@ Keys reportedly " played 20 of his beats " to West and Jay , and " everybody in the room just started going crazy " . An hour later , they had singled out the beat that would become ' " No Church in the Wild . " The next day , 88 @-@ Keys met Frank Ocean and they recorded the chorus together and an unreleased spoken word portion . 88 @-@ Keys did not hear the final version until Jay @-@ Z showcased it at the invite @-@ only listening session at the Museum of Natural History 's planetarium in August 2011 . Producer and recording artist The @-@ Dream sings a verse on the track using AutoTune . The track impacted urban radio as the seventh and final single from Watch the Throne on March 20 , 2012 .
= = Composition = =
" No Church in the Wild " features a cinematic production style and serves as an " ominous opener . " According to Billboard , Odd Future singer Frank Ocean and The @-@ Dream lend their voices to the album 's " grim opener , " which sets the mood with a " gnarled guitar sample " . It features a bass @-@ heavy beat with guitar riffs , synthesizers , and drums . The song begins with Frank Ocean 's chorus followed by a Jay @-@ Z verse about various topics including philosophy , braggadocio and religion . On Ocean 's chorus , Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts stated " with it the listener enters a bejeweled realm , one filled with musings on the spoils of riches and the chaos that accompanies it . " The chorus " underpins Jay @-@ Z 's contemplation of the relevance of the clergy and ancient philosophers to someone who makes his living on the streets , while R & B star Frank Ocean questions , " What is a God to a non @-@ believer ? " " The chorus then repeats and The @-@ Dream performs a bridge , preceding West 's verse where he boasts " You will not control the threesome . " West 's verse included references to Socrates , the perils of monogamy , " implied regicide " and both rappers " take turns describing a night of decadence that leaves blood on the coliseum walls . ” The song contains samples from " K Scope " as performed by Phil Manzanera , " Sunshine Help Me " as performed by Spooky Tooth and " Don 't Tell a Lie About Me and I Won 't Tell the Truth About You " as performed by James Brown . According to the Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , the track utilizes " unlikely samples " with " Ocean 's haunting vocal against Roxy Music 's Phil Manzanera playing a tricksy prog riff . "
= = Reception = =
" No Church in the Wild " received mostly positive reviews from music critics and was often described as a highlight from Watch the Throne . Andy Gill of The Independent stated " the best track is surely the opener ' No Church in the Wild ' , whose deep , detuned twang groove , over a marching organ motif , is the most striking music on the album , promising rather more than the rest of the record is able to deliver . Both this and the other stand @-@ out track , " Made In America " , feature assured vocal refrains from Frank Ocean , while the two rappers muse over familiar themes of loyalty , sexuality and maternal solidarity . " Rolling Stone claims that it is one of the most musically impressive songs on Watch the Throne and describes the production as an " ominous , darkly funky bass groove and chilly synths tailor @-@ made for Ocean ’ s off @-@ kilter crooning . " Matt Popkin from American Songwriter praised Jay @-@ Z 's verse and the menacing vibe of the song . NOW claims that " uncomfortably visceral opener ' No Church In The Wild ' – with its filthy Phil Manzanera guitar sample and mournful Frank Ocean chorus – cuts to the heart of Watch The Throne ’ s power dynamic . " However , PopMatters criticized that the verses " feel a little out of focus compared to the hook and beat ’ s opulence . " Sputnikmusic 's Tyler Fisher commented " 88 @-@ Keys creates a positively epic opening track with ' No Church in the Wild ' , full of creeping guitar riffs and pulsating bass , building tension that simply never releases . " Rolling Stone named the track the sixth best song of the year , reporting that " with Hov and Yeezy getting deep into arcane theology , this track is just another high . "
= = Promotion = =
The track was performed by West and Jay on their Watch the Throne Tour . Ocean performed his hook of the song at some of the performances during his 2011 concert series through the US and Europe . The song was used in the promotional ad and end credits for the film Safe House , the promo ad for The Great Gatsby , and in an advertising series for the 2013 Dodge Dart automobile .
A music video was filmed in late April 2012 in the Czech Republic by the Greek @-@ French director Romain Gavras , known for his work for M.I.A and Justice . There were two hundred extras , divided into police and rioters . The final video was released on May 29 , 2012 . The video is " clearly influenced by the protests and civil unrest that took place all across the country . " The video 's final shot bears similarity to an image from visual artist UnkleLuc 's project , The Wild . Rolling Stone reported that the " clip for " No Church in the Wild " depicts a grim clash between a large number of protesters and heavily armed and violent riot police . "
The video features neither West , Jay @-@ Z or Ocean , but instead focuses on two groups : " protestors and the police , both at war with one another . And yes , this is war — it ’ s an unsettling and savage clip , depicting protestors being beaten and pepper @-@ sprayed as they mercilessly combat with the police , though the protestors @-@ turned @-@ rioters also inflict a large part of the violence : they destroy property , loot stores , and set fire to cars — and humans . The video refuses to take sides , as there ’ s no winner when a conflict turns to violence . " Young men are beaten , choked , sprayed with mace and dragged across the concrete as Frank Ocean soulfully croons , " Will he make it out alive ? " in time with the staged anarchy . By the end of the five @-@ minute video , " the freedom fighters seem to have notched a victory of some sort , standing in triumph in the face of their oppressors . But even if a single battle is won , there is no conclusive ending , meaning that the war still rages on . " Popping up at the end of the clip is an actual elephant , chained at the neck and trying to resist getting choked to death . Pitchfork Media gave the clip a positive review , however noted " Kanye 's " you will not control the threesome " / " never fuck nobody without telling me " verse seems pretty out of place when you 're watching a cop get set on fire . "
= = Personnel = =
Produced by 88 @-@ Keys , Kanye West and Mike Dean
Frank Ocean & The Dream 's vocal production by Om 'Mas Keith
Recorded by Noah Goldstein , Ken Lewis and Brent Kolatalo
Additional recording : Pat Thrall
Mixed by Mike Dean
Additional instruments : Ken Lewis
Additional vocals : The @-@ Dream
Mixed and recorded at ( The Mercer ) Hotel
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Perfect Dark =
Perfect Dark is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 video game console . It is considered the spiritual successor to Rare 's earlier first @-@ person shooter GoldenEye 007 , with which it shares many gameplay features . Perfect Dark was first released in North America on 22 May 2000 ; PAL and NTSC @-@ J releases followed soon afterwards . A separate Game Boy Color game , also titled Perfect Dark , was released in August 2000 as a supplement to the game and allows certain features within the Nintendo 64 game to alternatively be unlocked via a Transfer Pak .
The game features a single @-@ player mode consisting of 17 main missions in which the player assumes the role of Carrington Institute agent Joanna Dark as she attempts to stop a conspiracy by rival corporation dataDyne . It also features a range of multiplayer options , including a co @-@ operative mode and traditional deathmatch settings . Technically , it is one of the most advanced games developed for the Nintendo 64 , with an optional high resolution graphics mode , widescreen support , and Dolby Surround Sound . A Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak is required to access the game 's campaign and most of the multiplayer features .
Perfect Dark was developed over the course of three years and uses an upgraded version of the GoldenEye 007 engine . The game met with critical acclaim and commercial success upon release , selling more than three million units worldwide . Critics widely praised its customisable multiplayer modes and replay value , but criticized its inconsistent frame rate . The game 's success has led to the development of the Perfect Dark series , which includes the 2005 prequel Perfect Dark Zero and other types of merchandise like novels and comic books . A remake , also titled Perfect Dark , with enhanced graphics and online multiplayer , was exclusively released as an Xbox Live Arcade game for the Xbox 360 in 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Perfect Dark is a first @-@ person shooter in which players control Carrington Institute agent Joanna Dark through a series of levels collected together into missions . The general gameplay is similar to that of its predecessor GoldenEye 007 , with features such as stealth sections and objectives determined by difficulty settings carried over . Players can crouch , duck , lean , and drop from most ledges , but there is no jump ability . A number of tutorials and training activities can be taken at the Carrington Institute , which acts as the game 's central hub . The Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak is needed to access the game 's campaign and most of the multiplayer features , although a limited subset of the Combat Simulator options are available without the device ; around 35 % of the game is playable without an Expansion Pak , as estimated on the game 's box and Instruction Booklet .
The player has access to a wide range of weapons , including handguns , rifles , submachine guns , a shotgun , rocket launchers , combat knives , grenade launchers , various explosives , and several extraterrestrial weapons . Further weapons are unlocked during the training activities in the hub . Almost all of the weapons in the game have two modes of fire : a primary mode in which the weapon is used in a typical fashion , and a secondary mode which uses the guns in other ways , such as them being close @-@ quarters melee weapons . Players can carry an unlimited number of weapons , and certain guns can be used in duplicate , one in each hand . Most weapons have a finite magazine and must be reloaded after a certain number of shots . Interaction with objects in the environment is via a single " Use " command . Enemies and players can disarm each other at close range , and the player can use this feature to steal weapons or knock foes unconscious . Damage taken during combat for the player and enemy units is location @-@ based , with a shot to the torso causing more damage than a shot to a limb .
In each level , the player must complete certain objectives and then exit the stage . The requirements are varied , with many levels requiring the recovery and use of numerous high @-@ tech gadgets . If Joanna is killed or fails an objective , the player must start the level again . Three distinct difficulty settings are available for each level , the choice of which will affect aspects such as the number of objectives that must be completed , enemy accuracy and damage , the effectiveness of the game 's optional automatic aiming assistance , and the availability of ammunition and items such as protective shields . If all the levels are completed on the highest difficulty , an additional setting becomes available , titled " Perfect Dark " . In this mode , players can customise various aspects of enemies , such as their health , their aiming accuracy and the damage they inflict . In addition to the main campaign , there are four bonus missions , with three enabling the player to control other characters with unique special abilities . Players can also unlock cheats by completing the levels within certain time limits . Some cheats can alternatively be unlocked by using the Perfect Dark Game Boy Color game and Transfer Pak .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Unlike GoldenEye 007 , Perfect Dark features three multiplayer systems . The first is a co @-@ operative mode in which two players , or one player and up to three computer @-@ controlled players , can tackle the missions together . If two humans play , the game uses a split screen display , with the option to split horizontally or vertically . Only one human player is required to survive the mission , but all the objectives must be completed . Additionally , the game features a " Counter Operative " mode in which one player plays the missions as Joanna while another takes over the role of an enemy and attempts to stop her . If this human @-@ controlled guard is killed , the game continues with the Counter Operative player taking control of a different enemy in the level . The game does not tell the player controlling Joanna which enemy the Counter Operative player is controlling .
The third multiplayer mode is the Combat Simulator , involving up to four human players and eight computer @-@ controlled players . Again , a split @-@ screen is used if more than one human is playing . If three or four humans play , the screen is divided into quarters , with one quarter left blank if necessary . Players enter the game unarmed and with a certain amount of health . Weapons and ammunition are placed around the level in preset positions . Once a player is killed , they are regenerated elsewhere in the level , once again unarmed . The overall objective of the game is determined by the scenario being played . Scenarios range from the traditional deathmatch mode , where players score points by killing their respective enemies , to objective @-@ based games , such as Capture the Flag or King of the Hill . Other scenarios include Hold the Briefcase , where players must take a briefcase and survive with it for as long as possible , and Hacker Central , a gametype where players score points by hacking a computer system using a data uplink . Aspects of each game can be customised , including the chosen map , the weapons available , and the winning conditions . Players can also be grouped into teams or compete individually . In a team game , the players can optionally be shown coloured according to their team . Each game can be customised to a greater degree than was possible in GoldenEye 007 's multiplayer mode , such as free weapons selection and placement of shields .
Computer @-@ controlled players , called " Simulants " , can be included in multiplayer matches . The appearance , team affiliation , skill level and playing characteristics of each Simulant can be individually customised ; each Simulant can be assigned pre @-@ set behaviours , such as a tendency to pursue the highest @-@ scoring player , or a restriction to only attack using fists and disarming moves instead of gunfire . On higher difficulty settings , Simulants perform actions at a superhuman level . In team games , players can issue allied Simulants with orders to perform certain tasks . The Combat Simulator also includes 30 " Challenges " , pre @-@ set games against Simulants which may be tackled by one or more players . The Challenges cover a variety of game types , weapon arrangements and level setups . By completing Challenges , additional features such as new weapons , player models and Simulant difficulties are unlocked in the Combat Simulator . At the end of a match , the overall results are shown , alongside information about the individual players ' performance : colour @-@ coded awards divided into multiple categories based on armour damage , accuracy and ammunition usage are given to players based on their overall performance . Players are also ranked according to their performance : the better the performance , the higher the grade , with the highest receiving a special username and password as a reward .
= = Plot = =
Perfect Dark is set in 2023 against the backdrop of an interstellar war between two races : the Maians , who resemble the archetypal grey alien , and the Skedar , reptile @-@ like extraterrestrials who use a holographic disguise to appear as Scandinavian humans , bearing similarities to Nordic aliens . Using the disguise , they can interact with humans on Earth without looking too overtly suspicious . Meanwhile , on Earth , there is an ongoing rivalry between two factions : The Carrington Institute , a research and development center founded by Daniel Carrington that secretly operates an espionage group in league with the Maians ; and dataDyne , a defence contractor corporation headed by Cassandra De Vries that secretly maintains a deal with the Skedar : in exchange for creating an AI capable of cracking an ancient alien spacecraft buried on the ocean floor , the Skedar have agreed to supply them with enough alien technology to become the biggest corporation on Earth .
The player is cast as Carrington Institute agent Joanna Dark , whose excellent scores in training have earned her the codename " Perfect Dark " . On her first mission , she is sent to extract a scientist named Dr. Caroll from the dataDyne skyscraper . When Joanna rescues Dr. Caroll , she learns that he is an AI who decided to defect from dataDyne after realising that the company betrayed ethical and moral standards . After the operation , Carrington is held captive at his private villa by dataDyne soldiers and forced to tell them where Dr. Caroll has been hidden . Joanna manages to rescue Carrington , who informs her that Dr. Caroll has been taken to the G5 Corporation headquarters in Chicago because he is suspected to be a front for dataDyne . In Chicago , Joanna learns that dataDyne and their conspirators plan to kidnap the President of the United States to get access to a deep sea research vessel called Pelagic II . Despite the President being in danger , Carrington alerts Joanna that a Maian craft was shot down near Area 51 and sends her to rescue any survivors from the base . While inside the base , she rescues one survivor , a Maian protector named Elvis who is key in stopping the conspiracy .
As the President of the United States refuses to loan dataDyne the Pelagic II , the conspirators plot to kill him and replace him with a dataDyne @-@ grown clone . To accomplish their plans , an NSA strike team led by Trent Easton invades the air base from which Air Force One will depart . When Joanna foils this strike , the NSA along with some Scandinavians take over the plane itself , which crashes after an attempt to detach a craft attached to it . Having survived the crash , Joanna eliminates the President 's clone and rescues the real President . Meanwhile , Easton is killed by one particular Scandinavian known as Mr. Blonde , who is revealed to be a Skedar in disguise . Without permission from the President , dataDyne decides to hijack the Pelagic II and reach the ancient spacecraft . However , unbeknownst to dataDyne , the Carrington Institute learns that the spacecraft contains a powerful weapon capable of destroying a planet and that the conspirators are actually Skedar aliens disguised as Scandinavian humans who intend to test the weapon on Earth before using it against the Maian homeworld .
Joanna and Elvis follow the conspirators to the ancient spacecraft and eventually find a reprogrammed Dr. Caroll cracking the weapon . Joanna replaces its current personality with a backup of the original , and the restored Dr. Carroll sets the weapon to self @-@ destruct . In retaliation for ruining their plans , the Skedar launch a strike on the Carrington Institute , capturing Joanna and taking her to their homeworld . While in their spaceship , she is met by De Vries , who has also been imprisoned due to her failure to comply with the deal . Feeling that she has been used , De Vries redeems herself by making a distraction and sacrificing herself , freeing Joanna and therefore giving herself a chance for revenge . Joanna is later assisted by Elvis and the pair manage to land on the Skedar planet . There , she defeats the Skedar High Priest , leaving the Skedar in disarray . The game ends with Elvis and Joanna leaving the planet just prior to an orbital bombardment from the Maian navy .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception = = =
Perfect Dark was developed by Rare as a spiritual successor to GoldenEye 007 . Shortly after the release of GoldenEye 007 , Rare was planning to work on a video game based on the GoldenEye sequel Tomorrow Never Dies , but the company was " dramatically outbid " by another studio , which would release 007 : Tomorrow Never Dies in 1999 . This result did not affect the developers , who felt they had already spent too much time immersed in the James Bond universe . The game 's science fiction setting was chosen due to the developers ' interest in the genre . Works such as Ghost in the Shell , Elektra , The X @-@ Files , Blade Runner and the writing of author Philip K. Dick were major influences on the characters , setting and plot . Perfect Dark director Martin Hollis explained that he and designer David Doak " picked a range of locations we thought would be impressive and architectural , on the model of GoldenEye but sci @-@ fi dystopias [ ... ] The settings came first ; the plot was then constructed by Dave to sew them together " .
The decision to make the central character a woman was part of Hollis ' belief that there " should be more games centred on women . " To this end , the team created Joanna Dark , influenced by a number of other fictional heroines : Kim Kimberly from Level 9 Computing 's text adventure Snowball , the seductive spy Agent X @-@ 27 in the 1931 film Dishonored , the eponymous femme fatale of the film Nikita , and FBI agent Dana Scully from The X @-@ Files . The name " Joanna Dark " was taken from the French pronunciation of Joan of Arc as " Jeanne d 'Arc " , while the name of the in @-@ game company " dataDyne " was inspired by Yoyodyne from The Crying of Lot 49 by Thomas Pynchon .
The " double slash " symbol in the game 's logo was inspired by the Japanese dakuten mark , and the bad grammar of the phrase " Perfect Dark " alludes in some degree to Hollis ' affection for the way the Japanese use English words in their own games . The word " Dark " was chosen for its association with the game 's bleak focus on killing . Hollis noted the similarities to Criterion Software 's naming of Black : " Game developers just like black , nihilism , dystopian futures , the number zero , infinity , spheres , perfection — all that kind of stuff . " Originally , Nintendo considered releasing the game in Japan under the title Aka to Kuro ( 赤と黒 , lit . " Red and Black " ) . " Perfect Dark " does not translate well into Japanese , and the title " Aka to Kuro " was considered sufficiently edgy . However , it was ultimately released as パーフェクト ・ ダーク ( Pāfekuto Dāku ) , a transliteration of the Western title .
= = = Production = = =
Work on Perfect Dark began with the same team that developed GoldenEye 007 . The developers upgraded the GoldenEye 007 engine with new features and graphical enhancements such as dynamic lighting , widescreen support , and the option to play in high resolution graphics mode . According to Rare , only 30 % of the original engine remained , providing a basic framework to construct levels and animate characters . The developers also added more elaborate gore effects , which allow gunshots to disperse and stain enemies ' blood onto nearby walls and objects . The artificial intelligence was improved so that enemies could " assess threats , work as a team and communicate with each other . " Enemies were also given the ability to draw a secondary sidearm when disarmed . A " dizziness " graphical effect was also introduced ; if a player is punched or tranquilised , their nausea is represented through a motion blurred view . The game supports advanced audio features such as Dolby Surround Sound . There is full voice @-@ acting for all in @-@ game and cutscene dialogue , and guards can be heard having conversations amongst themselves during gameplay . Nintendo wanted an American actress to voice Joanna Dark , but the negotiations were not conducted effectively enough and video game music composer Eveline Fischer was chosen to voice the character . Motion capture was used to create character animations : game designer Duncan Botwood wore a pair of high heels so that he could portray Joanna Dark in these sessions .
Originally , Hollis hoped that the difference between light and dark would be a significant feature of the gameplay , and the title was intended to reflect this focus . A flashlight was implemented by Steve Ellis , who had been responsible for much of the multiplayer mode of GoldenEye 007 , but it was not included in the final game due to the limitations of the Nintendo 64 hardware . Hollis remarked that such aims were overambitious , commenting in 2006 that " Even today , you can see game developers struggle to make light and dark foundational from a gameplay perspective . I suspect it will take a few years before significant and pervasive gameplay innovation occurs here . " Although not all these intended features were realised , the game contains more advanced lighting than its predecessor . For example , lights can be shot out to create darkened areas , gunfire and explosions illuminate rooms dynamically , and the player can use infrared and night vision goggles .
Hollis was involved with Perfect Dark for the first 14 months of its three @-@ year development , during which progress was troubled and long delayed . He explained , " each of us was asking for more than the other could give . This situation ended with my departure , and with very deep regret I was unable to see Perfect Dark to completion " . By the end of 1998 , half of the team members , including Doak and Ellis , also left Rare to form Free Radical Design . What followed by those remaining on the project was a comprehensive re @-@ design of the game , with the story and characters being the main items kept intact . Game designer Mark Edmonds was promoted to team leader because he was familiar with most of the game engine at the time . Rare also assigned more people to the development team , which eventually became three times bigger than GoldenEye 007 's . The new team was " uniquely shielded from the outside world " and did not have a production manager , a schedule , meetings , or any sort of deadlines . According to artist B Jones , " People would just do things they thought were cool and would work " . The game 's Counter Operative mode was inspired by " Bottles ' Revenge " , an additional gameplay mode cut from the final release of Banjo @-@ Tooie .
As developers kept adding more features , the game ended up using all the extra memory on the debug consoles . As a result , the game became too big to fit into the Nintendo 64 's 4MB of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) . The developers soon realised that they were not able to optimise it and decided to make use of the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak , which increases the Nintendo 64 's RAM from 4MB to 8MB of contiguous main memory , to support most of the features in the game . After playing the release version of the game , Hollis was impressed by the comprehensive range of multiplayer options , which he described as " a vast array of features I never planned " . Doak , however , remarked that " GoldenEye pretty much exhausted the performance of the machine . It was hard to push it further . Perfect Dark had some good ideas but was dog slow . "
A feature called " Perfect Head " , which appeared in previews of the game but was not included in the final product , was intended to take customisation of multiplayer profiles further . This feature allowed the player to place a photograph of their choice onto their in @-@ game character 's face , via a Game Boy Camera combined with the Nintendo 64 Transfer Pak . The images taken would be uploaded to the cartridge and manipulated with a simple image editing program to adjust colour and skin tone ( as the Game Boy Camera was black and white ) and add facial features such as facial hair . This texture could then be saved to either the cartridge or a Controller Pak and then loaded onto a player 's character in multiplayer , thus creating a virtual representation of the player . Although Rare officially said that the feature was dropped due to " technical issues " , the actual reason was revealed to be " sensitive issues " surrounding the ability to attack images of real people .
Numerous easter eggs and secrets were added to the game to fuel the exploration efforts and wild speculation of many gamers . One of the most notable features is the pieces of cheese hidden on every level . These were deliberately placed by one of the game 's artists as a graphical oddity for the player 's confusion . The face of celebrity Nintendo fan Robin Williams was used for Daniel Carrington . The face of Shigeru Miyamoto along with faces of other Nintendo executives and games journalists can be seen on minor characters such as enemy guards in the missions and as selectable avatars in the multiplayer mode . The ranking system of the Combat Simulator mode awards a special username and password to skilled players . Rare had originally intended these details to allow access to password @-@ protected parts of the official Perfect Dark website , but these sections were never implemented .
= = Marketing and release = =
Rare announced in mid @-@ 1998 that their follow @-@ up to GoldenEye 007 would appear at that year 's Electronic Entertainment Expo in Atlanta as Nintendo 's lead game , and claimed that the game , using the same engine as its predecessor , would be available by Christmas 1999 . The release date gradually slipped but the game continued to be heavily trailed in magazines , with Nintendo Official Magazine predicting that it would be " the best shooting game this century " . A working version of the game appeared at the European Computer Trade Show 1998 ; N64 Magazine described the preview as having " the kind of attention to detail that had everyone who saw [ it ] drooling " . Shortly before release , Rare unveiled a number of websites for companies in the game 's universe , such as datadyne.com , to promote interest in the game 's storyline .
The first release of the game came on 22 May 2000 in North America . Nintendo arranged a number of publicity stunts to promote the release
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uyallup in 1862 , where Meeker grew hops for use in brewing beer . By 1887 , his business had made him wealthy , and his wife built a large mansion for the family . In 1891 an infestation of hop aphids destroyed his crops and took much of his fortune . He later tried his hand at a number of ventures , and made four largely unsuccessful trips to the Klondike , taking groceries and hoping to profit from the gold rush .
Meeker became convinced that the Oregon Trail was being forgotten , and he determined to bring it publicity so it could be marked and monuments erected . In 1906 – 1908 , although in his late 70s , he retraced his steps along the Oregon Trail by wagon , seeking to build monuments in communities along the way . His trek reached New York , and in Washington , D.C. he met President Theodore Roosevelt . He traveled the Trail again several times in the final two decades of this life , including by oxcart in 1910 – 1912 and by airplane in 1924 . During another such trip , in 1928 , Meeker fell ill but was succored by Henry Ford . On his return to Washington state , Meeker became ill again and died there on December 3 , 1928 at age 97 . Meeker wrote several books ; his work has continued through the activities of such groups as the Oregon @-@ California Trails Association .
= = Early life = =
Ezra Manning Meeker was born in Butler County , Ohio , near Huntsville , on December 29 , 1830 , the son of Jacob ( 1804 – 1869 ) and Phoebe ( Baker ) Meeker ( 1801 – 1854 ) . His paternal ancestors had been among the early settlers of Elizabeth , New Jersey , where their ancestral home was located . In the American Revolutionary War , about twenty Meekers fought for the new nation . Ezra was the fourth of the six children Jacob and Phoebe had together , with older brothers John , Manning ( died at age one week ) and Oliver , and a younger sister Hannah and brother Clark .
Jacob was a miller and farmer . In 1839 , the family moved from Ohio to Indiana , close to Indianapolis — Ezra and his older brother Oliver walked behind the family wagon for 200 miles ( 320 km ) . Ezra had little formal education ; he later estimated a total of six months . Phoebe , seeing that her son 's mind was not well adapted to formal learning , allowed him to earn money through odd jobs . He obtained work as printer 's devil at the Indianapolis Journal , where his duties involved delivering the newspaper to subscribers , among them local pastor Henry Ward Beecher . In 1845 , Phoebe 's father , a Cincinnati merchant , gave his daughter $ 1 @,@ 000 , enough to buy the family a farm . As both Jacob and Ezra Meeker realized the boy enjoyed the outdoor life more than inside work , Jacob placed Ezra in charge of the farm , allowing the elder Meeker to work as a miller .
= = Migration to Oregon Territory ( 1852 ) = =
Ezra Meeker married his childhood sweetheart , Eliza Jane Sumner , in May 1851 . The Sumners lived about four miles from Indianapolis , and like the Meekers were family farmers who did not hire help . When he asked her for her hand , he told her he wanted to farm , which she accepted as long as it was on their own property . In October 1851 , the couple set out for Eddyville , Iowa , where they rented a farm . They had heard that land in Eddyville would be free , but this was not the case . Ezra , working in a surveyor 's camp , decided that he did not like Iowa 's winters — a prejudice shared by his pregnant wife . Reports were circulating through the prairies about the Oregon Territory 's free land and mild climate . Also influencing the decision was the urging of Oliver Meeker who , with friends , had outfitted for the trip to Oregon near Indianapolis , and had come to Eddyville to recruit his brother . Ezra and Eliza Jane Meeker vacillated on the decision , and it was not until early April 1852 , more than a month after the birth of their son Marion , that they decided to travel the Oregon Trail .
That April , Ezra , Eliza Jane , Oliver , and Marion Meeker set out to journey to Oregon , some 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) in all . With their wagon , they had two yokes of oxen , one of cows and an extra cow . They were accompanied by William Buck , who would remain with them much of the way before separating from them to go to California . Buck outfitted the wagon , Meeker selected the animals , and with his wife carefully prepared food supplies . The wagons of Meeker 's grouping traveled together by informal agreement ; there was no wagon master in overall charge .
A number of Oliver Meeker 's friends from Indianapolis joined the group before the party left Iowa . They crossed the Missouri River at the small Mormon settlement of Kanesville ( today Council Bluffs , Iowa ) . Meeker recounted that , as he stood on the far side of the Missouri , he felt as if he had left the United States . As they journeyed westward along the Platte River in Nebraska Territory , there were such large numbers traveling that they were never out of sight of the tens of thousands of other pioneers journeying west that year . Sometimes several wagons advanced side by side . The Meekers chose a slow , steady pace , unlike many who sought to rush along as quickly as possible . Piles of abandoned possessions lined the way , cast aside to lighten loads . As the party went further west , they passed some of those who had hurried past them , and whose wagons had broken down or whose oxen had died as a result of failure to care for them properly . Disease was an ever @-@ present risk ; at the present site of Kearney , Nebraska , Oliver Meeker was stricken with illness . This led to a division of the group when most of Oliver 's friends , including later Idaho Territory governor David W. Ballard , refused to wait . Oliver recovered after four days , and was one of the lucky ones — his brother later estimated that one in ten of those who took the Trail perished during the journey . Ezra Meeker remembered meeting one wagon train , slowly moving east against the flow of traffic . That group had made it as far as Fort Laramie ( today in Wyoming ) before losing the last of its menfolk , and the women and children turned back , hoping to regain their homes in the East . He never learned if they made it . According to local historians Bert and Margie Webber , " all of these deaths made a great impression on the young man " .
They encountered Native Americans , who would sometimes demand provisions for passage , but none were given and none of the incidents ended with violence . The travelers ' stores were supplemented by shooting bison , which roamed the Great Plains in huge numbers . Despite being a source of food , the bison were a danger as their stampedes could destroy property and kill irreplaceable stock . In southeastern Idaho , the California Trail separated from the Oregon , and Buck and some of the rest of the party split off there ; they settled in California and remained friends with Meeker until their deaths .
Meeker found that the final stretch between Fort Boise ( now Boise , Idaho ) and The Dalles was the most difficult . The section is filled with mountains and deserts , and there was little chance of supplementing stores . Those who entered this 350 miles ( 560 km ) segment with exhausted teams or minimal supplies often died along it . Others shed baggage brought across half a continent , saving only provisions . Parties who feared this part of the journey sometimes tried to float down the Snake and Columbia Rivers ; many were wrecked in the rapids and died . At The Dalles , where river passage was available to Portland , the Meeker party found a motley crowd of emigrants . With the money earned at the ferry , they booked passage downriver . Oliver Meeker brought the livestock ahead overland , and met Ezra and his family on their arrival in Portland on October 1 , 1852 , where they slept inside a house for the first time since leaving Iowa . Ezra Meeker had lost 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) and possessed $ 2 @.@ 75 in cash . All of the party survived , although Jacob Davenport , one of Oliver Meeker 's friends from Indiana , became ill on the final part of the trip and died some weeks after reaching Portland . All but one of the livestock completed the trip — a cow was lost while crossing the Missouri River . Ezra Meeker considered his journey over the Oregon Trail to have been the making of him as a man .
= = Territorial pioneer = =
= = = Early days = = =
Meeker 's first employment in the Pacific Northwest was unloading a ship that had docked at Portland . He moved to the nearby town of St. Helens , where construction of a wharf in competition with Portland 's was under way — Oliver rented a house to lodge workers in , and Ezra went to help his brother . By this time , Ezra Meeker and his wife were determined to fulfill their original plan to farm , and when work was abandoned on the wharf , he went to find land which could be cultivated .
Meeker first made a claim in January 1853 about 40 miles ( 64 km ) downriver from Portland , on the current site of Kalama , Washington . There , he built a log cabin and began his first farm . He did not build close to the water , which proved fortunate as there was a major flood on the Columbia soon after he claimed the land . Instead , he profited from the incident , selling logs the river left on his claim , together with trees he chopped down , for lumber .
In April 1853 , Meeker heard that the lands north of the Columbia would become a separate territory ( named Washington Territory ) , with its capital on Puget Sound , an inlet of the Pacific . He decided to travel north with his brother to scout for lands to claim around the waterway . There were as yet only about 500 European @-@ descended inhabitants in the Puget Sound region , of which 100 were in the village of Olympia , which would become the territorial ( and later state ) capital . Despite there only being a few settlers , there was considerable activity in the area — the lumber of Puget Sound fueled San Francisco 's building boom . The Meekers ' first view of Puget Sound was unprepossessing ; the tide was out , exposing mud flats . Nevertheless , they pressed on , building a skiff to travel by water . They were met by friendly Indians , who sold them clams and taught them how to cook the shellfish . Engaging one of the Native Americans as guide , they explored the area , looking for good , well @-@ located farmland . At one point , they entered the Puyallup River , in a region where no white settlers lived , and camped on the present site of Puyallup , but were deterred by the large number of huge trees , which would make it difficult to clear land for farming . They decided on tracts on McNeil Island , not far from the thriving town of Steilacoom , where the farm 's produce could be sold . Oliver remained on the island to build a cabin while his brother went back to fetch family and possessions , and sell their old claims at Kalama . He returned to a cabin in which they installed a glass window that looked over the water to Steilacoom , with a view of Mount Rainier . The Meeker claim was later the site of McNeil Island Corrections Center .
Later in 1853 , Ezra and Oliver Meeker received a three @-@ month @-@ old letter from their father , stating that he and other family members wanted to emigrate , and would do so if Oliver Meeker could return to assist them . They immediately responded that Oliver would return to Indiana by early the following year , and put their plans on hold to prepare for and finance his journey by steamship and rail . In August 1854 , Ezra Meeker received word that his relatives were en route , but were delayed and short on provisions . He quickly went to their aid , intending to guide them through the Naches Pass into the Puget Sound area . When he found his family 's party close to the first Fort Walla Walla ( near Richland , Washington ) , he learned that his mother and a younger brother had died along the Trail . He guided the survivors through the pass and to his claim on McNeil Island .
Jacob Meeker saw only limited prospects on the island , and the family took claims near Tacoma , where they operated a general store in Steilacoom . On November 5 , 1855 , Ezra Meeker claimed 325 @.@ 21 acres ( 131 @.@ 61 ha ) of land called Swamp Place , near Fern Hill , southeast of Tacoma . He began to improve the land , planting a garden and an orchard .
Pursuant to the 1854 Treaty of Medicine Creek , settlers purchased lands from the Indians . The agreement , signed under duress , restricted the Native Americans to inadequate reservations , and in 1855 , the Puget Sound War broke out , bringing unrest to the region over the following two years . Ezra Meeker had maintained good relations with the Native Americans , and did not fight in the conflict , though he accompanied one expedition to recover possessions captured by the Indians . A controversial aspect of the war was the trials and hanging of Chief Leschi , deemed responsible for killing during the conflict . Meeker sat on the jury in the first trial , which resulted in a hung jury , with Meeker and another man holding out for acquittal on the grounds that Leschi was a combatant in wartime . A second trial convicted Leschi , and he was hanged . Meeker described the execution as wrongful , and in later years wrote of the incident . In 1895 , Meeker chartered a special train to bring whites to Leschi 's reburial on tribal land , and in 2004 the Washington State Senate passed a resolution that Leschi had been unjustly treated ; a special historical tribunal made up of past and present justices of the Washington Supreme Court also exonerated Leschi as both he and the man he was said to have killed were combatants .
= = = " Hop King of the World " = = =
Ezra Meeker 's farm at Swamp Place was not a success as the land was too poor to grow crops . The family continued to run the store in Steilacoom . On January 5 , 1861 , Oliver Meeker drowned while returning from a buying trip to San Francisco , when his ship , the Northerner , sank off the California coast . The Meekers had borrowed to finance the trip , and the losses from this disaster reduced Ezra Meeker to near penury . He secured the squatter 's claim of Jerry Stilly on land in the Puyallup Valley , and moved his wife and children there in 1862 . While clearing his own holdings , he earned money by helping to clear the land of others . His father and surviving brother , John Meeker , also had claims in the valley . John Meeker had come to Washington Territory by ship in 1859 and had settled in the Puyallup Valley . Ezra Meeker ran for the Washington Territorial Legislature in 1861 , but was defeated . In 1869 , Meeker ran for Pierce County Surveyor ; he was defeated by James Gallagher , 138 votes to 116 .
In 1865 , Olympia brewer Isaac Wood imported some hop roots from the United Kingdom , hopeful that they would do well in the Pacific Northwest . As hops , used to flavor beer , were not then grown locally , the cost of transport from Britain or New York made his beer expensive , and he hoped Puget Sound @-@ area farmers would grow hops and supply him . He was a friend of Jacob Meeker , and gave him the roots to grow . Jacob passed some of them on to Ezra . The plants grew extremely well , and at the end of the season , the Meekers earned $ 185 from selling Wood the crop . Such a sum was rarely seen in the Puyallup Valley at that time , and a hop @-@ growing boom promptly began . Ezra Meeker , with his head start , was able to repeatedly expand operations , he eventually had 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of hop @-@ growing lands . He also built one of the first hop @-@ drying kilns in the valley . For years Meeker supplied Portland brewer Henry Weinhard .
The fertile soil and temperate climate of the valley proved ideal for hops . Not only did the plants thrive , farmers were able to obtain four or five times the usual yield . Meeker , never one to miss an opportunity , formed his own hop brokerage business . In 1870 , he penned an 80 @-@ page pamphlet , Washington Territory West of the Cascades , to promote investment in the region . He took ship for San Francisco , then journeyed east by the new transcontinental railroad , hoping to get the railroads to expand to his region . He met with newspaper editor Horace Greeley ( known for his famous advice , " Go West , young man " ) and with railroad mogul Jay Cooke as part of his promotional blitz . Cooke , who was building the Northern Pacific Railway to cross the northern tier of the country , not only bought up Meeker 's pamphlets to give away to potential investors , but hired Meeker to drum up interest in his railroad . While working from a Manhattan office , Meeker dressed like city dwellers , but did not entirely lose his frontier habits , often stirring a lump of butter into his coffee .
In 1877 , Meeker filed a plat for a townsite to surround his cabin . He named the town Puyallup , using the local Indian words for generous people , according to Meeker . The local post office had previously been called " Franklin " , a common designation in the United States ; Meeker , the town 's first postmaster , stated that the new name was likely to remain unique . He later admitted that the pronunciation of Puyallup caused confusion when he visited England — it still remains difficult for non @-@ locals .
Meeker strove to improve life in the region , and donated land and money towards town buildings and parks , a theatre and a hotel while defraying the start @-@ up costs of a wood products factory . The Ezra Meeker Historical Society , in their 1972 pamphlet on his life , wrote of his activities :
During those years , Mr. Meeker became a dynamic force in the community , and had a part in almost everything that happened in the valley . Restless , forceful , a natural leader , he became a prime mover , galvanizing the citizens of Puyallup into action on such vital problems as the building of streets , roads , homes , schools , and businesses and transforming the forest into one of the most progressive small communities in the state . If he was not leading an undertaking , he was sure to be a busy member of some committee working on it .
Hops made many farmers wealthy , including Meeker , who at one point claimed he had earned a half million dollars for his crop . In 1880 , he wrote his first book , Hop Culture in the United States , and soon after became known as the " Hop King of the World " . By the 1880s , he was the wealthiest man in the territory , and had formed a London branch of his hop brokerage . He served as Washington Territory 's representative at the 1885 – 1886 North Central & South American Exposition in New Orleans ; he also took exhibits to London 's Colonial and Indian Exposition after the New Orleans fair closed . In 1886 , Meeker sought the Republican nomination for territorial delegate to Congress , but was defeated after many ballots at the party convention . He became a supporter of women 's suffrage , which was the subject of a long @-@ running political battle in Washington Territory , a dispute which lasted well after statehood in 1889 .
Eliza Jane felt that the family should live in a better house than their original cabin , and between 1887 and 1890 built what became known as the Meeker Mansion in Puyallup . The cost was $ 26 @,@ 000 , a very large sum at the time . An Italian artist lived with the Meekers for a year , painting careful details on the ceilings . The Meekers moved in during 1890 , the same year Puyallup was formally incorporated under state law — they donated their old homesite to the town for a park . In 1890 , Meeker served as first mayor of Puyallup . He was elected to a second , non @-@ consecutive term for 1892 .
= = Ruin and Klondike = =
In 1891 , a blight of hop aphids struck the hop @-@ growing West Coast from British Columbia to California . Although sprays of various liquids were used in an attempt to defeat the insects , use of such pesticides damaged the hops . In 1892 , the crop decreased to half of what it had been before the infestation . Meeker had advanced money to many growers , who were unable to repay him . The problems in the valley were made worse by the Panic of 1893 , a severe worldwide depression . Business after business in which Meeker had invested failed , such as the Puyallup Electric Light Company . He was overextended , and lost much of his fortune , and eventually his lands to foreclosure .
Meeker spent part of the winter of 1895 – 1896 in London , recouping what he could from his interests there . In 1896 , gold was discovered both in Alaska and in Canada , and when Meeker returned from the United Kingdom , he found his sons , Marion and Fred , preparing to leave for Cook Inlet , Alaska . They found all the worthwhile claims had already been taken . Nevertheless , the Meeker family saw the finds as a possible road to financial recovery , and founded a company to buy and sell mining claims , though they knew little about the trade . In 1897 , Meeker and his sons journeyed to the Kootenay country of southeastern British Columbia , where gold had been found . Despite the fact Meeker was aged 66 , he undertook a full share of the labor . Both Meeker sons filed claims in Canada , but the mines required additional investment . Meeker raised money to travel to New York to speak with his old contacts , where he received more promises than cash . On the return leg he failed to raise money in visits in Illinois and Minneapolis and by July 1897 , he was back in the Kootenays , working the claim . When the gold discovery in the Klondike in northwestern Canada was publicized that year , Meeker saw that as a better opportunity , and sent his son Fred to investigate . Fred Meeker returned with a report in November ; the Meekers sought to finance a mining expedition to the Klondike , but failed to raise adequate money from investors .
Despite his inability to raise funds for mining , Meeker was certain there was a way to make money from the gold rush . He and Eliza Jane spent much of the winter of 1897 – 1898 drying vegetables , and Ezra Meeker departed for Skagway , Alaska , on March 20 , 1898 with 30 @,@ 000 pounds ( 14 @,@ 000 kg ) of dried produce — Fred Meeker and his wife Clara were already across the border in what would soon be designated as the Yukon Territory . The 67 @-@ year @-@ old Meeker , with one business associate , climbed the steep Chilkoot Pass . With thousands of others in boats and on rafts , he floated down the Yukon River once the ice broke up in late May , and sold his vegetables in two weeks in Dawson City . He returned to Puyallup in July , only to set out again with more supplies the following month . This time , he and his son @-@ in @-@ law , Roderick McDonald , opened a store , the Log Cabin Grocery , in Dawson City , and remained through the winter .
Meeker returned to the Yukon twice more , in 1899 and 1900 . Most of the money earned through groceries was invested in gold mining , and was lost . When he departed the Klondike for the last time in April 1901 , he left behind him the body of his son Fred , dead of pneumonia in Dawson City on January 30 , 1901 . In his writings , Meeker ascribed his sudden departure from the Yukon in 1901 to mining losses and his upcoming 50th wedding anniversary . Meeker scholar Dennis M. Larsen in his book on the pioneer 's Klondike adventure suggests that a more likely reason was attempts by those who had lost money in Meeker 's enterprises in the 1890s to gain the family 's remaining major asset , the Meeker Mansion . That property was sold by Eliza Jane Meeker to her daughter Caroline and son @-@ in @-@ law Eben Osborne for $ 10 @,@ 000 in mid @-@ 1901 and later that year both Ezra and Eliza Jane executed documents stating that the house had been her separate property , paid for with funds not deriving from Ezra . The sale to the Osbornes included provisions that Ezra and Eliza Jane were to have lifetime residence and $ 50 per month . Ezra Meeker did not live there after his wife 's death in 1909 , and the Osbornes sold the house in 1915 . Eben Osborne died in 1922 , survived by his 91 @-@ year @-@ old father in law .
= = Promoting the Trail = =
= = = Preparation for 1906 trip = = =
Meeker spent the years after the Klondike in Puyallup , where he wrote and served as president of the Washington State Historical Society , which he had helped to found in 1891 . The Ezra Meeker Historical Society described their namesake 's situation after the Klondike expeditions :
He was 71 years old . He had been an adventurer , laborer , surveyor , longshoreman , farmer , merchant , community leader , civic builder , richest man in the state , world traveler , miner and writer . He had made and lost millions . He had made money , not so much to hoard , but to do things with — to develop , control forces , build and promote . But his money was gone . It was generally assumed that he had finally come home to stay and live out his days in peace and quiet in his beautiful valley . Not so . He still had dreams .
Meeker had long contemplated the idea of marking the Oregon Trail , over which he had traveled in 1852 , with granite monuments . By the early 20th century , he was convinced that the Trail was in danger of being forgotten . Farmers were plowing up the Trail bit by bit , and as towns and cities grew along it , the Trail vanished under streets and buildings . Meeker viewed its preservation as an urgent matter because of this slow disappearance . He wanted the Trail properly marked , and monuments erected to honor the dead .
Meeker came up with a scheme to travel along the Trail again by ox @-@ drawn wagon , raising public awareness for his cause . He believed that public interest would provide enough money both to build markers and maintain himself along the way . Though many hucksters traveled by wagon , selling patent nostrums , Meeker felt that he would stand out , as an authentic pioneer able to tell real stories of the Trail — especially if he used authentic gear . He felt that it was likely that once newspapers got wind of his travels , they would give him ample coverage .
Meeker did not have much money , so he raised it from friends . Ox @-@ drawn wagons were not a common sight in the Puyallup of 1906 ; Meeker was unable to find an authentic complete wagon , and eventually used metal parts from the remains of three different ones . The construction was done by Cline & McCoy of Puyallup . Meeker found a pair of oxen ; even though one proved unsuitable , the owner insisted on him purchasing both . The one Meeker kept , named Twist , was lodged at the stockyards in Tacoma as he sought another . Meeker fixed on a herd of steers which had been brought in from Montana . He decided on one which was particularly heavy , which he named Dave . Although Dave gave Meeker much difficulty , beginning with the 8 miles ( 13 km ) drive home to Puyallup after the purchase , the animal eventually helped pull the wagon over 8 @,@ 000 miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ) .
Although Meeker had not had a dog in his wagon in 1852 , he knew that people liked them , and sought to add one to his crew . Jim , a large , friendly collie who became an expedition member and Meeker 's companion for the next six years , had belonged to one of Meeker 's neighbors , a Mr. James . Meeker was impressed by the way Jim drove James ' chickens out of the area where the family grew berries , by moving slowly . Five dollars to one of James ' children secured the purchase . Some of Meeker 's friends tried to talk him out of the trip ; one local minister warned against this " impracticable project " , stating that it was " cruel to let this aged man start on this journey only to perish by exposure in the mountains " .
Meeker had taken an ox team and wagon to Portland 's Lewis and Clark Exposition in 1905 ; en route he had kept his eyes open for places to set up suitable monuments on the Cowlitz Trail , on which pioneers had journeyed from the Columbia River to Puget Sound . He made arrangements with locals in towns along that trail to raise money to build monuments there . He gave lectures as a fundraiser , but raised little money . He took his team and wagon for daylong shakedown trips , despite the mocking of some who remembered him as Hop King . After several days camped on his lawn as practice for the trip , and then in other nearby locales , Meeker set out from Olympia on February 19 , 1906 .
= = = Return to the Trail ( 1906 – 1908 ) = = =
According to Larsen in his book on Meeker 's journey east ,
It 's easy to assume Ezra Meeker 's remarkable 1906 – 08 expedition over the Oregon Trail was a well @-@ oiled machine that worked as planned ... But it wasn 't always an easy journey . ... Faith in the whole enterprise , let alone encouragement , was in rather short supply . His own daughter told him that people would laugh at him if he went out on the trail with an old yoke of oxen ...
The first stop after Olympia for " The Old Oregon Trail Monument Expedition " was Tenino , Washington , where Meeker went ahead by train on February 20 , 1906 to make arrangements for the first monument of the trip . He still had no driver , and had his wagon pulled to Tenino by horses , with the oxen trailing behind . He appealed to a local quarry for a suitable stone , which was carved and was dedicated in Tenino at a ceremony on the 21st . He had less success as he journeyed south towards Portland ; at none of the remaining Washington stops was a monument erected , and although Meeker placed wooden posts where monuments should go , most of the designated towns did not follow through . The lack of enthusiasm about Meeker 's mission continued in Portland , where the Unitarian church elders voted against allowing Meeker the use of the building to give a fundraising lecture , pledging to do nothing to " encourage that old man to go out on the Plains to die " .
In Portland , Meeker lost his remaining helpers ( one refused to take a pay cut , the others for personal reasons ) . One stayed on for the boat voyage up the Columbia before leaving at The Dalles , where Meeker hired a driver / cook , William Mardon , at $ 30 per month . He remained with Meeker for the next three years . Meeker also installed an odometer on his wagon , calling The Dalles " Mile Zero " of his expedition . In The Dalles , Meeker engaged in activities which would set the pattern for his progress along the Trail : He showed off himself , his wagon and animals , to the public , and sold tickets for a lecture ( fifty cents for adults , half that for children ) he would give about the Oregon Trail , including images shown with a stereopticon . He also met with members of civic committees to raise money for a local monument . Often these monuments were erected after Meeker passed : he would position a post to designate its location . According to reporter James Aldredge in his 1975 article on Meeker 's trip , " for a septuagenarian he must have been blessed with remarkable health and endurance ... When the curious procession got underway , not the least impressive part of it was Meeker himself , with his face framed by his flowing white hair and his patriarchal beard . " According to reporter Bart Ripp in his 1993 article on Meeker , " the first expedition east in 1906 was supposed to be a speaking tour , but people were more interested in seeing the old coot in a covered wagon . It was the 20th century , and Americans wanted a show . "
As he journeyed east from The Dalles , Meeker met with more enthusiasm than in his home state as he slowly passed through Oregon and Idaho . As word began to spread , he sometimes found the townsfolk prepared for him , or with a stone ordered or even ready . The monument in Boise , dedicated by Meeker on April 30 , 1906 , stands on the grounds of the Idaho State Capitol . On the road , he camped as he had a half century before , but in towns most often took a hotel room , though who paid for this is uncertain . Near Pacific Springs , Wyoming at South Pass , Meeker had a stone inscribed to mark where the Trail passes through the Continental Divide .
Meeker remembered in a memoir ,
The sight of Sweetwater River , twenty miles [ 32 km ] out from South Pass , revived many pleasant memories and some that were sad . I could remember the sparkling , clear water , the green skirt of undergrowth along the banks , and the restful camps , as we trudged up the stream so many years ago . And now I saw the same channel , the same hills , and apparently the same waters swiftly passing . But where were the camp fires ? Where was the herd of gaunt cattle ? Where the sound of the din of bells ? the hallooing for lost children ? Or the little groups off on the hillside to bury the dead ? All were gone .
Nebraska proved resistant to Meeker 's sales pitch , and near Brady , the ox Twist died , possibly after eating a poisonous plant . Meeker had to wire home to supporters for money . He hired teams of horses to pull the wagon on a temporary basis , and an attempt with two cows was not successful . He was able to temporarily yoke Dave with a cow which proved more suitable . At the Omaha Stockyards , Meeker found another ox , which he named Dandy , and broke him in on the way to Indianapolis , near where Meeker had once lived and 2 @,@ 600 miles ( 4 @,@ 200 km ) by road from Puyallup . Beginning in Nebraska , Meeker began to sell postcards from photos taken on the way — there was then a craze for postcards in the United States . He also arranged for the printing of a book about his 1852 trip , much of which he wrote during noontime halts on his 1906 trip . The funds from the sales of these items allowed him to meet expenses on the road . Meeker 's exploits were closely followed in newspapers on the West Coast as eastern and midwestern stories about him were reprinted there — when westerners perceived any slights towards Meeker , indignant editorials followed .
After a visit to Eddyville , Iowa , from where he had set out in 1852 , Meeker spent several weeks in Indianapolis , leaving on March 1 , 1907 when his permit to sell on the streets there expired . With the Oregon Trail run completed , he proceeded east through Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York State , seeking to both raise public awareness and earn some money for himself through sales of his merchandise . He often spent several days in a location , so long as sales of postcards and books flourished . When the expedition reached New York City , Mayor George B. McClellan , Jr. was absent but the acting mayor told Meeker that , although he could not grant him a permit , he would instruct the police not to molest him . The message was apparently not well @-@ communicated , as at 161st and Amsterdam Avenue a policeman arrested Meeker 's helper , Mardon , for driving cattle upon the streets of New York in violation of a local ordinance . A stalemate followed as Meeker refused to move his oxen and the police had no means of doing so . The situation was resolved when higher authority ordered Mardon 's release . Meeker wanted to drive the length of Broadway ; it took a month to get the legal problems resolved . It took him six hours to drive the length of Manhattan . He had arranged with the press for photographers , who took shots of him at the New York Stock Exchange and Federal Hall . Later in his stay , he drove across the Brooklyn Bridge .
After a small family reunion at the old Meeker homestead near Elizabeth , New Jersey , Meeker headed south towards Washington , D.C. He had hoped to meet President Theodore Roosevelt at his summer home in Oyster Bay , New York , but Roosevelt 's staff declined , offering a meeting in Washington instead . Members of the Washington State congressional delegation cleared the way , and Meeker met Roosevelt on November 29 , 1907 . The President went outside the White House to view Meeker 's wagon and team , and expressed support for Meeker 's activities , and for a Meeker proposal for a cross @-@ country highway ( there were then none ) in honor of the pioneers . After Washington , the tour wound down : Meeker went home to Puyallup from Pittsburgh by train to see his ailing wife . On his return to the East , he arranged for transport by riverboat and train , with a journey across Missouri by wagon . The expedition was offloaded from the train in Portland , and Meeker proceeded north across Washington State ( receiving a much warmer reception ) on a slow route , finishing in Seattle on July 18 , 1908 .
= = = Advocate for the Oregon Trail ( 1909 – 1925 ) = = =
Meeker ran a large pioneer exhibit and restaurant at the 1909 Alaska @-@ Yukon @-@ Pacific Exposition in Seattle ; he later ruefully stated the Exposition had cost him his earnings from the book and card sales during his wagon tour . Later that year , he spent time in California , journeying with his wagon and team . Eliza Jane Meeker died in 1909 in Seattle — she had been in poor health for some years . Ezra Meeker was in San Francisco , peddling his wares , when his wife died — it took three days to locate him , after which he journeyed north for the funeral before returning to his work . On New Year 's Day 1910 , Meeker and his wagon and team participated in the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena .
In 1910 , the Humphrey Bill , to appropriate money for monuments to mark the Trail , passed the House of Representatives and was introduced in the Senate , with a proviso that no money would be spent unless the Secretary of War could certify that the work would not require any further appropriations . Ezra Meeker set out that year on another two @-@ year @-@ long expedition , with the emphasis this time on locating and marking where the Trail had been , rather than on building monuments . Sometimes the ruts in the ground from the emigrants ' wagons still existed and made it obvious , but other times he had to rely on the memories of old settlers . He journeyed to Texas , but had no success in interesting people in his project there . His tour was ended in 1912 in Denver when a flood struck the city , resulting in damage to his books . Nevertheless , according to Green , Meeker 's two trips resulted in the placement of 150 monuments . A version of the Humphrey Bill passed the Senate in 1913 , but died when the House of Representatives took no action . Despite this failure , groups began marking western trails : the Sons and Daughters of the American Revolution put up plaques along the Cowlitz Trail in 1916 .
Beginning in 1913 , Meeker began to plan his role in the 1915 Panama @-@ Pacific Exposition in San Francisco . He had donated his wagon and oxen to a park in Tacoma : when officials there expressed concern about the cost of building a proper pavilion for them , Meeker reclaimed them and set off with them to California . Deeming Dandy unfit for the road , Meeker had him slaughtered in Portland in June 1914 and had the hide shipped back to Tacoma for taxidermy ; in November , the same fate met Dave in California . Meeker 's wagon was exhibited at the Exposition in San Francisco . His tales of the Oregon Trail became one of the star attractions of the Exposition . Nevertheless , he quarreled with the administrators of the Washington State Building , feeling that it should be open on Sundays , when the largest crowds came to the grounds . On his return , the oxen and wagon were mounted as an exhibit at the Washington State History Museum until it closed for a move to new premises in 1995 . The wagon was then deemed too fragile for display .
In 1916 , the 85 @-@ year @-@ old Meeker made another trip , this time by Pathfinder automobile . The Pathfinder Company , of Indianapolis , lent Meeker a car with a covered @-@ wagon @-@ style top and a driver as a publicity stunt . Meeker also received a small stipend , and journeyed in the vehicle from Washington , D.C. to Olympia . Meeker saw the use of a motor vehicle as publicizing the need for a transcontinental highway . During this trip , he lectured on the need for a national highway ; before he left he met with President Woodrow Wilson and discussed the topic with him .
Bernard Sun , whose grandparents were Oregon Trail pioneers in Wyoming , remembered another side of Meeker :
He 'd camp down on Rush Creek with a covered wagon . The old bum was riding a grub line . He 'd grub meals from all the ranchers around here . My grandmother hated the sight of him . He 'd comb that long hair at the dinner table . Put his [ false ] teeth in to eat and take them out to talk .
Although World War I distracted public attention from Meeker and his activities , he used the time to plan for the future . On December 29 , 1919 , his 89th birthday , he began work on another book , Seventy Years of Progress in Washington , which was published to favorable reviews . In association with Dr. Howard R. Driggs , a professor of English education at the University of Utah and later at New York University , he published a revised version of his memoirs , Ox @-@ Team Days on the Oregon Trail . In 1922 , he fell ill for one of the few times in his life . Newspapers reported that he refused to stay in bed , and his grandson , a physician , stated that he was going to put Meeker back to bed and " I am going to keep him there — if I can . If I can . "
Recovered , the nonagenarian Meeker began making fresh travel plans . With the International Air Races to be held at Dayton , Ohio , in 1924 , Meeker tried to get the War Department to allow him to fly there . He was successful , and flew with the Army pilot , Oakley G. Kelly . At a stop in Boise , Meeker quipped they were making better time than with his ox team , and in Dayton met aviation pioneer Orville Wright , to whom he commented , " You 'd be surprised at the difference between riding in a Prairie Schooner and in an airplane . " The publicity was so favorable that the Army had Kelly fly Meeker the rest of the way to Washington , D.C. , where the onetime pioneer met President Calvin Coolidge in October 1924 . Meeker returned to Seattle by train . Wanting the government to build a road over Naches Pass , where he had guided his father 's party seventy years before , Meeker ran for the Washington House of Representatives in 1924 from the 47th district but was defeated in the Republican primary by 35 votes . In 1925 , Meeker drove an ox team for several months while touring in J.C. Miller 's Wild West Show .
= = = Meeker reaches the end of the trail ( 1925 – 1928 ) = = =
By 1925 , Congress had still not passed an appropriation to mark the Trail . One means of federally sponsored fundraising at that time was to get Congress to authorize a commemorative coin ( usually a half dollar ) and designate a sponsoring organization to buy the issue at face value from the government and sell it to the public at a premium . Meeker got the idea from a group of Idahoans seeking a coin to further their preservation work at Fort Hall ; he arranged a merger of efforts . Beginning in 1925 , Meeker pressed for such a half dollar to honor the pioneers and provide money for his efforts , and in April 1926 he appeared before a Senate committee , urging the passage of legislation . Congress obliged , and Coolidge signed the bill on May 17 , 1926 at a ceremony which Meeker attended .
Meeker had founded the Old Oregon Trail Association in 1922 . In early 1926 , it was incorporated in New York as the Oregon Trail Memorial Association ( OTMA ) , and was given office space there by the National Highways Association . The legislation authorizing the new coin designated the OTMA as the organization which could purchase Oregon Trail Memorial half dollars from the government . The piece was designed by Laura Gardin Fraser and her husband , James Earle Fraser ( who had designed the Buffalo nickel ) . Six million coins were authorized , and a beginning was made by the striking of 48 @,@ 000 for the Association at the Philadelphia Mint ; when those ran low , 100 @,@ 000 more were coined at the San Francisco Mint . Meeker was less successful with the later issue , and many remained unsold . Although the Bureau of the Mint struck more in 1928 , these remained impounded until after Meeker 's death , with tens of thousands of the earlier issues unsold .
Seattle had been Meeker 's home since moving out of the mansion , but in the mid @-@ 1920s the citizens of Puyallup sought to honor him by the erection of a statue in Pioneer Park , the site of Meeker 's one @-@ time homestead . They also sought to preserve the home site , over which Eliza Jane Meeker had planted ivy a half @-@ century before , building a pergola to support the plant . With the statue and pergola completed , Meeker returned to Puyallup for the dedication ceremony in 1926 . The same year , at age 95 , Meeker published his first and only novel , Kate Mulhall , a Romance of the Oregon Trail .
Meeker was again advocating better roads , and gained the support of Henry Ford , who built him a Model A car with a covered wagon @-@ style top , dubbed the Oxmobile , to be used in another expedition over the Trail to publicize Meeker 's highway proposals . In October 1928 , Meeker was hospitalized with pneumonia in Detroit . He returned to Seattle , where he fell ill again . Meeker was taken to a room in the Frye Hotel , where he told his daughter Ella Meeker Templeton , " I can 't go . I have not yet finished my work . " Ezra Meeker died there on December 3 , 1928 , just under a month short of his 98th birthday . His body was taken in procession back to Puyallup , where he was interred beside his wife Eliza Jane in Woodbine Cemetery . Under a plaque based on the Oregon Trail Memorial coin Ezra Meeker had inspired , their gravestone , erected by the OTMA in 1939 , reads , " They came this way to win and hold the West " .
= = Legacy = =
Howard Driggs succeeded Meeker as president of the OTMA , and remained in that capacity at the association and its successor , the American Pioneer Trails Association ( APTA ) , until his own death at age 89 in 1963 . The year 1930 , marking 100 years since both Meeker 's birth and the first wagon train leaving St. Louis for the Oregon Country , was proclaimed the Covered Wagon Centennial . The largest event was at one of the landmarks along the Oregon Trail , Wyoming 's Independence Rock , on July 3 – 5 , 1930 . This event included the dedication of a plaque depicting Meeker , embedded in the rock . For many years , the OTMA made it a practice to go out each summer and dedicate monuments along the Oregon Trail . Although the APTA no longer exists , that mission has been continued by state historical societies and organizations which share its purpose , such as the Oregon @-@ California Trails Association .
The commemorative half dollars were struck in small numbers in most years of the 1930s ; after collectors complained about the lengthy series and high prices , Congress forbade further strikings in 1939 . The first route across America , the Lincoln Highway , was completed in the 1920s , and others soon followed . Although Meeker 's highway along the Trail was not built , U.S. 30 generally parallels the route of the Oregon Trail . A number of sites relating to Meeker remain in Puyallup . In addition to his gravesite , and the Meeker Mansion ( now owned by and being restored by the Ezra Meeker Historical Society ) there is Pioneer Park , where the ivy @-@ covered pergola and the statue of Meeker may be found .
Local historian Lori Price noted , " Throughout his long life of nearly 98 years , the word for Meeker was action . " Historian David Dary , in his book on the Oregon Trail , deems Meeker primarily responsible for re @-@ awakening public interest in it . According to Bert Webber , " There would be no ' Oregon Trail ' to enjoy today if Ezra Meeker had not set out , by himself , and without government subsidy , to preserve it . " Driggs stated of Meeker after his death :
So the Oregon Trail was blazed and tramped — traders , trappers , gold @-@ seekers , missionaries , colonists — until the highway stretched from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean . Years passed and railroads supplanted the old Oregon Trail ; its very location was forgotten ; disputes arose . Then an old
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figures in philosophy and theology as well , Harold Bloom has commented that , " Shakespeare was larger than Plato and than St. Augustine . He encloses us , because we see with his fundamental perceptions . "
= = Worksပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = =
= = = Classification of the playsပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = =
Shakespeare 's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623 , listed according to their folio classification as comedies , histories and tragedies . Two plays not included in the First Folio , The Two Noble Kinsmen and Pericles , Prince of Tyre , are now accepted as part of the canon , with today 's scholars agreeing that Shakespeare made major contributions to the writing of both . No Shakespearean poems were included in the First Folio .
In the late 19th century , Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances , and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies , Dowden 's term is often used . In 1896 , Frederick S. Boas coined the term " problem plays " to describe four plays : All 's Well That Ends Well , Measure for Measure , Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet . " Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies " , he wrote . " We may therefore borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare 's problem plays . " The term , much debated and sometimes applied to other plays , remains in use , though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy .
= = Speculation about Shakespeareပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = =
= = = Authorshipပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = =
Around 230 years after Shakespeare 's death , doubts began to be expressed about the authorship of the works attributed to him . Proposed alternative candidates include Francis Bacon , Christopher Marlowe , and Edward de Vere , 17th Earl of Oxford . Several " group theories " have also been proposed . Only a small minority of academics believe there is reason to question the traditional attribution , but interest in the subject , particularly the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship , continues into the 21st century .
= = = Religionပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = =
Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare 's family were Catholics , at a time when practicing Catholicism in England was against the law . Shakespeare 's mother , Mary Arden , certainly came from a pious Catholic family . The strongest evidence might be a Catholic statement of faith signed by his father , John Shakespeare , found in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street . The document is now lost , however , and scholars differ as to its authenticity . In 1591 the authorities reported that John Shakespeare had missed church " for fear of process for debt " , a common Catholic excuse . In 1606 , the name of William 's daughter Susanna appears on a list of those who failed to attend Easter communion in Stratford . As several scholars have noted , whatever his private views , Shakespeare " conformed to the official state religion " , as Park Honan put it . Also , Shakespeare 's will uses a Protestant formula , and he was a confirmed member of the Church of England , where he was married , his children were baptized , and where he is buried . Other authors argue that there is a lack of evidence about Shakespeare 's religious beliefs . Scholars find evidence both for and against Shakespeare 's Catholicism , Protestantism , or lack of belief in his plays , but the truth may be impossible to prove .
= = = Sexualityပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = =
Few details of Shakespeare 's sexuality are known . At 18 , he married 26 @-@ year @-@ old Anne Hathaway , who was pregnant . Susanna , the first of their three children , was born six months later on 26 May 1583 . Over the centuries , some readers have posited that Shakespeare 's sonnets are autobiographical , and point to them as evidence of his love for a young man . Others read the same passages as the expression of intense friendship rather than romantic love . The 26 so @-@ called " Dark Lady " sonnets , addressed to a married woman , are taken as evidence of heterosexual liaisons .
= = = Portraitureပြင ် ဆင ် ရန ် = = =
No written contemporary description of Shakespeare 's physical appearance survives , and no evidence suggests that he ever commissioned a portrait , so the Droeshout engraving , which Ben Jonson approved of as a good likeness , and his Stratford monument provide perhaps the best evidence of his appearance . From the 18th century , the desire for authentic Shakespeare portraits fuelled claims that various surviving pictures depicted Shakespeare . That demand also led to the production of several fake portraits , as well as mis @-@ attributions , repaintings and relabelling of portraits of other people .
= The Erlenmeyer Flask =
" The Erlenmeyer Flask " is the 24th episode and the first season finale of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written by executive producer Chris Carter , and directed by R. W. Goodwin , the episode continues with the mythology story arc which started with " Pilot " . The episode first aired in the United States on May 13 , 1994 on the Fox network . With 8 @.@ 3 million households turning in during its initial broadcast , the episode was the most @-@ viewed episode of the show 's first season . The episode received an Edgar Award nomination in the Best Episode in a TV Series category , and has , since broadcast , received positive responses from both critics and crew members .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully discover evidence of a secret government experimentation with alien DNA , but the evidence and everyone who has seen it are quickly targeted for elimination .
" The Erlenmeyer Flask " introduced several new plot elements which would continue in later seasons and featured the death of recurring character " Deep Throat " ( Jerry Hardin ) . Carter described the inspiration for the episode as " the result of a year @-@ long learning experience " .
= = Plot = =
In Ardis , Maryland , a high @-@ speed police chase unfolds at a waterfront . The driver of the car , Dr. William Secare , is cornered by officers but fights them off with surprising ease . Secare is shot as he runs up a gangplank and leaps off a ship into the water . The police fail to locate him but discover that his blood is green .
Soon afterwards , Deep Throat ( Jerry Hardin ) approaches Fox Mulder with Secare 's case , saying he is of major importance to revealing the truth . When investigating the case , Mulder and Dana Scully visit Dr. Terrance Berube ( Ken Kramer ) , a scientist working in Gaithersburg , Maryland , whose car was being driven by Secare . That night , Deep Throat meets a second time with Mulder and insists he continue , despite Mulder 's uncertainty on what he should be looking for . That night , Berube is confronted by the " Crew Cut Man " ( Lindsey Ginter ) , who kills him and makes the death look like a suicide .
While investigating the crime scene , Mulder finds an Erlenmeyer flask labeled " Purity Control . " Scully takes the flask to Georgetown University , where Dr. Anne Carpenter ( Anne De Salvo ) helps her analyze its contents . Meanwhile , Mulder heads to Berube 's home and finds keys for a storage facility . Secare calls Berube 's home office and Mulder answers , pretending to be Berube . Secare tells who he believes to be Berube that he 's been in the water for three days , and is hurt . Meanwhile , the Crew Cut Man eavesdrops on the conversation . Secare collapses due to blood loss before he can tell Mulder where he is . While he is driven away in an ambulance , a poisonous gas emits from Secare 's body when the paramedics perform a needle decompression . Secare recovers and flees from the ambulance .
Mulder arrives at the storage facility and finds five men suspended in tanks , as well as a sixth empty tank . Mulder is pursued when he leaves the facility but escapes . Carpenter reveals that the " Purity Control " flask contains a sample of bacteria that doesn 't exist anywhere in nature and can only be described as extraterrestrial . Upon revisiting the storage facility the next day with Scully , Mulder discovers the room to be completely empty . Deep Throat arrives , revealing that Berube was experimenting on humans with extraterrestrial viruses . Six terminally ill volunteers were experimented on , and all had begun recovering . When it was ordered that they be destroyed , Berube helped Secare escape .
Scully learns that Carpenter and her entire family have been killed in an automobile accident . Mulder returns to Berube 's home and finds Secare , who is killed by the Crew Cut Man . Mulder passes out from exposure to the gas escaping from Secare 's wound and is captured . Deep Throat meets Scully outside of Mulder 's apartment and says that he may be able to make a deal with Mulder 's captors . He gives Scully the credentials necessary to enter the High Containment Facility at Fort Marlene , where Scully finds an alien fetus contained within liquid nitrogen . At an exchange on a freeway overpass , Deep Throat presents the fetus to the Crew Cut Man , who shoots him seconds later . Mulder is thrown out of the Crew Cut Man 's van as he drives off . Scully tends to Deep Throat , whose last words before dying are , " Trust no one " .
Several weeks later , a despondent Mulder calls Scully to inform her that the X @-@ Files have been shut down . Meanwhile , in a scene mirroring the conclusion to the pilot , the Smoking Man stores the alien fetus in the massive evidence room within the Pentagon .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Chris Carter wrote the teleplay for the episode , which he described as " the result of an year @-@ long learning experience " . Carter tried to firmly establish the mythology of the series , " where we explored the different avenues of government conspiracy , and turning it into more than just flying saucers " , and having what the writer called a " defining moment " for Scully , where the agent would hear from a fellow scientist that she was dealing with truly extraterrestrial material . The scene where poisonous fumes were emitted by Dr. Secare was inspired by the case of Gloria Ramirez , which occurred in California in February 1994 ; Carter remembered this when writing the script , and it became an established aspect of the mythology in subsequent seasons .
The writers killed off the recurring character " Deep Throat " to give audiences the impression that anyone outside of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully were expendable . The decision to shut down the X @-@ Files was done to separate Mulder and Scully , allowing the producers to work around Gillian Anderson 's pregnancy ( which contributed to an important plot development in the second season and affected the rest of the series ) . Fox initially opposed the idea , fearing that closing down the X @-@ Files would lead viewers to believe that the show had been cancelled .
The ending of this episode mirrors that of the " Pilot " , including Mulder calling Scully at 11 : 21 pm and the " Cigarette Smoking Man " storing evidence in The Pentagon . The tagline for this episode is " Trust No One " , replacing the usual phrase " The Truth is Out There " and referencing " Deep Throat " ' s last words . Executive producer R. W. Goodwin decided to make his directorial debut with the episode , as he considered it " the best script by far " , offering " a combination of elation and stark terror " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The opening car chase was shot by crew member J.P. Finn , who was the lone producer and directed much of the second unit . It was shot at an abandoned shipyard in North Vancouver known as Versatal Shipyard . Goodwin went so far as saying that the location " was perfect " for them to shoot in ; it would be reused in the third season episode " 2Shy . " The scene with Fox Mulder and Dana Scully visiting Doctor Berube ( Ken Kramer ) was a " big challenge " due to the use of monkeys ; Goodwin wanted the monkeys to all act " crazy " at the same time on cue when filming . When looking back , he said they did a " pretty good job " . The location used for the warehouse where Mulder finds the tanks had the address " 1616 Pandora " , which the producers decided to incorporate into the episode itself as a symbol of Mulder " opening Pandora 's box " .
The scene where Mulder has entered in the warehouse and searched for the room number utilizes an in @-@ camera dolly zoom effect .
The shot of Dr. Secare resurfacing out of the water was created by the visual effects unit . Actor Simon Webb was raised up on a crane under the water , which had been levered so that he could " actually " be raised out of the bay . According to Goodwin , the timing was not quite right , but that failed shot " worked " on a different level and proved to be a " fascinating shot " . The scene had to be re @-@ shot later , however . When filming the episode the production crew did not know that Webb had a phobia towards water . The first test shot of Scully removing the alien fetus doll from liquid nitrogen went right , but under the hot studio lights the model started falling apart , leading the following take to flash the lighting in another direction .
= = Reception = =
This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , with a 16 share . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 3 million households , making it the most viewed episode of the first season . The Mystery Writers of America nominated " The Erlenmeyer Flask " for an Edgar Award in the Best Episode in a TV Series category ; the eventual recipient of the award was " Simone Says " of NYPD Blue . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode 9 out of 10 , saying it was " the perfect ending to the first season " and a good introduction to The X @-@ Files mythology . Manuel Medoza from The Dallas Morning News said the episode was able to blend " absolutely chilling " moments with " completely silly " moments " at the same time " . Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts concluded that the death of " Deep Throat " made the character " very real " .
Crew members have also reacted positively towards the episode . Carter said of the episode : " The Erlenmeyer Flask brings back nothing but good memories . It just has terrific images in it ; it really brought the series in its first year full circle . It was successful in doing what we wanted to do , which was to close down the X @-@ Files . It shocked a lot of people " . Goodwin commented : " Everything about that episode is absolutely first class . The acting , the art direction , the camera work . There 's nothing in it that isn 't the best you can get , and that 's really a credit to a lot of very talented people " . The episode introduced many concepts and themes that would appear in the mythology episodes for the show throughout the years including genetic experiments , alien @-@ human hybrids , toxic alien blood , government conspiracies , alien fetuses and deadly assassins .
= Warfarin =
Warfarin , also known by the brand names Coumadin among others , is an anticoagulant normally used in the prevention of thrombosis and thromboembolism , the formation of blood clots in the blood vessels and their migration elsewhere in the body , respectively . It was initially introduced in 1948 as a pesticide against rats and mice , and is still used for this purpose , although more potent poisons such as brodifacoum have since been developed . In the early 1950s , warfarin was found to be effective and relatively safe for preventing thrombosis and thromboembolism in many disorders . It was approved for use as a medication in 1954 , and has remained popular ever since . Warfarin is the most widely prescribed oral anticoagulant drug in North America .
Despite its effectiveness , treatment with warfarin has several shortcomings . Many commonly used medications interact with warfarin , as do some foods ( particularly leaf vegetable foods or " greens , " since these typically contain large amounts of vitamin K1 ) and its activity has to be monitored by blood testing for the international normalized ratio ( INR ) to ensure an adequate yet safe dose is taken . A high INR predisposes patients to an increased risk of bleeding , while an INR below the therapeutic target indicates the dose of warfarin is insufficient to protect against thromboembolic events .
Warfarin and related 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin @-@ containing molecules decrease blood coagulation by inhibiting vitamin K epoxide reductase , an enzyme that recycles oxidized vitamin K1 to its reduced form after it has participated in the carboxylation of several blood coagulation proteins , mainly prothrombin and factor VII . Despite being labeled a vitamin K antagonist , warfarin does not antagonize the action of vitamin K1 , but rather antagonizes vitamin K1 recycling , depleting active vitamin K1 . Thus , the pharmacologic action may always be reversed by fresh vitamin K1 . When administered , these drugs do not anticoagulate blood immediately . Instead , onset of their effect requires about two to three days before remaining active clotting factors have had time to naturally disappear in metabolism , and the duration of action of a single dose of warfarin is 2 to 5 days . Reversal of warfarin 's effect by discontinuing its use , or by administering vitamin K1 , requires a similar period of time .
Warfarin is a synthetic derivative of dicoumarol , a 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin @-@ derived mycotoxin anticoagulant originally discovered in spoiled sweet clover @-@ based animal feeds . Dicoumarol , in turn , is derived from coumarin , a sweet @-@ smelling but coagulation @-@ inactive chemical found naturally in " sweet " clover ( to which it gives its odor and name ) , tonka beans ( also known as " cumaru " from which coumarin 's name derives ) , and many other plants . The name ' warfarin ' stems from its discovery at the University of Wisconsin , incorporating the acronym for the organization that funded the key research , " WARF " for the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation and the ending " -arin " , indicating its link with coumarin .
= = Medical uses = =
Warfarin is used to decrease the tendency for thrombosis or as secondary prophylaxis ( prevention of further episodes ) in those individuals who have already formed a blood clot ( thrombus ) . Warfarin treatment can help prevent formation of future blood clots and help reduce the risk of embolism ( migration of a thrombus to a spot where it blocks blood supply to a vital organ ) .
Warfarin is best suited for anticoagulation ( clot formation inhibition ) in areas of slowly running blood ( such as in veins and the pooled blood behind artificial and natural valves ) and in blood pooled in dysfunctional cardiac atria . Thus , common clinical indications for warfarin use are atrial fibrillation , the presence of artificial heart valves , deep venous thrombosis , and pulmonary embolism ( where the embolized clots first form in veins ) . Warfarin is also used in antiphospholipid syndrome . It has been used occasionally after heart attacks ( myocardial infarctions ) , but is far less effective at preventing new thromboses in coronary arteries . Prevention of clotting in arteries is usually undertaken with antiplatelet drugs , which act by a different mechanism from warfarin ( which normally has no effect on platelet function ) .
= = = Alternative anticoagulants = = =
In some countries , other coumarins are used instead of warfarin , such as acenocoumarol and phenprocoumon . These have a shorter ( acenocoumarol ) or longer ( phenprocoumon ) half @-@ life , and are not completely interchangeable with warfarin . Several types of anticoagulant drugs offering the efficacy of warfarin without a need for monitoring , such as dabigatran , apixaban , edoxaban and rivaroxaban , have been approved in a number of countries for classical warfarin uses like the more common types of atrial fibrillation , and others in the same drug classes are under development . However , reversal agents for these alternative anticoagulants are currently not available .
= = = Dosing = = =
Dosing of warfarin is complicated because it is known to interact with many commonly used medications and certain foods . These interactions may enhance or reduce warfarin 's anticoagulation effect . To optimize the therapeutic effect without risking dangerous side effects such as bleeding , close monitoring of the degree of anticoagulation is required by a blood test measuring an INR . During the initial stage of treatment , INR is checked daily ; intervals between tests can be lengthened if the patient manages stable therapeutic INR levels on an unchanged warfarin dose . Newer point @-@ of @-@ care testing is available and has increased the ease of INR testing in the outpatient setting . Instead of a blood draw , the point of care test involves a simple finger prick .
When initiating warfarin therapy ( " warfarinization " ) , the doctor will decide how strong the anticoagulant therapy needs to be . The target INR level varies from case to case depending on the clinical indicators , but tends to be 2 – 3 in most conditions . In particular , target INR may be 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 ( or even 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 ) in patients with one or more mechanical heart valves .
In addition , for the first three days of " warfarinization " , the levels of protein C and protein S ( anticoagulation factors ) drop faster than procoagulation proteins such as factor II , VII , IX , and X. Therefore , bridging anticoagulant therapies ( usually heparin ) are often used to reverse this temporary hypercoagulable state .
= = = = Maintenance dose = = = =
Recommendations by many national bodies , including the American College of Chest Physicians , have been distilled to help manage dose adjustments .
The maintenance dose of warfarin can fluctuate significantly depending on the amount of vitamin K1 in the diet . Keeping vitamin K1 intake at a stable level can prevent these fluctuations . Leafy green vegetables tend to contain higher amounts of vitamin K1 . Green parts of members of the family Apiaceae , such as parsley , cilantro , and dill , are extremely rich sources of vitamin K ; cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage and broccoli , as well as the darker varieties of lettuces and other leafy greens , are also relatively high in vitamin K1 . Green vegetables such a peas and green beans do not have such high amounts of vitamin K1 as leafy greens . Certain vegetable oils have high amounts of vitamin K1 . Foods low in vitamin K1 include roots , bulbs , tubers , and most fruits and fruit juices . Cereals , grains and other milled products are also low in vitamin K1 .
= = = = Self @-@ testing = = = =
Patients are making increasing use of self @-@ testing and home monitoring of oral anticoagulation . International guidelines on home testing were published in 2005 . The guidelines stated : " The consensus agrees that patient self @-@ testing and patient self @-@ management are effective methods of monitoring oral anticoagulation therapy , providing outcomes at least as good as , and possibly better than , those achieved with an anticoagulation clinic . All patients must be appropriately selected and trained . Currently available self @-@ testing / self @-@ management devices give INR results that are comparable with those obtained in laboratory testing . " A 2006 systematic review and meta @-@ analysis of 14 randomized trials showed home testing led to a reduced incidence of complications ( thrombosis and major bleeding ) and improved the time in the therapeutic range .
= = Contraindications = =
Warfarin is contraindicated in pregnancy , as it passes through the placental barrier and may cause bleeding in the fetus ; warfarin use during pregnancy is commonly associated with spontaneous abortion , stillbirth , neonatal death , and preterm birth . Coumarins ( such as warfarin ) are also teratogens , that is , they cause birth defects ; the incidence of birth defects in infants exposed to warfarin in utero appears to be around 5 % , although higher figures ( up to 30 % ) have been reported in some studies . Depending on when exposure occurs during pregnancy , two distinct combinations of congenital abnormalities can arise .
= = = First trimester of pregnancy = = =
Usually , warfarin is avoided in the first trimester , and a low molecular weight heparin such as enoxaparin is substituted . With heparin , risk of maternal haemorrhage and other complications are still increased , but heparins do not cross the placental barrier , so do not cause birth defects . Various solutions exist for the time around delivery .
When warfarin ( or another 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin derivative ) is given during the first trimester — particularly between the sixth and ninth weeks of pregnancy — a constellation of birth defects known variously as fetal warfarin syndrome ( FWS ) , warfarin embryopathy , or coumarin embryopathy can occur . FWS is characterized mainly by skeletal abnormalities , which include nasal hypoplasia , a depressed or narrowed nasal bridge , scoliosis , and calcifications in the vertebral column , femur , and heel bone , which show a peculiar stippled appearance on X @-@ rays . Limb abnormalities , such as brachydactyly ( unusually short fingers and toes ) or underdeveloped extremities , can also occur . Common nonskeletal features of FWS include low birth weight and developmental disabilities .
= = = Second trimester and later = = =
Warfarin administration in the second and third trimesters is much less commonly associated with birth defects , and when they do occur , are considerably different from fetal warfarin syndrome . The most common congenital abnormalities associated with warfarin use in late pregnancy are central nervous system disorders , including spasticity and seizures , and eye defects . Because of such later pregnancy birth defects , anticoagulation with warfarin poses a problem in pregnant women requiring warfarin for vital indications , such as stroke prevention in those with artificial heart valves .
According to the American College of Chest Physicians ( ACCP ) , warfarin may be used in lactating women who wish to breast @-@ feed their infants . Available data does not suggest that warfarin crosses into the breast milk . Similarly , INR levels should be checked to avoid adverse effects .
= = Adverse effects = =
= = = Hemorrhage = = =
The only common side effect of warfarin is hemorrhage ( bleeding ) . The risk of severe bleeding is small but definite ( a median annual rate of 1 @-@ 3 % has been reported ) and any benefit needs to outweigh this risk when warfarin is considered as a therapeutic measure . All types of bleeding occur more commonly , but the most catastrophic ones are those involving the brain ( intracerebral hemorrhage / hemorrhagic stroke ) and the spinal cord . Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range ( due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions ) . This risk increases greatly once the INR exceeds 4 @.@ 5 .
A number of risk scores exists to predict bleeding in people using warfarin and similar anticoagulants . A commonly used score ( HAS @-@ BLED ) includes known predictors of warfarin @-@ related bleeding : uncontrolled high blood pressure ( H ) , abnormal kidney function ( A ) , previous stroke ( S ) , known previous bleeding condition ( B ) , previous labile INR when on anticoagulation ( L ) , elderly as defined by age over 65 ( E ) , and drugs associated with bleeding ( e.g. aspirin ) or alcohol misuse ( D ) . While their use is recommended in clinical practice guidelines , they are only moderately effective in predicting bleeding risk and do not perform well in predicting hemorrhagic stroke . Bleeding risk may be increased in patients on hemodialysis . Another score used to assess bleeding risk on anticoagulation , specifically Warfarin or Coumadin , is the ATRIA score , which uses a weighted additive scale of clinical findings to determine bleeding risk stratification .
The risks of bleeding are increased further when warfarin is combined with antiplatelet drugs such as clopidogrel , aspirin , or nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs .
= = = Warfarin necrosis = = =
A rare but serious complication resulting from treatment with warfarin is warfarin necrosis , which occurs more frequently shortly after commencing treatment in patients with a deficiency of protein C. Protein C is an innate anticoagulant that , like the procoagulant factors that warfarin inhibits , requires vitamin K @-@ dependent carboxylation for its activity . Since warfarin initially decreases protein C levels faster than the coagulation factors , it can paradoxically increase the blood 's tendency to coagulate when treatment is first begun ( many patients when starting on warfarin are given heparin in parallel to combat this ) , leading to massive thrombosis with skin necrosis and gangrene of limbs . Its natural counterpart , purpura fulminans , occurs in children who are homozygous for certain protein C mutations .
= = = Osteoporosis = = =
After initial reports that warfarin could reduce bone mineral density , several studies have demonstrated a link between warfarin use and osteoporosis @-@ related fracture . A 1999 study in 572 women taking warfarin for deep venous thrombosis , risk of vertebral fracture and rib fracture was increased ; other fracture types did not occur more commonly . A 2002 study looking at a randomly selected selection of 1523 patients with osteoporotic fracture found no increased exposure to anticoagulants compared to controls , and neither did stratification of the duration of anticoagulation reveal a trend towards fracture .
A 2006 retrospective study of 14 @,@ 564 Medicare recipients showed that warfarin use for more than one year was linked with a 60 % increased risk of osteoporosis @-@ related fracture in men ; there was no association in women . The mechanism was thought to be a combination of reduced intake of vitamin K , which is necessary for bone health , and inhibition by warfarin of vitamin K @-@ mediated carboxylation of certain bone proteins , rendering them nonfunctional .
= = = Purple toe syndrome = = =
Another rare complication that may occur early during warfarin treatment ( usually within 3 to 8 weeks of commencement ) is purple toe syndrome . This condition is thought to result from small deposits of cholesterol breaking loose and causing embolisms in blood vessels in the skin of the feet , which causes a blueish purple colour and may be painful .
It is typically thought to affect the big toe , but it affects other parts of the feet as well , including the bottom of the foot ( plantar surface ) . The occurrence of purple toe syndrome may require discontinuation of warfarin .
= = = Calcification of valves and arteries = = =
Several studies have also implicated warfarin use in valvular and vascular calcification . No specific treatment is available , but some modalities are under investigation .
= = Overdose = =
The major side effect of warfarin use is bleeding . Risk of bleeding is increased if the INR is out of range ( due to accidental or deliberate overdose or due to interactions ) . Many drug interactions can increase the effect of warfarin , also causing an overdose .
For people who need rapid reversal of warfarin and have serious bleeding or who are having emergency surgery , the effects of warfarin can be reversed with vitamin K with prothrombin complex concentrate or fresh frozen plasma in addition to intravenous vitamin K. Blood products should not be routinely used to reverse warfarin when vitamin K could work alone .
Details on reversing warfarin are provided in clinical practice guidelines from the American College of Chest Physicians . For patients with an international normalized ratio ( INR ) between 4 @.@ 5 and 10 @.@ 0 , a small dose ( about 1000 mcg = one milligram ) of oral vitamin K is sufficient . When warfarin is being given and INR is in therapeutic range , simple discontinuation of the drug for five days is usually enough to reverse the effect and cause INR to drop below 1 @.@ 5 .
= = Interactions = =
Warfarin interacts with many commonly used drugs , and the metabolism of warfarin varies greatly between patients . Some foods have also been reported to interact with warfarin . Apart from the metabolic interactions , highly protein bound drugs can displace warfarin from serum albumin and cause an increase in the INR . This makes finding the correct dosage difficult , and accentuates the need of monitoring ; when initiating a medication that is known to interact with warfarin ( e.g. simvastatin ) , INR checks are increased or dosages adjusted until a new ideal dosage is found .
When taken with NSAIDS ( non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory medications ) , warfarin increases the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding . This increased risk is due to the anti @-@ platelet effect of NSAIDS as well as the possible damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa .
Many commonly used antibiotics , such as metronidazole or the macrolides , will greatly increase the effect of warfarin by reducing the metabolism of warfarin in the body . Other broad @-@ spectrum antibiotics can reduce the amount of the normal bacterial flora in the bowel , which make significant quantities of vitamin K1 , thus potentiating the effect of warfarin . In addition , food that contains large quantities of vitamin K1 will reduce the warfarin effect . Thyroid activity also appears to influence warfarin dosing requirements ; hypothyroidism ( decreased thyroid function ) makes people less responsive to warfarin treatment , while hyperthyroidism ( overactive thyroid ) boosts the anticoagulant effect . Several mechanisms have been proposed for this effect , including changes in the rate of breakdown of clotting factors and changes in the metabolism of warfarin .
Excessive use of alcohol is also known to affect the metabolism of warfarin and can elevate the INR and thus increase the risk of bleeding . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) product insert on warfarin states that alcohol should be avoided .
Warfarin also interacts with many herbs and spices , some used in food ( such as ginger and garlic ) and others used purely for medicinal purposes ( such as ginseng and Ginkgo biloba ) . All may increase bleeding and bruising in people taking warfarin ; similar effects have been reported with borage ( starflower ) oil or fish oils . St. John 's Wort , sometimes recommended to help with mild to moderate depression , reduces the effectiveness of a given dose of warfarin ; it induces the enzymes that break down warfarin in the body , causing a reduced anticoagulant effect .
Between 2003 and 2004 , the UK Committee on Safety of Medicines received several reports of increased INR and risk of haemorrhage in people taking warfarin and cranberry juice . Data establishing a causal relationship is still lacking , and a 2006 review found no cases of this interaction reported to the FDA ; nevertheless , several authors have recommended that both doctors and patients be made aware of its possibility . The mechanism behind the interaction is still unclear .
= = Chemistry = =
X @-@ ray crystallographic studies of warfarin show that it exists in tautomeric form , as the cyclic hemiketal , which is formed from the 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin and the ketone in the 3 @-@ position substituent . However , the existence of many 4 @-@ hydroxycoumadin anticoagulants ( for example phenprocoumon ) that possess no ketone group in the 3 @-@ substituent to form such a structure , suggests that the hemiketal must tautomerise to the 4 @-@ hydroxy form in order for warfarin to be active .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
Warfarin consists of a racemic mixture of two active enantiomers — R- and S- forms — each of which is cleared by different pathways . S @-@ warfarin is 2 @-@ 5 times more potent than the R @-@ isomer in producing an anticoagulant response . Both the enantiomers of warfarin undergo CYP @-@ mediated metabolism by many different CYPs to form 3 ' , 4 ' , 6 @,@ 7 @,@ 8 and 10 @-@ hydroxy warfarin metabolites , major being 7 @-@ OH warfarin formed from S @-@ warfarin by CYP2C9 and 10 @-@ OH warfarin from R @-@ warfarin by CYP3A4 .
Warfarin is more slowly acting than the common anticoagulant heparin , though it has a number of advantages . Heparin must be given by injection , whereas warfarin is available orally . Warfarin has a long half @-@ life and need only be given once a day . Heparin can also cause a prothrombotic condition , heparin @-@ induced thrombocytopenia ( an antibody @-@ mediated decrease in platelet levels ) , which increases the risk for thrombosis . It takes several days for warfarin to reach the therapeutic effect since the circulating coagulation factors are not affected by the drug ( thrombin has a half @-@ life time of days ) . Warfarin 's long half @-@ life means that it remains effective for several days after it was stopped . Furthermore , if given initially without additional anticoagulant cover , it can increase thrombosis risk ( see below ) . For these main reasons , hospitalised patients are usually given heparin with warfarin initially , the heparin covering the 3 – 5 day lag period and being withdrawn after a few days .
= = = Mechanism of action = = =
While warfarin is one of several drugs popularly referred to as a " blood thinner ; " this is a misnomer since it does not affect the viscosity of blood .
Warfarin inhibits the vitamin K @-@ dependent synthesis of biologically active forms of the calcium @-@ dependent clotting factors II , VII , IX and X , as well as the regulatory factors protein C , protein S , and protein Z. Other proteins not involved in blood clotting , such as osteocalcin , or matrix Gla protein , may also be affected .
The precursors of these factors require gamma carboxylation of their glutamic acid residues to allow the coagulation factors to bind to phospholipid surfaces inside blood vessels , on the vascular endothelium . The enzyme that carries out the carboxylation of glutamic acid is gamma @-@ glutamyl carboxylase . The carboxylation reaction will proceed only if the carboxylase enzyme is able to convert a reduced form of vitamin K ( vitamin K hydroquinone ) to vitamin K epoxide at the same time . The vitamin K epoxide is in turn recycled back to vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone by another enzyme , the vitamin K epoxide reductase ( VKOR ) . Warfarin inhibits epoxide reductase ( specifically the VKORC1 subunit ) , thereby diminishing available vitamin K and vitamin K hydroquinone in the tissues , which inhibits the carboxylation activity of the glutamyl carboxylase . When this occurs , the coagulation factors are no longer carboxylated at certain glutamic acid residues , and are incapable of binding to the endothelial surface of blood vessels , and are thus biologically inactive . As the body 's stores of previously produced active factors degrade ( over several days ) and are replaced by inactive factors , the anticoagulation effect becomes apparent . The coagulation factors are produced , but have decreased functionality due to undercarboxylation ; they are collectively referred to as PIVKAs ( proteins induced [ by ] vitamin K absence / antagonism ) , and individual coagulation factors as PIVKA @-@ number ( e.g.PIVKA @-@ II ) . The end result of warfarin use , therefore , is to diminish blood clotting in the patient .
When warfarin is newly started , it may promote clot formation temporarily . This is because the level of protein C and protein S are also dependent on vitamin K activity . Warfarin causes decline in protein C levels in first 36 hours . In addition , reduced levels of protein S lead to a reduction in activity of protein C ( for which it is the co @-@ factor ) and therefore reduced degradation of factor Va and factor VIIIa . Although loading doses of warfarin over 5 mg also produce a precipitous decline in factor VII , resulting in an initial prolongation of the INR , full antithrombotic effect does not take place until significant reduction in factor II occurs days later . The haemostasis system becomes temporarily biased towards thrombus formation , leading to a prothrombotic state . Thus , when warfarin is loaded rapidly at greater than 5 mg per day , it is beneficial to co @-@ administer heparin , an anticoagulant that acts upon antithrombin and helps reduce the risk of thrombosis , with warfarin therapy for four to five days , in order to have the benefit of anticoagulation from heparin until the full effect of warfarin has been achieved .
= = = Pharmacogenomics = = =
Warfarin activity is determined partially by genetic factors . Polymorphisms in two genes ( VKORC1 and CYP2C9 ) play a particularly large role in response to warfarin .
VKORC1 polymorphisms explain 30 % of the dose variation between patients : particular mutations make VKORC1 less susceptible to suppression by warfarin . There are two main haplotypes that explain 25 % of variation : low @-@ dose haplotype group ( A ) and a high @-@ dose haplotype group ( B ) . VKORC1 polymorphisms explain why African Americans are on average relatively resistant to warfarin ( higher proportion of group B haplotypes ) , while Asian Americans are generally more sensitive ( higher proportion of group A haplotypes ) . Group A VKORC1 polymorphisms lead to a more rapid achievement of a therapeutic INR , but also a shorter time to reach an INR over 4 , which is associated with bleeding .
CYP2C9 polymorphisms explain 10 % of the dose variation between patients , mainly among Caucasian patients as these variants are rare in African American and most Asian populations . These CYP2C9 polymorphisms do not influence time to effective INR as opposed toVKORC1 , but does shorten the time to INR > 4 .
Despite the promise of pharmacogenomic testing in warfarin dosing , its use in clinical practice is controversial . In August 2009 the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services concluded that " the available evidence does not demonstrate that pharmacogenomic testing of CYP2C9 or VKORC1 alleles to predict warfarin responsiveness improves health outcomes in Medicare beneficiaries . " A 2014 meta @-@ analysis showed that using genotype @-@ based dosing did not confer benefit in terms of time within therapeutic range , excessive anticoagulation ( as defined by INR greater than 4 ) , or a reduction in either major bleeding or thromboembolic events .
= = History = =
In the early 1920s , there was an outbreak of a previously unrecognized cattle disease in the northern United States and Canada . Cattle were haemorrhaging after minor procedures , and on some occasions , spontaneously . For example , 21 out of 22 cows died after dehorning , and 12 out of 25 bulls died after castration . All of these animals had bled to death .
In 1921 , Frank Schofield , a Canadian veterinary pathologist , determined that the cattle were ingesting moldy silage made from sweet clover , and that this was functioning as a potent anticoagulant . Only spoiled hay made from sweet clover ( grown in northern states of the USA and in Canada since the turn of the century ) produced the disease . Schofield separated good clover stalks and damaged clover stalks from the same hay mow , and fed each to a different rabbit . The rabbit that had ingested the good stalks remained well , but the rabbit that had ingested the damaged stalks died from a haemorrhagic illness . A duplicate experiment with a different sample of clover hay produced the same result . In 1929 , North Dakota veterinarian Dr L.M. Roderick demonstrated that the condition was due to a lack of functioning prothrombin .
The identity of the anticoagulant substance in spoiled sweet clover remained a mystery until 1940 . In 1933 Karl Paul Link and his lab of chemists working at the University of Wisconsin set out to isolate and characterize the haemorrhagic agent from the spoiled hay . It took five years for Link 's student Harold A. Campbell to recover 6 mg of crystalline anticoagulant . Next , Link 's student Mark A. Stahmann took over the project and initiated a large @-@ scale extraction , isolating 1 @.@ 8 g of recrystallized anticoagulant in about 4 months . This was enough material for Stahmann and Charles F. Huebner to check their results against Campbell 's and to thoroughly characterize the compound . Through degradation experiments they established that the anticoagulant was 3 @,@ 3 ' -methylenebis- ( 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin ) , which they later named dicoumarol . They confirmed their results by synthesizing dicoumarol and proving in 1940 that it was identical to the naturally occurring agent .
Dicoumarol was a product of the plant molecule coumarin ( not to be confused with Coumadin , a later tradename for warfarin ) . Coumarin is now known to be present in many plants , and produces the notably sweet smell of freshly cut grass or hay and plants like sweet grass ; in fact , the plant 's high content of coumarin is responsible for the original common name of " sweet clover " , which is named for its sweet smell , not its bitter taste . They are present notably in woodruff ( Galium odoratum , Rubiaceae ) , and at lower levels in licorice , lavender , and various other species . However , coumarins themselves do not influence clotting or warfarin @-@ like action , but must first be metabolized by various fungi into compounds such as 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin , then further ( in the presence of naturally occurring formaldehyde ) into dicoumarol , in order to have any anticoagulant properties . Fungal attack of the damaged and dying clover stalks explained the presence of the anticoagulant only in spoiled clover silages ; dicoumarol is considered to be a fermentation product and mycotoxin .
Over the next few years , numerous similar chemicals ( specifically 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarins with a large aromatic substitutent at the 3 position ) were found to have the same anticoagulant properties . The first drug in the class to be widely commercialized was dicoumarol itself , patented in 1941 and later used as a pharmaceutical . Karl Link continued working on developing more potent coumarin @-@ based anticoagulants for use as rodent poisons , resulting in warfarin in 1948 . The name " warfarin " stems from the acronym WARF , for Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation + the ending -arin indicating its link with coumarin . Warfarin was first registered for use as a rodenticide in the US in 1948 , and was immediately popular . Although warfarin was developed by Link , the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation financially supported the research and was assigned the patent .
After an incident in 1951 , where a US Army inductee unsuccessfully attempted suicide with multiple doses of warfarin in rodenticide and recovered fully after presenting to a hospital , and being treated with vitamin K ( by then known as a specific antidote ) , studies began in the use of warfarin as a therapeutic anticoagulant . It was found to be generally superior to dicoumarol , and in 1954 was approved for medical use in humans . An early recipient of warfarin was US president Dwight Eisenhower , who was prescribed the drug after having a heart attack in 1955 .
The exact mechanism of action remained unknown until it was demonstrated , in 1978 , that warfarin inhibits the enzyme epoxide reductase and hence interferes with vitamin K metabolism .
It has been posited that Lavrenty Beria , Nikita Khrushchev and others conspired to use warfarin to poison Soviet leader Joseph Stalin . Warfarin is tasteless and colourless , and produces symptoms similar to those that Stalin exhibited .
= = Use as a rodenticide = =
Coumarins ( 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarin derivatives ) are used as rodenticides for controlling rats and mice in residential , industrial , and agricultural areas . Warfarin is both odorless and tasteless , and is effective when mixed with food bait , because the rodents will return to the bait and continue to feed over a period of days until a lethal dose is accumulated ( considered to be 1 mg / kg / day over about six days ) . It may also be mixed with talc and used as a tracking powder , which accumulates on the animal 's skin and fur , and is subsequently consumed during grooming . The LD50 is 50 – 500 mg / kg . The IDLH value is 100 mg / m3 ( warfarin ; various species ) .
The use of warfarin itself as a rat poison is now declining , because many rat populations have developed resistance to it , and poisons of considerably greater potency are now available . Other 4 @-@ hydroxycoumarins used as rodenticides include coumatetralyl and brodifacoum , which is sometimes referred to as " super @-@ warfarin " , because it is more potent , longer @-@ acting , and effective even in rat and mouse populations that are resistant to warfarin . Unlike warfarin , which is readily excreted , newer anticoagulant poisons also accumulate in the liver and kidneys after ingestion . However , such rodenticides may also accumulate in birds of prey and other animals that eat the poisoned rodents or baits .
= = Occupational safety = =
People can be exposed to warfarin in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin absorption , and eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for warfarin exposure in the workplace as 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . At levels of 100 mg / m3 , warfarin is immediately dangerous to life and health .
It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right @-@ to @-@ Know Act ( 42 U.S.C. 11002 ) , and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce , store , or use it in significant quantities .
= = Brandnames = =
Brand names include Coumadin , Jantoven , Marevan , Uniwarfin , Lawarin and Waran .
= Action of 23 August 1967 =
The Action of 23 August 1967 was a major air battle which involved elements of the Vietnam People 's Air Force ( VPAF ) and the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . The air battle took place over the skies of North Vietnam as part of Operation Rolling Thunder , during the Vietnam War .
On 2 January 1967 , the United States Air Force launched Operation Bolo with the aim of luring North Vietnamese MiG fighters into an air battle , where they could be destroyed in an ambush . The operation , led by Colonel Robin Olds , turned out to be a major success after five North Vietnamese MiG @-@ 21 fighters of the VPAF 921st Fighter Regiment were shot down .
Stung by that devastating defeat , the North Vietnamese Air Force grounded their fighter force several times between June and August 1967 , in order to work on their training and tactics . On 23 August 1967 , the North Vietnamese Air Force employed their newly devised tactic against a U.S. strike formation , while it was conducting raids against a rail yard . The air battle concluded with the USAF losing three F @-@ 4D fighters .
= = Background = =
On 2 March 1965 , the United States Government launched Operation Rolling Thunder , a major bombing campaign , with several objectives . Firstly , the operation was supposed to retaliate against North Vietnam for their military activities inside South Vietnam , thereby raising the morale of the South Vietnamese people , especially the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . Secondly , it aimed to impede North Vietnam ’ s ability to wage war by reducing , if not stopping , the flow of men and material into South Vietnam . Thirdly , the overall objective was to persuade the North Vietnamese Government to find a compromise through negotiations . Originally the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff submitted a list of 94 targets to be hit over a period of 16 days , but U.S. President Lyndon Johnson decided to include military targets in order to gradually apply pressure on the North Vietnamese Government , so the list of targets grew to 427 by the end of the campaign . In the first phase of the operation , which lasted from spring to summer of 1965 , American airpower mainly targeted the North Vietnamese capital of Hanoi and its limited industrial base .
However , by the end of the year , the United States had failed to achieve the objectives of Rolling Thunder , because North Vietnam continued to send its troops and military supplies down the Ho Chi Minh Trail , which demonstrated that the North Vietnamese Government was not ready to quit the war . In response to domestic political pressure to do more , President Johnson shifted priority of the campaign to interdiction . From summer 1965 to the winter period of 1966 – 67 , the campaign was aimed at degrading North Vietnam ’ s capability to infiltrate and send men into South Vietnam . Again , America ’ s shift towards interdiction also failed , and the Johnson administration was forced to change the priority of the bombing campaign . For the third phase of Rolling Thunder , which occurred from spring 1967 to early 1968 , bombing operations were focused on industrial and transportation targets in and around Hanoi , Hai Phong and the buffer zone near the Chinese border .
The third phase of the campaign was heavily favored by U.S. commanders , because it allowed them to destroy rather than just threaten Hanoi ’ s nascent industrial infrastructures . Furthermore , the new targets approved by the Johnson administration enabled U.S. airpower to be used against the primary war @-@ making capabilities of North Vietnam , by striking at military targets that were previously denied to the fighter @-@ bombers of the U.S. Navy and Air Force . Thus , in 1967 the United States also introduced more aircraft into the operation equipped with new technology , which gave American air units the assets to make a significant difference . However , as American bombers moved closer to Hanoi and Hai Phong , they were aggressively challenged by North Vietnamese MiG fighters .
= = Prelude = =
The year of 1967 started badly for the Vietnam People 's Air Force ( VPAF ) . During the early years of the war , the rules of engagement prevented U.S. fighter @-@ bombers from hitting North Vietnamese air bases , and that allowed North Vietnamese fighter pilots to attack American bomber formations as they were approaching their targets , thereby forcing U.S. pilots to jettison their bomb loads before they even reached their target . Then , instead of dueling with U.S. strike aircraft , North Vietnamese pilots would normally retreat to the safety of their bases . To preempt further attacks on U.S. bomber formations by the North Vietnamese Air Force , the United States Air Force became interested in luring North Vietnamese MiG fighters up against a decoy target , and shoot them down in the air using missile @-@ armed fighter aircraft . By 1967 , the North Vietnamese Air Force had become more aggressive towards U.S. strike formations , and it indicated to U.S. commanders that it was the right time to launch a decoy operation .
In what became known as Operation Bolo , the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing ( 8th TFW ) — under the command of Colonel Robin Olds — based at Ubon in Thailand , was entrusted with the task of leading an operation which aimed to lure the North Vietnamese Air Force into an ambush . Accordingly , the F @-@ 4 Phantoms of the 8th TFW would fly in the same profile as an F @-@ 105 strike formation , by flying at the same time , altitudes , speed and routes . For the first time , the F @-@ 4 Phantoms would be equipped with the QRC @-@ 1
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the stone Academy Building . During the Whiskey Rebellion , portions of David Bradford 's militia camped on a hillside that would later become home to the unified Washington & Jefferson College .
In October 1792 , after a year 's delay from its official incorporation resulting from " trouble with Indians , " McMillan was chosen as the headmaster and Canonsburg was chosen as the location for the " Canonsburg Academy . " At a subsequent unknown date , McMillan transferred his students from the log cabin to Canonsburg Academy . Canonsburg Academy was chartered by the General Assembly on March 11 , 1794 , thus placing it firmly ahead of it sister school , Washington Academy , which was without a faculty , students , or facilities . On January 15 , 1802 , with McMillan as president of the board , the General Assembly finally granted a charter for " a college at Canonsburgh . "
= = = Jefferson College and Washington College = = =
In 1802 , Canonsburg Academy was reconstituted as Jefferson College , with John McMillan serving as the first President of the Board of Trustees . In 1806 , Matthew Brown petitioned the Pennsylvania General Assembly to grant Washington Academy a charter , allowing it to be re @-@ christened as Washington College . At various times over the next 60 years , the various parties within the two colleges pursued unification with each other , but the question of where the unified college would be located thwarted those efforts . In 1817 , a disagreement over a perceived agreement for unification erupted into " The College War " and threatened the existence of both colleges . In the ensuing years , both colleges began to undertake risky financial moves , especially over @-@ selling scholarships . Thanks to the leadership of Matthew Brown , Jefferson College was in a stronger position to weather the financial storm for a longer period . Desperate for funds , Washington College accepted an offer from the Synod of Wheeling to take control of the college , a move that was supposed to stabilize the finances for a period of time . However , Washington College then undertook another series of risky financial moves that crippled its finances .
= = = Unification of the colleges = = =
Following the Civil War , both colleges were short on students and on funds , causing them to join together as Washington & Jefferson College in 1865 . The charter provided for the college to operate at both Canonsburg and Washington , a position that caused significant difficulty for the administration trying to rescue the college amid ill feelings over the unification . Jonathan Edwards , a pastor from Baltimore who had been president of Hanover College , was elected the first president of the unified Washington & Jefferson College on April 4 , 1866 . Edwards immediately encountered significant challenges , including the difficulties of administering a college across two campuses , as well as old prejudices and hard feelings among those still loyal to either Jefferson College or Washington College . Edwards resigned in 1869 , as the two @-@ campus arrangement was declared a failure and all operations were consolidated in Washington . Before the merger could be completed , Canonsburg residents and Jefferson College partisans filed a lawsuit , known as the Pennsylvania College Cases , sought to overturn the consolidation plan . Leadership of the college during this time fell to Samuel J. Wilson , a local pastor , and James I. Brownson , who had earlier been interim president of Washington College . By 1871 , the United States Supreme Court upheld the consolidation , allowing the newly configured college to proceed .
= = = Washington & Jefferson College = = =
George P. Hays , who had assumed the presidency amid the court battle and the unification controversy , led the newly unified college until 1881 . His successor , James D. Moffat , led the college through a period of growth where the college constructed the Old Gym , Hays Hall , Thompson Memorial Library , and Thistle Physics Building , as well as purchasing the land known as the " old fair ground , " now used for Cameron Stadium . Towards the end of his term , Moffat personally paid for the 1912 renovations of McMillan Hall . In 1914 , Frederick W. Hinitt was elected president . His tenure was dominated by the United States ' entry into World War I , with an enrollment drop of 50 % . William E. Slemmons , a college trustee and adjunct professor , succeeded Hinitt and served as interim president from May 1918 to June 1919 . After the war ended in 1919 , Samuel Charles Black took over and helped to stabilize the enrollment . While on a honeymoon tour of national parks , Black became ill and died . His successor , Simon Strousse Baker , was well liked by the college 's trustees and by " many a townsman " , but the student body felt that Baker was " autocratic " and held an " unfriendly attitude toward the student body as individuals . " Baker defended himself , saying that the perceived ill @-@ will towards students was unintentional and a misunderstanding . Nonetheless , the student body held a strike and general walkout in 1931 , prompting Baker to resign .
Baker 's successor , Ralph Cooper Hutchison , was much more popular with the student body . In an effort to strengthen the college 's science department , Hutchison extended and expanded the southern portion of the campus , adding the Lazear Chemistry Hall and purchasing McIlvane Hall . When World War II broke out , the campus was opened to the Army Administration School , where hundreds of soldiers received their " training in classifications . " Hutchison resigned in 1945 to take the presidency of his alma mater , Lafayette College . James Herbert Case , Jr . , who was president from 1946 to 1950 , constructed several new dormitories to handle the influx of veterans under the G.I. Bill . In 1950 , Boyd Crumrine Patterson assumed the presidency and oversaw curriculum revisions and the construction of a number of buildings , including the Henry Memorial Center , 10 Greek housing units in the center of campus , the U. Grant Miller Library , the Student Center , the Commons , and two new dormitories . His fundraising abilities grew the college 's endowment expanded from $ 2 @.@ 3 million to nearly $ 11 million . Patterson retired in 1970 , the same year that the trustees authorized the admission of women as undergraduate students . Howard J. Burnett took office as president that year and hired the college 's first female faculty members and the first female dean . The college also adopted a new academic calendar to include intersession and expanded its academic programs to include the Entrepreneurial Studies Program , the Freshman Forum , and several cooperative international education programs . Student enrollment grew from 830 in 1970 to 1 @,@ 100 in 1998 . Burnett retired as president in 1998 . Under Burnett 's successor , Brian C. Mitchell , who served as president from 1998 to 2004 , the college experienced a growth in construction and an effort to improve relations with the neighboring communities . In 2004 , Tori Haring @-@ Smith became the first woman to serve as president of Washington & Jefferson , undertaking an effort to improve the science curriculum and to construct the Swanson Science Center .
= = Academics = =
As a liberal arts college , Washington & Jefferson College focuses exclusively on undergraduate education . It is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools . The college 's teaching environment reflects the liberal arts tradition of small group instruction by maintaining an average class size of 17 and a student / faculty ratio of 12 : 1 . 85 % of faculty have terminal degrees and no classes are taught by teaching assistants . The college has a strong science program , with 35 % of students majoring in one of the scientific departments . Within those areas , all 32 professors hold terminal degrees . The most frequent class size is between 10 and 19 students .
The college has a focus on preparing students for graduate school and professional programs . Across all disciplines , 85 % to 90 % of students who apply to such programs receive offers of admission . Among students who apply to medical school or related health graduate programs , 90 % of students gain admission . Approximately 11 % of all current W & J alumni are physicians and engineers , making the college third in the nation per capita for producing doctors and scientific researchers . Among students who apply to law school , approximately 90 % of students gain admission .
The college recently added The English Language Institute which is a pre @-@ academic program designed to equip multi @-@ lingual learners with the English and academic skills to be prepared for undergraduate study .
= = = Curriculum = = =
The curriculum is centered on the traditional liberal arts education and pre @-@ professional classes . All first @-@ semester freshmen must complete the " First Year Seminar " class , which introduces new students to a variety of lectures , concerts , plays , and trips to museums or galleries based on a different course theme selected each year . In addition to completing an academic major , students must satisfy the college @-@ wide general education requirements , which include classes in the arts , humanities , natural sciences and mathematics , foreign languages , cultural diversity , and academic skills classes including writing , oral communication , quantitative reasoning . Students may choose to complete an academic minor , participate in interdepartmental concentrations , or to focus on an intra @-@ departmental emphasis . Additionally , all students must complete a physical education requirement , amounting to one full semester class , making W & J one of the few liberal arts colleges without a physical education major to have such a requirement . The college maintains a number of combined degree programs , allowing students to attend graduate or professional school in lieu of senior year .
The college follows the 4 – 1 – 4 academic calendar , which includes a four @-@ month fall term , a three @-@ week Intersession term in January , followed by a four @-@ month spring term . During the Intersession term , students have the choice of studying abroad , completing an external internship , or taking a specially @-@ designed Intersession course . These Intersession courses are more focused than regular courses and provide professors with an opportunity to teach non @-@ traditional subjects . Past Intersession courses have included " Emerging Diseases : Global and Local " in the biology department , " Corporate Failures , Frauds , and Scandals " in the business department , and " Vampires and Other Bloodsuckers " in the English department , " Holocaust Survivor Narratives " in the German department , and " Alternative Radio " in the communications department . At various times , the faculty organizes an " Integrated Semester , " where professors organize regular departmental courses , specialized projects , and public events dealing with a common interdisciplinary theme . Students participating in more than two designed courses receive a transcript designation noting their participation in the program . Past themes have included " Integrated Semester on Asia , " " The Importance of Place , " " Integrated Semester on the Spanish @-@ Speaking World . " Students can also pursue international education through 30 pre @-@ approved programs in over 20 counties . While W & J has not had a Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) program since 1991 , the college has a relationship with the University of Pittsburgh 's Army and Air Force ROTC programs , allowing W & J students to prepare for an active or reserve commission following graduation . Members of the National Guard of the United States may take online classes to earn an associate 's degree in Information Technology Leadership or a certificate in Information Management and Security . Students may undertake externships to gain experiential learning experience in their chosen field . The Franklin Internship Awards , established in 2006 by Ellis Hyman , provide upperclassmen with financial assistance to take an unpaid internship . The college 's Magellan Project is a series of programs that provide support and financing for research and independent study projects . Past Magellan Projects have allowed students to study the Invasion of Normandy , Mexican transportation systems , and to volunteer at medical missions in the Dominican Republic . In 2010 , the Magellan Project received the Heiskell Award from the Institute of International Education in recognition of the college 's progressive approach to study abroad . In the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year , 58 % of W & J students studied abroad .
= = = Admission and rankings = = =
Admission to Washington & Jefferson College is classified as " more selective " by both the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education and U.S. News & World Report . The Princeton Review gave Washington & Jefferson an " Admissions Selectivity Rating " of 92 . The college extends offers of admission to 38 @.@ 2 % of all applicants . Of all matriculating students , the average high school GPA is 3 @.@ 34 and 38 % are in the top 10 % of their high school class . The interquartile range for SAT scores in math and reasoning skills are 510 – 610 and 520 – 620 , respectively . In 2009 , the college developed an SAT @-@ optional admissions program .
In the 2010 U.S. News & World Report college rankings , Washington & Jefferson is ranked # 92 of all liberal arts colleges in the nation , placing it within " Tier 1 . " In Forbes Magazine 's List of America 's Best Colleges for 2010 , the college was ranked # 100 out of the nation 's institutions of higher education . The Washington Monthly ranked the college # 132 among all American liberal arts colleges in terms of social mobility , research , and community service . The rankings listed the college as # 30 in the nation in terms of Federal Work @-@ Study Program money spent of community service .
As president of the college , Tori Haring @-@ Smith has specifically criticized the U.S. News & World Report rankings system , noting that the " financial resources " portion of the rankings formula favors colleges that have higher tuition , even without providing any educational benefits , saying that this has harmed the college 's ranking because it charged $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 7 @,@ 000 less in tuition that its peer institutions . She also questioned the " peer assessment " portion of the rankings and suggested that college presidents are rarely aware of educational improvements in their peer institutions ; she noted that Washington & Jefferson College 's ranking has remained the same for a number of years , even while the college made significant improvements acceptance rates and overall selectivity , the addition of academic programs , and the construction of additional buildings . Haring @-@ Smith 's criticism of the rankings spurred Bob Morse , the founder of the U.S. College Rankings system to respond to the criticisms directly in an article . She has signed the " Presidents Letter , " a nationwide movement asking fellow college presidents to decline participation in the U.S. News & World Report reputation survey , a subjective evaluation where college administrators score their competition .
= = Student body = =
As of 2010 , the student body totaled 1 @,@ 519 students . The 2010 graduating class , which totaled 351 students , was the largest in the college 's history . The student body is highly residential , with 98 % of students residing in campus housing . The number of transfer students joining the student body each year is relatively low , compared to other institutions . Approximately 18 % of the student body receives federal Pell Grants . Prior to entering college , 82 % of the student body attended public high schools . Roughly 86 % of the each freshman class returns to the college for their sophomore year . The overall graduation rate is 70 % About 25 to 30 % of each incoming class is the first in their family to attend college .
The male to female ratio is 54 % to 46 % . Like the population of Pennsylvania and the United States as a whole , the largest ethnic group at the college is White American , making up about 82 % of the student population . Roughly 10 % of the student population does not specify their ethnicity . Other ethnicities , including African American , Asian American , Native American , and Hispanic Americans collectively comprise about 6 % of the student body . International students make up 2 @.@ 05 % of the student body .
In 2006 , Men 's Fitness named W & J the " 14th Fittest College in America , " a ranking that weighed the college 's fitness offerings and the student body 's culture of fitness and behavior . In 2009 , the college was named to the President 's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll , in recognition of the student body 's commitment to community service . The college 's spends 22 % of its Federal Work @-@ Study Program funds on community service projects .
The college has joined the YES Prep School IMPACT Partnership Program to provide support to low @-@ income students from the YES Prep Public Schools .
= = Campus = =
The campus of Washington & Jefferson College is located in the city of Washington and the East Washington Borough , small @-@ town communities about 30 miles ( 48 km ) south of Pittsburgh . The 60 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) campus is home to more than 40 academic , administrative , recreational , and residential buildings . The northern edge of campus is bound by East Walnut Street , the western edge by South College Street , the southern edge by East Maiden Street , and the eastern edge by South Wade . Portions of the campus extend into the East Washington Historic District . Four historic gates mark four traditional entrances to campus at East Maiden Street , Wheeling Street , South College Street , and Beau Street . In 1947 , the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission installed a historical marker noting the historic importance of the college .
The oldest surviving building is McMillan Hall , which dates to 1793 and is the oldest college building west of the Allegheny Mountains . The main academic building is Old Main , which is topped with two prominent towers . The Old Gym houses a modern exercise facility . McIlvaine Hall , which was originally home to a female seminary , was demolished in 2008 and replaced by the Swanson Science Center . Davis Memorial Hall was once a dormitory and private house . The Thistle Physics Building , the Lazear Chemistry Hall , and the Dieter @-@ Porter Life Sciences Building all cater to the scientific curriculum . The Burnett Center and its sister building , the Technology Center , were built in the late 1990s and early 2000s .
The first dormitory on campus was Hays Hall . Wade House , Carriage House , and Whitworth House are Victorian homes housing older students . The recently constructed Chestnut Street Housing complex provides housing for the college 's Greek organizations . The Presidents ' Row is a cluster of ten buildings in the center of campus , several of which are dedicated to theme housing . Two sister dormitories , New Residence Hall and Bica @-@ Ross Hall , feature suite @-@ style living arrangements . Mellon Hall and Upperclass Hall house male freshmen . Other dormitories include Alexander Hall , Beau Hall , Marshall Hall , North Hall , and Penn House . The college administration utilizes several buildings , including the Admissions House , the Alumni House , and the President ’ s House , which are all modified Victorian homes . The U. Grant Miller Library is the modern library ; its predecessor , Thompson Hall , is now used for administrative purposes . The Hub , The Commons , and the Rossin Campus Center provide recreational and dining facilities for students . The athletic and intramural teams utilize Cameron Stadium for football and track . The Henry Memorial Center is used for basketball , wrestling , swimming , and volleyball . Other athletic facilities include Brooks Park , Ross Memorial Park and Alexandre Stadium , and the Janet L. Swanson Tennis Courts .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Intercollegiate = = =
W & J competes in 23 intercollegiate athletics at the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division III level . As of the 2009 – 10 academic year , the Presidents have won more than 108 Presidents ' Athletic Conference ( PAC ) championships , 40 students were selected as conference Most Valuable Player , more than 300 athletes were awarded First Team All @-@ Conference recognition , 75 received All @-@ American honors , and 25 achieved Academic All @-@ American status . During the 2005 – 2006 season , 34 percent of the student body played varsity @-@ level athletics .
The football team has been very successful , winning 18 out of the last 21 PAC Championships and advancing to the NCAA Division III playoffs 17 times . W & J played to a 0 – 0 tie in the 1922 Rose Bowl against the California Golden Bears . The men 's ice hockey team won the 2008 College Hockey Mid America Conference championship , a Division I regional league of the American Collegiate Hockey Association . W & J also fields teams in field hockey , wrestling , baseball , softball , and volleyball , as well as men 's and women 's cross country running , soccer , tennis , water polo , basketball , swimming and diving , golf , lacrosse , and track & field
W & J 's baseball team plays at the all @-@ turf Ross Memorial Ballpark , a site selected to host the 2015 and 2016 NCAA D @-@ III regional tournament . Under the leadership of Coach Jeff Mountain , the Presidents have produced three All @-@ Americans : Shaun Pfeill ( 3B , 2007 ) ; Sam Mann ( P / 1B ; 2007 ) and Eddie Nogay ( Pitcher ; 2013 ) . Nogay of Weirton , WV is the school 's all @-@ time wins leader with a career record of 28 @-@ 2 . Josh Staniscia of Franklin Regional H.S. is the school 's all @-@ time hits leader , with 251 career hits from 2011 @-@ 2014 . Frank Quirin ( 2008 @-@ 2010 ) is the all @-@ time home run leader with 22 career dingers .
= = = Intramural = = =
The intramural sports program is one of the most consistently popular activities at Washington & Jefferson College , providing non @-@ varsity and recreational athletic activities for all students , faculty , and staff of the College . Vicki Staton , a former varsity women 's basketball and volleyball coach , manages the intramural program . In 2002 , 60 % of students participated in intramural sports . In 2006 , more than 40 % of the student body participated in intramural athletics . In 2007 , the intramural activities included 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball , billiards , bowling , flag football , kickball , tennis , ultimate frisbee , volleyball , wallyball , ping pong , and Texas hold ' em . Intramural champions win a T @-@ shirt celebrating their victory .
While the varsity athletics program was struggling during the 1930s , intramural participation topped 84 % of the student population . During that time , the management of intramural activities was transferred to the athletic department , allowing the intramural program to use the College 's varsity facilities . In the 1930s and 1940s , groups of students competed for the " Big Cup , " a trophy given to the most outstanding team , as judged by a cross @-@ sport point system .
= = Student life = =
= = = Literary societies = = =
The history of literary societies at Washington & Jefferson College dates back to the 1797 , when the Franklin Literary Society and the Philo Literary Society were founded at Canonsburg Academy . Two other literary societies were founded at Washington College , the Union Literary Society in 1809 and the Washington Literary Society in 1814 . Typical early activities include the presentation of dialogues , translations of passages from Greek or Latin classics , and extemporaneous speaking . Later , the literary societies began to present declamations . Each society maintained independent libraries for the use of their members , each of which rivaled the holdings of their respective colleges . These four college literary societies had intense rivalries with each other , competing in " contests " , which pitted select society members against another in " compositions , speaking select orations and debating " , with the trustees selecting the victor . Because the two colleges never met each other in athletic contests , these literary competitions were the main outlet for their rivalry . In the years after the union of the two colleges , these four literary societies merged with the Franklin Literary Society , which survives today .
= = = Art scene = = =
Washington & Jefferson College is home to a vibrant student art and musical scene . The artistic center of campus is the Olin Fine Arts Center , with an art gallery and a 486 @-@ seat auditorium . On the academic side , the Department of Art offers majors in studio art and art education , as well as a concentration in graphic design . The Department of Music offers majors and minors in music . The Department of Theatre and Communications offers a major and minor in theatre . Current musical organizations include the W & J Wind Ensemble , the W & J Jazz Ensemble , the W & J Choir and the Camerata Singers . Former musical organizations include the Banjo , Mandolin & Guitar Club and the College Band . Every year since 2003 , the Theatre and Communication Department has produced the Winter Tales series , an annual production of one @-@ act plays written by members of the W & J community , students , alumni , faculty , administration , and staff , and produced by the W & J Student Theater Company .
In addition to student @-@ produced art and music , the College provides a number of opportunities to view art and music from the larger art community . The College holds a collection of paintings by distinguished regional artist Malcolm Parcell , which are displayed in several locations on campus . The most prominent location is the Malcom Parcell Room in The Commons , which is part of the student dining area . The W & J Arts Series is an annual collection of musicians , singers , and other artistic performers appearing at the Olin Fine Arts Center . Past shows have included Di Wu , Habib Koité , Chris Potter , The Aquila Theatre Company presenting The Invisible Man , Eroica Trio , Oni Buchanan , Tommy Sands , Cavani String Quartet , Sergio and Odar Assad , and Sandip Burman . In 1999 , billionaire W & J alum and well @-@ known opera philanthropist Alberto Vilar sponsored the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series , which brought a number of world @-@ class classical performers to perform at the Olin Fine Arts Center at no cost to students . During its run , the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series hosted , among others , Lorin Maazel conducting the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra , conductor Valery Gergiev conducting the Kirov Orchestra , Camerata Salzburg with Murray Periaha , St. Petersburg Classic Ballet , Vienna State Opera Ballet , Salzburg Mozarteum Orchestra , Susan Graham , Jennifer Larmore , Samuel Ramey , Barbara Bonney , Katia and Marielle Labèque , Angelika Kirchschlager , Simon Keenlyside , Gil Shaham , and Jessye Norman . In 2003 , amid Vilar 's falling fortunes during the stock market decreases in 2001 and 2002 , the Vilar Distinguished Artist Series went on a temporary hiatus . Vilar 's 2005 indictment for financial fraud ended any possibility of reviving the arts series . In Fall 2003 , the W & J Arts Series , the college 's other art series , was expanded to partially compensate for the loss . The Student Government Association organizes the annual Fall Concert and Spring Concert , which bring popular musical acts to campus . Past Spring and Fall concerts have included Cobra Starship , Girl Talk , N.E.R.D. New Found Glory , Saves the Day , and local favorite The Clarks .
= = = Greek life = = =
With 43 % of women and 40 % of men of the student body participating in Greek life , fraternities and sororities play a significant role in student life at W & J. The Princeton Review named Washington & Jefferson College 12th on their 2010 list of " Major Frat and Sorority Scene " in the United States . As of 2010 , the Office of Fraternity & Sorority Life recognized 6 fraternities , Alpha Tau Omega , Beta Theta Pi , Delta Tau Delta , Phi Delta Theta , Phi Gamma Delta , and Phi Kappa Psi , and four sororities , Delta Gamma , Kappa Alpha Theta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , and Pi Beta Phi . The fraternities are governed by a local Interfraternal Council and the sororities are governed by a local Panhellenic Council , while the Greek Judiciary manages broad policy violations at the chapter @-@ level . All Greek organizations occupy College @-@ owned houses on Chestnut Street on campus . All members of fraternities and sororities must pay the $ 100 " Greek Membership Fee " , a levy designed to fund leadership seminars and other educational events for Greeks .
Two national fraternities were founded at Jefferson College , Phi Gamma Delta in 1848 and Phi Kappa Psi in 1852 . Together , they are collectively known as the Jefferson Duo . A third fraternity was founded at Jefferson College , Kappa Phi Lambda , but it dissolved after a decade of existence amid a dispute between chapters . In 1874 , a fourth fraternity was founded at W & J , the short @-@ lived Phi Delta Kappa . The new fraternity grew to several chapters before falling apart in 1880 .
= = = Clubs = = =
Students may organize new clubs by presenting a constitution and a list of members to the college administration and the student government for approval . This approval process does not authorize any club to act on behalf of the college , nor does approval indicate any the college 's agreement with the club 's purpose .
The college recognizes over 70 student clubs on campus . A number of student clubs are dedicated to encouraging interest is a specific academic discipline , including the " W & J Denominators " mathematics club , the Society of Physics Students , and the Pre @-@ Health Professions Society . Others are organized along ethnic and cultural lines , including the Black Student Union and the Asian Culture Association . Both major American political parties have chapters at the college , in the form of the " W & J College Democrats " and the Young Republicans . Some clubs take the form of non @-@ varsity athletic teams , including the Men 's Rugby Club , the Women 's Rugby Club , the Equestrian Club , Men 's Volleyball Club and the Ultimate Frisbee Club . Several clubs create volunteer opportunities though Big Brothers / Big Sisters and the United Way . Many religious faiths are represented , including the Hillel Society , Newman Club , and the Student Christian Association . Many other clubs encourage interests in various academic and non @-@ academic activities , including the Green Club ( the College 's environmental club ) , the Outdoors Club , and others which are mainly inactive like the Bottega Art Club , the Franklin Literary Society , and the Chess Club .
= = = Student media = = =
Student media offerings at Washington & Jefferson College include a college newspaper , a college radio station , a yearbook , and a student @-@ edited literary journal . All students , regardless of academic major , are eligible to contribute to these media organizations .
Founded in 1909 , the Red & Black student newspaper has a weekly circulation of 1 @,@ 250 copies . The student staff handles all aspects of the production , including writing , editing , graphic design , layout , and advertising sales . The Red & Black features local and national news , student opinion , and college athletics coverage . During the 1860s , students published a satirical newspaper called The Bogus Tract .
The college radio station , WNJR broadcasts on the FM broadcast band . Assisted by a faculty advisor from the Department of Theater and Communication , the student @-@ run studio broadcasts in a freeform format with both nationally syndicated programs and Pittsburgh @-@ based independent programs . Student on @-@ air personalities produce radio programs including music , news , talk , and sports . It serves the Pittsburgh Designated Market Area , reaching north to the northern Pittsburgh suburbs , east to Monessen , south to Waynesburg and west to the West Virginia Panhandle .
The Wooden Tooth Review is a student @-@ edited literary journal , featuring short fiction and poetry submitted by members of the student body . The editorial board is organized as a recognized student club , with a faculty advisor . The journal was founded in 1999 , with V. Penelope Pelizzon , Coordinator of Creative Writing , serving as the first faculty advisor . The college 's yearbook , Pandora , is produced annually by a student staff .
= = Housing and student life facilities = =
The college offers " Theme Community Living , " where students with common interests live in a single living unit . Past themes have included the " Intensive Study , " the " Service Leadership Community , " the " International House , " " Music House , " the " WashPA Radio Theme Community " for students who participate in the WNJR college radio station , and the " Pet House " . Students proposing a theme community must develop an educational plan centered on the theme .
The Pet House , which allows students to bring their pets to campus , has been located in Monroe Hall in Presidents ' Row . Not all types of pets are permitted , only permits students to bring cats , small dogs , small birds , hamsters , gerbils , guinea pigs , and fish . Further , students may only bring pets that they have owned for over one year and be over the age of one and one half , to avoid the problem of impulse purchases and abandonment of pets . The college began the pet house program in 2006 , and is one of a dozen schools nationwide to have such a program . The Pet House has been profiled in The New York Times , the USA Today , Observer @-@ Reporter , and KDKA .
Several old Victorian houses , named Whitworth Hall and Wade Hall , are used as women 's dorms and are slightly isolated from the other dormitories . Many students are also housed in the Greek houses on Chestnut Street , all of the Greek organizations on campus occupy houses owned by the college .
The college 's dining services has made efforts to use locally grown foods .
= = Traditions and lore = =
One of the oldest traditions at Washington & Jefferson College was the " Freshman Rules , " a system of rules and restrictions on freshmen . Failure by freshmen to follow these rules would subject them to beatings by upperclassmen or other punishments doled out by the " Freshman Court . " During the 1870s and 1880s , the students engaged in organized athletic competitions , pitting the freshman versus sophomore classes in the " Olympic Games " that involved elaborate opening ceremonies and the smoking of a " Pipe of Peace . " Another form of physical contest between the freshman and sophomore classes were the annual " color rush , " where the teams fought over control over strips of fabric , the " pole rush , " where the teams battled to raise a flag up a flagpole , and the " cane rush " where the teams fought over control over a ceremonial cane . These contests generally devolved into outright gang violence .
The college cheer , Whichi Coax , is so pervasive in college history and culture that in addition to being shouted during academic ceremonies and football games , it is also used as a salutation in correspondence between alumni . The college 's fight song , Good Ole W & J is sung to the tune of 99 Bottles of Beer and makes fun of a number of rival colleges , including the University of Pittsburgh , but was modified sometime before 1958 to laud Washington Female Seminary . For a large portion of the college 's history , there was no official alma mater , but there were a number of other tradition hymns and songs .
= = Symbols of the college = =
The college 's coat of arms features a two @-@ part shield based on the coats of arms of the Jefferson and Washington families . The top portion , showing two towers , representing Washington College and Jefferson College , and three stars , representing the McMillan , Dod , and Smith log cabins . The lower portion , showing a saltire , is adapted from Jefferson ’ s coat of arms and the colors , red and black , is taken from the Washington coat of arms . The coat of arms may appear with a banner underneath showing the college motto . The design was adopted in 1902 in celebration of Jefferson College 's centennial . It was designed by Rev. Harry B. King , class of 1891 . Upon its adoption , it was described as " a happy combination , and makes a very neat appearance when worn as a pin or button . "
The college seal displays two brick towers , with one labeled " 1802 , " representing Jefferson College , and the other labeled " 1806 , " representing Washington College . The union of the two colleges is represented by a bridge between the two towers , with Roman numerals reading 1865 , the year of union . Banners hanging from the towers show the college motto of " Juncta Juvant . " The creation of the seal is unknown , with the first known use occurring during the 1902 centennial celebration of Jefferson College 's founding . The seal is used in official documents , including diplomas and certificates .
The college 's current logo features a stylized version of the two towers of Old Main , symbolizing the 1865 unification of Washington College and Jefferson College . The logo may be displayed in several versions : with the entire name of the college , the shortened form of " W & J " , or without any text . Prior to the adoption of this logo , the college 's graphic identity consisted of a variety of conflicting logos and type styles .
= = Relations with the city of Washington = =
Relations between the city of Washington , Pennsylvania and Washington & Jefferson College span over two centuries , dating to the founding of both the city and the college in the 1780s . The relationship between the town and college was strong enough that the citizens of Washington offered a $ 50 @,@ 000 donation in 1869 to the college in a successful attempt to lure the trustees to select Washington over nearby Canonsburg as the consolidated location of the college . However , the relationship was strained through most of the 20th century , as the college pursued an expansion policy that clashed with the residential neighborhood . The college 's frustrations grew after preservationists unsuccessfully attempted to pass laws prohibiting the college from demolishing certain buildings that were listed on the East Washington Historic District . Relations were so bad that residents and college officials engaged in a shouting match at a meeting . Local preservationists also unsuccessfully tried to block the demolition of Hays Hall , which had been condemned . In the 1990s , the city of Washington made several unsuccessful attempts to challenge the college 's tax @-@ exempt status . In 1993 , Washington appealed the Washington County Board of Assessment 's determination that the college was exempt from the city 's property tax . That case went to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court , which ruled in favor of the college . In response , the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed a new law clarifying that that colleges were exempt from taxation , including from local property taxes . Separately , the city of Washington passed an ordinance that levied a municipal " service fee " against the College students , which was ruled to be illegal and was struck down . In the late 1990s , the college and town tried to mend fences through the Blueprint for Collaboration , a plan with detailed goals and benchmarks for the future to help the college and the city work together on economic development , environmental protection , and historic preservation .
= = Notable alumni = =
As of 2009 , Washington & Jefferson College had about 12 @,@ 000 living alumni . Before the union of the two colleges , Washington College graduated 872 men and Jefferson College graduated 1 @,@ 936 men . These alumni include James G. Blaine , who served in Congress as Speaker of the House , U.S. Senator from Maine , two @-@ time United States Secretary of State and the Republican nominee for the 1884 presidential election . Other graduates have held high federal positions , including United States Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin Bristow and United States Attorney General Henry Stanbery , who successfully defended Andrew Johnson during his impeachment trial . As a U.S. Congressman , Clarence Long was a key figure in directing funds to Operation Cyclone , the CIA 's effort to arm the mujahideen in the Soviet war in Afghanistan . James A. Beaver served as Governor of Pennsylvania and as acting president of the Pennsylvania State University ; he is the namesake of Beaver Stadium . William Holmes McGuffey authored the McGuffey Readers , which are among the most popular and influential books in history . Thaddeus Dod 's student , Jacob Lindley , was the first president of Ohio University . Astronaut and test pilot Joseph A. Walker became the first person to enter space twice . Other graduates have gone on to success in professional athletics , including Buddy Jeannette , a member of the Basketball Hall of Fame , and Pete Henry , a member of both the College and Pro Football Hall of Fame . Roger Goodell has served as the Commissioner of the NFL since 2006 . Among graduates who entered the medical field , Jonathan Letterman is recognized as the " Father of Battlefield Medicine . " William Passavant is recognized as a saint within the Lutheran Church . James McGready , who studied with Joseph Smith and John McMillan was a leading revivalist in the Second Great Awakening . Successful graduates in the business realm include Richard Clark , President and CEO of Merck , and John S. Reed , the former chairman of Citigroup and the New York Stock Exchange .
= The Operative : No One Lives Forever =
The Operative : No One Lives Forever is a first @-@ person shooter video game with stealth gameplay elements , developed by Monolith Productions and published by Fox Interactive , released for Microsoft Windows in 2000 . The game was ported later to the PlayStation 2 and Mac OS X.
A story @-@ driven game set in the 1960s , No One Lives Forever has been critically acclaimed for , among other things , its stylistic representation of the era in the spirit of many spy films and television series of that decade , as well as for its humor . Players control female protagonist Cate Archer , who works for a secret organization that watches over world peace . In addition to a range of firearms , the game contains several gadgets , which are disguised as ordinary female fashion items .
At the time of its release , many reviewers felt that No One Lives Forever was the best first @-@ person shooter since 1998 's critically acclaimed Half @-@ Life . After receiving several Game of the Year awards in the press , a special Game of the Year Edition was released in 2001 , which included an additional mission . The Operative : No One Lives Forever was followed by a sequel entitled No One Lives Forever 2 : A Spy in H.A.R.M. ' s Way released in 2002 , and a spin @-@ off that takes place during the time between the first two games entitled Contract J.A.C.K. released in 2003 , both developed by Monolith .
A re @-@ release of the game has been hampered by the complicated state of the series ' intellectual property ( IP ) rights , with even parties assumed to be in possession of the IP having publicly admitted not knowing the precise legal situation of the series .
= = Gameplay = =
The Operative : No One Lives Forever is a story @-@ driven video game , set in the 1960s , and stars spy Cate Archer as the eponymous Operative , who works for UNITY – a secret international organization " dedicated to protecting humanity from megalomaniacs bent upon world domination . " During the story of the game , Archer is sent on missions to a number of locales , including Morocco , East and West Germany , the Caribbean , and the Alps , where she gets into intense situations , such as scuba diving a shipwreck , free @-@ falling from an airplane without a parachute , and exploring a space station in outer space , all the while fighting armed villains .
The game is a mixture of a first @-@ person shooter and a stealth game . Most , but not all , missions can be solved in multiple ways : using sneaking to avoid danger or by going in with guns blazing . A stealthy approach can be taken to evade security cameras , guard dogs and other obstacles . Enemies are aware of noise made by the player , including footsteps and weapon fire , and they also react to footprints in the snow , and dead bodies left lying around . The game features a wide variety of firearms , including a semi @-@ automatic pistol , a revolver , a submachine gun , a sniper rifle , and an assault rifle . Some of the weapons can be loaded with different types of ammunition , including standard full metal jacket bullets , dum dum rounds that expand on impact and cause bleeding damage , and phosphorus @-@ coated tracer bullets that continue to burn upon impact . Silencers and scopes can also be fitted on some weapons .
A novel feature of the game is its array of gadgets , often disguised as ordinary female fashion objects . For example , lipsticks double as various explosives , perfume bottles hold materials such as sleeping gas , a barrette also functions as a lockpick , sunglasses can be used for photographing evidence and detecting land mines , and a stylish belt buckle hides a zipcord inside it . Other over @-@ the @-@ top gadgets include a body @-@ removing powder for disposing of incriminating corpses , a robotic poodle to distract guard dogs , and a rocket launcher disguised as a briefcase . An ordinary coin can be thrown to confuse enemies , giving the player the opportunity to sneak by without a guard noticing . A cigarette lighter can also be used as a miniature welder . These ingenious gadgets come from UNITY 's gadget lab , led by its main inventor and scientist , Santa . " Santa 's Workshop " continuously works on these covert gadgets , and provides Cate with them as the game progresses .
In various sections of the game , the player can ride a Triumph motorcycle , or a snowmobile . Other segments of the game involve boss fights . If the player chooses to be sneaky , they can overhear humorous conversations between non @-@ player characters , such as guards , scientists and civilians . Occasionally , the player can engage in conversations with such characters . In certain cutscenes , the game uses a dialog tree , in which the player can choose between different questions and responses when talking to another character .
The missions in the game are littered with " intelligence items " : briefcases , envelopes , and manila folders containing textual notes which often provide humorous side @-@ notes and helpful hints to the game . The collection of intelligence items is optional . Special power @-@ ups , called " gear " items are also available for collection during the game , such as " fuzzy slippers " that reduce noise made by movement , earplugs that reduce damage from explosions , and a fire extinguisher that protects the player from burn damage . These gear items are sometimes located in hard @-@ to @-@ reach areas . At the start of each mission , the player can choose which weapons , gadgets and gear to take with them . Some intelligence and gear items cannot be collected on the first playthrough of the game , as the necessary gadgets to reach them are not unlocked until later in the game . If the player wants to collect these items , they have to revisit the mission with the appropriate equipment .
At the end of each mission , the game displays various statistics , as well as any awards and bonuses earned during the mission . Awards are humorous textual notes given for the player 's performance during a mission ; these include awards for using a very low or a very high amount of bullets , or a " Thanks For Not Getting Hurt Award " for avoiding damage . The player also receives a rank , such as " Trainee " or " Super Spy " , which is based on the number of intelligence items obtained during the mission . Achieving a high mission rank increases the player 's maximum health , armor and ammo capacity , as well as stealth , the amount of inflicted damage , and the accuracy of their shots .
No One Lives Forever also includes multiplayer gameplay online or over a local area network . There are two multiplayer modes available : standard deathmatch , and " H.A.R.M. vs. UNITY " . The latter is a team deathmatch mode , where the goal is to capture as much intelligence for a player 's team as possible , by sneaking in to the enemy team 's base , finding the item , and photographing it .
= = Plot = =
= = = Story = = =
UNITY is a secret international organization headquartered somewhere in England that protects humanity from outsiders that want to take over the world . In 1960 , over half of the UNITY 's elite agents are murdered by an unknown assassin within a week , leaving UNITY with a critical manpower shortage . They are forced to send UNITY agent Cate Archer and her mentor , Bruno Lawrie , on a series of high @-@ profile missions . Cate is an ex @-@ cat burglar , and is UNITY 's first female spy operative . UNITY 's leaders , Jones and Smith , are skeptical of Cate working as a field agent , and have previously relegated her to more mundane assignments . Intelligence reveals that a Russian assassin named Dmitrij Volkov and a new terrorist organization named H.A.R.M. are responsible for the murders of UNITY 's former agents . Cate and Bruno embark on a dangerous assignment in Morocco , which later turns out to be an ambush set up by Volkov and his men . Cate manages to escape Morocco whilst Bruno is shot by Volkov . In the UNITY headquarters , Jones and Smith reveal that Volkov killed Bruno simply because he was the traitor , to which Cate reacts with disbelief .
She is then tasked to escort Dr. Otto Schenker , an East German scientist , to England . Later on , as Cate and Dr. Schenker fly back to England , he is captured by H.A.R.M. , led by Magnus Armstrong , who knocks Cate unconscious . Armstrong decides to spare Cate 's life , believing that she is a fellow Scot . Cate awakens and is soon thrown from the plane as it explodes . After surviving the fall via parachute , Cate is later introduced to a new partner , Tom Goodman , a UNITY agent from the American branch . After meeting him in a nightclub in Hamburg , they are ambushed by H.A.R.M. , but manage to escape . The nightclub is owned by a German singer named Inge Wagner , whom Cate suspects is connected with H.A.R.M. Cate and Tom are tasked to investigate a cargo freighter containing several suspicious chemical containers that UNITY believes are linked to Dr. Schenker . Cate gets in the freighter , and after taking photos of the containers , is knocked unconscious by Armstrong , who spares her life by locking her in a cargo hold , thus ignoring Wagner 's insistence that she must be liquidated . As the freighter heads out toward sea , it slowly begins to sink , due to a huge explosion . Wagner and Armstrong escape immediately , but Cate has to fight her way out of the bowels of the freighter . Because Cate could not obtain the required information , she and Tom must return to the sunken freighter to finish gathering intelligence aboard . Cate goes scuba diving , and after investigating the shipwreck and obtaining the information she didn 't obtain , she is ambushed by H.A.R.M. divers sent from a submarine commanded by Armstrong and Wagner , but manages to escape .
Later , Cate finds out about a connection between H.A.R.M. and a large manufacturing firm named Dumas Industrial Enterprises , which was operated by Baron Archibald Dumas . However , the Baron claims he has no intelligence regarding his connection to H.A.R.M.
Later , Cate infiltrates the Dumas corporate headquarters , gaining access to their highly guarded safe , and photographing some relevant documents , despite heavy opposition , including an ear @-@ splitting deathmatch against Wagner . However , after photographing the headquarter 's final document , Cate escapes the headquarters despite witnessing Tom being shot by Volkov .
Meanwhile , H.A.R.M. starts infecting and killing innocent people using Dr. Schenker 's biological explosive development . The chemical is injected into the living host , and it feeds on organic material until it culminates in a massive explosion . H.A.R.M. states that if their ransom demands are not met , they will continue to use human time bombs to cause destruction around the world . Cate embarks on a train ride to Washington state , where Dr. Schenker is believed to be located . Cate finds him and manages to escort him to safety using an underground base .
Soon after , Dr. Schenker reveals that the antidote for the chemical reagent is located in H.A.R.M. ' s space station . Cate travels to a small island located in the Caribbean , where she infiltrates a secret launch facility . Cate discovers that a rocket will be sent to the space station that afternoon to collect some antidote . Disguised as a H.A.R.M. space agent , Cate boards the rocket and travels to H.A.R.M. ' s space station . While she is searching for the antidote , the space station is struck by a meteor shower , causing it to implode . Cate obtains a large antidote sample and uses an escape pod to return to earth safely .
Now in possession of the antidote , UNITY needs the list of infected people to find out who administered it , during which Cate believes that the real mastermind behind H.A.R.M. ' s events is the
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' 70s soul superstars like Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder " , adding that " in concert , Erykah Badu and D 'Angelo regularly covered Chaka Khan , the Ohio Players , and Al Green , to make the lineage crystal clear . " In citing Tony ! Toni ! Tone ! as progenitors of the genre , Tony Green of Vibe viewed that the group pioneered the " digital @-@ analog hybrid sound " of neo soul and " dramatically refreshed the digitalized wasteland that was R & B in the late ' 80s " . Neo soul artists during the 1990s were heavily inspired by the eclectic sound and mellow instrumentation of Gil Scott @-@ Heron 's and Brian Jackson 's collaborative work in the 1970s . All About Jazz cited Jackson as " one of the early architects " of the sound and his early work with Scott @-@ Heron as " an inspirational and musical Rosetta stone for the neo @-@ soul movement " .
= = History = =
= = = 1980s – early 1990s : Origins = = =
Neo soul originated in the 1980s and early 1990s , with the work of musical acts such as Prince , Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , Terence Trent D 'Arby , Joi , and Mint Condition , whose music deviated from the conventions of most contemporary R & B at the time . Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! -member Raphael Saadiq later embarked on a solo career and produced various works of other neo soul artists . Influential to neo soul , UK act Sade achieved success in the 1980s with music that featured a sophisti @-@ pop style , incorporating elements of soul , pop , smooth jazz , and quiet storm . The band was part of a new wave of British R & B @-@ oriented artists during the late @-@ 1980s and early 1990s that also included Soul II Soul , Caron Wheeler , The Brand New Heavies , Jamiroquai , and Lisa Stansfield . AllMusic 's Alex Henderson writes that , " Many of the British artists who emerged during that period had a neo @-@ soul outlook and were able to blend influences from different eras " . Other British progenitors of the neo soul movement at the time included Young Disciples and Omar Lye @-@ Fook , the latter of whom has been cited as " the father of British neo @-@ soul " and an influence on many future artists .
According to Christopher John Farley , Prince had been " carrying a torch for neo soul for decades , refusing to make R & B that played by the rules or fit into comfortable formats . In the mid- ' 90s , he was suddenly joined by a host of other soul artists who also wanted to break boundaries " . American artists during the early 1990s included Zhané , Groove Theory , Joi , Tony Rich , and Me 'Shell NdegéOcello .
= = = Mid – late 1990s : Mainstream breakthrough = = =
The success of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s 1993 album Sons of Soul has been viewed as a precursor to the soul music revival in the mid @-@ 1990s . In a 1997 article for the Los Angeles Times , music journalist Cheo Hodari Coker cited the album as having " largely sparked the soul music revival that has opened the door for a new generation of singers who build on the tradition of Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder " . Allmusic editor Leo Stanley wrote that by the release of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s follow @-@ up album House of Music in 1996 , " their influence was beginning to be apparent , as younger soul singer / songwriters like Tony Rich and Maxwell began reaching the R & B charts . Like Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , Rich and Maxwell relied on traditional soul and R & B values of songwriting and live performances , discarding the synth @-@ heavy productions of the late ' 80s and early ' 90s " . Malcolm Venable of Vibe cites the early work of hip hop group The Roots , who used live instrumentation , as a precursor to neo soul 's commercial breakthrough in the mid @-@ 1990s .
Music journalists have credited the successes of D 'Angelo 's Brown Sugar ( 1995 ) , Badu 's Baduizm ( 1997 ) , Maxwell 's Urban Hang Suite ( 1996 ) , and Hill 's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill ( 1998 ) with shaping and raising the neo soul movement to commercial visibility into the late 1990s . According to Farley , D 'Angelo 's album " gives a nod to the past , [ ... ] mints his own sound , with golden humming keyboards and sensual vocals and unhurried melodies [ ... ] His songs were polished without being slick and smart without being pretentious " , while Badu " brought an iconoclastic spirit to soul music , with her towering Afrocentric headwraps , incense candles , and quirky lyrics " . Baduizm sold nearly three million copies and won Badu two Grammy Awards . Hill 's debut featured her singing and rapping , with deeply personal lyrics , and was one of neo soul 's primary successes , achieving massive sales , critical acclaim , and five Grammy Awards . Subsequently , other female artists broke through with their debut albums , including Macy Gray , Angie Stone , and Jill Scott . The 1997 film Love Jones capitalized on neo soul 's success at the time with its soundtrack album , which impacted the Billboard charts and featured artists such as Hill , Maxwell , The Brand New Heavies , Me 'Shell NdegéOcello , Groove Theory , and Dionne Farris .
According to Greg Kot , the musical collective Soulquarians--consisting of such artists as D 'Angelo , The Roots , Erykah Badu , Bilal , Mos Def , Common , James Poyser , and Q @-@ Tip--contributed significantly to the neo soul movement during the late 1990s to the early 2000s with its members ' " organic soul , natural R & B , boho @-@ rap " . The collective developed through the production work of The Roots ' drummer and producer Questlove . Following a minor decline in its hype , neo soul 's mainstream popularity increased in the late 1990s with the successes of Hill , Maxwell , Eric Benét , Saadiq , and Les Nubians . It impacted more mainstream @-@ oriented R & B radio , while influencing contemporary R & B acts , such as R. Kelly and Aaliyah , to incorporate some of its textural and lyrical elements . In his song " When a Woman 's Fed Up " ( 1998 ) , Kelly incorporated a more soul @-@ based sound and referenced Erykah Badu 's 1997 song " Tyrone " in the lyrics .
= = = 2000s : Apex and mainstream decline = = =
With the success of albums by Hill , Badu , and Maxwell , D 'Angelo 's second album Voodoo served as a further alternative to excesses of late 1990s R & B and hip hop , as neo soul reached its apex in 2000 . A production of the Soulquarians , it was an exemplary creative milestone of neo soul . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times called the album " the succes d 'estime that proves the force of this new music : it is a largely unslick , stubbornly idiosyncratic and genuinely great album that has already produced two hit singles " . By the time of her second album Mama 's Gun ( 2000 ) , Erykah Badu had been dubbed by writers as " the queen of neo @-@ soul " . She said of the honorific title , " I hated that because what if I don ’ t do that anymore ? What if I change ? Then that puts me in a penitentiary . " Subsequently , other artists attained success in the early 2000s , including Bilal , Musiq Soulchild , India.Arie , and Alicia Keys , who broke through to broader popularity with her debut album Songs in A Minor ( 2001 ) . Hip hop artists such as The Roots and Common , associated with the Soulquarians , released albums that incorporated neo soul , Phrenology ( 2002 ) and Electric Circus ( 2003 ) .
However , the decade later featured a decline in output by neo soul artists , with many of them failing to make a commercial impact after previous successes or not releasing a follow @-@ up album . Badu 's commercial viability decreased as each of her releases following her debut Baduizm departed further from that album 's music . Hill followed @-@ up her 1998 debut , considered the best @-@ selling neo soul album , with the 2002 live album MTV Unplugged No. 2 @.@ 0 , a combative , confessional work in which she expresses her misgivings about fame . Melena Ryzik of The New York Times wrote in a retrospect of that " era of left @-@ of @-@ center black singer @-@ songwriters " , stating " many of them struggled to keep their creative momentum , conflicted about their early mainstream success . " Producer and Soulquarians member Questlove elaborated on the artists ' regression from the mainstream , saying " I think most of us went through our psychosomatic , quasi @-@ self @-@ saboteur stage . Once we got that first taste of success , I think just the pressure of reacting got to all of us . Some of us released some of the craziest records of our career . " Other artists such as D 'Angelo and Hill went on indefinite hiatus from the music scene . Tyler Lewis from PopMatters attributed the decline to " the downside of [ the ] rejection of the term [ ' neo soul ' ] " .
" The industry , which already has a hard time with unapologetic and complicated black artists , had no idea what to do with all these enormously talented individuals who rejected entire marketing campaigns designed to ' break ' them to the record @-@ buying public . As such , albums were shelved or delayed or retooled and artists were dropped from major labels and forced to go it alone , making the first decade of the 21st century the least " soulful " — however you define it — decade for the industry itself in … well , decades . "
The Boston Globe 's Renée Graham wrote of the artists ' ambivalence towards the term in a 2003 article on neo soul 's standing , " Despite its critical success , if neo @-@ soul had an initial failing , it was the media @-@ created label itself – a term that the artists , whom it was meant to represent , generally rejected " . In a 2003 interview , music publicist John Constanza said that " The neo @-@ soul movement is still there , but it 's been underground , and it 's trying to get the attention of the mainstream again " . Mark Edward Nero of About.com stated , " In general , neo @-@ soul has remained almost exclusive to R & B outlets such as urban radio and Black Entertainment Television [ ... ] the majority of neo @-@ soul artists have yet to crossover to mainstream American music listeners , partially because the music 's sound generally focuses on artist expression , rather than popular appeal " .
During the mid @-@ 2000s , emerging artists such as Heather Headley , Anthony David , J Davey , Eric Roberson , and Ledisi signed to independent soul labels and received exposure through independent retailers , neo soul @-@ oriented web sites , college and public radio stations , city club venues , cable networks such as Music Choice and BET J , and publishing deals as writers and producers for major label @-@ recording artists . Erykah Badu and Maxwell returned from their respective hiatuses and released well @-@ received albums , her New Amerykah albums and his 2009 album BLACKsummers 'night , and they subsequently toured together . VH1 Soul 's series Soulstage , which began in 2007 , showcased new music by artists such as Badu , Jill Scott , India.Arie , Q @-@ Tip , and Saadiq .
= = = 2010s : Late period = = =
Since its original popularity , neo soul has been expanded and diversified musically through the works of both African @-@ American and international artists . The more popular neo soul artists in recent years are John Legend , Anthony Hamilton , Jill Scott , Maxwell , Chrisette Michele , Leela James , and Raheem DeVaughn . DeVaughn has described himself as an " R & B Hippy Neo @-@ Soul Rock Star " , viewing it as a reference to his eclectic musical style . In its 2010 issue on critical moments in popular music , Spin cited D 'Angelo 's Voodoo and its success as a turning point for neo soul : " D 'Angelo 's pastiche of funk , carnal ache , and high @-@ minded , Afrocentric rhetoric stands as neo @-@ soul 's crowning achievement . So unsurpassable that it 'd be eight years before we 'd hear from Erykah Badu and Maxwell again , while Hill and D 'Angelo remain missing . But Alicia Keys , John Legend , and Cee @-@ Lo picked up D 's mantle and ran with it " . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club discerns " a line of revelatory , late @-@ period neo @-@ soul albums " with the releases of Maxwell 's BLACKsummers 'night ( 2009 ) , Badu 's New Amerykah Part Two ( Return of the Ankh ) ( 2010 ) , Bilal 's Airtight 's Revenge ( 2010 ) , and Frank Ocean 's Channel Orange ( 2012 ) .
= Howard Llewellyn Swisher =
Howard Llewellyn Swisher ( September 21 , 1870 – August 27 , 1945 ) was an American businessperson , real estate developie , orchardist , editor , writer , and historian . As a prominent businessman , he established several companies responsible for the development of businesses and real estate in Morgantown , West Virginia .
Swisher was born in 1870 near Levels , West Virginia . He became a schoolteacher there at the age of 18 , then graduated from Fairmont State Normal School ( present @-@ day Fairmont State University ) and West Virginia University . He then remained in Morgantown , where he established a bookstore and stationery shop . Following the success of his bookstore , Swisher organized the Main Street Building Company , the Howard L. Swisher Company , and the Morgantown Building Association , each of which constructed a large number of residences in the city . He was also the inaugural secretary @-@ treasurer of the West Virginia Real Estate Dealers ' Association .
Swisher was secretary of the Royalty Oil Company , which owned mining rights for approximately 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 65 km2 ) of prospective oil lands throughout the United States . In addition , he also held prominent leadership and management roles in the Valley Wood Working Company , the Monongahela Valley Posting and Distributing Plant , the Federal Savings and Trust Company , and the West Virginia Tri @-@ Products Company . In Hampshire County , Swisher maintained fruit growing interests and served as the president of the South Branch Merchandising Company . He was an active member of the West Virginia Democratic Party and was selected as a delegate from West Virginia to the 1936 Democratic National Convention .
In 1897 , Swisher co @-@ authored History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present with West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell . The book was the first comprehensive history of Hampshire County ever compiled . He composed a collection of poetry and short stories , Briar Blossoms , in 1899 , and was the editor of The Ghourki , a literary journal of poetry , short stories , and aphorisms . In 1908 , Swisher published Book of Harangues , a selection of passages from The Ghourki .
= = Family background = =
Howard Llewellyn Swisher was born on September 21 , 1870 near the unincorporated community of Levels , West Virginia . He was the son of David Warner Swisher and his wife , Mary Katherine Bonnifield Swisher . David was born in Augusta County , Virginia on April 29 , 1822 , and was of Swiss German and French ancestry . David moved to Preston County in present @-@ day West Virginia in 1838 , and a few years later , he purchased land near present @-@ day Levels in Hampshire County and relocated there . He then established a farm on this land , known as " The Levels , " and remained there for the remainder of his life . The Swisher family owned and operated one of the largest orchard operations in the Levels community . In 1846 , David married his wife , Mary Katherine Bonnifield , the daughter of Dr. Arnold Bonnifield of St. George , West Virginia .
= = Early life and education = =
Swisher spent his early years and adolescence on his father 's farm , until he became a schoolteacher in Hampshire County at the age of 18 . He began his post @-@ secondary education at Fairmont State Normal School ( present @-@ day Fairmont State University ) in Fairmont , which he graduated from in 1892 . While enrolled there , Swisher became affiliated with the Mu Mu Chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity . Following his graduation , he traveled throughout the northwestern United States and the Canadian provinces and territories of Alberta , Assiniboia , British Columbia , and Manitoba . Swisher then moved to Fresno , California , where he worked as a public schoolteacher for two years . He then returned to West Virginia and attended West Virginia University in Morgantown . While at the university , he aspired to become a journalist and edited The Athenaeum , the institution 's official student newspaper . In 1897 , after three years of studies , Swisher graduated from the university with a Bachelor of Arts degree .
= = Business career = =
As a prominent businessman , Swisher established several corporations and companies responsible for the development of businesses and commercial and residential real estate in Morgantown . He remained in Morgantown after his graduation from West Virginia University , and in 1897 with $ 700 in capital , he opened a book and stationery store known as the Acme Book Store . The business prospered , and in April 1898 , Swisher established the Acme Publishing Company , which he served as president of for several years .
Swisher subsequently organized the Main Street Building Company , which became responsible for building the Strand Building , a business and commercial block in Morgantown . He established and incorporated the Howard L. Swisher Company in November 1914 . He also organized the Morgantown Building Association in November 1918 with an authorized capital of $ 250 @,@ 000 and himself serving as its general manager . The Morgantown Building Association undertook extensive construction of residences in the city . In December 1914 , following its organization in Parkersburg , Swisher was named the secretary @-@ treasurer of the West Virginia Real Estate Dealers ' Association . The association was formed in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Agriculture and other state agencies for the promotion and development of the states 's agricultural resources , real estate , and investments .
In addition to his real estate and construction ventures , Swisher was an organizer and secretary of the Royalty Oil Company , which owned mining rights to approximately 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 65 km2 ) of prospective oil lands throughout the southern and southwestern United States . He built and operated the Swisher Theater in Morgantown . Swisher was also a director of the Valley Wood Working Company , the owner of the Monongahela Valley Posting and Distributing Plant , and the secretary of the Federal Savings and Trust Company prior to 1903 . By 1913 , he was the president of the West Virginia Tri @-@ Products Company , which invested in coal and oil production , glass manufacturing , and the production of timber and fruit . Swisher maintained fruit growing interests on South Branch Mountain ( known as Jersey Mountain ) in Hampshire County , and served as the president of the South Branch Merchandising Company .
= = Writing career = =
During his travels , Swisher contributed articles and poetry to newspapers throughout the Northwest . While attending West Virginia University , he published a small book containing approximately 600 lines of poetry , which he dedicated to his classmates . In 1897 , Swisher co @-@ authored History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present with West Virginia historian Hu Maxwell . The book was the first comprehensive history of Hampshire County ever compiled . He composed a collection of poetry and short stories titled Briar Blossoms , which was published by his Acme Publishing Company in 1899 . Swisher was the editor of The Ghourki , a literary journal of poetry , short stories , and aphorisms . He began each issue with an introductory commentary entitled " Harangues to the Ghourki " in which he referred to himself as the " Chief of the Tribe " . In 1908 , Swisher published Book of Harangues , a selection of passages from The Ghourki .
= = Politics = =
Swisher was an active member of the West Virginia Democratic Party . In 1900 , he was selected as a candidate for State Superintendent of Free Schools . In the 1902 general election , he ran as the Democratic candidate for the Eleventh District of the West Virginia State Senate . Despite his loss , Swisher received the largest number of Democratic votes ever amassed in Monongalia County up until that time . Swisher was a delegate at the 1936 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia , and was selected as an alternate delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of 1912 and 1924 .
= = Personal life = =
In August 1897 , Swisher married Mary Dering of Morgantown , daughter of Edward A. Dering and his wife , Cordelia Walker Dering of Morgantown . Both the Dering and Walker families , from which Swisher 's wife descended , had arrived in the Colony of Virginia during its earlier periods of settlement .
Swisher was a member of the Morgantown Union Lodge No. 4 of the Free and Accepted Masons , Morgantown Lodge No. 411 of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks , the Morgantown Chamber of Commerce , the Kiwanis Club , the Country Club , and the Old Colony Club . Swisher served on the Old Colony Club 's National Advisory Council .
On August 27 , 1945 , Swisher died of a cerebral hemorrhage due to hypertension at his residence at 80 Donley Street in Morgantown . Swisher was interred on August 30 , 1945 at Oak Grove Cemetery in Morgantown 's Chancery Hill Historic District .
= = Selected works = =
History of Hampshire County , West Virginia : From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present . 1897 . Co @-@ authored with Hu Maxwell .
Briar Blossoms : Being a Collection of a Few Verses and Some Prose . 1899 .
Book of Harangues . 1908 .
= Camber Castle =
Camber Castle , also known formerly as Winchelsea Castle , is a 16th @-@ century Device Fort , built near Rye by King Henry VIII to protect the Sussex coast of England against French attack . The first fortification on the site was a small , round artillery tower , constructed by Henry between 1512 and 1514 , overlooking the Camber anchorage and the entrance to Rye Harbour . In 1539 , increasing tensions with France encouraged Henry to rethink his coastal defence plans , and Camber Castle was rebuilt and extended over the next year under the direction of the Moravian engineer , Stefan von Haschenperg . The results were considered unsatisfactory and further work was carried out from 1542 to 1543 , at great expense , to rectify the problems . The result was a large , concentric artillery fort , with a central keep , surrounded by four circular bastions and a circular entrance bastion , built from stone and brick .
The finished castle was initially equipped with 28 brass and iron artillery guns and a garrison of 28 men , commanded by a captain . It may have seen service in 1545 when a French fleet attacked the coast , but its operational value was short lived . The Camber and the surrounding harbours began to silt up , becoming unusable by shipping , and the coastline receded away from the fort , eventually placing it well in @-@ land . Furthermore , the fort had been superseded by newer European military designs even before it had been completed , and peace with France later in the century removed much of the requirement for the fort . The castle still remained operational up until 1637 , when it was closed by King Charles I. With the outbreak of civil war in 1642 , much of the fortification was dismantled by Parliamentary forces to prevent it being used by the Royalists .
The ruins became a popular spot for picnics in the 18th and 19th centuries , and was painted by J. M. W. Turner . Plans to redevelop the castle as a Martello tower or as a clubhouse for a local golf course came to nothing , although the property was used in the Second World War , probably as an early warning site . Archaeological interest in the fort increased after the war and in 1967 it was taken into the guardianship of the state , the property being bought from the private owners in 1977 . It is now operated by English Heritage , who reopened it to visitors after an extensive programme of conservation between 1968 and 1994 . The fort is an unusual example of an unmodified Device Fort and is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
= = = = Initial tower , 1512 – 14 = = = =
Camber Castle was built approximately 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) between the ports of Rye and Winchelsea on the south coast of England , overlooking a body of water called the Camber , at the mouth of the Brede , Rother and Tillingham rivers . The two towns were part of the Cinque Ports , a strategic chain of maritime towns responsible for providing ships to the king 's navy , although Winchelsea 's harbour had silted up by the 16th century , limiting its utility , and similar problems were beginning to impact the port of Rye . The mouth of the Camber had also begun to silt up in the late medieval period , although in this case the process had created an important new anchorage for ships .
The first fortification at Camber may have been built shortly after 1486 by Sir Richard Guldeford , the Master of the Ordnance , who was given the manor of Higham by King Henry VII in exchange for Richard constructing a tower to protect the anchorage . There is no surviving evidence , however , to show if a tower was in fact built as Guldeford had promised , and Henry VII did not invest much in his coastal defences during the rest of his reign . Many castles across England were left in poor repair , often considered to be outdated and too expensive to maintain .
Henry VIII became king in 1509 and began to follow a more aggressive policy towards neighbouring France than his father . Tensions increased and in 1512 Henry ordered the construction of an artillery tower and a new bridge at Camber . The work was carried out by Edward Guldeford , Richard 's son , and cost £ 1 @,@ 309 over the next two years . The resulting circular stone tower was 64 feet ( 20 m ) across and around 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high , occupying the shingle spit of Kevill Point and controlling the Camber and the port of Rye . It would have provided relatively limited facilities and living accommodation , and was probably not permanently garrisoned .
Despite being an artillery tower with a flat roof to carry heavy guns , the tower was not initially supplied with any artillery and was therefore unable to protect Rye against the hostile naval expeditions which attacked the coast in the 1520s . After many letters to from Guldeford to the Lord Chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey , some guns finally arrived around 1536 in the form of wrought iron serpentines . Prescient concerns began to be raised in the mid @-@ 1530s about whether the Camber might silt up further and ultimately become unusable as an anchorage .
= = = = Concentric design , 1539 – 40 = = = =
In 1539 the threat of invasion from France and Spain grew and Henry issued orders for his coastal defences to be improved , creating a sequence of fortifications called the Device Forts across England . These were intended to carry artillery pieces able to engage enemy naval vessels should they approach the coast , and to deter any enemy landings . As part of this programme of work , Camber Castle was considerably expanded at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 660 .
The first phase of this work took place from 1539 until autumn 1540 . The Moravian engineer Stefan von Haschenperg was responsible for the design of the fort , being paid the substantial salary of £ 75 a year for his work on this and other similar projects , including Calshot , Hurst , Sandgate and Sandown . Philip Chute , John Fletcher and William Oxenbridge , all prominent local men , served as the commissioners for the project , Oxenbridge becoming the pay master . Finding sufficient numbers of workmen was difficult and some had to be pressed into service unwillingly . More artillery pieces were sent to the castle ahead of the work being completed , and were probably installed in temporary battery positions around the castle site .
Initially the old tower was converted into a stronger keep which was able to support artillery guns on its roof , a gatehouse was built alongside it , four stirrup towers – so @-@ called because of their shape – a curtain wall was constructed around the outside of the castle , and bastions erected around the wall . Towards the end of this phase of work the castle was altered in a frantic burst of work , possibly driven on by pressure from the King himself . The height of the curtain wall was increased , the gatehouse extended into an entrance bastion , a new network of underground passages installed , and foreworks added around the outside of the bastions . By the end of 1540 the castle was garrisoned with 17 men and equipped with artillery , with Chute appointed as its captain .
The result was a concentric fortress , which von Haschenperg had hoped would combine the best of Italian military architecture , able to carry heavy guns but with a low profile to protect against any incoming artillery fire . Various flaws rapidly became apparent . The castle 's design had focused on defence , with the result that the guns could not easily be brought to bear on enemy vessels , which had been the original intent of building the fortification by the Camber ; some of the angles of fire from the defences were blocked by the entrance and the high water table may have caused serious damp problems on the ground floor . Furthermore , the design was different from the other Device Forts constructed across the region and would have stood out as unusual and not in keeping with the King 's general intent for the chain of forts .
= = = = Redeveloped concentric design , 1542 – 43 = = = =
As a result of the problems with the original design , in summer 1542 work recommenced on the castle , well after the initial invasion scare was over , lasting until August 1543 . The decision to rectify the problems with the castle may have been taken by King Henry himself . Oxenbridge appears to have stayed on as the pay master and acted as the master of the works , with von Haschenperg remaining in his role as engineer almost until the end of the project , despite the difficulties with his earlier work . The cost of the second phase of work was much higher than the first , around £ 10 @,@ 000 .
The design was rather different to von Haschenperg 's first castle . The keep and the stirrup towers were raised in height , the level of the floors elevated , the curtain wall was strengthened , the old bastions entirely removed and four new , larger bastions added in their place , while the older foreworks around the castle were demolished . The keep 's flat roof was altered to a pitched design , and the guns that it had supported moved into the outlying bastions . Although the size of the castle had slightly decreased , the new design had much more domestic space available for the garrison .
In practice , even the revised design ignored the acute @-@ angled bastions which had been introduced in Europe , the round towers creating numerous patches of dead ground around the castle into which its guns could not fire ; the high walls presented a greater target , the internal design was complicated and it remained difficult to move around inside the fort . Indeed , the historian Peter Harrington describes the final design as even " more archaic than its predecessor " . Chute 's role was extended to become the Keeper and Captain of Camber , and the Keeper of the Waters of Camber and Puddle in January 1544 , for which he was paid two shillings a day . Haschenperg left England in disgrace in 1544 , facing complaints that he was " a man who will pretend more knowledge than he hath indeed " .
The bulk of the stone for the two phases of the project was acquired by demolishing monastic buildings in Winchelsea , and by purchasing it from the nearby Fairlight and Hastings quarries . Higher quality stone was bought from Mersham in Hampshire , and from various suppliers in Normandy . Timber was acquired from Udimore , Appledore and Knell , the latter two lumber @-@ felling operations being run directly by the Camber project team . Chalk was brought from Dover to manufacture lime , and at least 16 @,@ 000 bricks initially purchased to make the necessary kilns , with possibly over 500 @,@ 000 further bricks being manufactured locally as the work progressed . Steel , iron and tiles were bought locally in Sussex , along with a 10 metric tons ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) crane for the project 's quay .
= = = = Operational use = = = =
The castle was already obsolete by the time it had been completed , as European military design had moved beyond curved bastions , embracing the angular designs seen in the later star forts . Nonetheless , it remained operational as an artillery fort for the rest of the century , with an initial garrison in 1540 of 24 men under the command of Chute , rising to 28 men and the captain after 1542 . Although it had been fitted with gunloops for handguns from the very start , the castle initially relied heavily on archers for its own protection against attack from the land . It had stocks of 140 longbows and 560 sheaves of arrows in 1568 , for example , probably for use by the local militia in the event of a war . Polearms were also stored there in considerable numbers , again probably for use by the militia .
Initially the fort was equipped with between 26 and 28 artillery pieces , including brass demi @-@ cannons , culverins , demi @-@ culverins and a falcon , and wrought @-@ iron guns , such as portpieces , bases and slings . After 1568 , the castle typically held around nine or ten guns for most of the 16th century , including cannons , demi @-@ cannons , culverins and demi @-@ culverins . Brass guns could fire more quickly , up to eight times an hour , and were safer to use than their iron equivalents . It is uncertain how far the castle 's guns could have reached ; analysis carried out in the 16th and 17th century on the ranges of artillery suggested that a culverin , for example , could hit at a target up to between 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) and 2 @,@ 743 metres ( 8 @,@ 999 ft ) away .
In July 1545 , the French carried out a raid at nearby Seaford , and the castle may have seen action against the French fleet . Soon , however , silt began to block the entrance to the Camber , threatening its use as an anchorage . Complaints were made to Parliament about the situation in 1548 , and the authorities in Rye expressed fears in 1573 that the Camber was damaged beyond repair . By the end of the century , the reclamation of the surrounding marshes and the dumping of ballast by passing ships had accelerated the natural processes and the anchorage was ruined . The surrounding region was also less strategically important than it had once been : towns like Winchelsea and Rye were in decline , peace had been made with France in 1558 and military attention shifted towards the Spanish threat to the south @-@ west of England .
The castle was garrisoned from 1553 onwards by between 26 to 27 men , including 17 gunners ; they were led by a captain , Thomas Wilford having taken over this role by 1570 . As the century went on , the castle became difficult to maintain . By 1568 the gun platforms were reported to be in " utter Ruing and decay " , with repairs projected to be likely to cost around £ 60 , although it is unclear whether the repairs were carried out . Tensions between Spain and England rose , and in 1584 Queen Elizabeth I spent £ 171 on repairs to the castle amid fresh fears of an invasion . War broke out the next year , and in 1588 , the year of the Spanish Armada , a Jesuit priest called Father Darbysher , and Roger Walton , a spy in the pay of the Spanish , made plans to hand over the castle to an invading force of French and Spanish soldiers , although the conspiracy never came to fruition .
In 1593 there was a fresh crisis with Spain and the brass guns needed for the English navy were in short supply . Brass artillery pieces were therefore rounded up from the forts along the south coast , including Camber . The number of guns at the castle remained around the same , but the larger , brass culverins and demi @-@ cannon were removed , being replaced with smaller iron demi @-@ culverins , sakers and a minion . In 1594 another royal survey suggested that £ 95 of repair work was needed on the fortifications .
= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =
= = = = Closure and English Civil War = = = =
Camber Castle went through several changes at the start of the 17th century . In 1610 , Peter Temple was appointed as captain of the castle , and between 1610 and 1614 the garrison was reduced to 14 soldiers , including only 4 gunners , either as an effort to reduce costs or as a result of the changing types of artillery kept at the castle . The north and south bastions were filled in to form solid gun platforms around approximately 1613 and 1615 , and an earth rampart called the Rampire was built up against the south corner of the castle . These solid bastions would have sacrificed living space , less in demand with a smaller garrison , but been much cheaper to maintain . Longbows fell out of use in warfare as archery in England declined , and were replaced by arquebuses and muskets , 46 of which were kept at the castle in 1614 .
Sir John Temple took over as captain in 1615 , being replaced by Robert Bacon by 1618 . The fortification was now both antiquated and too far from the receding sea to be useful . In 1623 it was suggested that the castle should be closed , and King Charles I was briefed on the dilapidated condition of the fortification , which was now reportedly around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the sea . The local towns campaigned to keep the castle operational but in 1636 Charles issued an instruction to demolish it ; the garrison , by now led by Captain Thomas Porter , left the next year , followed by the artillery .
When civil war broke out in 1642 between the supporters of Charles and those of Parliament , Camber Castle had not been entirely closed and was being used as a royal munitions store . The citizens of Rye sided with Parliament , which agreed that the weapons and stores in the castle should be removed and taken to the town for safe @-@ keeping . Concerned that it might be seized by Royalist forces , Parliament went on to dismantle the castle over the next year , stripping the lead from the roof , blocking up the gunports and demolishing the living accommodation . As a result , Camber Castle was not used by the Royalists during the Second English Civil War in 1648 , despite several other of the Device Forts along the south coast being occupied .
= = = = Ruins = = = =
After the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 , a royal survey of the castle found the fortification to be in ruins . An increasing number of visitors came to see the castle in the 18th and 19th centuries , with the north @-@ east corner becoming a popular site for picnics . Writing in 1785 , the antiquarian Francis Grose attributed the decline of the fortification to the changes in the local harbours and the superiority of the British Navy in protecting the coasts , observing that the castle 's architecture " clearly shew the low state of military architecture " during the 16th century in England .
In response to the threat posed by France during the Napoleonic Wars , Lieutenant Colonel John Brown surveyed the castle in 1804 to examine whether the central keep could be turned into a Martello tower , a type of circular gun tower popular during this period . The scheme was not taken forward , although the defences of the surrounding coast line were much improved by the government . The painter J. M. W. Turner visited between 1805 and 1807 during the middle of this work , later depicting the castle in landscape paintings and sketches of the area .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
At the start of the 20th century Camber Castle and the surrounding farmland remained in private ownership and open to visitors . In the 1931 there was a proposal to turn the keep into a golf clubhouse but the project was not taken forward and the facility was built at the nearby Castle Farm instead . A research team from the Victoria County History project visited the castle in 1935 , resulting in the first – albeit cursory – historical analysis and survey of the fortification being published two years later .
By the 1940s , the castle structures were mostly covered with rubble and debris , interwoven with pathways created by the movement of visitors over the years . During the Second World War , the castle was used by the British Army , possibly as an early warning site fitted with anti @-@ aircraft searchlights . In an area just to the north of the castle , the Starfish and Naval decoy sites were created to distract incoming German bombers from the town of Rye itself . Trenches were dug in the north bastion , and military training may have been conducted around the outskirts of the castle .
In the post @-@ war years , archaeological interest in the castle grew . From 1951 onwards the Ministry of Works carried out a long @-@ running research project into the Device Forts , the section on Camber being written by the historian Martin Biddle and finally published in 1982 . Biddle carried out an exploratory archaeological survey of the site in 1962 and the following year the ruins were closed to allow more extensive archaeological excavation by the Ministry . These were initially carried out by Biddle and Alan Cook , with support from local school children and from young offenders from the Borstal institution in Dover .
The state took Camber Castle into guardianship in 1967 , and the next year the government began a slow process of restoring the castle with the intention of eventually reopening it to the public , their efforts largely focusing on protecting the internal brick walls and wall @-@ cores . Further excavations followed in the 1970s and early 1980s .
In 1977 , the Department of National Heritage bought the castle from its owners . The government agency English Heritage took control of the castle in 1984 and a scheme to reopen the property to visitors was put forward in 1993 . This included a final assessment of the archaeological work of the previous decades , and the castle finally opened to the public again in 1994 . As of 2015 , the castle is open to visitors through guided tours organised by the Rye Harbour Nature Reserve . The site is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building .
= = Architecture and landscape = =
= = = Landscape = = =
Camber Castle now lies on the Brede Level , a wide , reclaimed area of land between the modern towns of Rye and Winchelsea , about 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the sea . The surrounding pasture land is flat and only just above at sea @-@ level , marked with numerous ridges formed by the retreating coastline over the centuries . On the eastern side of the fortification is Castle Water , a large , 20th @-@ century gravel pit that is now flooded to form a wetland nature reserve .
A 1 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 5 ft 11 in ) defensive earthwork runs around the south and east sides of the castle ; this was probably originally topped by a stone wall and designed to protect the castle from the sea , which would have then been much closer . The remains of a raised causeway , which once linked the isolated castle to the mainland , leads away for a short distance to the south @-@ west from the earthwork before petering out . Marks from the holes that were dug to provide the materials for the infilling of the bastions in the early 17th century also survive around the outside of the castle .
= = = Architecture = = =
The three @-@ storey castle itself has changed little since its completion in 1544 , an incorporates elements from all of the three phases of building work in 1512 – 14 , 1539 – 40 and 1543 – 44 . It is now roofless but still standing up to 18 metres ( 59 @.@ 1 ft ) tall , and covers 0 @.@ 73 acres ( 0 @.@ 30 ha ) , almost as big as the largest of the Device Forts at Deal in Kent . The first tower on the site was built from fine @-@ grained yellow sandstone , with the later expansion making use of both yellow and grey sandstone , with imported Caen stone being used for the finer detailing . Ironstone , siltstone and brown sandstone rubble and boulders was used for the core of the castle walls , some of it taken from the local cliffs .
The castle would have been entered through the entrance bastion . The core of this building was constructed in the second phase of work on the castle and was initially a square one @-@ storey construct , 15 by 10 @.@ 5 metres ( 49 @.@ 2 by 34 @.@ 4 ft ) across , before being extended forward by an additional 9 metres ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) to form a circular bastion ; an additional floor was then added on top in the third phase . The internal walls have mostly been destroyed , but the ground floor chambers would have been used for administration , and possibly as living rooms for the deputy captain . The first floor would have formed a high @-@ status set of chambers for the use of the captain , and included large windows , fireplaces and a private garderobe , but most of this storey has been destroyed . A special German tile @-@ stove was probably fitted into the chambers for the use of Philip Chute , the first captain of the castle , and was illustrated with pictures of Landsknecht soldiers and Protestant German leaders ; only fragments of the stove have survived .
In the centre of the fortification was the keep , built up from the round tower of 1512 – 14 , and 6 @.@ 7 metres ( 22 ft ) of the original building 's walls were incorporated into the new design . The original tower had ten gunports embedded at ground level in its 3 @.@ 05 @-@ metre @-@ thick ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) walls , but these were blocked up in the second phase of building . The keep would originally had a parapet running around its roof , which was initially flat but converted to a ridged design in the third phase of work . The ground floor was laid in brick and had a brick and stone @-@ lined well to supply it with water . The keep had two fireplaces , but these were small and not intended for cooking – indeed , the final version of the keep was probably never used as a living space . The first floor windows were added in the final phase of work ; they were not intended for use as gunports , but they had bars and shutters , so could have been easily secured in the event of an attack .
An underground vaulted ring passageway , only 1 @.@ 9 metres ( 6 ft 3 in ) high ran around the outside of the keep , with similar covered radial passageways leading off to each of the bastions ; the passageways are now ruined . A cobbled courtyard surrounded the keep , separating it from the external defences , and containing a well in the north @-@ west corner . Underground passageways led from the entrance bastion to outside the castle walls , either to allow the garrison to escape in an emergency or to assault a besieging force .
The outer part of the castle was defended by an octagonal wall , which
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13 and NY 34 and heads to the west at Buffalo Street . NY 89 begins here , and NY 96 overlaps with NY 89 toward the West End of Ithaca . After crossing southbound NY 13 and NY 34 , NY 89 and NY 96 run parallel to and a few feet to the north of NY 79 . NY 89 turns north onto Taughannock Boulevard at the next intersection while NY 96 continues west across the lake outlet as Cliff Street , paralleling NY 79 . They do not intersect in this area — known locally as The Octopus — though they once did . At one time , NY 96 , NY 79 , NY 89 , NY 13A and Elm Street met at an intersection that gave the area its name . Today , only NY 13A and NY 79 intersect there while the stub of former NY 89 is now a park access road that intersects with NY 96 , which continues north out of the Cayuga Lake valley as Trumansburg Road .
Unlike NY 89 , which runs along the base of the valley and parallels the west shore of Cayuga Lake , NY 96 heads away from the lake , increasing the distance between itself and the water body as it proceeds northwestward to the highlands overlooking the lake . The route heads across open fields and past isolated pockets of homes toward Trumansburg , where NY 96 crosses over Taughannock Creek and serves Taughannock Falls State Park southeast of the village . In Trumansburg itself , the highway becomes Main Street and meets the northern terminus of NY 227 in the center of the community . NY 96 continues on , exiting Trumansburg just 250 yards ( 229 m ) before crossing the Seneca County line .
= = = Seneca County = = =
NY 96 proceeds northwest through a lightly populated section of Seneca County and the town of Covert to the village of Interlaken , home to the southern terminus of NY 96A , a more westerly alternate route of NY 96 between Interlaken and Geneva . Outside of the village , NY 96 continues on a northwesterly path for another 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the Ovid – Romulus town line , where it turns due west for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to access the village of Ovid . The route mostly bypasses the village , with NY 96A and NY 414 serving as its Main Street instead . The three routes meet at a junction on the northern fringe of the community , at which point NY 96A leaves NY 414 and turns west to follow the town line toward Seneca Lake while NY 96 joins NY 414 and heads north into the town of Romulus .
Midway between the village of Ovid and the hamlet of Romulus , the two routes split , allowing NY 414 to continue due north to Seneca Falls . NY 96 , meanwhile , turns to the northwest , following the eastern edge of the Seneca Army Depot for most of the distance to Romulus hamlet . Just south of the community 's center , NY 96 separates from the depot grounds and continues north through the hamlet and into the town of Varick . The route uneventfully crosses the town , passing by open fields on a predominantly northward alignment on its way to the Fayette town line and a junction with NY 336 , an east – west connector between NY 96A and NY 414 . NY 96 continues across rural terrain to the outskirts of the village of Waterloo , where the number of homes rises as the route enters the village on Fayette Street .
In the southern half of the village , the highway follows a zig @-@ zag routing as it leaves Fayette Street at River Road before returning to the north at Washington Street one block to the east . While on Washington Street , the route passes over the Cayuga – Seneca Canal and enters the village 's center , changing names to Virginia Street in the process . Not far to the north , NY 96 heads into Waterloo 's central business district , built up around the junction of Virginia and Main ( US 20 and NY 5 ) Streets . Past Routes 5 and 20 , NY 96 continues north as a residential street to the village line , where the route turns to the west with a slight trend to the north . At this point , the scenery surrounding NY 96 shifts from house @-@ lined streets to rural countryside once again , an appearance that follows the road to the northwest through the town of Waterloo and across the county line .
= = = Ontario County = = =
Although NY 96 travels mostly in an east – west direction throughout Ontario County , it is still signed as a north – south highway . Less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the county , NY 96 connects to NY 14 by way of a cloverleaf interchange , an oddity considering the rural location of the interchange . West of NY 14 , NY 96 begins to parallel the paths of both the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) and the Canandaigua Lake outlet to the north . The highway follows both entities across the town of Phelps to the village of the same name , where NY 96 meets the southern terminus of NY 88 . Just west of the village , NY 96 intersects the northern terminus of NY 488 , formerly part of NY 88 . West of the intersection , a northward reverse S @-@ curve draws NY 96 closer to the Thruway and the outlet as the route heads toward the village of Clifton Springs , which NY 96 bypasses to the north .
4 miles ( 6 km ) to the west in the village of Manchester , NY 96 crosses over the outlet ( which roughly follows NY 21 south to Canandaigua Lake from this point out ) and indirectly connects to the Thruway by way of a junction with NY 21 located north of the village center and just south of where NY 21 meets the Thruway at exit 43 . West of NY 21 , NY 96 curves gently to the south , crossing the Ontario Central Railroad before resuming its westward alignment near the grade crossing . At this point , NY 96 enters the town of Farmington and begins to parallel the Thruway once more . The route passes by Finger Lakes Gaming and Race Track , located between County Route 8 ( CR 8 ) and NY 332 , prior to intersecting NY 332 itself 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) west of the race track .
From this point northwestward to Rochester , NY 96 passes through substantially more developed areas . The first of these is the nearby village of Victor , which NY 96 enters by way of an overpass carrying it over the Ontario Central Railroad . In the village itself , the route meets the northern terminus of NY 444 , which travels north – south between Victor and Bloomfield . West of the village in the town of Victor , NY 96 runs along the base of a valley separating it from the Thruway , where it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 251 . The route continues on a northwesterly track for another mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before curving to the north and widening from two to four lanes as it passes under the Thruway near exit 45 . I @-@ 490 , which begins at Thruway exit 45 , is accessible from NY 96 by way of exit 29 , the eastern @-@ most exit on I @-@ 490 .
The section of NY 96 between exit 29 and NY 250 in Perinton serves as a major commercial strip , anchored by the presence of Eastview Mall , one of the largest malls in the Rochester area and the largest east of the city . Also present along this stretch of NY 96 are a series of plazas , beginning with one just north of I @-@ 490 featuring a Walmart and a Kohl 's . Continuing northward , NY 96 runs along the eastern edge of Eastview Mall and passes two more plazas , one of which is developed around a Kmart . The highway gradually turns northwest toward the county line as it passes the mall , and crosses into Monroe County at an intersection leading to Eastview Commons , a plaza separated from the mall by high @-@ voltage power lines and a large ditch .
= = = Monroe County = = =
Roughly a quarter of a mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) from the county line , the commercial surroundings end as NY 96 intersects the southern terminus of NY 250 in the town of Perinton . 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to the northwest , NY 96 meets I @-@ 490 once again , this time at exit 28 . West of the exit , NY 96 parallels I @-@ 490 for roughly 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) , serving several office parks and Powder Mills Park before reconnecting to the freeway at exit 27 , located on the southern edge of Bushnell 's Basin , a small hamlet located directly on NY 96 . North of the exit , NY 96 breaks from I @-@ 490 and parallels the Erie Canal through slightly less developed areas between Bushnell 's Basin and Mitchell Road in the town of Pittsford , where it narrows to two lanes and becomes East Jefferson Road .
West of Mitchell Road , NY 96 takes a more southerly alignment than the canal as it enters the densely populated village of Pittsford and meets the northern and eastern termini of NY 64 and NY 252 , respectively , at the intersection of Jefferson Road and South Main Street . NY 64 heads to the south along South Main Street and NY 252 continues along Jefferson Road to the west while NY 96 turns north , proceeding into the heart of the village along South Main Street . In the village center , NY 96 intersects Monroe Avenue and State Street , which carry NY 31 east – west through Pittsford . The route continues on , becoming North Main Street as it crosses the Erie Canal and passes under the CSX Transportation @-@ owned West Shore Subdivision . Just north of the railroad overpass is a junction with the southern terminus of NY 153 , the most direct route between Pittsford and nearby East Rochester .
Past NY 153 , NY 96 exits the village of Pittsford and becomes East Avenue , a name the route retains to its terminus in downtown Rochester . It proceeds northward through the heavily residential town , passing by Nazareth College and meeting the western terminus of NY 31F ( Fairport Road ) at a junction adjacent to the campus of St. John Fisher College . East Avenue , and likewise NY 96 , takes on the northwesterly , four @-@ lane alignment set by Fairport Road and begins to parallel the routing of I @-@ 490 once more as both enter the town of Brighton . Not far to the northwest of the town line , NY 96 meets Elmwood and Linden Avenues , the latter carrying NY 441 . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the northwest , NY 96 intersects Penfield Road , the pre @-@ expressway alignment of NY 441 . One block from this point is Clover Street , which carries NY 65 south of East Avenue .
At the Brighton town – Rochester city line , NY 96 passes through the center of the Can of Worms , a complex interchange that links I @-@ 490 to I @-@ 590 . Here , I @-@ 590 passes under NY 96 while I @-@ 490 flies over NY 96 . On the other side of the interchange in Rochester , East Avenue becomes a commercial strip once again , but to a lesser extent than in Victor . At North Winton Road , NY 96 is signed for the last time by way of a " North 96 " reassurance assembly directing traffic to stay on East Avenue . Despite this fact , the route officially continues northwestward toward downtown Rochester .
West of Winton , NY 96 passes through the East Avenue Historic District , a primarily residential area with historic upper @-@ class houses , including the George Eastman House . This stretch of the route was narrowed in mid @-@ 2010 from four lanes to two , to improve the residential feel and reduce automobile speeds . At Alexander Street , the environment turns more commercial as the route enters the downtown area . After crossing the Inner Loop , the route passes the Little Theatre before terminating at a Y @-@ junction with East Main Street .
= = History = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 36 , an unsigned legislative route that extended from Owego to Seneca Falls via Candor , Ithaca , and Ovid . South of Romulus , Route 36 utilized what is now NY 96 and NY 96B . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the Owego – Interlaken and Ovid – Romulus portions of legislative Route 36 became part of NY 15 , which began in Owego and proceeded northwest from Romulus to Rochester by way of Waterloo , Phelps , Victor , Mendon , and Pittsford . From Mendon to Rochester , NY 15 followed the path of legislative Route 14 , another highway dating back to 1908 that continued south from Mendon on what is now NY 64 and used Monroe Avenue between Pittsford and Rochester . Another section of NY 15 — from the village of Phelps east to NY 14 — utilized what had been designated as part of legislative Route 6 @-@ a from 1911 to 1921 .
By 1926 , NY 31 was assigned across western and central New York , utilizing Monroe Avenue from downtown Rochester to Pittsford . Although NY 96 's modern routing via East Avenue was state @-@ maintained and formerly part of legislative Route 20 from current NY 31F westward , NY 15 initially remained on Monroe Avenue , creating an overlap between NY 15 and NY 31 . It was realigned at some point between 1927 and 1932 to follow East Avenue to Rochester instead . In southern Seneca County , NY 15 initially passed through Lodi on its way from Interlaken to Ovid . It was realigned in the late 1920s to bypass Lodi to the northeast on the former alignment of legislative Route 36 .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 basically remained intact . The only change made at this time was the straightening out of the Victor – Pittsford segment , which now bypassed Mendon in favor of a more direct alignment between the two villages via Bushnell 's Basin . The former alignment of NY 15 became part of NY 251 east of Mendon and part of NY 64 north of the hamlet . US 15 was extended into New York c . 1939 ; it replaced NY 2 , which had extended from the Pennsylvania state line to Rochester . NY 15 was renumbered to NY 2 to eliminate numerical duplication with the U.S. Highway .
The NY 96 designation was originally assigned to present @-@ day NY 2 from NY 7 in Troy to Route 2 at the Massachusetts state line . In the early 1940s , the alignments of NY 2 and NY 96 were swapped , placing NY 96 on the Owego – Rochester routing . The only major change to NY 96 since that time came in the early 1950s , when the route was realigned between Candor and Ithaca to follow a new routing via Spencer . The Candor – Spencer portion of the alignment had been part of NY 53 during the 1920s and part of NY 223 since 1930 . NY 223 was truncated to its current eastern terminus at NY 224 near Van Etten as part of NY 96 's realignment . Between Spencer and Ithaca , NY 96 overlapped with NY 34 , which had occupied that segment of highway since the 1930 renumbering .
In the 1950s , NY 96 was temporarily moved onto the Eastern Expressway as sections of the freeway opened to traffic . The first section extended from Bushnell 's Basin to NY 31F and opened to traffic in the mid @-@ 1950s , at which time NY 96 was routed onto the new highway and NY 252 and NY 64 were extended eastward and northward , respectively , to cover NY 96 's old surface alignment . NY 31F , meanwhile , was truncated to begin at the expressway . A northwest extension to what is now the Can of Worms was completed c . 1957 as a realignment of NY 96 , resulting in the re @-@ extension of NY 31F to its original terminus and an extension of NY 64 along East Avenue to the eastern edge of Rochester . NY 64 , NY 96 , and NY 252 were restored to their pre @-@ 1950s alignments c . 1961 when the freeway was designated as I @-@ 490 .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 96A ( 26 @.@ 94 miles or 43 @.@ 36 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 96 in Seneca County . The route splits from NY 96 in Interlaken and terminates at US 20 and NY 5 east of Geneva in Waterloo . It was assigned in the early 1940s .
NY 96B ( 19 @.@ 56 miles or 31 @.@ 48 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 96 between Candor , Tioga County , and Ithaca , Tompkins County . The route was assigned in the early 1950s .
= = Major intersections = =
= Kill the Irishman =
Kill the Irishman ( alternatively known as Bulletproof Gangster ) is a 2011 American biographical crime film directed by Jonathan Hensleigh , and starring Ray Stevenson , Vincent D 'Onofrio , Christopher Walken , and Val Kilmer . Written by Hensleigh ( along with Jeremy Walters ) , it is based on the life of Irish @-@ American gangster Danny Greene , and was adapted from the book To Kill the Irishman : The War That Crippled the Mafia by Rick Porrello .
Before entering production , Kill the Irishman had a troubled development stage that lasted over a decade . Production commenced in 2009 , with filming taking place in and around Detroit . The film chronicles the rise and fall of Danny Greene . He worked as a longshoreman in the Cleveland docks , until being chosen to serve as interim president in 1961 . In 1964 , he was convicted of embezzling $ 11 @,@ 500 of the union 's funds . After his conviction , Greene rose through the criminal underworld in Cleveland , and waged war on the Mafia for control of the city . After many failed attempts , Greene was assassinated on October 6 , 1977 by contract killer Ray Ferritto . His death ultimately led to the demise of the Cleveland Mafia .
Released in the United States on March 11 , 2011 , Kill the Irishman premiered at the Landmark Sunshine Cinema in New York City . Most of the cast , including Stevenson and D ’ Onofrio , were in attendance . Shondor Birns ' niece was also present . The film was met with mixed @-@ positive reviews upon release , but some criticized the purported similarities to Martin Scorsese 's Goodfellas . Kill the Irishman grossed $ 1 @,@ 188 @,@ 194 at the domestic box office , against a production budget of $ 12 million .
= = Plot = =
In 1960 , Danny Greene and his childhood friends Billy McComber and Art Sneperger are longshoremen at the Cleveland docks . Meanwhile , the members are exploited by corrupt union boss , Jerry Merke and the leadership of the ILA union urges Greene to run against him . Meanwhile , Sneperger can 't pay a gambling debt to Cleveland Mafia Capo John Nardi . In return for Sneperger 's debt being forgiven , Greene supplies Nardi 's crew with goods stolen from the docks . Merke finds out , demands a cut of Greene 's profits , and then sends an enforcer to kill him . Instead , Greene beats up the enforcer , then beats up Merke , throws the union leader out of his office , and is later elected union president . He improves the working conditions at the docks while continuing his dealings with Nardi .
Greene 's corruption is exposed by the Plain Dealer newspaper and Cleveland Police Detective Joe Manditski , who grew up with Greene in Collinwood , arrests him . Bankrupt and facing prison , Greene plea bargains to lesser charges in return for becoming an FBI informant and being banned for life from organized labor . Greene is released and moves his unhappy wife and daughters back to Collinwood . Nardi gets him work as an enforcer for Hungarian Jewish loan shark Shondor Birns , and later helps pitch a deal to Mafia Capo Jack Licavoli : Greene will force the city 's garbage haulers to join the union Licavoli controls . Greene , McComber , Sneperger , and ex @-@ Hells Angel Keith Ritson terrorize many into joining , but Greene 's friend Mike Frato refuses . Licavoli orders Greene to kill Frato , but Greene balks because Frato has ten children . Nardi tells him privately , though , that , " You wanted to play in the big leagues . Sometimes you have to do things you don 't wanna do . "
As Greene prepare 's to kill Frato with a car bomb , he learns from the FBI that Sneperger has returned to gambling , and has become an informant for Manditsky . That night , Greene assigns Sneperger to set the bomb under Frato ’ s car and presses the detonator as he does it . An enraged Frato later shoots at Greene in a park . Greene returns fire , kills Frato , and is arrested for murder , but released after Frato 's driver tells Manditski that Greene acted in self @-@ defense . Having had enough , Greene 's long suffering wife leaves him and takes the children .
Greene sees his elderly Irish neighbor , Grace O ’ Keefe , being evicted . He intervenes , pays her rent , and she gratefully gives him her father 's gold Celtic cross to wear for protection . Greene begins to use his money and connections to help other Irish @-@ Americans in need , and earns the nickname " The Robin Hood of Collinwood " .
Greene wants to open his own restaurant , and asks Shondor Birns to help him . Birns arranges a $ 70 @,@ 000 loan from the Gambinos , but Birns ' courier buys cocaine with the money and gets arrested . Birns and Greene argue over which of them should pay back the money ; when Greene refuses to pay , Birns hires a hitman to kill him . Greene narrowly escapes , and later kills Birns with a car bomb .
After Mafia boss John Scalish dies , both Nardi and Licavoli are considered for succession . Licavoli is chosen due to his closer ties to the Five Families and decides to charge Greene 30 % " street tax " for doing business in Cleveland . Greene refuses to pay , crudely mocks Licavoli 's Italian heritage , and vows , " The Irishman 's in business for himself now . "
An outraged Licavoli has Greene 's house blown up , but he survives . He then attempts to demote Nardi and take away his crew , only to have the latter join forces with Greene . Vowing to take over Cleveland together , Greene and Nardi start by organizing the murders of Licavoli ’ s associates , many of whom are blown up . Thirty @-@ six car bombings occur during the summer of 1976 , drawing national attention and humiliating Licavoli . After failing multiple times to kill Greene , Licavoli is forced to humbly ask Genovese boss Anthony Salerno to help him kill Nardi and Greene .
Having learned of this from the FBI , Greene claims that he wants to leave Cleveland and buy a ranch in Texas , but needs to raise $ 2 million . Wishing to size up their enemies , Greene and Nardi travel to New York and invite Salerno to invest in the ranch . After they leave , Salerno orders his associates to hire professional hitman Ray Ferritto to kill them both . Nardi is killed in a car explosion , McComber dies in a bombing at the Cleveland docks , and Ritson is shot near his house . Detective Manditski lets Greene know that a master killer is after him . He offers Greene protection , but is told , " My enemies will be taken care of . "
After a dentist 's appointment on October 6 , 1977 , Greene notices Ferritto driving by slowly , and accepts that he is about to die , giving his gold cross to an admiring boy . Ferritto detonates a bomb on the car next to Greene 's , killing Greene instantly . An epilogue , by Manditski , reveals that the investigation of Danny Greene 's murder led to the collapse of the Mafia , not only in Cleveland , but all over the United States .
= = Cast = =
= = = Principal = = =
Ray Stevenson as Danny Greene , an Irish @-@ American gangster .
Vincent D 'Onofrio as John Nardi , an Italian @-@ American labor racketeer and Greene 's ally .
Val Kilmer as Joe Manditski , a Cleveland cop who investigates Greene . The character is partly based on former Cleveland Police Chief Edward Kovačić .
Christopher Walken as Alex " Shondor " Birns , a Jewish @-@ American loan shark .
= = = Supporting = = =
= = Development = =
Kill the Irishman had been in development since 1997 . Producer Tommy Reid heard that Rick Porrello , an Ohio policeman , was about to publish a book about Greene called To Kill the Irishman . Reid flew to Ohio and met with Porrello , who told Reid his grandfather was a high @-@ ranking Mafia figure in Cleveland during the prohibition era . The meeting went well , and on March 17 , 1998 , they signed a deal for the film rights to the book . Getting Kill the Irishman produced was difficult . Reid frequently left deals unconcluded , and discovered that the script he ’ d commissioned was attached to a cover with another screenwriter and producer ’ s name listed . According to Reid , this was a common occurrence in Hollywood , and he claims to have spent over $ 1 million to ensure the film was made .
= = Pre @-@ production = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
Reid was a fan of mafia movies ( including The Godfather and Goodfellas ) and aspired to become a film maker . Being of Irish and Italian ancestry , he wanted to make a film that would relate to both nationalities . Reid first heard about mobster Danny Greene from his roommates in Ohio , and believed that New York , Chicago and Boston were the " three meccas of mafia crime " . According to Reid , there wasn 't much documentation on Greene 's life , but after hearing that Porrello was about to publish a book on Greene and the Mafia in Cleveland , he was determined to make a movie about him .
= = = Background research = = =
Prior to making Kill the Irishman , Reid did research on Greene 's life and organized crime in Cleveland . He spoke with Sister Barbara Eppich , a nun , who helped raise Greene during his childhood . Sister Eppich told Reid of how Greene was abandoned during childhood and was raised by his grandfather . Because his grandfather worked nights , Greene was left to walk the streets . He would go to school dirty on a regular basis , so Sister Eppich would have to wash him . She also stated that Greene would sleep all the time , but was a " phenomenal athlete " .
Reid spoke to number of law enforcement agencies , including the FBI . The FBI wanted to make sure that Reid wasn 't glorifying the Mafia . Reid stated he had no intentions of glorifying crime , and that " the whole message at the end of the movie is that crime doesn ’ t pay " . On a similar subject , Hensleigh also said the " film [ doesn 't suggest Greene ] was a hero " . However , he did note the film provides a balanced perspective .
While researching his role , Stevenson looked at TV footage of Greene , and read Porello 's book ; To Kill The Irishman . According to Stevenson , there was " quite a bit " of research material available . D 'Onofrio , on the other hand , had the opposite experience . Information on Nardi was scarce , so Hensleigh allowed him to improvise on his character .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Although the screenplay was adapted from his book , Porrello had " minimum involvement " in its writing ( most of which was done by Hensleigh ) . Hensleigh regularly contacted Porrello and they agreed not to use the real names of anyone who was still alive , " out of respect and sensitivity " towards them .
= = = Casting = = =
Due to the troubled development of Kill the Irishman , Reid decided to make a documentary about Greene 's life ; known as Danny Greene : the Rise and Fall of the Irishman . Due to the research he had done for the movie , Reid became specialized in the Northern Ohio crime scene and Greene ’ s life . Reid felt that by doing the documentary , at least he could go to his " grave ' saying I tried ' " . In 2009 , with 17 hours of the documentary shot , Reid was told his film had been green @-@ lit . He joined forces with production company Code Entertainment and engaged with a " reliable " director ; Jonathan Hensleigh . They then signed actors Val Kilmer and Christopher Walken to the project . This was followed by the signing of actors Vincent D ’ Onofrio ( Full Metal Jacket ) , Paul Sorvino ( Goodfellas ) , and Irish actor Ray Stevenson , respectively . Stevenson was filming The Book of Eli when he got a telephone call from Hensleigh , so they arranged to meet in Los Angeles . According to Stevenson , he was drawn to the script and immediately made a deal .
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
On May 19 , 2009 , the film entered principal photography . It was shot within seven weeks , mostly in and around Detroit . This was partly because the city gave tax credits which Cleveland would not match . According to the 2009 report by the Michigan Film Office , Kill the Irishman received roughly $ 3 million in subsidies . Michigan 's film rebate pays up to 42 percent of filmmakers ' expenses for costs incurred while filming in the state . Ohio offers only 25 to 35 percent in subsidies , meaning that if the producers spent the same amount filming in Cleveland , they would have received $ 500 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @.@ 25 million less in subsidies . On the other hand , Stevenson said that they wanted to film in Cleveland , but the city had " prettied itself up " and changed , whereas Detroit was - in his opinion - still " on its knees " .
Two incidents occurred during filming . On the first , seven bullet holes were shot into one of the trucks used during production . On the second , the cast and crew were driving from the set , and a pedestrian was shot in the neck outside a supermarket . The ambulance took 35 – 45 minutes to arrive , and waited a further 35 – 45 minutes for the police to arrive . The paramedics refused to take the victim to the hospital without a police escort . According to Stevenson , there was a possibility that rival gangmembers would shoot at the paramedics for trying to resuscitate the victim .
= = Post @-@ production = =
= = = Effects = = =
Due to the limited budget , some of the effects seen in the film couldn 't be replicated . Stevenson said everyone " had to be on point " , and that any mistakes couldn 't be rectified by re @-@ filming . For example , the producers couldn 't afford to shoot the film 's final scene ( in which Greene is killed via a car explosion ) twice . Before filming , the production crew and actors had to check everything on the set . Time was also lacking , with Stevenson saying everyone " had to be extremely focused " .
= = = Editing = = =
Porrello had second thoughts about one scene being included in the film . This particular scene included the murder of two police officers . Porrello felt uncomfortable approaching Hensleigh , but did so anyway . Porrello said to him : " if you are going to kill a cop " , it is " going to change the tone of the story " . The scene was nevertheless included in the final cut .
= = Release = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Kill the Irishman received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from film critics . Giving the film a positive review , Mike LaSalle , of the San Francisco Chronicle , said ; " What makes this film special and memorable is the character of Danny Greene , who is not the usual neighborhood hoodlum you see in movies , the kind who gets in deep and gradually loses his soul " . Marshall Fine , of the Huffington Post , gave the film a mixed review . He criticized it for jumping through different events in a " jerky fashion " , but summed up the review by calling it a " movie with a lot of meat on the bone , even if some of it is tough or stringy . It 's not fancy , but it 's always tasty " .
Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63 % of critics gave the movie a positive review , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 6 out of 10 . Whereas on Metacritic , the film has a score of 50 out of 100 , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . But despite the mixed @-@ positive reception , a number of critics have called the movie a ripoff of Goodfellas . Robert Abele , of the LA Times , said " the film plays like an explosion 's aftermath ; shards of mob movies that add up to the usual Goodfellas knockoff " . Scott Tobias , of the A.V. Club , had similar views ; saying " the biggest problem " with the film " isn ’ t that it rips off Goodfellas " , but that plenty of " good films " have " ripped it off well " . In regards to the controversy surrounding Kill the Irishman and its purported similarities to Goodfellas , critic Dave Van Houwelingen said :
" There are certain movies that serve as a standard bearer for a genre – a high water mark that filmmakers always try to hit , but seem to always come up short . To me , I think Martin Scorsese ’ s Goodfellas is that type of film for the gangster genre . In the 21 years since the film was released , so many filmmakers have tried so hard to copy Goodfellas ' success , and so few have gotten even close to capturing the magic that Scorsese did in one of his very best films . The 21 years have been littered with a bunch of pale imitations . To that list , you can add Jonathan Hensleigh ’ s Kill the Irishman , which wants so desperately to be Goodfellas , and comes up so very , very short . "
Hensleigh 's directing was criticized . Scott Tobias said the directing " doesn ’ t do much beyond filling in the template " . He noted that Hensleigh was telling the " true @-@ life tale " of the mob 's decline in Cleveland , but also said that " every character and setpiece felt like it fell off a truck " . LA Weekly 's Nick Pinkerton held similar views , saying that although " Hensleigh perks up when filming violence , the atmosphere throughout is past @-@ prime , stymieing any strut " . Lisa Schwarzbaum , of Entertainment Weekly , also concurred , calling the film 's structure " pretty square " .
Despite criticizing the film 's structure , Schwarzbaum called the cast " tasty " , and singled out D 'Onofrio , Kilmer , and Walken for praise . Clint O 'Connor , of The Plain Dealer , held similar views , saying the " film 's greatest strength is its cast " . On the contrary , David Rooney held the opposite opinion ; saying the " low @-@ wattage cast " is what turned the " potentially strong " film into a " routine crime thriller " .
= = = Box office performance = = =
On its opening day , Kill the Irishman earned $ 42 @,@ 925 from five theaters ( with an average gross of $ 8 @,@ 585 per theater ) . On its second day , the box office receipts increased by 46 percent ; earning $ 62 @,@ 446 from five theaters ( with an average gross of $ 12 @,@ 489 per theater ) . Then on the third day , the film 's box office performance dropped by 36 percent ; earning $ 40 @,@ 059 from five theaters ( with an average gross of $ 8 @,@ 012 per theater ) . The gradual decline in box office receipts continued until the eighth day , where the film 's gross sharply increased by 373 percent ; earning $ 36 @,@ 119 from 21 theaters ( with an average gross of $ 1 @,@ 720 per theater ) . The film continued to have periodic fluctuations at the box office . By the end of its box office run , Kill the Irishman grossed a total of $ 1 @,@ 188 @,@ 194 at the domestic box office , against a production budget of $ 12 million .
= = = Home media = = =
After a limited theatrical release , Kill the Irishman was released on DVD by Anchor Bay Entertainment on June 14 , 2011 . As of October 22 , 2015 , the movie has grossed $ 2 @,@ 498 @,@ 115 in domestic DVD sales .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for the film includes 26 songs .
= = Historical accuracy = =
Kill the Irishman contains four historical inaccuracies . This has been noted by critics , one of whom said the film 's main problem is that it seemed " all too willing to sacrifice historical accuracy in the name of an easy @-@ to @-@ digest narrative " . Shondor Birns was murdered on March 29 , 1975 , whereas in the film this occurs on March 8 . The movie also misspells the name of a nearby parish known as ' St. Malachi 's ' ; in the movie it is spelled ' St. Malichy 's ' .
= = = The death of Alex " Shondor " Birns = = =
In the movie , Greene kills Shondor Birns by detonating a bomb on his car . In reality , even though Birns was killed by a car bomb , there was no evidence to link Greene to his murder . Even though it is commonly speculated that Greene killed Birns , his murder remains officially unsolved .
= = = The death of Art Sneperger = = =
In the movie , Greene discovers his friend Art Sneperger is about to become an informant , so he decides to kill him in a car bombing . Greene has Sneperger place a bomb on Mike Frato 's car , and as he is doing it , Greene detonates the bomb early , killing Sneperger in the process . In reality , Greene was questioned by the police , but was never proved to have killed Sneperger .
= Paynter ( horse ) =
Paynter ( foaled March 4 , 2009 ) is an American @-@ bred Thoroughbred racehorse notable for a promising three @-@ year @-@ old racing season that included a second @-@ place finish in the Belmont Stakes and a victory in the Haskell Invitational , cut short by a near @-@ fatal case of colitis requiring abdominal surgery , complicated by laminitis . Most experts believed that even if he survived , his racing days were over . His struggle for life , regularly updated via social media by his owners , gained him a large fan base and earned him the National Thoroughbred Racing Association Moment of the Year and Secretariat Vox Populi Award for 2012 . His surgery was successful , and innovative treatment for laminitis prevented harm to his feet , so he was sent to the Fair Hill Training Center for recovery and rehabilitation . In his four @-@ year @-@ old year , he returned to the track in June 2013 , almost eleven months after his 2012 Haskell victory , winning the first race of his comeback by 4 1 ⁄ 2 lengths , then running in three more graded stakes races , placing second in two of them , demonstrating his ability to compete against top horses . In November , 2013 , he ran in the Breeders ' Cup Classic and following the race was retired to WinStar Farm to stand at stud beginning with the 2014 breeding season .
= = Background = =
Paynter is a bay horse with a white star on his forehead , a faint irregular snip on his nose , and a white left front pastern bred by Diamond A Racing Corporation of Kentucky . His sire is 1998 Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Awesome Again , and his dam is Tizso , who raced twice and is a full sister to the two @-@ time Breeders ' Cup Classic winner Tiznow .
Originally named MC 's Dream , Paynter sold for $ 325 @,@ 000 at the Keeneland yearling sale . He was purchased by Ahmed Zayat 's Zayat Stables , LLC and was started under saddle by horse trainer J.B. McKathan in Florida . After completing basic training , Zayat 's adult son , Justin , selected Paynter , along with stablemate Bodemeister , to move on to the racing stable of trainer Bob Baffert . Paynter did not race as a two @-@ year @-@ old .
= = Three @-@ year @-@ old season = =
Paynter won his maiden race on February 18 , 2012 at Santa Anita Park . In an unusual move , he was taken directly from his maiden race to the Grade I Santa Anita Derby , where he had a troubled start and ran in sixth place before finishing fourth , 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths behind the winner . Viewed as not quite ready for the Triple Crown races , Paynter next ran in the Derby Trial , where , on a muddy track , he lost narrowly in the final furlong . In his first three races , he was ridden by Martin Garcia . His second win was in a 1 1 ⁄ 16 mile allowance race on the undercard of the 2012 Preakness Stakes , when he was ridden by Mike Smith , who also rode Bodemeister in the Preakness later that day . Following Bodemeister 's second @-@ place finish in both the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness , Paynter was entered into the Belmont with Smith as jockey .
In the Belmont , Paynter led for most of the race until the final furlong when Smith came off the rail , allowing winner Union Rags to slip through and win by a neck . Paynter had already fended off two challengers during the race , and Smith had switched his whip from his right hand to his left in an attempt to fend off a late challenge from Atigun ; Smith considered his decision to be an error that cost him the race .
Paynter 's biggest win and first graded stakes win came in his next race , the 1 1 ⁄ 8 mile , $ 1 million Haskell Invitational at Monmouth Park Racetrack in July 2012 . Baffert 's assistant trainer , Jim Barnes , represented the stable at the race , as Baffert had cut back his schedule following a heart attack earlier in the year . Paynter went off as the even @-@ money favorite . Ridden for the first time by jockey Rafael Bejarano , he followed the leader through the backstretch , then took the lead at the far turn , beating five other horses to win by 3 3 ⁄ 4 lengths . His winning time was 1 : 48 @.@ 87 , earning him a Beyer Speed Figure of 108 . The victory was also Baffert 's third win in a row at the Haskell and sixth Haskell win in his career . Paynter 's winnings of $ 600 @,@ 000 put him close to a lifetime earnings figure of $ 1 million , at $ 952 @,@ 224 , considered impressive for a three @-@ year @-@ old horse who did not race as a two @-@ year @-@ old .
Paynter 's next race was scheduled to be the Travers Stakes on August 25 . With all three Triple Crown race winners for 2012 already retired from racing ( all due to injury ) , Paynter was considered a contender to become the 3 @-@ year @-@ old Horse of the Year if he continued to win races .
= = Illness and surgery = =
On July 29 , 2012 , two days after his Haskell win , Paynter developed a fever , pneumonia , and diarrhea . He was hospitalized at the nearby Mid @-@ Atlantic Equine Medical Center in New Jersey and then shipped on August 10 , 2012 to Belmont Park where he trained for several days . He was then shipped to Saratoga Race Course , home to the Travers Stakes , to recover further . However , he had no public workouts and missed the Travers . He was scheduled to be flown back to Baffert 's home stable in California on August 27 , but Paynter again developed a fever and diarrhea . He was sent to the Upstate Equine Medical Center in Schuylerville , NY where he was diagnosed with colitis , an inflammation of the colon . Paynter 's condition quickly deteriorated and was deemed life @-@ threatening . Ahmed and Justin Zayat began to tweet regular updates on his condition to the public . His care was supervised by Dr. Laura Javsicas , an Equine Internal Medicine specialist . Her devotion to Paynter was admired by both Zayat and Baffert , who later said that Javsicas should receive a special Eclipse Award . In turn , Paynter , normally characterized as an " aggressive " horse , was very cooperative toward his caregivers and accepted treatment without causing problems .
Paynter developed an infection at a catheter site and blood clots in his veins due to problems with his protein levels . He lost weight , and suffering from fever , colitis and diarrhea was given plasma and " aggressive " antibiotic treatment .
The medical staff were also worried , because a systemic illness with intestinal inflammation , such as colitis , is a common precursor to laminitis , a painful inflammation of the internal structures of the hoof . The staff had been using cryotherapy on his lower legs as a precaution . Although his blood test results and protein levels began to stabilize , he nevertheless developed laminitis in three of his feet on September 4 , ten days after he arrived at the center . The veterinarians treating Paynter put casts on his lower legs to support his feet . Most experts believed that even if he survived his racing days were over , and the Zayat family feared that euthanasia would be necessary .
After about three days , he seemed to be feeling better ; his blood work became normal and his diarrhea cleared up , but he still had low @-@ grade fevers . Against the odds , his hoof X @-@ rays came back showing no separation of the laminae , and no rotation or sinking of the coffin bone in any of his feet . Although the cryotherapy had not prevented laminitis , it might have kept it from becoming worse . On September 21 , the casts were removed from his legs . The laminitis treatment was successful and his feet were returning to normal , raising hopes that he could race again some day .
Paynter developed an increasing fan base as people followed the Zayat family 's social media updates , drawing comparisons to the struggle of Barbaro a few years earlier . Both Ahmed and Justin Zayat sent out regular tweets and the hashtag # PowerUpPaynter was used to help organize updates to the public . Paynter received handmade posters from children and hundreds of get well cards .
Because fevers and colitis were still a problem , Javsicas performed ultrasound and found a problem area in his colon , thus surgery was required . Paynter was very thin by this time , weighing less than 900 pounds , and surgery was considered high risk . On October 2 , he was shipped to the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine 's New Bolton Center ( where Barbaro had also been treated ) and saw Dr. Louise Southwood , a veterinary surgeon who specialized in equine intestinal medicine and colitis cases . The following morning , Paynter went into surgery and Southwood removed a 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) growth " full of puss [ sic ] and bacteria " from his intestines . Southwood explained , " we finally got to the bottom of why he was spiking the fever . " Paynter came out of the surgery well and Zayat tweeted , " Just think about the resilience of this guy . " Baffert commented , " I can 't believe this horse is still alive . " Nine days later , a press release came out stating that Paynter was " cleared of any lingering symptoms of both [ colitis and laminitis ] , " and expected to fully recover .
= = Rehabilitation and awards = =
Following surgery , Paynter quickly started to regain his weight , putting on 35 pounds in the two weeks between his surgery and being sent to Fair Hill Training Center 's Equine Therapy program on October 15 for rehabilitation . Nonetheless , he arrived at Fair Hill weighing only 912 pounds . At Fair Hill , he started out with hand @-@ walking and grazing , later being allowed short periods of exercise in a round pen . He had access to treatment in a horse @-@ sized hyperbaric oxygen therapy chamber , an underwater treadmill called an AquaPacer , equine massage therapy , electromagnetic therapy , and use of a cold saltwater spa . By November 15 , he was close to 1 @,@ 000 pounds and was allowed free daily turnout in a paddock . His normal temperament returned as he began to buck and kick during turnout . He also developed a taste for red peppermint candies , strongly preferring them over green spearmint ones .
On December 26 , Paynter was selected as the winner of the 2012 Secretariat Vox Populi Award . Penny Chenery , owner of Secretariat , for whom the award was named , said " Paynter 's popularity stems from his ability to battle and exceed expectations , making him the perfect choice as the recipient of this year 's Vox Populi Award ... After seeing firsthand the devastating effects of this disease , I am even more convinced that the industry must continue to diligently fight laminitis . The progress we have made to date clearly benefited Paynter — a beautiful colt with a tremendous spirit . " In January 2013 , Paynter 's survival and recovery was voted the " Moment of the Year " by the National Thoroughbred Racing Association ( NTRA ) in a field of 12 nominees , and the horse 's connections were given that honor at the annual Eclipse Awards .
= = 2013 : Comeback = =
On December 29 , 2012 , Paynter was shipped from Fair Hill back to California , where he resumed race training with Baffert . When he left Fair Hill he weighed 1022 pounds and was described as " full of himself . " Both Southwood and Javsicas believed that he could recover completely . While numerous horses recovering from colitis and abdominal surgery have been able to return to their previous levels of competition , Paynter 's successful recovery from laminitis was the biggest factor in his ability to resume racing . He began jogging on the track on January 5 , and had his first official workout on February 26 . On June 14 he was entered into a 7 @-@ furlong allowance race at Betfair Hollywood Park . Ahmed Zayat said , " He has shown so much courage , so much tenacity . I just want to let the horse do the talking . "
Paynter carried 124 pounds , the co @-@ highweight of the eight horses in the race . Bejarano returned as jockey . It was the horse 's first start on a synthetic surface . He started from starting post position two at odds of 2 – 5 . Paynter led from the start , clocked the first quarter mile in : 22 @.@ 68 and the half mile in : 45 @.@ 67 . At six furlongs , he was 2 1 ⁄ 2 lengths in front , running that distance in 1 : 06 @.@ 56 , and continued to increase his lead over the other horses . He won by 4 1 ⁄ 2 lengths , finishing in 1 : 21 @.@ 86 , and earning a Beyer Speed Figure of 114 , the best of his career . Justin Zayat said , “ I thought I was winning the Kentucky Derby , ” and Baffert stated , " He is just an incredible , phenomenal horse , I can 't believe he is back . He 's just a great horse ... He went from being 99 – 1 to survive to 1 – 9 to win ... I got emotional watching . It ’ s an amazing story . " Paynter handled the race well and came out in good shape .
Plans were made for Paynter to run additional races before the Breeders ' Cup Classic in the fall . His next race was the San Diego Handicap at Del Mar on July 27 , 2013 . Shortly after his arrival at Del Mar racetrack in early July , Paynter was profiled on TV , showing that his usual temperament was back to normal , as the camera showed him attempting to nip Baffert . Running for the first time on a different synthetic surface , Polytrack , in the grade 2 race , Paynter was the 3 – 5 favorite , and at 122 pounds carried the most weight . After running close to the pace and taking the lead in the homestretch , he lost by a half @-@ length to a late @-@ running horse , Kettle Corn , at the finish . Jockey Bejarano believed the polytrack surface was a factor in his loss . " He never seemed comfortable out there , I felt like I had plenty of horse , but he just wasn 't liking what he was doing ... he didn 't have enough at the end . " Nonetheless , purse money for his placing put him over one million dollars in lifetime winnings .
Paynter next went east to run in the Grade I Woodward Stakes at Saratoga on August 31 . Five of the horses in the initial seven @-@ horse field , including Paynter , were previous Grade I stakes winners . Paynter drew post position 5 and was the second favorite at 3 @-@ 1 odds on the morning line . However , following the scratch of a speed horse , the oddsmaker revised his figures to make front @-@ running Paynter the 2 @-@ 1 favorite . On race day , over a sloppy track , another horse , Mucho Macho Man , scratched and only five horses went to the post . Paynter had a bad start , hitting the left side of the starting gate . Although he ran second for part of the race , he finished last in the field . Justin Zayat said after the race , " [ Paynter ] never got a hold of the track . We ’ ll be back another day . " Baffert concurred , stating that the horse was " fine " , but had been troubled by the poor break and by mud hitting his face .
Paynter 's next race was the Grade I Awesome Again Stakes at Santa Anita on September 28 . He started from the seven post with his former rider , Martin Garcia up . After running in the middle of the pack and going five horses wide coming into the stretch , he finished second to Mucho Macho Man . His placing was viewed by sportswriters as proof that he could run against top competitors . Baffert said Paynter was still " a bit rusty , " but the trainer was happy with Paynter 's race . He was entered in the Breeders ' Cup Classic , on November 2 . Before the race , he had a very strong workout and Baffert said that Paynter was " a monster " and " back to top form " , and Ahmed Zayat stated , " Paynter is a horse like no other ... The fact that he 's even competing in the Breeders ' Cup is miraculous . " Though he finished 7th out of 11 horses , with Mucho Macho Man winning again , Paynter finished ahead of a fellow Awesome Again son , the stakes @-@ winning favorite Game On Dude .
After the Breeders ' Cup , Paynter was retired and shipped to WinStar Farm to begin his stud career . His initial stud fee was set at $ 25 @,@ 000 for the 2014 breeding season . Anticipating his arrival , WinStar commissioned a unique , colorful 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long graffiti @-@ style mural , created by Louisville street artist Braylyn Stewart . The artwork featured the slogan " Paynter : Awesome Heart , " and was surrounded by quotations about the horse and assorted references to his racing career . The decision to use graffiti art as a promotional tool was to reflect Paynter 's toughness and " street fighter " image . Artist Stewart also expressed hope that the artwork would help put graffiti art in a positive light and encourage young people to " get involved with the arts . "
= = Racing statistics = =
= = Pedigree = =
Paynter was sired by the Canadian @-@ bred Awesome Again , winner of the 1998 Breeders ' Cup Classic . At stud , Awesome Again has sired many stakes winners including Ghostzapper , who was 2004 Breeders ' Cup winner and 2004 Horse of the Year , and two @-@ time Santa Anita Handicap winner Game On Dude , another Bob Baffert @-@ trained horse . Paynter is closely related to 2013 Preakness Stakes winner Oxbow ; the two horses share the same sire and are out of full sisters . Both horses have pedigrees outcrossed for four generations , with very little inbreeding , 4x5x5 to Northern Dancer .
Paynter 's dam is Tizso , a full sister to Tiznow , who was 2000 Horse of the Year and won the Breeders ' Cup Classic twice . Tizso 's dam , Cee 's Song , is credited with raising the respect breeders have for her female breeding line , Thoroughbred family 26 , as one of the top distaff lines in America . Five full siblings out of Cee 's Song were either race winners or the dams of race winners : Paynter 's dam Tizso and Oxbow 's dam Tizamazing both foaled stakes winners , and Tiznow , Tizbud and Tizdubai all won stakes races . Another Cee 's Song son , the gelding Budroyale , was second in the 1999 Breeders ' Cup Classic .
= February 2010 Australian cyberattacks =
The February 2010 Australian cyberattacks were a series of denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks conducted by the Anonymous online community against the Australian government in response to proposed web censorship regulations . Operation Titstorm was the name given to the cyber attacks by the perpetrators . They resulted in lapses of access to government websites on 10 and 11 February 2010 . This was accompanied by emails , faxes , and phone calls harassing government offices . The actual size of the attack and number of perpetrators involved is unknown but it was estimated that the number of systems involved ranged from the hundreds to the thousands . The amount of traffic caused disruption on multiple government websites .
Australian Telecommunications Minister Stephen Conroy proposed the regulations that would mainly filter sites with pornographic content . Various groups advocating uncensored access to the Internet , along with companies like Google and Yahoo ! , object to the proposed filter . A spokesperson for Conroy said that the actions were not a legitimate form of protest and called it irresponsible . The attacks also drew criticism from other filter protest groups . The initial stage was followed by small in @-@ person protests on 20 February that were called " Project Freeweb " .
= = Background = =
The attack began as a protest
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in the city , only 15 @,@ 000 remained by March 1941 . These Jews were then forced to leave their traditional neighbourhood of Kazimierz and relocate to the walled Kraków Ghetto , established in the industrial Podgórze district . Schindler 's workers travelled on foot to and from the ghetto each day to their jobs at the factory . Enlargements to the facility in the four years Schindler was in charge included the addition of an outpatient clinic , co @-@ op , kitchen , and dining room for the workers , in addition to expansion of the factory and its related office space .
= = = Płaszów = = =
In fall 1941 the Nazis began transporting Jews out of the ghetto . Most of these were sent to Belzec extermination camp and killed . On 13 March 1943 the ghetto was liquidated and those still fit for work were sent to the new concentration camp at Płaszów . Several thousand not deemed fit for work were sent to extermination camps and killed . Hundreds more were killed on the streets by the Nazis as they cleared out the ghetto . Schindler , aware of the planned action because of his Wehrmacht contacts , had his workers stay at the factory overnight to prevent them coming to any harm . Schindler witnessed the liquidation of the ghetto and was appalled . From that point forward , says Schindlerjude Sol Urbach , Schindler " changed his mind about the Nazis . He decided to get out and to save as many Jews as he could . "
Płaszów concentration camp opened in March 1943 on the former site of two Jewish cemeteries on Jerozilimska Street , about 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) from the DEF factory . In charge of the camp was SS @-@ Hauptsturmführer Amon Göth , a brutal sadist who would shoot inmates of the camp at random . Inmates at Płaszów lived in constant daily fear for their lives . Emilie Schindler called Göth " the most despicable man I have ever met . "
Initially Göth 's plan was that all the factories , including Schindler 's , should be moved inside the camp gates . However , Schindler , with a combination of diplomacy , flattery , and bribery , not only prevented his factory from being moved , but convinced Göth to allow him to build ( at his own expense ) a subcamp at Emalia to house his workers plus 450 Jews from other nearby factories . There they were safe from the threat of random execution , were well fed and housed , and were even permitted to undertake religious observances .
Schindler was arrested twice on suspicion of black market activities and once for breaking the Nuremberg Laws by kissing a Jewish girl , an action forbidden by the Race and Resettlement Act . The first arrest , in late 1941 , led to him being kept overnight . His secretary arranged for his release through Schindler 's influential contacts in the Nazi Party . His second arrest , on 29 April 1942 , was the result of his kissing a Jewish girl on the cheek at his birthday party at the factory the previous day . He remained in jail five days before his influential Nazi contacts were able to obtain his release . The third arrest , where he was accused of black marketeering and bribing Göth and others to improve the conditions of the Jewish workers , took place in October 1944 . He was held for most of a week and released . Göth had been arrested on 13 September 1944 for corruption and other abuses of power , and Schindler 's arrest was part of the ongoing investigation into Göth 's activities . Göth was never convicted on those charges , but was hanged by the Supreme National Tribunal of Poland for war crimes on 13 September 1946 .
In 1943 , Schindler was contacted via members of the Jewish resistance movement by Zionist leaders in Budapest . Schindler travelled there several times to report in person on Nazi mistreatment of the Jews . He brought back funding provided by the Jewish Agency for Israel and turned it over to the Jewish underground .
= = = Brünnlitz = = =
As the Red Army drew nearer in July 1944 , the SS began closing down the easternmost concentration camps and evacuating the remaining prisoners westward to Auschwitz and Gross @-@ Rosen concentration camp . Göth 's personal secretary , Mietek Pemper , alerted Schindler to the Nazis ' plans to close all factories not directly involved in the war effort , including Schindler 's enamelware facility . Pemper suggested to Schindler that production should be switched from cookware to anti @-@ tank grenades in an effort to save the lives of the Jewish workers . Using bribery and his powers of persuasion , Schindler convinced Göth and the officials in Berlin to allow him to move his factory and his workers to Brünnlitz ( Czech : Brněnec ) , in the Sudetenland , thus sparing them from certain death in the gas chambers . Using names provided by Jewish Ghetto Police officer Marcel Goldberg , Pemper compiled and typed the list of 1 @,@ 200 Jews — 1 @,@ 000 of Schindler 's workers and 200 inmates from Julius Madritsch 's textiles factory — who were sent to Brünnlitz in October 1944 .
On 15 October 1944 a train carrying 700 men on Schindler 's list was initially sent to the concentration camp at Gross @-@ Rosen , where the men spent about a week before being re @-@ routed to the factory in Brünnlitz . Three hundred female Schindlerjuden were similarly sent to Auschwitz , where they were in imminent danger of being sent to the gas chambers . Schindler 's usual connections and bribes failed to obtain their release . Finally after he sent his secretary , Hilde Albrecht , with bribes of black market goods , food and diamonds , the women were sent to Brünnlitz after several harrowing weeks in Auschwitz .
In addition to workers , Schindler moved 250 wagon loads of machinery and raw materials to the new factory . Few if any useful artillery shells were produced at the plant . When officials from the Armaments Ministry questioned the factory 's low output , Schindler bought finished goods on the black market and resold them as his own . The rations provided by the SS were insufficient to meet the needs of the workers , so Schindler spent most of his time in Kraków , obtaining food , armaments , and other materials . His wife Emilie remained in Brünnlitz , surreptitiously obtaining additional rations and caring for the workers ' health and other basic needs . Schindler also arranged for the transfer of as many as 3 @,@ 000 Jewish women out of Auschwitz to small textiles plants in the Sudetenland in an effort to increase their chances of surviving the war .
In January 1945 a trainload of 250 Jews who had been rejected as workers at a mine in Goleschau in Poland arrived at Brünnlitz . The boxcars were frozen shut when they arrived , and Emilie Schindler waited while an engineer from the factory opened the cars using a soldering iron . Twelve people were dead in the cars , and the remainder were too ill and feeble to work . Emilie took the survivors into the factory and cared for them in a makeshift hospital until the end of the war . Schindler continued to bribe SS officials to prevent the slaughter of his workers as the Red Army approached . On 7 May 1945 he and his workers gathered on the factory floor to listen to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill announce over the radio that Germany had surrendered , and the war in Europe was over .
= = After the war = =
As a member of the Nazi Party and the Abwehr intelligence service , Schindler was in danger of being arrested as a war criminal . Bankier , Stern , and several others prepared a statement he could present to the Americans attesting to his role in saving Jewish lives . He was also given a ring , made using gold from dental work taken out of the mouth of Schindlerjude Simon Jeret . The ring was inscribed " Whoever saves one life saves the world entire . " To escape being captured by the Russians , Schindler and his wife departed westward in their vehicle , a two @-@ seater Horch , initially with several fleeing German soldiers riding on the running boards . A truck containing Schindler 's mistress Marta , several Jewish workers , and a load of black market trade goods followed behind . The Horch was confiscated by Russian troops at the town of Budweis , which had already been captured by Russian troops . The Schindlers were unable to recover a diamond that Oskar had hidden under the seat . They continued by train and on foot until they reached the American lines at the town of Lenora , and then travelled to Passau , where an American Jewish officer arranged for them to travel to Switzerland by train . They moved to Bavaria in Germany in the fall of 1945 .
By the end of the war , Schindler had spent his entire fortune on bribes and black @-@ market purchases of supplies for his workers . Virtually destitute , he moved briefly to Regensburg and later Munich , but did not prosper in postwar Germany . In fact , he was reduced to receiving assistance from Jewish organisations . In 1948 he presented a claim for reimbursement of his wartime expenses to the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee , and received $ 15 @,@ 000 . He estimated his expenditures at over $ 1 @,@ 056 @,@ 000 , including the costs of camp construction , bribes , and expenditures for black market goods , including food . Schindler emigrated to Argentina in 1949 , where he tried raising chickens and then nutria , a small animal raised for its fur . When the business went bankrupt in 1958 , he left his wife and returned to Germany , where he had a series of unsuccessful business ventures , including a cement factory . He declared bankruptcy in 1963 and suffered a heart attack the next year , which led to a month @-@ long stay in hospital . Remaining in contact with many of the Jews he had met during the war , including Stern and Pfefferberg , Schindler survived on donations sent by Schindlerjuden from all over the world . He died on 9 October 1974 and is buried in Jerusalem on Mount Zion , the only member of the Nazi Party to be honoured in this way . For his work during the war , in 1963 Schindler was named Righteous Among the Nations , an award bestowed by the State of Israel on non @-@ Jews who took an active role to rescue Jews during the Holocaust . Other awards include the German Order of Merit ( 1966 ) .
Writer Herbert Steinhouse , who interviewed him in 1948 , wrote that " Schindler 's exceptional deeds stemmed from just that elementary sense of decency and humanity that our sophisticated age seldom sincerely believes in . A repentant opportunist saw the light and rebelled against the sadism and vile criminality all around him . " In a 1983 television documentary , Schindler was quoted as saying , " I felt that the Jews were being destroyed . I had to help them ; there was no choice . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Films and book = = =
In 1951 , Poldek Pfefferberg approached director Fritz Lang and asked him to consider making a film about Schindler . Also on Pfefferberg 's initiative , in 1964 Schindler received a $ 20 @,@ 000 advance from MGM for a proposed film treatment titled To the Last Hour . Neither film was ever made , and Schindler quickly spent the money he received from MGM . He was also approached in the 1960s by MCA of Germany and Walt Disney Productions in Vienna , but again nothing came of these projects .
In 1980 , Australian author Thomas Keneally by chance visited Pfefferberg 's luggage store in Beverly Hills while en route home from a film festival in Europe . Pfefferberg took the opportunity to tell Keneally the story of Oskar Schindler . He gave him copies of some materials he had on file , and Keneally soon decided to make a fictionalised treatment of the story . After extensive research and interviews with surviving Schindlerjuden , his 1982 historical novel Schindler 's Ark ( published in the United States as Schindler 's List ) was the result .
The novel was adapted into the 1993 movie Schindler 's List by Steven Spielberg . After acquiring the rights in 1983 , Spielberg felt he was not ready emotionally or professionally to tackle the project , and he offered the rights to several other directors . After he read a script for the project prepared by Steven Zaillian for Martin Scorsese , he decided to trade him Cape Fear for the opportunity to do the Schindler biography . In the film , the character of Itzhak Stern ( played by Ben Kingsley ) is a composite of Stern , Bankier , and Pemper . Liam Neeson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Schindler in the film , which won seven Oscars , including Best Picture .
Other film treatments include a 1983 British television documentary produced by Jon Blair for Thames Television entitled Schindler : His Story as Told by the Actual People He Saved ( released in the US in 1994 as Schindler : The Real Story ) , and a 1998 A & E Biography special , Oskar Schindler : The Man Behind the List .
= = = Schindler 's suitcase = = =
In 1997 a suitcase belonging to Schindler containing historic photographs and documents was discovered in the attic of the apartment of Ami and Heinrich Staehr in Hildesheim . Schindler had stayed with the couple for a few days shortly before his death . Staehr 's son Chris took the suitcase to Stuttgart , where the documents were examined in detail in 1999 by Dr. Wolfgang Borgmann , science editor of the Stuttgarter Zeitung . Borgmann wrote a series of seven articles , which appeared in the paper from 16 to 26 October 1999 and were eventually published in book form as Schindlers Koffer : Berichte aus dem Leben eines Lebensretters ; eine Dokumentation der Stuttgarter Zeitung ( Schindler 's Suitcase : Report on the Life of a Rescuer ) . The documents and suitcase were sent to the Holocaust museum at Yad Vashem in Israel for safekeeping in December 1999 .
= = = Copies of the list = = =
In early April 2009 , a carbon copy of one version of the list was discovered at the State Library of New South Wales by workers combing through boxes of materials collected by author Thomas Keneally . The 13 @-@ page document , yellow and fragile , was filed among research notes and original newspaper clippings . The document was given to Keneally in 1980 by Pfefferberg when he was persuading him to write Schindler 's story . This version of the list contains 801 names and is dated 18 April 1945 ; Pfefferberg is listed as worker number 173 . Several authentic versions of the list exist , because the names were re @-@ typed several times as conditions changed in the hectic days at the end of the war .
One of four existing copies of the list was offered at a ten @-@ day auction starting on 19 July 2013 on EBay at a reserve price of $ 3 million . It received no bids .
= = = Other memorabilia = = =
In August 2013 , a one @-@ page letter signed by Schindler on 22 August 1944 sold in an online auction for $ 59 @,@ 135 . The letter noted Schindler 's permission for a factory supervisor to move machinery to Czechoslovakia . The same unknown auction buyer had previously purchased 1943 construction documents for Schindler 's Kraków factory for $ 63 @,@ 426 .
= Bastion ( video game ) =
Bastion is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by independent developer Supergiant Games and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . In the game , the player controls " the Kid " as he moves through floating , fantasy @-@ themed environments and fights enemies of various types . It features a dynamic voiceover from a narrator , and is presented as a two @-@ dimensional game with an isometric camera and a hand @-@ painted , colorful art style . Bastion 's story follows the Kid as he collects special shards of rock to power a structure , the Bastion , in the wake of an apocalyptic Calamity .
The game was built over the course of two years by a team of seven people split between San Jose and New York City . They debuted the game at the September 2010 Penny Arcade Expo , and it went on to be nominated for awards at the 2011 Independent Games Festival and win awards at the Electronic Entertainment Expo prior to release . Bastion was published in July 2011 for Xbox Live Arcade and in August 2011 through digital distribution for Windows on Steam . Supergiant Games made it available as a browser game for Google Chrome in December 2011 . It was released for Mac OS X via the Mac App Store in April 2012 and directly followed by a SteamPlay update in early May 2012 which allows the version purchased via Steam to be playable on both Mac OS X and Windows . A version for iPad was released in August 2012 . In April 2015 it was released for the PlayStation 4 . Bastion 's soundtrack was produced and composed by Darren Korb , and a soundtrack album was made available for sale in August 2011 .
During 2011 , the game sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies , 200 @,@ 000 of which were for the Xbox Live Arcade . It sold over 3 million copies across all platforms by January 2015 . The game was widely praised by reviewers , primarily for its story , art direction , narration , and music . Opinions were mixed on the depth of the gameplay , though the variety of options in the combat system was praised . Bastion has won many nominations and awards since its release , including several for best downloadable game and best music , from review outlets such as IGN and Game Informer as well as from the Spike Video Game Awards , the Game Developers Conference , and the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences .
= = Gameplay = =
Bastion is an action role @-@ playing game with a level structure . The player character , " the Kid " , moves through floating , fantasy @-@ themed environments that form paths as the player approaches the edge . Levels consist of a single plane , and are viewed isometrically . They are filled with enemies of various types , which attempt to harm the Kid . The Kid carries two weapons , which may be selected from the choices available to the player at specific locations called arsenals . The Kid also has the ability to perform a special attack . Weapons and special attacks must be acquired before they can be used . There are a limited number of special attacks that the player can perform at any time , represented by " black tonics " that can be found in the levels or dropped from enemies . Special attacks may be used a total of three times . This maximum number of uses can be increased in the Distillery . The Kid 's health is represented by a health bar , which can be replenished with " health tonics " . Like black tonics , the Kid can only carry a certain number of health potions at a time , and can replenish them by finding more in the levels .
Levels contain many different environment types , including cities , forests , and bogs . At the end of most levels , the player collects an item called a core or a shard ; occasionally , the level begins to disintegrate once the Kid takes the item , forcing him to hastily retreat . As the player progresses through the levels , a voice narrates their actions . This narration gives scripted plot information as well as dynamic comments , such as on the player 's skill with a weapon or performance while fighting enemies .
Between levels , the Kid visits the Bastion , where the player can use fragments — the game 's form of currency — that they have accrued to buy materials and upgrade weapons . With each core the player collects , they can add one of six structures to the Bastion , such as a shrine , an armory , or a distillery , and each shard allows the player to expand a structure . Each structure serves a different purpose ; for example , the distillery lets the player select upgrades , and the shrine allows the player to choose idols of the gods to invoke , causing the enemies to become stronger and giving the player increased experience points and currency . Experience points are used to determine the Kid 's ability level ; higher values give the player more health and increase the number of upgrades they can select .
Whenever the player leaves the Bastion , they can choose between one or two regular levels to play . In addition to these levels , however , the Kid can engage in challenge courses designed to test the player 's skills with the weapons the player has found . They are called Proving Grounds . The challenges differ depending on the weapon , such as destroying a certain number of objects within a given time or breaking targets in the fewest shots possible . According to the player 's score , different tiers of prizes are awarded . Additionally , the Kid can fight waves of enemies while the narrator tells a character 's backstory by journeying to " Who Knows Where " from the Bastion . The back story battles occur during ' Memories . ' The player earns fragments and experience for each completed wave . After the game is completed , the player can choose to begin a " new game + " mode , where the player replays through the game while keeping the experience points , fragments , and weapons that they have gained . This mode also offers more options in the buildings , as well as two more journeys to " Who Knows Where " .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place in the aftermath of the Calamity , a catastrophic event that suddenly fractured the city of Caelondia ( / seɪˈlɒndiə / ) as well as the surrounding areas of the game 's world into many floating pieces , disrupting its ecology and reducing most of its people to ash . Players take control of the Kid , a silent protagonist who awakens on one of the few remaining pieces of the old world and sets off for the eponymous Bastion , where everyone was supposed to go in troubled times . The only survivor he meets there is an elderly man named Rucks , the game 's narrator , who instructs him to collect the Cores that once powered Caelondia . A device in the Bastion can use the power of the crystalline Cores to create landmasses and structures , as well as enable the Kid to travel farther afield via " skyways " that propel him through the air .
During his quest , the Kid meets two more survivors : Zulf , an ambassador from the Ura , underground @-@ dwelling people with whom Caelondia was once at war ; and Zia , an Ura girl who was raised in Caelondia . Both of them return to the Bastion , but upon reading a journal that the Kid discovers , Zulf intentionally damages parts of the Bastion 's central device ( the monument ) and returns to Ura territory . The Kid learns that the journal belonged to Zia 's father , Venn , who had worked for the Caelondians . He had helped Caelondian scientists ( " Mancers " ) build a weapon intended to destroy the Ura completely to prevent another war . Venn rigged the weapon to backfire , so that when he was finally forced to trigger it , the resulting Calamity destroyed most of Caelondia as well .
To repair Zulf 's damage to the Bastion , the Kid starts collecting Shards , a lesser form of Cores . As he obtains the penultimate shard needed , the Ura attack the Bastion , damaging it and abducting Zia . In the next seven days , The Kid engages in sporadic skirmishes in Ura territory . When he finally blasts through an Ura outpost and meets Zia , she tells him that she had left with the Ura voluntarily to find out their intentions ; Rucks had previously told Zia that the Bastion had the ability to somehow fix the Calamity . The Kid travels to the once @-@ underground Ura homeland to retrieve the last shard . There , he discovers Zulf being attacked by his own people : the battle with the Kid has devastated the Ura forces , and they blame Zulf for bringing the Kid to their home . The Kid can choose to drop his weapon to help Zulf or leave him . If he leaves Zulf behind , the Kid destroys the remnants of the Ura and escapes through a skyway . If he chooses to carry Zulf , Ura archers initially open fire on them but ultimately cease fire and watch silently as the Kid and Zulf take the skyway back to the Bastion .
After the Kid returns and recovers , Rucks gives him another choice : He can have the Bastion rewind time to before the Calamity in the hopes of preventing it , or use it to evacuate the survivors and move on to somewhere safe . Rucks is unsure if there is any way to prevent the Calamity from reoccurring if the time is rewound , as there was no way to test the process . The game ends either way , showing images of the characters ( with the inclusion of Zulf if the player chose to rescue him ) flying away or of their lives before the Calamity along with the credits . In the New Game + mode , which is unlocked after beating the game once , it is hinted that restoring the world didn 't prevent the Calamity .
= = Development = =
Bastion was created by a team of seven people , who composed the studio Supergiant Games . It was the company 's first game . The game was directed by Amir Rao and Greg Kasavin wrote the game 's narration , which was spoken by Logan Cunningham . Jen Zee was the artist , Gavin Simon developed the gameplay , Andrew Wang helped develop the game , and Darren Korb handled the sound effects and music . The co @-@ founders of Supergiant Games , Rao and Simon , previously worked for Electronic Arts , where they helped develop Command & Conquer 3 and Red Alert 3 . They left to form the studio because they wanted the development speed and the ability to try new ideas that would be possible with a smaller team . Development began on the game in September 2009 . The team created the game over almost two years , and funded the development themselves . Most of the team built the game in a house in San Jose , though the music and voice acting were recorded in New York City . Some of the San Jose designers — including the writer — did not meet Rucks ' voice actor in person until near the release of the game . The team spent the first nine months of development prototyping various ideas , before settling on the game 's design .
The original idea was based around the premise of creating a town like those found in a role @-@ playing game . The team chose the design elements of a fractured , floating world due to their wish to portray a sky in the game , which is usually not possible with an isometric camera , as it always points down . They also wanted to forgo a map system , and felt that having the ground come up to the Kid allowed the player to easily see without a map where they had already been in a level . The story of the Calamity was created as a way to explain this game mechanic . Jen Zee developed the art style of the game to express beauty in a post @-@ apocalyptic landscape . The hand @-@ painted style was intended to soften the sharpness she saw as typical in isometric games and the colorless , harsh depictions of most devastated landscapes . Zee was inspired by the pixel art landscapes of earlier Japanese isometric games .
The narrator was added early in the game 's development as a way to provide background details and depth to the world without requiring the player to read long strings of text or wait through cutscenes . To avoid slowing the pace of the action @-@ oriented gameplay , the team had the narrator mainly speak in short , evocative phrases , with long pauses between speaking parts . The narrator is intended to feel like an " old acquaintance " to the player , a connection built by his commentary on the player 's actions as they happen , both major and minor . Kasavin sought to make the game feel as if it were the player 's story , rather than just a story being watched . The development of Bastion was chronicled in the monthly Building the Bastion video series from October 2010 to May 2011 in which Supergiant Games collaborated with Kasavin 's former GameSpot co @-@ workers at Giant Bomb . The videos showed early game concepts in addition to the process of building the final game , as well as interviews with the team .
Supergiant Games showed an early , unplayable version of the game at the March 2010 Game Developers Conference , to little acclaim . They debuted a playable version of the game at the September 2010 Penny Arcade Expo , where it was well received . After a strong showing at the March 2011 Game Developers Conference , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment signed on to publish and distribute the game . The team decided to partner with a publisher in order to get through the process of Xbox Live certification . Bastion was released on July 20 , 2011 for Xbox Live Arcade ( XBLA ) , and on August 16 , 2011 for digital distribution on Windows through Steam . It was released as a browser game for Google Chrome on December 9 , 2011 . A version for Mac OS X was made available via the Mac App Store on April 26 , 2012 along with a SteamPlay update for Mac OS X and Windows .
= = = Music = = =
Bastion 's soundtrack was produced and composed by Darren Korb , a songwriter and composer . He was selected to pen the soundtrack by Rao , who was a childhood friend of Korb . Bastion was the first video game that Korb had scored ; prior to it he had worked on a few smaller television shows and movies . He was brought onto the team in the beginning stages of the project , and several of the pieces he developed were created prior to the final design of the levels with which they were associated . The musical style of the soundtrack has been described by Korb as " acoustic frontier trip hop " . It was intended to evoke both the American frontier and an exotic fantasy world . The songs combine " heavily sampled beats in layers , along with acoustic elements " , and he determined that he wanted to create the soundtrack in that style as it was different from video game soundtracks that he had heard before . The music was recorded in Korb 's closet at his New York City apartment , as were the sound effects and more than three thousand lines of narration by Cunningham .
In addition to composing the music , Korb wrote all the lyrics for the soundtrack . The soundtrack features four vocal themes : " Build That Wall " , " What 's Left Undone " , " Mother , I 'm Here " , and " Setting Sail , Coming Home " . " Build That Wall " features the voice of Ashley Lynn Barrett , " What 's Left Undone " features that of Cunningham and " Mother , I 'm Here " features Korb , and both Korb and Barrett perform in " Setting Sail , Coming Home " . Supergiant Games originally had not planned to release a full soundtrack album for the game , but due to fan demand they released one in digital format on August 5 , 2011 , with two songs not heard in the game . These songs are " Get Used to It " , which has a voiceover written by Greg Kasavin and spoken by Logan Cunningham , and " The Pantheon ( Ain 't Gonna Catch You ) " , with lyrics written by Korb and sung by Cunningham . A physical limited edition CD signed by Korb was released on September 2 . The soundtrack sold 30 @,@ 000 copies by November 2011 . On March 15 , 2012 , Supergiant Games released sheet music for piano and guitar arrangements by Korb of " Build That Wall " , " Mother , I 'm Here " , " Setting Sail , Coming Home " , and " The Pantheon ( Ain 't Gonna Catch You ) " for free in their online store .
= = Reception = =
Bastion was released to strong sales and critical acclaim . The game sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies during 2011 , 200 @,@ 000 of which were for the Xbox Live Arcade . In March 2013 at the PAX East gaming convention , Bastion 's creative director Greg Kasavin stated that the game had sold more than 1 @.@ 7 million copies combined across all platforms . By May 2014 , the game had sold over 2 million copies , and by January 2015 , it had sold over 3 million . Bob Mackey of 1UP.com called it " the perfect mesh of game and story " , and McKinley Noble of GamePro said that it " raises the visual and narrative bar for downloadable titles " . Maxwell McGee of GameSpot called it " wonderfully crafted " and " an amazingly good time " , and Greg Miller of IGN concluded that Bastion " is amazing and you owe it to yourself to download it " .
The presentation of the game was widely praised , especially the narration . Mackey said that the game " could be sold on its presentation alone " , focusing on the graphics , music , and story . Edge said that the narration added " emotional resonance " to the game , and Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer praised the " dazzling visuals " and " artful commentary " . Game Informer 's Matt Miller highlighted " the well @-@ written narration , excellent music , and bright visuals " as factors that made the game feel " like a storybook in which you control the outcome . " Of the presentation elements , the story was the least praised , though several reviewers such as Noble enjoyed it , saying that it " just gets better the further you delve into it . " Ryan Scott of GameSpy , however , termed it a " just @-@ sorta @-@ there plot " , and Greg Miller said that it " could have been better " and never " hooked " him .
Reviewers had a more mixed opinion of the gameplay . Mackey praised the variety of gameplay elements and said that combat has " a deceptive amount of depth " , but Bramwell felt that the combat did not " invite experimentation " and was somewhat disappointing . Edge said that the gameplay was " more interested in variety than challenge " , for which he praised it , and Matt Miller said that combat was " a lot of fun " , though he felt it lacked " the depth , speed , or complexity of a true action game " . Greg Miller highlighted the variety of the gameplay as the best part of the game , and Scott called it " enjoyable " , though not " challenging " .
= = = Awards = = =
The game won several awards , both before and after publication . It was nominated for the 2011 Independent Games Festival awards at the Game Developers Conference in the Excellence In Visual Art and Excellence In Audio categories . It went on to win the Game Critics Award for Best Downloadable Game of E3 2011 , and received a nomination for Best Original Game . The game continued to be nominated for awards after release . It was nominated for the Best Independent Game award at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards , and won the Best Original Score and Best Downloadable Game awards , " Build That Wall ( Zia 's Theme ) " won the Best Song in a Game award , and " Setting Sail , Coming Home ( End Theme ) " was nominated for the same award . It was named the Downloadable Title of the Year by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences and was nominated for their Outstanding Innovation in Gaming award .
1UP.com gave Bastion their Best Narrative in a Game award , and Game Informer gave it the Best RPG Innovation award for the narration in the game . In GameSpot 's Game of the Year awards , Bastion won the Song of the Year award for " Build That Wall " as well as the Readers ' Choice award for Best Download @-@ only Console Game . IGN termed it the " Best XBLA Game of 2011 " , and RPGamer gave the game their Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year award . Official Xbox Magazine awarded it their Best Music award and nominated it for Best Art Direction , Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year , and XBLA Game of the Year . The music won the Game Audio Network Guild 's Best Audio in a Casual / Indie / Social Game award , and Darren Korb was selected as the Rookie of the Year . The game was nominated for the 2012 Game Developers Conference awards in the Innovation , Best Audio , and Best Narrative categories , and won the Best Downloadable Game award . Supergiant Games won the Best Debut award .
= Tasha Yar =
Natasha " Tasha " Yar is a fictional character that mainly appeared in the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Portrayed by Denise Crosby , she is chief of security aboard the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise @-@ D and carries the rank of lieutenant . The character 's concept was originally based upon the character of Vasquez from the 1986 film Aliens . Following further development she became known first as Tanya , and then Tasha . Crosby had originally auditioned for the role of Deanna Troi , while Rosalind Chao became a favorite for Tasha . After Marina Sirtis auditioned for the role , the show 's creator Gene Roddenberry decided to switch the roles for the actresses , with Sirtis becoming Troi and Crosby becoming Yar ( Chao would later appear on the series in a recurring role as Keiko O 'Brien ) .
The character first appeared in the series ' pilot episode , " Encounter at Farpoint " . After Crosby decided to leave the show , Yar was killed by the creature Armus in " Skin of Evil " , the 23rd episode of the season . She was written back into the show for a guest appearance in the third season episode " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , in which the timeline was altered so that she did not die , and again in the final episode of the series " All Good Things ... " , in events set prior to the pilot .
She was described as a forerunner to other strong women in science fiction , such as Kara Thrace from the 2004 version of Battlestar Galactica , while providing a step between the appearances of female characters in The Original Series to the command positions they have in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Voyager . Questions were raised over the sexuality of the character , and it was thought that the events in the episode " The Naked Now " were designed to establish her heterosexuality . The manner of her first death was received with mostly negative reviews . One critic called it typical of the death of a Star Trek security officer , and the scene was also included in a list of " naff " sci @-@ fi deaths .
= = Concept and development = =
Inspired by Vasquez in Aliens , the character was initially named " Macha Hernandez " and was the tactical officer of the Enterprise . This had been changed by the first casting call — issued on December 10 , 1986 — when she was given the position of security chief . The producers considered Jenette Goldstein , who had played Vasquez , for the role , but writer Dorothy Fontana pointed out that the actress " is not Latina . She is petite , blue @-@ eyed , freckle @-@ faced " . The character was subsequently renamed " Tanya " around March 13 .
By the time that the writers ' and directors ' guide for the series was published , dated March 23 , 1987 , the character was named Natasha " Tasha " Yar . Her surname was suggested by Robert Lewin , drawing inspiration from the Babi Yar atrocities in Ukraine during the Second World War . Her biography stated that she was 28 years old , and confirmed her Ukrainian descent . She was planned to have a friendship with teenager Wesley Crusher , and was described in the guide as " treat [ ing ] this boy like the most wonderful person imaginable . Wes is the childhood friend that Tasha never had . " In April 1987 , Lianne Langland , Julia Nickson , Rosalind Chao , Leah Ayres and Bunty Bailey were each listed as being in contention for the role . Chao was a favorite candidate , while Denise Crosby was described as " the only possibility " for the character of Troi . The production staff were not keen on having two actresses in the bridge crew roles with similar physical types and hair colors , and so the team took account of the casting of the two parts together . The writers and directors guide described Yar as having a muscular but very feminine body type , and being sufficiently athletic to defeat most other crew members in martial arts . After Crosby and Marina Sirtis had each auditioned for Troi and Yar respectively , Gene Roddenberry decided to switch the actresses and cast Crosby as Tasha Yar . He felt that Sirtis ' appearance was better suited to the " exotic " Troi .
Before the end of the first season , Crosby asked to be released from her contract as she was unhappy that her character was not being developed . She later said " I was miserable . I couldn 't wait to get off that show . I was dying . " Roddenberry agreed to her request , and she left on good terms . The final episode she filmed was " Symbiosis " , which was completed after Yar 's death in " Skin of Evil " . Her last scene was during the final act of the episode , in which she can be seen waving goodbye to the camera as the cargo bay doors close . After her departure , archive footage of Crosby as Yar was used in the episodes " The Schizoid Man " and " Shades of Gray " .
Crosby was happy to return in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " due to the strength of the script , saying that " I had more to do in that episode than I 'd ever had to do before . " Prior to the episode being aired , the media had to be reassured that Yar was not returning in a dream sequence . Following her appearance in that episode , Crosby pitched the idea of Yar 's daughter , Sela , to the producers . She made her first appearance in this role in the two @-@ part " Redemption " , and appeared once more in another two @-@ part episode , " Unification " .
Denise Crosby returned twice more in the non @-@ canon Star Trek universe . In 2007 , she appeared as an ancestor of Tasha Yar , Jenna Yar , in " Blood and Fire " , an episode of the fan @-@ produced series Star Trek : New Voyages . Tasha Yar was written into Star Trek Online as part of the three @-@ year anniversary celebration in 2013 . Denise Crosby recorded audio for the game , in scenes set after those in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " .
= = Appearances = =
Natasha Yar 's origins are explained in the season four episode " Legacy " . She was born on the planet Turkana IV in 2337 . She had a younger sister named Ishara ( Beth Toussaint ) , who was born five years after her . Shortly after Ishara 's birth , the girls ' parents were killed and they were taken in by other people . However , they were subsequently abandoned and Tasha was required to look after her sister on her own . The government on the planet had collapsed , and the sisters were forced to scavenge for food while avoiding rape gangs . In 2352 , aged 15 , Tasha managed to leave Turkana IV . She never saw Ishara again ; the latter joined the " Coalition " , one of the factions on the planet before Tasha left . Tasha refused to join the cadres on the planet , blaming them for her parent 's deaths .
Yar appeared for the first time in the pilot episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation as the Security and Tactical Officer on board the USS Enterprise @-@ D. When Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) orders an emergency saucer separation , Yar is one of the bridge crew to accompany him to the battle bridge . She is amongst the crew abducted by Q ( John de Lancie ) , and later serves on the away team to Farpoint Station . In " The Naked Now " , while the crew are under the influence of an alien ailment , she initiates a sexual encounter with the android Data ( Brent Spiner ) . In " Code of Honor " Yar is abducted by Lutan ( Jessie Lawrence Ferguson ) , the leader of the planet Ligon II , after she demonstrates her combat skills on the holodeck . She defeats Lutan 's wife Yareena in ritual combat . Yareena is revived on the Enterprise by Doctor Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) . During the events of " Where No One Has Gone Before " , Yar begins to hallucinate that she is back on Turkana IV and running for her life . In " The Arsenal of Freedom " , Yar and Data are trapped together on the surface of the planet Minos and are attacked by a series of sentry probes which adapt to Data and Yar 's phasers . The situation is resolved by Captain Picard , who is trapped elsewhere on the planet 's surface with Dr. Crusher .
Yar forms part of the away team which beams down to Vagra II to rescue Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) from a crashed shuttlecraft in " Skin of Evil " . She is killed by the creature Armus ( Mart McChesney and Ron Gans ) in a display of his power . The crew hold a memorial service for her on the holodeck , and Worf ( Michael Dorn ) replaces her as chief tactical and security officer . After her death it is revealed that Data keeps a small hologram of her in his quarters . Despite Data 's lack of emotions , he is described by reviewers as being sentimentally attached to her image . During the court hearing on Data 's stature as a sentient being in " The Measure of a Man " , he explains that he and Yar were intimate and that she was special to him .
After the USS Enterprise @-@ C emerges from a rift in space @-@ time in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , the timeline is changed and Yar is once again alive and in her former position on the Enterprise @-@ D. She works with the older Enterprise 's helmsman , Richard Castillo ( Christopher McDonald ) , and the two become close . Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) , who has some awareness of the timeline that would be restored by the Enterprise @-@ C returning into the rift , confides in Yar that she believes that Yar died senselessly in that timeline . Based on that advice , Yar transfers to the Enterprise @-@ C and returns with it to two decades into the past , and its expected destruction at the hands of the Romulans while defending the Klingon outpost Narendra III . The alternative universe version of Yar travelled back in time on board the Enterprise @-@ C , and into the main timeline . This process was later described as " world jumping " rather than a typical timeline travel story by critics .
Yar 's half @-@ Romulan daughter Sela explains in " Redemption " that several members of the Enterprise @-@ C crew were captured by the Romulans when it returned through the rift , including Yar . A Romulan general offered to spare the crew 's lives if she became his consort . After a year , Yar gave birth to Sela . When Sela was four , Yar attempted to escape but Sela screamed to prevent her from being taken away from her father . After she was caught , Yar was executed .
The series finale " All Good Things ... " includes Yar 's final appearance , in scenes which take place prior to and in the early parts of " Encounter at Farpoint " . As most of the bridge crew are yet to join the Enterprise @-@ D in the scenes , Yar is one of the senior members of the crew under Captain Picard in the earliest of the three timeframes in the episode . She needs to be convinced by Picard to put the ship in danger in order to destroy the temporal anomaly that threatens to prevent life from evolving on Earth .
= = Reception and commentary = =
Science fiction writer Keith DeCandido considered Yar the most interesting role to appear in the " writer 's bible " , while Hal Boedeker characterized her as " forceful " in an article on women in Star Trek for Knight Ridder . A Den of Geek article also about women in Star Trek described the character as a predecessor to Kara " Starbuck " Thrace in the 2004 re @-@ imagining of Battlestar Galactica . A Post @-@ Tribune review of the series following the pilot described Yar as a " tough cookie " and the reviewer 's favorite crew member . Frank Oglesbee , in his article on Deep Space Nine 's Kira Nerys , outlined the progression of female roles in " gender assumptions " from The Original Series where women were on the bridge , through Tasha Yar in The Next Generation where they were in command positions , to Deep Space Nine and Voyager where women were in lead parts . He noted specifically that women appeared in command positions more regularly as main and supporting characters , and were portrayed as more assertive and combative , with leading roles in action sequences .
In Sarah Projansky 's contribution on rape in Star Trek to the book Enterprise Zones : Critical Positions on Star Trek , she extrapolates that Yar 's introduction to Starfleet was similar to the actions of United States Army soldiers issuing supplies to the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the liberation of Nazi concentration camps during the Second World War . The idea of an American savior of colonial rape victims stems from U.S. propaganda during the war , stating that " In TNG , the Federation citizen represents a new and improved version of this U.S. savior citizen ; the Federation citizen is a post @-@ nationalist , post @-@ sexist , and post @-@ racist soldier — feminist " .
Reviewers have questioned the character 's sexuality since the end of the series . Curve magazine speculated that Yar was a " closeted " lesbian . In the book Science Fiction Audiences : Watching Doctor Who and Star Trek , the authors describe her as " an obvious bisexual " , but that " she should be a lesbian " . Referring to the events in " The Naked Now " , the authors explain " when they decided to straighten her , they used an android . So we ended up heterosexualizing two perfectly wonderful characters " . The authors of the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos also thought that having Data and Yar consummate sexually was a means to state early on in the series the heterosexuality of the two most androgynous characters in the show .
Fans responded negatively to the departure of Yar as they felt that the character had potential for future expansion . Reviewers were also critical of the manner of Yar 's death . Keith DeCandido called it " pointless " , but thought that it was no worse than the deaths of other security officer " redshirts " throughout the history of Star Trek . He said that he preferred her death in " Skin of Evil " to the " clichéd @-@ up @-@ the @-@ wazoo " death she experienced in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . Gary Westfahl , in his book Space and Beyond : The Frontier Theme in Science Fiction , described Yar 's death as one of the most notable ones in Star Trek , alongside that of Spock in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan and James T. Kirk in Star Trek Generations . SFX magazine included her first death in a 2012 list of the top 21 " Naff Sci @-@ Fi Deaths " , while the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described her death in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as a " hero 's death " .
= Kauhajoki school shooting =
The Kauhajoki school shooting occurred on 23 September 2008 , at the Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences in Western Finland . The gunman , 22 @-@ year @-@ old student Matti Juhani Saari , shot and fatally injured ten people with a Walther P22 semi @-@ automatic pistol , before shooting himself in the head . He died a few hours later in Tampere University Hospital . One woman was injured but was in a stable condition .
The shooting took place at the Kauhajoki School of Hospitality , owned by the Seinäjoki Municipal Federation of Education . The facilities and campus were shared between the Seinäjoki University of Applied Sciences and the Seinäjoki Vocational Education Centre – Sedu . Saari was a second @-@ year student in a Bachelor of Hospitality Management degree programme .
The incident was the second school shooting in less than a year in Finland , the other being the Jokela school shooting in November 2007 , in which nine people including the gunman died . Before that , only one other school shooting had taken place in the country 's history , in Rauma in 1989 , leaving two people dead .
= = Shooting = =
Saari entered through the school buildings via the basement . The shooting began at around 10 : 40 ( UTC + 3 ) , when roughly 200 people were assembled inside the college . The emergency services received their first call at 10 : 46 . Saari was armed with a .22 LR calibre Walther P22 Target semi @-@ automatic firearm and homemade Molotov cocktails . He wore dark clothing and a balaclava ( ski mask ) . The school 's caretaker Jukka Forsberg , who had several shots directed at him but survived , said " [ The gunman ] was very well prepared . He walked calmly . "
Saari initially opened fire on a group of students taking a business studies exam , and entered at least one other classroom . According to the three students who were able to escape the exam room ( there were roughly 20 students taking the exam ) , Saari had approached his victims individually before shooting them . It was also said that he was revelling in the situation and was acting very aggressively . Saari encountered little resistance , and the massacre was concluded relatively quickly . He then covered the classroom in a flammable liquid , believed to be petrol , and set the room alight .
A student in an adjacent classroom , Sanna Orpana , said that her class had heard " shooting and a kind of a rumble like tables falling down . " Orpana believed at the time that the noise may have been coming from a toy gun , and two other students went to investigate the noise . Saari shot at them , and the remaining students in Orpana 's classroom hid under a table before running upstairs . At some point between 10 : 45 – 11 : 00 Saari ran down a corridor and threw a petrol bomb into a language laboratory . He then shot out all of the windows in the school 's main corridor , that extended through the building . It was during this time that he also took aim at Forsberg .
A police van with two officers arrived a short time after the shootings began , at around 11 : 00 . They entered the yard of the college where they were shot at by Saari , and forced to retreat . From around 11 : 45 to 12 : 00 further police units , bolstered by a number of armoured vehicles , began to arrive on the scene . They attempted to enter the building through the main corridor , but this assault was aborted due to the black smoke that was emanating from within the building .
= = Aftermath = =
Having escaped the buildings in a variety of ways ( including through doors and out of windows ) , some students found themselves impeded by a river that adjoined the school . However , some were able to use rowing boats as a means of escape . Saari started fires at several other locations within the school buildings , and the fire in the exam room damaged some of the bodies so badly that they had to be identified from DNA and dental records . Nine of the victims were found in the exam room , and one in a nearby corridor . It was later ascertained that this student had fled the burning classroom and then died in the corridor . Eight of the victims were female students , one a male student , and one a male member of staff . All of the students killed were in their 20s , and the teacher was in his 50s . A 21 @-@ year @-@ old woman was shot in the head but had two operations in the days after sustaining her injury , and was reported as being in a satisfactory condition . A further ten students were treated for minor injuries including sprains and cuts from broken glass . All the victims were classmates of Saari 's . Saari was originally from Pohjois @-@ Pohjanmaa , but lived in Kauhajoki where he was enrolled on his catering course at the college . It was later revealed that the male student was probably a close friend of Saari 's . The pair had spent an evening out together in February 2008 when they were threatened with a starter pistol . A photo of them together had been circulating on the Internet , in which Saari jokingly points at his friend 's head with his forefinger . The names of the other victims were withheld by police .
Firefighters extinguished the fires without any major damage to the school . Saari remained at large for some time in the school grounds after they had been evacuated . Two days after the killings , a friend of Saari 's , named Rauno , told 7 päivää that at 11 : 53 he received a call from Saari in which he confessed to having killed ten people . Saari is claimed to have spoken to Rauno in a calm manner , telling him that he wanted to say goodbye . He was found alive by the police at 12 : 30 , having shot himself in the head . He was taken to Tampere University Hospital , where he was treated for his gunshot wound . He died a short time later at 17 : 40 .
With a total of ten people killed , it was the deadliest peacetime attack in Finnish history , surpassing the previous highest count of eight in the Jokela school shooting . It was the deadliest attack on a school campus since April 2007 , when Seung @-@ Hui Cho killed 32 people during the Virginia Tech shooting . Saari had fired a total of nearly 200 shots , including shots into the air . The highest number of shots inflicted to a single victim was twenty .
= = Perpetrator = =
Matti Juhani Saari ( 20 May 1986 – 23 September 2008 ) was identified as the gunman responsible for the shooting . Saari , a hospitality management student at the school , was thrown out of the Finnish Army in 2006 , after being a member for only a month for opening fire in a woodland exercise , against orders . Saari had been the victim of bullying in secondary school and dropped out of his classes for this reason . A friend of Saari also reported that he had been seeing a psychologist in the months before the shooting , and had been obsessed with guns .
Saari left behind two handwritten notes in his school dormitory indicating that he had been planning the massacre for six years . A police spokesperson commented : " Saari left notes saying he had a hatred for mankind , for the whole of the human race , and that he had been thinking about what he was going to do for years . The notes show he was very troubled and he hated everything . " Police said that although most of the victims were female , the motive did not seem to be a hatred of women . One of Saari 's friends noticed a change in his behaviour two years before the shootings , when Saari began expressing a fondness for guns and an admiration of the school shootings in the United States . He said that around 18 months previously Saari had sent him a message saying that he would carry out a school shooting the next day . Saari reportedly denied being serious about carrying out his threat .
Police were also investigating whether a copycat element was involved after it emerged that both Saari and Pekka @-@ Eric Auvinen , the gunman in the Jokela school shooting , had bought their guns from the same store . Both gunmen had taken photographs of themselves in similar poses , and both exchanged videos related to school shootings on YouTube and Finnish social networking site IRC @-@ Galleria . In March 2009 , Police ruled out contact with Pekka @-@ Eric Auvinen , and said that he had committed his crimes alone : 200 people were interviewed during the investigation , none of whom said they knew of Saari 's plans .
Saari had a YouTube account where he uploaded videos of him firing a handgun at a local shooting range . Among the user 's YouTube account favourites was footage of the Columbine High School massacre . Finnish police had been informed about the YouTube videos in an anonymous tip @-@ off on the Friday before the shooting . The police talked to Saari and searched his home on the day before the incident , Monday 22 September . They found no reason to arrest him as he held a temporary weapons permit . In August 2008 , Saari had obtained a licence for a .22 @-@ calibre ( 5 @.@ 6 mm ) pistol . The police said that Saari did not have a criminal record . However , a police inspector was subsequently charged with dereliction of duty , and his court case began in September 2009 .
Saari also posted another video on a Finnish social networking site , in which he pointed a gun at the camera and said in English " You will die next " , followed by firing four shots in the direction of the camera . This video was not available to the police when Saari was questioned . A police spokesperson commented : " The only video we saw was where he was shooting at the range . It was only afterwards that much more information came out . " Police said that Saari would have been detained if they had known about this video at the time of the questioning . Police said that they believed Saari 's videos were shot by someone else , and that they were trying to identify who this person was . The Chief Investigator of the case , Jari Neulaniemi , speculated that the cameraman may have been the friend of Saari 's who was murdered .
Interior Minister Anne Holmlund announced that the actions of the police would be investigated . Police Commissioner Mikko Paatero said that Finnish police would increase their monitoring of YouTube and other social networking sites , and when asked whether similar attacks could take place in the future , he replied : " I badly fear it 's possible . "
= = Response = =
On the day of the incident , a crisis meeting was held , with government ministers , chairs of the parliamentary groups , and police officials all in attendance . The Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen described it as a " tragic day " and appealed for unity in the hope " that events like these will not happen again . " A national day of mourning was declared for the following day , and Vanhanen travelled to Kauhajoki to meet with students .
Within days of the shooting , the police said they had received a sizeable number of tip @-@ offs alerting them to suspicious photographs , videos , and comments on chat rooms . Finnish media reported that several bomb threats and other threatening messages were circulating among students nationwide in the few days after the shootings as well .
= SMS Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand =
SMS Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was an Austro @-@ Hungarian Radetzky @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 June 1910 . She was named after Archduke Franz Ferdinand . The first ship of her class to be built , she preceded Radetzky by more than six months . Her armament included four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns in two twin turrets , and eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four twin turrets .
She participated in an international naval protest of the Balkan Wars in 1913 , during which she helped enforce a blockade of Montenegro . She was also one of the first ships to deploy seaplanes for military use . During World War I , she saw limited service in the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron , including mobilization to assist the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau and the bombardment of Ancona in 1915 . At the end of the war , she was ceded to Italy as a war prize and was eventually scrapped in 1926 .
= = Construction = =
Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino dockyard in Trieste . She was laid down on 12 September 1907 and launched from the slipway on 8 September 1908 . The teak used on her deck was the only material Austria @-@ Hungary purchased abroad to build her . A month and a half after her launch , she was towed to the harbor in Muggia for completion . During a severe storm that night , she broke loose from her moorings ; with no crewmen aboard , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand drifted for several hours before running aground just off Izola . The following morning , the navy located her and started to refloat her . Completion was delayed by a welders ' strike in 1908 and a riveters ' strike in 1909 . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was the first ship of the class to be completed , and she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 June 1910 .
At 137 @.@ 5 m ( 451 ft 1 in ) long , with a beam of 24 @.@ 6 m ( 80 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 7 in ) , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand normally displaced 14 @,@ 508 long tons ( 14 @,@ 741 t ) . With full combat load , she displaced up to 15 @,@ 845 @.@ 5 long tons ( 16 @,@ 100 t ) . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand , like the other ships of the Radetzky class , was smaller and not as well @-@ armed as other battleships in contemporary navies . Despite these shortcomings , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was one of Austria @-@ Hungary 's first true deep @-@ water fighting ships . She was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines rated at 19 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower and had a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand was the first warship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to use oil and coal @-@ fired boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 408 km ; 4 @,@ 603 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . Eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets formed the heavy secondary battery . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts and four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 44 guns . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , two on the beam and one in the stern .
= = Service history = =
The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1910 commissioning . In 1912 , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , she was accompanied by the cruiser Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans .
The following year , she participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armoured cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Press
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Adelaide , advises her against giving in too much to Lord Melbourne 's direction . Albert then comes to England to spend more time with Victoria . They bond more , dancing together during her coronation and later discussing together the condition of the poor . Albert hints at taking their relationship further but the self @-@ sufficient Victoria resists and he leaves .
When Lord Melbourne loses a vote in Parliament , the new Prime Minister designate , Sir Robert Peel , wishes to replace some of her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting with supporters of his own party and the queen refuses . Peel in turn refuses the queen 's invitation to form a new government , allowing Melbourne to continue as Prime Minister . The subsequent crisis damages Victoria 's popularity , leading to demonstrations outside the palace and insults hurled at her in public . Her loneliness during the turbulence draws Victoria closer to Albert through their letters and decides her to invite him back to Britain . Since protocol prevents him suggesting marriage , she proposes to him herself .
Their marriage is loving and the birth of their first child helps heal the breach between Victoria and her mother , who had earlier sent a letter of support during the crisis . Nevertheless , Albert is frustrated at his initial powerlessness and Queen Adelaide advises Victoria to allow him to take on more duties . He then reorganises the running of the royal household and dismisses Conroy for mishandling funds . As Victoria 's primary adviser , he now blocks the influences of Lord Melbourne and King Leopold . However , Victoria quarrels with him fiercely for going over her head with Peel in the matter of her household .
Soon after , when Victoria is fired upon by a would @-@ be assassin as they are riding in an open carriage , Albert throws himself across her and is wounded . This bravery leads to their reconciliation and Melbourne advises her to share with Albert also her work for the social welfare .
The final title card sketches in their successful future until Albert 's death at the age of 42 .
= = Principal cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
It was Sarah , Duchess of York , who conceived the idea for a film based upon the early years of Queen Victoria . She had been interested in the queen since her marriage to Prince Andrew , Duke of York , a great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Victoria and Albert , and had written two books about her with the help of an historian . The Victoria @-@ Albert relationship in particular drew her into the queen 's history , as she believed there were parallels between their marriage and her own with Prince Andrew , as they both " fought for their love " in the midst of public scrutiny . A friend set up a meeting with producer Graham King , to whom she pitched the idea along with several others . At the time wrapping up his work on The Departed , King , a native of Britain , had been looking for a project set in his home country for years . The producer later remembered , " she pitched me a bunch of things , and among them was a three @-@ page synopsis of Victoria ’ s early life : the precise span covered in The Young Victoria . [ After that the film ] just fell into place . " King brought frequent collaborator Martin Scorsese on board as a co @-@ executive producer , as the Academy Award @-@ winning director knew " pretty much all there is to know about British history " .
Gosford Park screenwriter Julian Fellowes contacted King to present ideas for a script , and according to the producer , " [ Fellowes ] seemed to have the whole movie planned out in his head so we told him to go ahead and write it . Three months later , this incredibly impressive screenplay showed up on our desks . " Fellowes was immediately hired by him and Scorsese . Fellowes chose not to end the film at Albert 's death because he wary of copying " the horror of biopics , " where there is simply an important event after important event . Believing it had been done before and that the audience was already familiar with that part of Victoria 's history , he thought it would be better suited for a television series or for another film .
For the film 's director , King wanted someone " who would steer us away from the traditional BBC @-@ type costume drama , " and " make a period film for an MTV audience " . By chance , someone recommended King watch the 2005 film C.R.A.Z.Y. by French @-@ Canadian filmmaker Jean @-@ Marc Vallée , and became immediately interested in hiring him . King offered the job to Vallée on their very first meeting . Though at first expressing disinterest , Vallée agreed to direct after reading the script . He commented , " When I read the script , I saw it 's a family drama , a romance , a political plot at the same time . " Vallee considered Victoria to be a rebel because " she has this attitude , which is you make noise , you want to yell and yell loudly to your parents and all the people , to authority ... ' I 'm going to do it my way . ' That 's what rock ' n ' roll is all about . That 's what I liked about her , this energy . [ Victoria ] was special and had this mystical quality . "
Academy Award @-@ winning costume designer Sandy Powell heard about the script and contacted King , who in turn hired her . Powell was granted exclusive access to Victoria 's wedding dress and coronation robes while researching . Based upon his work on The Lives of Others and his German nationality , Hagen Bogdanski was selected as the director of photography . Fellowes enlisted his friend Alastair Bruce 's help with the coronation ceremony 's historical authenticity , which led to Bruce 's employment as the film 's historical consultant , his first film credit .
= = = Casting = = =
For the title role , King required the candidate be British , and considered casting an unknown actress . British actress Emily Blunt read the script , and aware other actresses would fight for the part , she approached King early in the search process . Blunt later admitted she had a " non @-@ existent knowledge " of the queen , but after consulting her mother about Victoria 's successful marriage , Blunt told King that the queen " was a young girl who was very in love for the first time , and she was in a job where she felt way over her head . So I said to Graham , ' She 's rebellious . She 's a survivor . ' I didn 't want to approach her as the English rose , but as a young girl who was fighting " . They awarded Blunt the role after viewing her entire filmography as well as her Golden Globes acceptance speech for Gideon 's Daughter . Blunt noted , " I thought [ Victoria ] was remarkable and such a challenge . This young girl , who was so feisty and emotional and strong @-@ willed , was very fascinating to me ... In my life and in the job I 've chosen to do , you have to perform all the time . And I thought Victoria was a bit of an actress . " After winning the part , Blunt was allowed access to Windsor Castle , where she viewed Victoria 's paintings , letters , diaries , and music composed by Albert himself .
Determined not to use any big Hollywood names , King looked at many European actors before settling on British actor Rupert Friend . They were aware of him from the 2005 film Pride & Prejudice . Vallée noted , " I had an image of Albert in my mind , before we cast Rupert , and how the actor might play him and when Rupert came on board he was just right . He had a very good understanding of the character and he did a lot of research to get him right , with the accent and his deportment . He really looks the part , he looks so romantic ! " Co @-@ producer Dennis O 'Sullivan called Friend " our Scarlett O 'Hara search " . They believed the actor had the most chemistry with Blunt after selecting several to play chess with her . Friend 's height ( 6 ft 1in ) also played a factor in their choice . Friend believed " Albert was a true unsung hero . A great reformer , a doting husband and father , a hard worker and man of real integrity and modesty . " The actor also thought their relationship was not " a gooey love story " ; rather , their arguments showed it " wasn 't an easy road by any means " . Friend strove to immerse himself in the role , and learned the prince 's particular characteristics , such as the way he rode a horse , walked , and played the piano . He worked with a voice coach and German instructor to perfect his accent , with the intention of " put [ ting ] in as much German as possible , because Victoria and Albert did speak German to each other . "
Paul Bettany was cast as Lord Melbourne despite being roughly twenty years too young for the part . Vallée explained , " We couldn 't find a 58 @-@ year @-@ old actor who was sexy and good @-@ looking enough . Paul was a more than good enough actor to age from the inside , and he plays him as a great politician and a great seducer . " Early in the casting process the crew wanted to cast Miranda Richardson as the Duchess of Kent , and believed she had such great chemistry with Blunt that it became " genuinely uncomfortable watching them in a scene , as the scenes are so intense and real . " Jim Broadbent and Mark Strong joined the cast as King William IV and Sir John Conroy , respectively , as did Harriet Walter as Queen Adelaide . Sarah 's elder daughter , Princess Beatrice of York , made her film debut in a small cameo role , becoming the first member of the Royal Family to appear in a non @-@ documentary film .
= = = Filming = = =
In consideration of the expense of a film shot in Britain , King initially sought to film in Germany and Eastern Europe . However , he came to the realisation that it was vital The Young Victoria be filmed in its native country for authenticity . Due to the Duchess of York 's status and connections with the British royal family , The Young Victoria was able to film in many actual palaces and other landmarks . The film had a ten @-@ week shoot starting in August 2007 . Scenes set at Westminster Abbey were filmed at Lincoln Cathedral in September and October , and Ham House was substituted for Kensington Palace . Blenheim Palace , Lancaster House and Ditchley Park doubled for internal scenes of the monarch 's main residence , Buckingham Palace . Other scenes filmed at Hampton Court Palace , Arundel Castle in West Sussex , Wilton House near Salisbury , Balls Park and Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire . Week four of shooting was especially intensive , as filming was done at a different site each day , including Osterley Park , Old Royal Naval College , Ham House , Novello Theatre and Hampton Court .
= = Historical accuracy = =
Fellowes strove to make the script free of anachronisms , to the point where he became upset when actor Jim Broadbent ad @-@ libbed and told someone to " Enjoy the meal " during a dinner scene , a phrase not proper for the time period . The writer commented , " Everything I have put into it is based entirely on fact . It just happens to be a story that not many people are familiar with . " Fellowes has remarked that while he would not alter the " fundamental truth " , such as the characters ' real relationships to each other , he strove to " use episodes to illustrate the journey you 're taking your characters , and with them , your audience " .
Although largely faithful to a selection of historical facts , the film has drawn criticism for embellishing on events in order to increase dramatic potential . For example , Prince Albert was never shot during an assassination attempt on Queen Victoria . Fellowes told BBC Radio 4 's Film Programme that in actuality the prince did put his body before the queen as protection , and that showing Prince Albert having been grazed by the bullet in the film was added to best show his bravery and devotion as he tried to stop Queen Victoria from being shot .
Another departure from history comes during Victoria 's coronation scene . Contrary to what is shown in the film , Albert was not present at the ceremony ; the couple instead wrote letters to each other , but Fellowes felt that having them keep opening letters would be less cinematic . Furthermore , according to Fellowes , " The scene where [ Conroy ] is trying to make her sign the paper when she is ill and she throws it to the floor - it 's completely true " , and " The scene in Windsor where the King stands up and insults Victoria 's mother is not only true , but about two @-@ thirds of his speech is what he actually said ! " However , the Duchess of Kent was seated next to the King when he spoke and did not leave during the speech ; and , undepicted in the film , the princess burst into tears , " and the two parties , soon realising that they had gone too far , patched up an uneasy truce " . According to Charles Greville 's memoirs : " The Queen [ Adelaide ] looked in deep distress , the Princess [ Victoria ] burst into tears , and the whole company were aghast . The Duchess of Kent said not a word . Immediately after they rose and retired , and a terrible scene ensued ; the Duchess announced her immediate departure and ordered her carriage , but a sort of reconciliation was patched up , and she was prevailed upon to stay till the next day . "
William Lamb , 2nd Viscount Melbourne , who was prime minister when Victoria came to the throne and a political mentor to the young queen , was forty years her senior , but is portrayed as a much younger man in the film . As for King Leopold , he was her favourite uncle whose advice she constantly sought ; her interest in Albert was due not to the latter 's success in wooing her , but simply to please Leopold .
Victoria 's great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II viewed the film in a special screening ; according to one source , she believed the film had a " lot of good points " , but was unhappy with the change to the assassination attempt , and also thought the British officers ' costumes looked too German . Apart from the assassination attempt , historian Alex von Tunzelmann noted that " historically , [ the film 's ] not at all bad " , and especially praised the depiction of contemporary politics and the characteristics Friend put into his performance as Prince Albert .
= = Music = =
Director Vallée used his background as a DJ to " create a structure for a film using music with the right rhythm and balance . I wanted to combine classical pieces with a rock spirit " . During filming Vallée often played rock music , such as the Rolling Stones , to create the right " mood " before a scene . Executive producer Colin Vaines knew composer Ilan Eshkeri , and hired him for the film . Sinéad O 'Connor performed " Only You " , which O 'Sullivan described as " very much in line with one of the overriding aims of the film , which was to be hopeful and tell people that these amazing love stories really can happen , it ’ s not just a fairy tale . " EMI Music released the film soundtrack . It received a nomination for the 2010 Ivor Novello Award for Best Original Score . The soundtrack includes the following tracks :
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
Momentum Pictures handled distribution of The Young Victoria in the United Kingdom . The film 's world premiere was held on 5 February 2009 at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival while its UK premiere was held in London 's Leicester Square on 3 March . , though the film was shown in the small market town of Bridport , Dorset two days before this on 1 March 2009 in the Electric Palace Theatre , of which Julian Fellowes is a patron . The film was released in British cinemas on 6 March 2009 . On its opening week in the UK The Young Victoria grossed £ 1 @,@ 016 @,@ 053 , and earned a total of £ 4 @,@ 538 @,@ 697 over its six @-@ week run .
A bidding war erupted over its US release , and American distribution studio Apparition on the behalf of Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions Group won the rights to the film . At the time , Apparition executive Bob Berney noted the film is " very audience friendly and commercial . " The Young Victoria earned USD $ 160 @,@ 069 on its initial US release on 18 December 2009 , where it opened in twenty theatres . It expanded nationwide on Christmas Day , and grossed USD $ 11 @,@ 001 @,@ 272 by the end of its theatrical run .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received a generally positive reception and holds a 76 % ' Fresh ' rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 145 reviews . Entertainment Weekly film critic Owen Gleiberman gave The Young Victoria a B + ; he gave praise to Emily Blunt 's performance and concluded , " The Young Victoria has a subtler flow than you might expect , and at times it 's calmer than you may like . Director Jean @-@ Marc Vallée 's images have a creamy stateliness , but this is no gilded princess fantasy — it 's the story of a budding ruler who learns to control her surroundings , and Blunt makes that journey at once authentic and relevant . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called it a " frivolously entertaining film " and believed it was " directed with some snap by Jean @-@ Marc Vallée " . Dargis finished her review , " Despite the filmmakers ’ efforts to persuade us that The Young Victoria is a serious work , and despite some tense moments and gunfire , the film ’ s pleasures are as light as its story . No matter . Albert may never rip Victoria ’ s bodice , but he does eventually loosen it , to her delight and ours . "
The Daily Telegraph called The Young Victoria a " production of the highest calibre with an impeccable cast . " The Times ' Wendy Ide gave the film 3 out 5 stars wrote " It 's decorative , but suffers from a stultifying lack of drama " and found similarities to the 1998 film Elizabeth . Ide found Victoria and Albert 's relationship to be " persuasive and rather charming , " and praised the performances of both the main and supporting cast , particularly noting Bettany 's scene @-@ stealing performance .
Less positive was Peter Bradshaw , film critic for The Guardian , who gave the film two out of five stars . While initially looking forward to Blunt 's performance , he believed the " black @-@ belt minx " actress was " never really allowed to let rip . All that coiled feline sensuality stay [ ed ] coiled " . He thought the queen 's relationship with Prince Albert " very , very unsexy " , as their devotion " makes for a boring film " . Bradshaw did praise the power dynamics around Victoria , but concluded " I spent an hour and three @-@ quarters waiting for this film to start . Where was the tang and the zing and the oomph of Fellowes 's cracking script for Robert Altman 's Gosford Park ? "
= = = Accolades = = =
Emily Blunt received a Golden Globe nomination in 2010 for Best Dramatic Actress but lost to Sandra Bullock for The Blind Side . Blunt received further nominations at the British Independent Film Awards , Broadcast Film Critics ' Association Awards , and at the Empire Awards , among others . The film also received three Academy Awards nominations in 2010 for Best Art Direction ( which it lost to Avatar ) , Makeup ( which it lost to Star Trek ) and won for Costume Design . At the 63rd British Academy Film Awards , The Young Victoria won the BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design and the BAFTA Award for Best Makeup and Hair .
= = Home media = =
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 13 July 2009 for the UK , and 20 April 2010 for the US . The DVD special features included deleted and extended scenes , and four featurettes on filming and the subject matter 's history . The Blu @-@ ray possesses a feature that allows viewers to access real @-@ time data about the actors , music , film trivia and other information .
= Glanville Davies affair =
The Glanville Davies affair was a scandal in the English legal profession which resulted in greater reform of the regulatory processes for solicitors and was one of the justifications for the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 . Glanville Davies was a well @-@ respected solicitor and a member of the Council of the Law Society of England and Wales who massively overcharged his client , Leslie Persons , sending him a bill for £ 197 @,@ 000 that was reduced on taxation to £ 67 @,@ 000 . Davies was not punished by the Law Society 's internal regulatory committees , which allowed him to resign from the council on the grounds of ill @-@ health with his reputation intact . Following litigation and public criticism , the Law Society commissioned an internal report that found " administrative failures , wrong decisions , mistakes , errors of judgement , failures in communication and insensitivity " . A private member 's bill reformed the way in which the Law Society investigated disciplinary complaints , although not to the extent initially proposed , and paved the way for the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 that created an independent disciplinary body .
= = Background = =
In 1982 , Leslie Parsons filed a complaint against Glanville Davies , a respected solicitor and member of the Council of the Law Society of England and Wales , the solicitors ' professional body . Davies had charged Parsons £ 197 @,@ 000 for legal services , a " grossly inflated and inaccurate legal bill " . Parsons complained to the Law Society repeatedly from 1976 to 1982 ; despite this , the Law Society took no disciplinary action , allowing Davies to resign from the Council on grounds of ill @-@ health with his reputation intact . Parsons finally brought legal action against Davies in 1982 , and on 18 November , Anthony McCowan of the High Court of Justice reduced the bill to £ 67 @,@ 000 . McCowan also said that Davies was " guilty of at least gross and persistent misconduct " and recommended that he be struck off . On 24 October 1983 , Vinelott J struck Davies from the roll of solicitors .
= = Investigation = =
Following the start of litigation , an investigation by the Lay Observer and the Law Society itself ( which became known as the Ely Report ) highlighted " an appalling catalogue of errors , insensitivity and poor judgment " in the handling of the Davies Affair by the Law Society internal disciplinary organisation . The report found " administrative failures , wrong decisions , mistakes , errors of judgement , failures in communication and insensitivity ... the whole affair was a disgrace to the Society " . The Society paid compensation to Parsons for their mishandling of the situation and said that they would compensate victims of similar cases where they had failed to investigate complaints with reasonable care .
The Law Society asked Coopers & Lybrand to produce a report on the Law Society , which included its disciplinary topics among the areas to be reported on . The draft report , published in 1984 , recommended that the Law Society should transfer its disciplinary processes to an independent Solicitor 's Complaints Board , which would be made up of both solicitors and lay people ( although with a majority of its members being solicitors ) . In 1985 the National Consumer Council published a survey showing that only 15 % of respondents felt that the Law Society should be investigating complaints , and only 5 % felt that if an independent body was created it should contain a solicitor majority , with 36 % wanting equal representation of solicitors and lay people and 55 % preferring a majority of lay people .
= = Aftermath = =
As a result of this and similar controversies , Alf Dubs introduced a private member 's bill named the Solicitors ( Independent Complaints Procedure ) Bill on 12 February 1985 , which would move the responsibility of regulating the solicitors profession to a body outside the Law Society . Professional opinion was split on this – the National Consumer Council , Legal Action Group and many of the smaller law societies supported the proposal , while larger law societies and the Law Society of England and Wales opposed it .
The Law Society of England and Wales persuaded Coopers & Lybrand to include an alternate reform proposal in their report , and after pressure from the Law Society , and several of the larger regional societies , the alternate proposal was used . This was far weaker than the original proposal , and kept the responsibility of regulating the solicitors ' profession within the Law Society but increased the separation of functions within the Society and required that the majority of the people on regulatory committees be lay people ( not solicitors ) . The events surrounding this scandal have been directly linked to the reforms pushed through in the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 , which created an independent disciplinary body for solicitors .
= Lacrymosa ( song ) =
" Lacrymosa " is a song recorded by American rock band Evanescence for their second studio album , The Open Door ( 2006 ) . The song was composed by Amy Lee and Terry Balsamo and produced by Dave Fortman . " Lacrymosa " incorporates the Lacrimosa sequence from Mozart 's Requiem ( 1791 ) throughout the song and Lee said that its main inspiration is the film Amadeus . The song is influenced by genres such as alternative metal , gothic rock , and post @-@ grunge . Set in slow tempo , it was originally written in the key of D minor but Lee and Balsamo transposed it into E minor .
The song garnered polarizing opinions from music critics , with some labeling it as one of the best songs on The Open Door , particularly complimenting the backing choir , while others lamented it one of the worst for the same reasons . According to Lee , " Lacrymosa " was originally written for the soundtrack of the movie The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , but was not included because of its dark sound . The producers of Narnia , however , rebutted her claim , stating this information was " news to them " and that no Evanescence music had been planned for inclusion in the soundtrack . The song was part of the setlist during their The Open Door Tour .
= = Background and recording = =
" Lacrymosa " was written by Amy Lee and Terry Balsamo and produced by Dave Fortman . David Campbell , who has previously arranged music for the band and worked with them at the Billboard Music Awards , led a 22 @-@ piece orchestra for the song . The Millennium Choir performed the Lacrimosa sequence ( " Lacrimosa dies illa Qua resurget ex favilla Judicandus homo reus . Huic ergo parce , Deus : Pie Jesu Domine , Dona eis requiem . Amen . " ) and backing vocals throughout the song . Lee , the orchestra and choir recorded the song at a chapel in Seattle , Washington . In a number of interviews , Lee revealed that everyone asked about a collaboration between her and Mozart . She further stated that she always wanted to make Lacrimosa from Mozart 's Requiem a metal song , later adding that The Open Door was " the time for that , for trying things I hadn 't been brave enough to try before . " In an interview with VH1 News , Lee further explained the inspiration behind the song
" I saw Amadeus when I was nine years old and fell in love with Mozart . The part of Mozart 's Requiem called " Lacyrmosa " [ sic ] is my favorite piece of music ever . I always wished we could cover it , but with programming and guitars and make it cool . It 's our moment to try all the things I wanted to and couldn 't , so I started messing with it in Protools . Terry wrote some riffs and turned it into this awesome metal epic . "
= = Composition , music and lyrics = =
According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing on musicnotes.com , " Lacrymosa " is an alternative metal , gothic rock and post @-@ grunge song set in a common time and performed in slow tempo of 48 beats per minute . Although the original Lacrimosa sequence was performed in D @-@ minor , it was transposed into E @-@ minor by Lee and Terry Balsamo . The instruments in the song are piano , guitar , violins and drums . Lee 's vocal range from the note of B3 and E5 ; the SATB choir ranges from the note of B2 to E4 . " Lacrymosa " has a " violin intro , synth worth of a Nine Inch Nails album , and Omen @-@ esque choral sections that are very haunting . "
According to Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone , in " Lacrymosa " Lee is " sobbing hysterically over a grand piano . " According to the IGN reviewer , Ed Thompson , the song " takes the trademark Evanescence sound - Lee 's celestial voice , and adds her brooding lyrics ' I can 't change who I am , not this time , I won 't lie to keep you near me and in this short life , there 's no time to waste on giving up . My love wasn 't enough ' . " . Danielle Baudhuin from The Oshkosh West Index stated that " Lee 's astounding classical vocals are displayed with songs as the eerie ' Like You , ' and ' Lacrymosa ' . " She said that these two songs feature slower beats , and are more " piano @-@ themed melodies , followed shortly by the power guitar section of the song . " But she said that the song was very similar to " Haunted " from Fallen adding , " creepy background choir vocals and violins send listeners into a gothic Cathedral @-@ like setting . " Jim Farber from nydailynews.com said that " Lacrymosa " will remind older listeners the ' 70s art @-@ rock horror Renaissance . Andree Farias from Christianity Today said " [ But ] the song has nothing to do with Lucy and her escapades into the land of Aslan . Rather , it 's just another bitter break @-@ up anthem : ' And you can blame it on me / Just set your guilt free , honey / I don 't want to hold you back now love . ' "
= = Critical reception = =
" Lacrymosa " received positive to mixed reviews from music critics . Bill Lamb from About.com put the song in the list of Top Tracks on The Open Door alongside " Sweet Sacrifice " , " Call Me When You 're Sober " , " Your Star " and " Good Enough " . He added " Elements such as the connection of the song ' Lacrymosa ' to the Mozart ' Requiem ' movement of the same name , or intense exploration of the benefits and costs of ' Lithium ' give hints that Evanescence could add intellectual heft to their obvious command of emotion . " Ed Thompson from IGN called " Lacrymosa " the " most memorable track " in the whole album . Don Kaye of the website Blabbermouth.net said that while the song was an " interesting experiment " it came " across as more of a stab at artsiness with its strings and choirs than a real song . "
An editor from The New York Times said that " Lacrymosa " is grandiose even by the album ’ s standards . Sputnikmusic said that the song is the best on the album and gave the song a grade of 4 @.@ 5 along with " Good Enough " , adding that on the last two songs the album stops to be boring because of the variations . Simon Cosyns from The Sun concluded that " song titles such as ' Weight of the World ' , ' Lose Control ' and ' Lacrymosa ' tell you it ’ s not a bed of roses , but there is a positive streak running through The Open Door " . On Postmedia News it was stated that Lee " achieves stunning notes on ' Lacrymosa ' , which employs a haunting choir " . Jordan Reimer from The Daily Princetonian praised Lee 's melodies and said that " Cloud Nine " and " Lacrymosa " were her best two arrangements . John Hood from Miami New Times made a story , " ' Call Me When You 're Sober ' sent a man away , ' Lacrymosa ' kept him there , and ' Cloud Nine ' told the clueless dolt why he would no longer ever be welcomed back . Joost Melis from the Dutch website FOK ! compared " Lacrymosa " with song of the bands Within Temptation and Nightwish . A writer of The Independent put the song on his list of " Download This " from The Open Door .
Brendan Butler from Cinema Blend was critical saying that " the worst song on The Open Door , i [ t ’ ] s a toss up between ' Lacrymosa ' with its abominable choir and the obnoxious ' Lose Control , ' which features Amy crying for about five minutes . " A reviewer from Altsounds noted that the weakest tracks on the album are " Snow White Queen " , " Lacrymosa " , " Like You " , and " Lose Control " because " the vocal arraignments on those tracks just do not flow with the lyrics and music combined therefore making them annoying because [ Lee 's ] voice gets a bit unsettling and can only be tolerable to a certain extent . " Glenn Gamboa from The Providence Journal concluded that " maybe the over @-@ the @-@ top dramatics of ' Lacrymosa ' and piano ballad ' Your Star ' will be seen as so @-@ bad @-@ they ’ re @-@ good . "
= = Live performances = =
The song was played live by the band during their tour for the promotion of The Open Door . On the concert which took place on November 17 , 2007 in Orem the band played " Lacrymosa " . During the performance Lee was wearing a purple tank , black skirt and black boots . They also performed the song at Hammerstein Ballroom in New York in 2006 . Evanescence played the song live at their secret New York gig which took place on November 4 , 2009 . The band played the song during a concert at Porto Alegre , Brazil on October 4 , 2012 .
= = Controversy and usage in media = =
In a 2004 interview with MTV News , Amy Lee revealed that she was composing music for the film , The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . She also revealed that the producers of the movie offered her a small role , " They were like , ' Do you want to do a cameo ? ' And I was like , ' Hell yeah ! Let me die . I want to be somebody who gets murdered . ' So I don 't think that 's going to happen . " She later revealed that " Lacrymosa " was originally written for the film , but was mysteriously not included . However , according to producers , neither Lee or the band were approached to compose music for the film . Another song was also written for the movie , but it was rejected because of its dark sound . Lee went on to state that it was just " more great stuff [ for The Open Door ] " .
Lacrymosa is a corruption of the Latin term lacrimosa , which means " tearful " . The track title is also the scientific name for a species of moth known as Catocala lacrymosa , also known as the ' Tearful Underwing ' . The species of moth are featured throughout The Open Door 's cover booklet and on the cover of the " Sweet Sacrifice " radio promo CD . A clip of " Lacrymosa " was used in the video teaser for The Open Door .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from The Open Door liner notes .
= Billy Sing =
William Edward " Billy " Sing , DCM ( 2 March 1886 – 19 May 1943 ) was a part Chinese Australian soldier who served in the Australian Imperial Force during World War I , best known as a sniper during the Gallipoli Campaign . He took at least 150 confirmed kills during that campaign , and may have had over 200 kills in total . One contemporary estimate put his tally at close to 300 kills . Towards the end of the war , Sing married a Scottish woman , but the relationship did not last long . Following work in sheep farming and gold mining , he died in relative poverty and obscurity in Brisbane during World War II .
= = Early life = =
Sing was born on 2 March 1886 in Clermont , Queensland , Australia , the son of a Chinese father and an English mother . His parents were John Sing ( c . 1842 – 1921 ) , a drover from Shanghai , China , and Mary Ann Sing ( née Pugh ; c . 1857 – unknown ) , a nurse from Kingswinford , Staffordshire , England . Sing 's mother had given birth to a daughter named Mary Ann Elizabeth Pugh on 28 May 1883 , less than two months before marrying Sing 's father on 4 July 1883 . It is unclear whether this child was John Sing 's daughter as well . A daughter , Beatrice Sing , was later born into the family on 12 July 1893 . The three children grew up together on the farm run by the Sings , and all three performed well academically .
There was considerable anti @-@ Chinese sentiment in Australia at this time . As a boy , Sing was well known for his shooting skill , but was the subject of racial prejudice due to his ancestry . He began work hauling timber as a youth , and later worked as a stockman and a sugarcane cutter . Sing became well known for his marksmanship , both as a kangaroo shooter and as a competitive target shooter . In the latter role , he was a member of the Proserpine Rifle Club . He regularly won prizes for his shooting , and also played cricket with skill .
On 24 October 1914 , two months after the outbreak of war , Sing enlisted as a trooper in the Australian 5th Light Horse Regiment of the Australian Imperial Force . His Certificate of Medical Examination at the time showed that he stood at 5 ' 5 " ( 165 cm ) and weighed 141 lb . ( 64 kg ) . According to John Laws and Christopher Stewart , he was accepted into the army only after a recruitment officer chose to disregard the fact that Sing was part Chinese ; at the time , only those of European ancestry were generally considered suitable for Australian military service .
= = Military service = =
= = = Gallipoli Campaign = = =
Sing began his military career as part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) forces in the Gallipoli Campaign in modern day Turkey . Biographer John Hamilton described the Turkish terrain thus : " It is a country made for snipers . The Anzac and Turkish positions often overlooked each other . Each side sent out marksmen to hunt and stalk and snipe , to wait and shoot and kill , creeping with stealth through the green and brown shrubbery ... " Sing partnered with spotters Ion ' Jack ' Idriess and , later , Tom Sheehan . The spotter 's task was to observe ( spot ) the surrounding terrain and alert the sniper to potential targets . Idriess described Sing as " a little chap , very dark , with a jet black moustache and goatee beard . A picturesque looking mankiller . He is the crack shot of the Anzacs . "
Chatham 's Post , a position named after a Light Horse officer , was Sing 's first sniping post . Biographer Brian Tate wrote , " It was here that Billy Sing began in earnest his lethal occupation . " He set about his task with a Lee – Enfield .303 rifle . An account by Private Frank Reed , a fellow Australian soldier , states that Sing was so close to the Turkish lines that enemy artillery rarely troubled him . His comrades left three particular enemy positions to his attention : a trench at 350 yards ( 320 m ) from his post , a communication sap at 500 yards ( 457 m ) , and a track in a gully at 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 914 m ) . According to Reed , " Every time Billy Sing felt sorry for the poor Turks , he remembered how their snipers picked off the Australian officers in the early days of the landing , and he hardened his heart . But he never fired at a stretcher @-@ bearer or any of the soldiers who were trying to rescue wounded Turks . " In contrast , Hamilton said in a 2008 interview , " We have an anecdote where , after spotting an injured Turk , he said ' I 'll put that poor cuss out of his agony ' and just shot him . He was a very tough man . "
Sing 's reputation resulted in a champion Turkish sniper , nicknamed ' Abdul the Terrible ' by the Allied side , being assigned to deal with him . Tate alleges that the Turks were largely able to distinguish Sing 's sniping from that of other ANZAC soldiers , and that only the reports of incidents believed to be Sing 's work were passed on to Abdul . Through analysis of the victims ' actions and wounds , Abdul concluded that Sing 's position was at Chatham 's Post . After several days , Sing 's spotter alerted him to a potential target , and he took aim , only to find the target — Abdul — looking in his direction . Sing prepared to fire , trying not to reveal his position , but the Turkish sniper noticed him and began his own firing sequence . Sing fired first and killed Abdul . Very shortly thereafter , the Turkish artillery fired on Sing 's position — he and his spotter barely managed to evacuate from Chatham 's Post alive .
Near the beginning of August 1915 , Sing was hospitalised for four days with influenza . That same month , an enemy sniper 's bullet struck Sheehan 's spotting telescope , injuring his hands and face , and then hit Sing 's shoulder , but the latter was back in action after a week 's recuperation . Sheehan was more severely wounded , and was shipped back to Australia . This was reportedly the only time that Sing was injured at Gallipoli . He would not fare so well later on in the war .
= = = Sniping record = = =
Sing 's marksmanship at Gallipoli saw him dubbed ' The Assassin ' or ' The Murderer ' by his comrades . He reportedly acquired the latter nickname due to his callous attitude towards the enemy . By early September 1915 , he had taken 119 kills , according to Brigadier @-@ General Granville Ryrie , commanding officer of the 2nd Australian Light Horse Brigade . Regimental records list Sing as having taken 150 confirmed kills , but on 23 October 1915 , General William Birdwood , commander of ANZAC forces , issued an order complimenting him on his 201 unconfirmed kills . Historian Bob Courtney noted that an official kill was recorded only if the spotter saw the target fall . If the first shot missed the target , it was very risky to take a second shot , as this could give away the sniper team 's position .
Major Stephen Midgely estimated Sing 's tally at close to 300 kills . Midgely had brought him to the attention of Birdwood , who in turn had told Lord Kitchener that " if his troops could match the capacity of the Queensland sniper the allied forces would soon be in Constantinople . " Birdwood had reportedly joined Sing as his spotter on one occasion , and had the opportunity to witness his marksmanship first hand .
In February 1916 , Sing was Mentioned in Despatches by General Sir Ian Hamilton , Commander of the Allied Forces . This was the first official recognition of his service . On 10 March 1916 , he was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal , with a related entry in military records reading : " For conspicuous gallantry from May to September , 1915 , at Anzac , as a sniper . His courage and skill were most marked , and he was responsible for a very large number of casualties among the enemy , no risk being too great for him to take . " Apart from the recognition he received from his superiors , Sing 's exploits were also reported in British and American newspapers of the time .
= = = Western Front = = =
At the end of November 1915 , Sing suffered from myalgia and was confined to the hospital ship HMHS Gloucester Castle for almost two weeks . During this time , he was conveyed to Malta , then Ismaïlia , Egypt . While in Egypt , he was also hospitalised with parotitis and mumps , but rejoined his unit at the end of March 1916 .
Sing transferred to the 31st Infantry Battalion on 27 July 1916 at Tel @-@ el @-@ Kibir and sailed to England the following month . Following a brief period of training in England , he sailed for France and entered action on the Western Front in January 1917 . He was wounded in action several times , and commended many times in reports by Allied commanders . In March 1917 , he was wounded in the left leg and hospitalised in England . In May 1917 , while recovering in Scotland , he met waitress Elizabeth A. Stewart ( c . 1896 – unknown ) , who was the daughter of Royal Navy cook George Stewart . The two were married on 29 June 1917 in Edinburgh . In July 1917 , Elizabeth Sing 's address was noted in records as 6 Spring Gardens , Stockbridge , Edinburgh .
After a month with his new wife , Sing returned to the trenches in France in August 1917 , but was in very poor health due to his battle wounds and the effects of gas poisoning . It is not clear whether he operated as a sniper on the Western Front , but in September 1917 , he led a unit in the Battle of Polygon Wood in counter @-@ sniper operations . For this action , he was awarded the Oorlogskruis ( Belgian Croix de Guerre ) in 1918 , and was also recommended for the Military Medal — but never received it . In November 1917 , he was confined to hospital again due to problems with his previously wounded leg . In mid @-@ February 1918 , he was hospitalised due to a gunshot wound in the back . Sing suffered lung disease from his exposure to gas , and it soon brought his military career to an end .
= = Return to civilian life = =
Sing returned to Australia on submarine guard duty in late July 1918 . An army medical report from 23 November 1918 noted that he had gunshot wounds in the left shoulder , back , and left leg , and had suffered gas poisoning . The report stated that his general health was ' good ' but that he complained of coughing upon exertion . It recognised that Sing 's disability were the result of service , was permanent , and recommended that he be discharged as permanently unfit for service . Following his departure from the army , he briefly turned his hand to sheep farming , but the land he was given was of poor quality . He then worked as a gold miner .
According to some accounts , Sing and his wife were honoured by the local community when they arrived in Proserpine , Queensland , in late 1918 . Other accounts , however , state that although Sing arranged for passage from Scotland to Australia for his wife , there was no evidence that she made the journey . If Sing 's wife did come to Australia , it appears that she left her husband after a few years ; Tate suggests that the " transition from the green hills and ancient culture of Edinburgh to the dust and rough life of the mining district around Clermont must have been traumatic for Elizabeth Sing " and might have been a reason for her departure .
Recent research has shown that Elizabeth remained in Edinburgh . She had had daughter ( Mary ) in 1919 and and a son ( Theo ) in 1924 , to different fathers ( neither of whom was Billy Sing ) . She travelled to Australia sometime between 1925 and 1930 , with her two children . She lived in New South Wales with her son 's father until her death in Wollongong in the 1970s . It is not known whether she had any contact with Billy after her arrival in Australia .
= = Later life = =
In later life , Sing reported chest , back , and heart pain . His final days were spent in relative poverty and obscurity . His elder sister or half @-@ sister , Mary Ann Elizabeth , had died in childbirth in 1915 . In 1942 , Sing moved from Miclere to Brisbane , telling his surviving sister Beatrice that it was cheaper to live there . His final occupation was as a labourer .
Sing died alone in his room in a boarding house in West End , Brisbane , on 19 May 1943 . The cause of death was a ruptured aorta . His only significant possessions were a hut ( worth around £ 20 ) on a mining claim and a mere 5 shillings found with him in his room . There was no sign of his medals from World War I , and his employers owed him around £ 6 in wages . Sing was buried in the Lutwyche War Cemetery , in Kedron , a northern suburb of Brisbane . His grave is now part of the lawn cemetery section of the Lutwyche Cemetery , and the inscription on his headstone reads :
AT REST
WILLIAM EDWARD ( BILLY ) SING ( DCM )
Born Clermont Qld . 2 – 3 – 1886 — 19 – 5 – 1943
Reg . No. 355 Australian Fifth Light Horse Regiment and later the 31st Infantry Battalion
Son of JOHN SING ( bn . SHANGHAI ) and MARY ANN ( nee PUGH bn . ENGLAND )
AND MARRIED FOR A TIME TO ELIZABETH ( STEWART ) IN EDINBURGH 29 – 6 – 1917
A man of all trades , Pte . Sing was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for conspicuous gallantry , the Belgian Croux [ sic ] De Guerre and mentioned often in despatches . Serving at Gallipoli and in France from 1915 – 1918 , he became known as Australia 's most effective marksman / sniper accounting for more than 150 of the opposing forces .
His incredible accuracy contributed greatly to the preservation of the lives of those with whom he served during a war always remembered for countless acts of valour and tragic carnage .
= = Legacy = =
The Queensland Military Historical Society set up a bronze plaque at 304 Montague Road , South Brisbane , where Sing had died . In 1995 , a statue of Sing was unveiled with honour in his home town of Clermont . In 2004 , an Australian Army sniper team in Baghdad named their post the ' Billy Sing Bar & Grill . ' On 19 May 2009 , the 66th anniversary of Sing 's death , the Chinese Consul @-@ General , Ren Gongping , along with Returned and Services League of Australia officers and community leaders , laid wreaths at his grave . Ren said , " Billy Sing is a symbol of the long history of Chinese in Australia , and the great role they have played in your nation 's past ... It also reminds us that China and Australia were allies through both world wars , and that we have a long and proud shared past . "
Sing 's life was recounted in a chapter of Laws and Stewart 's book , There 's always more to the story ( 2006 ) , and in greater depth by Hamilton in his book , Gallipoli Sniper : The life of Billy Sing ( 2008 ) . Hamilton 's book includes a detailed account of how snipers worked at Gallipoli and their contribution to the progress of the campaign . Reviewer John Wadsley wrote that " Hamilton is able to bring together a range of sources to create the story , and while at times , you get the feeling he is padding it out to make up for the lack of direct material about Billy Sing , the book works . "
A television mini @-@ series , The Legend of Billy Sing , was in post @-@ production as of 2010 . Despite some reports that it was based on Hamilton 's book , the author maintained that he was never contacted by the film makers . Although Sing and his father were partly Chinese and fully Chinese , respectively , the mini @-@ series portrayed them with actors of European ancestry . The director , Geoff Davis , was criticised for this decision . Politician Bill O 'Chee , a member of the Billy Sing Commemorative Committee , said , " When a person dies , all that is left is their story , and you can ’ t take a person ’ s name and not tell the truth about their story . " Davis has said , " Whatever [ Sing 's ] genetic background , his culture was Australian . To me , he 's very representative of every Australian whose parents were not born here . ... A lot of people are sitting at the back of this bus attacking the driver . A lot of people feel they own the story of Billy Sing . But they 've probably got more resources than me — if they want to tell that story , then tell it . "
Hamilton characterised Sing as " a cold @-@ blooded killer ... [ yet ] a man with a sense of humour ... the Anzac angel of death , " and Laws and Stewart described him simply as " one of many Australians of Chinese descent who served with distinction in the Australian forces during World War I. " Around 400 people of Chinese descent served in Australia 's military forces during the 20th century .
A memorial to Sing stands at Hood 's Lagoon , in his birthplace of Clermont , Queensland .
For the 100th anniversary commemoration of the Gallipoli landings , a monument was erected to Sing in the Lutwyche Cemetery in Brisbane , near his grave stone , by the Billy Sing Memorial Committee . It was officially unveiled on the anniversary of his death .
= Becky McDonald =
Rebecca " Becky " Granger ( also McDonald ) is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera Coronation Street , a long @-@ running serial drama about working @-@ class life in the fictional town of Weatherfield . She is played by actress Katherine Kelly . Becky was created by producer Steve Frost as a recurring character . She made her debut in the episode airing on 5 February 2006 . Kelly was initially contracted to appear for three months , but became a series regular after impressing the serial 's producers . In early 2011 Kelly announced her decision to leave the soap . Producer Phil Collinson created dramatic storylines in the build @-@ up to her exit .
Becky 's storylines have focused on her friendship with Roy ( David Neilson ) and Hayley Cropper ( Julie Hesmondhalgh ) , which helped change public opinion of the character , and her relationships with Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) and Steve McDonald ( Simon Gregson ) , with the latter producing two wedding storylines which were highly publicised by ITV . Other notable storylines have included her drunken rampages , two miscarriages and her desire to adopt a child . Becky is portrayed as a no @-@ nonsense character , whose time on the show has been described as a journey . Viewers have seen her change from a " thieving ex @-@ con " into a vulnerable woman . The character has been praised by crime @-@ reduction charity Nacro for changing opinions on former prisoners . She has been referred to as a " Coronation Street icon " , and one of the serial 's most popular characters , with critics often praising her activities . However , her tendency to smoke when under stress and litter the streets with cigarettes has been criticised by UK environmental agencies . Kelly has garnered various awards and nominations for her portrayal of Becky .
= = Character creation and casting = =
Becky was created as a short @-@ term recurring character , working in the Underworld sewing factory . The character was deemed popular so producers decided to bring her back , with executive producer Steve Frost initially pitching the idea of bringing in her family , stating : " Becky will leave Weatherfield for a short period of time and shock the Street 's residents when her relatives return with her . " However , this never materialised and Becky returned without any relatives . It was also thought that producers were going to kill the character off , in her early stages .
Auditions were held for the role of Becky which required the auditionee to look deliberately scruffy . Actress Katherine Kelly commented : " I was told to turn up looking as crap as possible , with no make @-@ up . But that morning I 'd also been for an audition where I had to look really glamorous . So I sat on the Tube putting grease in my hair and wiping my make @-@ up off with everyone looking at me . By the time I got there I looked a right state ! " . Kelly was initially only cast for a three @-@ month period when she began filming in 2006 , but impressed producers and was offered an extended contract as a regular character . On 17 June 2008 , after further impressing the producers , Kelly was signed for an additional 12 months . In February 2009 , Kelly again had her contract extended , securing her role in the soap until August 2011 . However , in 2010 Kelly was signed to a new 18 @-@ month contract by new producer Phil Collinson , a contract which was described as " unprecedented " at the time .
In 2011 Kelly decided to quit the role . She said it was one of the " hardest decisions of her life " but felt it was the right time to " say goodbye to Becky " . Executive producer Phil Collinson remarked that Kelly was talented and managed to make Becky into a " firm favourite " with viewers . Kelly finished filming her final scenes as Becky on 9 December 2011 .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
The Daily Mirror 's Beth Neil has observed that during her time on Coronation Street , Becky has morphed " from a thieving tearaway into a vulnerable young woman , clearly damaged from a troubled upbringing . " Kelly has commented that Becky finds it hard to rely on others , as she is : " Very out of sorts , because she 's a very independent , feisty sort of character . " She has stated that she loves Becky 's " trailer trash " appearance .
Becky is not an aspirational character , she strives to be normal , satisfied with a " hard up lifestyle " . She has changed since her early days , having calmed down a little in terms of her often out of control behaviour . Of this Kelly comments : " If someone had said to me that in three years ' time she 'd be Becky McDonald and would be behind the bar in the Rovers , I wouldn 't have believed it [ ... ] When Becky first came in she was a totally different character , but she 's calmed down a lot and her softer side has come out . "
Becky became the 50th barmaid at the Rovers Return Inn in June 2008 . Kelly opined that the character 's ex @-@ con personality would give her an advantage behind the bar , explaining : " The previous producer , Steve Frost , loved the idea of a barmaid who could lose her temper and throw a punch . Becky 's an ex @-@ con so she can fight dirty like nobody else . " The character 's chain smoking tendencies often play out onscreen when she is experiencing stress , something which drew off @-@ screen criticism for her disregard of littering the streets with her cigarette butts . ITV publicity has described Becky as having many different levels to her persona , stating that she loves drinking cider , and that she isn 't bothered by how she looks — though when she dresses up she " dresses to the nines " with big earrings , gold rings , logo belts and hair pieces . She dislikes anyone ordering her about , as she cannot handle being told what to do .
Kelly has also revealed that she often changes the material within scripts to play out best how she thinks Becky would act in certain situations . Kelly stated she didn 't think Becky would slap other characters , rather opting for punches . She stated : " The script often says , ' Becky slaps Steve ' but we try to find a different way to do it . I always think she wouldn 't slap , she would punch " Kelly was behind other violent scenes featuring her character , adding " The slap is too common in soaps " .
= = = Relationships = = =
Becky formed a friendship with local residents Roy ( David Neilson ) and Hayley Cropper ( Julie Hesmondhalgh ) . Becky 's on @-@ screen partnership with Roy was particularly successful . Kelly stated it was the turning point in her character 's development that won public affection , whilst Neilson stated that it was an " arranged marriage " by producers , delighted with its outcome . Becky 's first serious romantic relationship in the soap was with builder Jason Grimshaw ( Ryan Thomas ) . Their relationship was a turning point in what has been described as a " journey " for the character . Kelly spoke of Becky 's different attributes in their relationship , during an interview stating : " She absolutely believes that she 's 100 % in love with him . I see it as a very teenage relationship because of the on @-@ off status . Becky 's very mature in many ways – she 's very streetwise and if you needed something , you 'd go to Becky and she 'd find it for you . But emotionally , she 's very immature . That 's a lot to do with why she gets on so well with Roy because he 's quite emotionally immature , too . It 's probably the one level that they do connect on . " Fans approached the actress in the streets , claiming they were jealous of her because of her on @-@ screen romance with Jason . Following her breakup with Jason , and the aftermath which was highly publicised in the media , such as the Daily Mirror , and The Sun commenting on the plot .
She then embarked on an affair with fellow resident Steve McDonald ( Simon Gregson ) . Kelly stated during an interview that she felt Becky was " punching above her weight " with Jason . Kelly revealed that she felt Steve was the best man for Becky over her previous lover Jason , stating : " Both boys bring out different things in Becky . With Jason , they liked going clubbing , and it was no strings attached , I think Becky needs more than that , even though she wouldn 't admit it . I think , long @-@ term , Steve 's better for her . " When Gregson was interviewed by entertainment website Digital Spy , he was asked if he thought that his character has had a positive impact on Becky 's life . In reply he stated : " I think he 's turned it around . She was all over the place getting into trouble all the time but he 's made her grow up . And having a little girl there in Amy , that 's made her grow a bit , too . She 's got responsibilities now . She 's besotted with him . She 's still a total pisshead , though ! " Steve and Becky attempted to marry twice in 2009 ; their first wedding was given a promotional push from ITV , which aired adverts for the first wedding episodes . Their relationship was featured in a serious of romanctic plots in which ITV dubbed the " Summer of Love " season of the soap , with advertisements airing .
In 2009 Slug ( Marshall Lancaster ) , who had been seen on @-@ screen dating Becky in her early appearances , returned . The two characters share a backstory , which was partially created by Lancaster and Kelly themselves . During an interview with Digital Spy Kelly spoke the impact Slug has had on Becky stating : " Marshall and I have invented a whole back story between us . It 's nice to remember where Becky came from and what a journey she 's had . Slug was an important part of Becky 's life – they ’ ve got a lot of history . They grew up together and looked out for each other . " The storyline progresses into Slug confessing his love for Becky . Kelly points out that Becky has been on a journey , subsequently changing , stating that " Becky and Slug didn 't know what love was " and that she proves she has changed by rejecting his advances .
Becky later forged a friendship with Claire Peacock ( Julia Haworth ) , of this unlikely love / hate friendship Kelly stated : " Claire and Becky strike up a weird , weird friendship because the kids are a similar age , Josh and Amy . [ ... ] So the trouble begins , One minute [ Becky and Claire ] are good friends and the next , they 're really not . " Becky 's relationship with her mother was never shown onscreen , but when she died Kelly stated : " Becky hated her , and the death has brought back a lot of bad memories . " In 2010 it was announced that Becky 's half sister would join the cast , with Kelly stating : " We 've got some really , really exciting stuff happening . Becky 's going to get a half @-@ sister – a younger sister " . Kelly had stated that her family was not introduced on @-@ screen because producers didn 't want to " pin her character down " with one set of characters .
= = = Miscarriage and adoption = = =
In 2010 , the character underwent changes in appearance and direction with Becky suffering two miscarriages . Kelly branded the storyline challenging , admitting she felt a huge responsibility to get it right , stating : " It 's definitely been the hardest thing I 've done since I 've been here . I think the responsibility to do it well that you feel is huge . " Kelly also spoke of the sadness she felt for the impact the plot has on her character adding : " She can 't really put up any barriers about this – it 's the worst thing that 's ever happened . She goes from being a girl to a woman , I think . I 'm just devastated for her " . Kelly brands the storyline as her hardest , " Most of Becky ’ s storylines have an element of fun in there somewhere , but with this one it was just like a cloud was hanging over me for six weeks . "
However , Becky and Steve decide to adopt , in a storyline which was originally meant for Liz McDonald ( Bev Callard ) . It was revealed that Becky was given the storyline because producer Kim Crowther was determined to feature such a plot . Becky does not like the idea at first thinking she would make a bad mother , later changing her mind . The storyline saw various character changes implemented to Becky , in real life Kelly was forced to reduce the length of her hair . This was written into scripts to fit with the adoption storyline , which saw Becky changing her wardrobe to fool social workers . Of this Kelly stated : " With the adoption storyline , she borrows Claire Peacock 's clothes for a while because she wants to look good for the social worker coming round . We thought it was a good opportunity for her to have a slight image change . " Kelly further spoke of her admiration of her characters former image adding : " I love Becky with long hair and if it could have been possible I 'd have kept her with long blonde hair forever but sometimes nature and practicalities take over ! "
In an interview with tabloid newspaper Daily Mirror , Kelly revealed that she researched the storyline at the Manchester Adoption Society , who expressed their delight that two high profile characters were given such a plot . Kelly initially thought Becky would not be able to adopt because of her criminal record , but the society pointed out that the storyline would highlight the
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morally dichotomous , escapist fantasy . The white phosphorus strike scene has been the subject of much scrutiny and was described as " troubling " due to images such as the corpse of a mother clutching her child . In response to complaints that the massacre was unnecessary or exploitative , Williams justified the scene by saying that the plot device was intended to evoke players ' anger , and that one of the game 's endings is simply for the player to put the controller down and stop playing .
= = = Sales = = =
The game debuted in No. 3 in the UK retail chart during the game 's first week of release , behind Lego Batman 2 : DC Super Heroes and The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . Spec Ops : The Line was a commercial failure , selling less than anticipated . The sales of Spec Ops : The Line , combined with Max Payne 3 , was lower than the combined sales of L.A. Noire and Duke Nukem Forever . The low sales of the title contributed to Take @-@ Two 's disappointing financial results in fiscal year 2013 .
= = = Accolades = = =
Spec Ops : The Line was nominated for Best Shooter , and the White Phosphorus scene was nominated for Best Gaming Moments at the Golden Joystick Awards . At the 2012 Inside Gaming Awards , the game won for Best Narrative and was nominated for Best Game Cinematography . At IGN 's Best of 2012 Awards , the game won for Best PC Story and Best PS3 Story , and also received nominations for Best Overall Story , Best PS3 Action Game , Best Xbox 360 Shooter Game , and Best Xbox 360 Story . It was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Story at the 16th D.I.C.E. Awards .
= = Future = =
According to Yager Development , 2K never discussed the chance of developing a sequel during the game 's development . Timo Ullman , managing director of Yager stated that the game failed to compete with other shooters , and that market for games like Spec Ops : The Line is too small . As a result , the team would not return to the franchise . Team members expressed a desire to move on and develop a game that has a much lighter tone .
= Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease =
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) is a type of obstructive lung disease characterized by long term poor airflow . The main symptoms include shortness of breath and cough with sputum production . COPD typically worsens over time . Eventually walking up stairs or carrying things will be difficult . Chronic bronchitis and emphysema are older terms used for different types of COPD . The term " chronic bronchitis " is still used to define a productive cough that is present for at least three months each year for two years .
Tobacco smoking is the most common cause of COPD , with a number of other factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role . In the developing world , one of the common sources of air pollution is poorly vented heating and cooking fires . Long @-@ term exposure to these irritants causes an inflammatory response in the lungs resulting in narrowing of the small airways and breakdown of lung tissue . The diagnosis is based on poor airflow as measured by lung function tests . In contrast to asthma , the airflow reduction does not improve much with the use of a bronchodilator .
Most cases of COPD can be prevented by reducing exposure to risk factors . This includes decreasing rates of smoking and improving indoor and outdoor air quality . While treatment can slow worsening there is no cure . COPD treatments include stopping smoking , vaccinations , respiratory rehabilitation , and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids . Some people may benefit from long @-@ term oxygen therapy or lung transplantation . In those who have periods of acute worsening , increased use of medications and hospitalization may be needed .
As of 2013 COPD affects 329 million people or nearly 5 percent of the global population . It typically occurs in people over the age of 40 . Males and females are affected equally commonly . In 2013 it resulted in 2 @.@ 9 million deaths , up from 2 @.@ 4 million deaths in 1990 . More than 90 % of these deaths occur in the developing world . The number of deaths is projected to increase further because of higher smoking rates and an aging population in many countries . It resulted in an estimated economic cost of $ 2 @.@ 1 trillion in 2010 .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The most common symptoms of COPD are sputum production , shortness of breath , and a productive cough . These symptoms are present for a prolonged period of time and typically worsen over time . It is unclear if different types of COPD exist . While previously divided into emphysema and chronic bronchitis , emphysema is only a description of lung changes rather than a disease itself , and chronic bronchitis is simply a descriptor of symptoms that may or may not occur with COPD .
= = = Cough = = =
A chronic cough is often the first symptom to develop . When it persists for more than three months each year for at least two years , in combination with sputum production and without another explanation , there is by definition chronic bronchitis . This condition can occur before COPD fully develops . The amount of sputum produced can change over hours to days . In some cases , the cough may not be present or may only occur occasionally and may not be productive . Some people with COPD attribute the symptoms to a " smoker 's cough " . Sputum may be swallowed or spat out , depending often on social and cultural factors . Vigorous coughing may lead to rib fractures or a brief loss of consciousness . Those with COPD often have a history of " common colds " that last a long time .
= = = Shortness of breath = = =
Shortness of breath is often the symptom that most bothers people . It is commonly described as : " my breathing requires effort , " " I feel out of breath , " or " I can 't get enough air in " . Different terms , however , may be used in different cultures . Typically the shortness of breath is worse on exertion of a prolonged duration and worsens over time . In the advanced stages , it occurs during rest and may be always present . It is a source of both anxiety and a poor quality of life in those with COPD . Many people with more advanced COPD breathe through pursed lips and this action can improve shortness of breath in some .
= = = Other features = = =
In COPD , it may take longer to breathe out than to breathe in . Chest tightness may occur but is not common and may be caused by another problem . Those with obstructed airflow may have wheezing or decreased sounds with air entry on examination of the chest with a stethoscope . A barrel chest is a characteristic sign of COPD , but is relatively uncommon . Tripod positioning may occur as the disease worsens .
Advanced COPD leads to high pressure on the lung arteries , which strains the right ventricle of the heart . This situation is referred to as cor pulmonale , and leads to symptoms of leg swelling and bulging neck veins . COPD is more common than any other lung disease as a cause of cor pulmonale . Cor pulmonale has become less common since the use of supplemental oxygen .
COPD often occurs along with a number of other conditions , due in part to shared risk factors . These conditions include ischemic heart disease , high blood pressure , diabetes mellitus , muscle wasting , osteoporosis , lung cancer , anxiety disorder and depression . In those with severe disease , a feeling of always being tired is common . Fingernail clubbing is not specific to COPD and should prompt investigations for an underlying lung cancer .
= = = Exacerbation = = =
An acute exacerbation of COPD is defined as increased shortness of breath , increased sputum production , a change in the color of the sputum from clear to green or yellow , or an increase in cough in someone with COPD . This may present with signs of increased work of breathing such as fast breathing , a fast heart rate , sweating , active use of muscles in the neck , a bluish tinge to the skin , and confusion or combative behavior in very severe exacerbations . Crackles may also be heard over the lungs on examination with a stethoscope .
= = Cause = =
The primary cause of COPD is tobacco smoke , with occupational exposure and pollution from indoor fires being significant causes in some countries . Typically these exposures must occur over several decades before symptoms develop . A person 's genetic makeup also affects the risk .
= = = Smoking = = =
The primary risk factor for COPD globally is tobacco smoking . Of those who smoke about 20 % will get COPD , and of those who are lifelong smokers about half will get COPD . In the United States and United Kingdom , of those with COPD , 80 – 95 % are either current smokers or previously smoked . The likelihood of developing COPD increases with the total smoke exposure . Additionally , women are more susceptible to the harmful effects of smoke than men . In non @-@ smokers , secondhand smoke is the cause of about 20 % of cases . Other types of smoke , such as marijuana , cigar , and water pipe smoke , also confer a risk . Women who smoke during pregnancy may increase the risk of COPD in their child .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Poorly ventilated cooking fires , often fueled by coal or biomass fuels such as wood and animal dung , lead to indoor air pollution and are one of the most common causes of COPD in developing countries . These fires are a method of cooking and heating for nearly 3 billion people with their health effects being greater among women due to more exposure . They are used as the main source of energy in 80 % of homes in India , China and sub @-@ Saharan Africa .
People who live in large cities have a higher rate of COPD compared to people who live in rural areas . While urban air pollution is a contributing factor in exacerbations , its overall role as a cause of COPD is unclear . Areas with poor outdoor air quality , including that from exhaust gas , generally have higher rates of COPD . The overall effect in relation to smoking , however , is believed to be small .
= = = Occupational exposures = = =
Intense and prolonged exposure to workplace dusts , chemicals and fumes increase the risk of COPD in both smokers and nonsmokers . Workplace exposures are believed to be the cause in 10 – 20 % of cases . In the United States they are believed to be related to more than 30 % of cases among those who have never smoked and probably represent a greater risk in countries without sufficient regulations .
A number of industries and sources have been implicated , including high levels of dust in coal mining , gold mining , and the cotton textile industry , occupations involving cadmium and isocyanates , and fumes from welding . Working in agriculture is also a risk . In some professions the risks have been estimated as equivalent to that of one half to two packs of cigarettes a day . Silica dust exposure can also lead to COPD , with the risk unrelated to that for silicosis . The negative effects of dust exposure and cigarette smoke exposure appear to be additive or possibly more than additive .
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetics play a role in the development of COPD . It is more common among relatives of those with COPD who smoke than unrelated smokers . Currently , the only clearly inherited risk factor is alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin deficiency ( AAT ) . This risk is particularly high if someone deficient in alpha 1 @-@ antitrypsin also smokes . It is responsible for about 1 – 5 % of cases and the condition is present in about 3 – 4 in 10 @,@ 000 people . Other genetic factors are being investigated , of which there are likely to be many .
= = = Other = = =
A number of other factors are less closely linked to COPD . The risk is greater in those who are poor , although it is not clear if this is due to poverty itself or other risk factors associated with poverty , such as air pollution and malnutrition . There is tentative evidence that those with asthma and airway hyperreactivity are at increased risk of COPD . Birth factors such as low birth weight may also play a role as do a number of infectious diseases including HIV / AIDS and tuberculosis . Respiratory infections such as pneumonia do not appear to increase the risk of COPD , at least in adults .
= = = Exacerbations = = =
An acute exacerbation ( a sudden worsening of symptoms ) is commonly triggered by infection or environmental pollutants , or sometimes by other factors such as improper use of medications . Infections appear to be the cause of 50 to 75 % of cases , with bacteria in 25 % , viruses in 25 % , and both in 25 % . Environmental pollutants include both poor indoor and outdoor air quality . Exposure to personal smoke and secondhand smoke increases the risk . Cold temperature may also play a role , with exacerbations occurring more commonly in winter . Those with more severe underlying disease have more frequent exacerbations : in mild disease 1 @.@ 8 per year , moderate 2 to 3 per year , and severe 3 @.@ 4 per year . Those with many exacerbations have a faster rate of deterioration of their lung function . Pulmonary emboli ( blood clots in the lungs ) can worsen symptoms in those with pre @-@ existing COPD .
= = Pathophysiology = =
COPD is a type of obstructive lung disease in which chronic incompletely reversible poor airflow ( airflow limitation ) and inability to breathe out fully ( air trapping ) exist . The poor airflow is the result of breakdown of lung tissue ( known as emphysema ) and small airways disease ( known as obstructive bronchiolitis ) . The relative contributions of these two factors vary between people . Severe destruction of small airways can lead to the formation of large air pockets — known as bullae — that replace lung tissue . This form of disease is called bullous emphysema .
COPD develops as a significant and chronic inflammatory response to inhaled irritants . Chronic bacterial infections may also add to this inflammatory state . The inflammatory cells involved include neutrophil granulocytes and macrophages , two types of white blood cell . Those who smoke additionally have Tc1 lymphocyte involvement and some people with COPD have eosinophil involvement similar to that in asthma . Part of this cell response is brought on by inflammatory mediators such as chemotactic factors . Other processes involved with lung damage include oxidative stress produced by high concentrations of free radicals in tobacco smoke and released by inflammatory cells , and breakdown of the connective tissue of the lungs by proteases that are insufficiently inhibited by protease inhibitors . The destruction of the connective tissue of the lungs is what leads to emphysema , which then contributes to the poor airflow and , finally , poor absorption and release of respiratory gases . General muscle wasting that often occurs in COPD may be partly due to inflammatory mediators released by the lungs into the blood .
Narrowing of the airways occurs due to inflammation and scarring within them . This contributes to the inability to breathe out fully . The greatest reduction in air flow occurs when breathing out , as the pressure in the chest is compressing the airways at this time . This can result in more air from the previous breath remaining within the lungs when the next breath is started , resulting in an increase in the total volume of air in the lungs at any given time , a process called hyperinflation or air trapping . Hyperinflation from exercise is linked to shortness of breath in COPD , as it is less comfortable to breathe in when the lungs are already partly full . Hyperinflation may also worsen during an exacerbation .
Some also have a degree of airway hyperresponsiveness to irritants similar to those found in asthma .
Low oxygen levels and , eventually , high carbon dioxide levels in the blood can occur from poor gas exchange due to decreased ventilation from airway obstruction , hyperinflation and a reduced desire to breathe . During exacerbations , airway inflammation is also increased , resulting in increased hyperinflation , reduced expiratory airflow and worsening of gas transfer . This can also lead to insufficient ventilation and , eventually , low blood oxygen levels . Low oxygen levels , if present for a prolonged period , can result in narrowing of the arteries in the lungs , while emphysema leads to breakdown of capillaries in the lungs . Both these changes result in increased blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries , which may cause cor pulmonale .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of COPD should be considered in anyone over the age of 35 to 40 who has shortness of breath , a chronic cough , sputum production , or frequent winter colds and a history of exposure to risk factors for the disease . Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis . Screening those without symptoms is not recommended .
= = = Spirometry = = =
Spirometry measures the amount of airflow obstruction present and is generally carried out after the use of a bronchodilator , a medication to open up the airways . Two main components are measured to make the diagnosis : the forced expiratory volume in one second ( FEV1 ) , which is the greatest volume of air that can be breathed out in the first second of a breath , and the forced vital capacity ( FVC ) , which is the greatest volume of air that can be breathed out in a single large breath . Normally , 75 – 80 % of the FVC comes out in the first second and a FEV1 / FVC ratio of less than 70 % in someone with symptoms of COPD defines a person as having the disease . Based on these measurements , spirometry would lead to over @-@ diagnosis of COPD in the elderly . The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence criteria additionally require a FEV1 of less than 80 % of predicted .
Evidence for using spirometry among those without symptoms in an effort to diagnose the condition earlier is of uncertain effect and is therefore currently not recommended . A peak expiratory flow ( the maximum speed of expiration ) , commonly used in asthma , is not sufficient for the diagnosis of COPD .
= = = Severity = = =
There are a number of methods to determine how much COPD is affecting a given individual . The modified British Medical Research Council questionnaire ( mMRC ) or the COPD assessment test ( CAT ) are simple questionnaires that may be used to determine the severity of symptoms . Scores on CAT range from 0 – 40 with the higher the score , the more severe the disease . Spirometry may help to determine the severity of airflow limitation . This is typically based on the FEV1 expressed as a percentage of the predicted " normal " for the person 's age , gender , height and weight . Both the American and European guidelines recommended partly basing treatment recommendations on the FEV1 . The GOLD guidelines suggest dividing people into four categories based on symptoms assessment and airflow limitation . Weight loss and muscle weakness , as well as the presence of other diseases , should also be taken into account .
= = = Other tests = = =
A chest X @-@ ray and complete blood count may be useful to exclude other conditions at the time of diagnosis . Characteristic signs on X @-@ ray are overexpanded lungs , a flattened diaphragm , increased retrosternal airspace , and bullae while it can help exclude other lung diseases , such as pneumonia , pulmonary edema or a pneumothorax . A high @-@ resolution computed tomography scan of the chest may show the distribution of emphysema throughout the lungs and can also be useful to exclude other lung diseases . Unless surgery is planned , however , this rarely affects management . An analysis of arterial blood is used to determine the need for oxygen ; this is recommended in those with an FEV1 less than 35 % predicted , those with a peripheral oxygen saturation of less than 92 % and those with symptoms of congestive heart failure . In areas of the world where alpha @-@ 1 antitrypsin deficiency is common , people with COPD ( particularly those below the age of 45 and with emphysema affecting the lower parts of the lungs ) should be considered for testing .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
COPD may need to be differentiated from other causes of shortness of breath such as congestive heart failure , pulmonary embolism , pneumonia or pneumothorax . Many people with COPD mistakenly think they have asthma . The distinction between asthma and COPD is made on the basis of the symptoms , smoking history , and whether airflow limitation is reversible with bronchodilators at spirometry . Tuberculosis may also present with a chronic cough and should be considered in locations where it is common . Less common conditions that may present similarly include bronchopulmonary dysplasia and obliterative bronchiolitis . Chronic bronchitis may occur with normal airflow and in this situation it is not classified as COPD .
= = Prevention = =
Most cases of COPD are potentially preventable through decreasing exposure to smoke and improving air quality . Annual influenza vaccinations in those with COPD reduce exacerbations , hospitalizations and death . Pneumococcal vaccination may also be beneficial .
= = = Smoking cessation = = =
Keeping people from starting smoking is a key aspect of preventing COPD . The policies of governments , public health agencies , and anti @-@ smoking organizations can reduce smoking rates by discouraging people from starting and encouraging people to stop smoking . Smoking bans in public areas and places of work are important measures to decrease exposure to secondhand smoke and while many places have instituted bans more are recommended .
In those who smoke , stopping smoking is the only measure shown to slow down the worsening of COPD . Even at a late stage of the disease , it can reduce the rate of worsening lung function and delay the onset of disability and death . Smoking cessation starts with the decision to stop smoking , leading to an attempt at quitting . Often several attempts are required before long @-@ term abstinence is achieved . Attempts over 5 years lead to success in nearly 40 % of people .
Some smokers can achieve long @-@ term smoking cessation through willpower alone . Smoking , however , is highly addictive , and many smokers need further support . The chance of quitting is improved with social support , engagement in a smoking cessation program and the use of medications such as nicotine replacement therapy , bupropion or varenicline .
= = = Occupational health = = =
A number of measures have been taken to reduce the likelihood that workers in at @-@ risk industries — such as coal mining , construction and stonemasonry — will develop COPD . Examples of these measures include : the creation of public policy , education of workers and management about the risks , promoting smoking cessation , checking workers for early signs of COPD , use of respirators , and dust control . Effective dust control can be achieved by improving ventilation , using water sprays and by using mining techniques that minimize dust generation . If a worker develops COPD , further lung damage can be reduced by avoiding ongoing dust exposure , for example by changing the work role .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Both indoor and outdoor air quality can be improved , which may prevent COPD or slow the worsening of existing disease . This may be achieved by public policy efforts , cultural changes , and personal involvement .
A number of developed countries have successfully improved outdoor air quality through regulations . This has resulted in improvements in the lung function of their populations . Those with COPD may experience fewer symptoms if they stay indoors on days when outdoor air quality is poor .
One key effort is to reduce exposure to smoke from cooking and heating fuels through improved ventilation of homes and better stoves and chimneys . Proper stoves may improve indoor air quality by 85 % . Using alternative energy sources such as solar cooking and electrical heating is also effective . Using fuels such as kerosene or coal might be less bad than traditional biomass such as wood or dung .
= = Management = =
There is no known cure for COPD , but the symptoms are treatable and its progression can be delayed . The major goals of management are to reduce risk factors , manage stable COPD , prevent and treat acute exacerbations , and manage associated illnesses . The only measures that have been shown to reduce mortality are smoking cessation and supplemental oxygen . Stopping smoking decreases the risk of death by 18 % . Other recommendations include influenza vaccination once a year , pneumococcal vaccination once every 5 years , and reduction in exposure to environmental air pollution . In those with advanced disease , palliative care may reduce symptoms , with morphine improving the feelings of shortness of breath . Noninvasive ventilation may be used to support breathing .
= = = Exercise = = =
Pulmonary rehabilitation is a program of exercise , disease management and counseling , coordinated to benefit the individual . In those who have had a recent exacerbation , pulmonary rehabilitation appears to improve the overall quality of life and the ability to exercise , and reduce mortality . It has also been shown to improve the sense of control a person has over their disease , as well as their emotions . Breathing exercises in and of themselves appear to have a limited role . Pursed lip breathing exercises may be useful .
Being either underweight or overweight can affect the symptoms , degree of disability and prognosis of COPD . People with COPD who are underweight can improve their breathing muscle strength by increasing their calorie intake . When combined with regular exercise or a pulmonary rehabilitation program , this can lead to improvements in COPD symptoms . Supplemental nutrition may be useful in those who are malnourished .
= = = Bronchodilators = = =
Inhaled bronchodilators are the primary medications used and result in a small overall benefit . There are two major types , β2 agonists and anticholinergics ; both exist in long @-@ acting and short @-@ acting forms . They reduce shortness of breath , wheeze and exercise limitation , resulting in an improved quality of life . It is unclear if they change the progression of the underlying disease .
In those with mild disease , short @-@ acting agents are recommended on an as needed basis . In those with more severe disease , long @-@ acting agents are recommended . Long acting agents partly work by improving hyperinflation . If long @-@ acting bronchodilators are insufficient , then inhaled corticosteroids are typically added . With respect to long @-@ acting agents , it is unclear if tiotropium ( a long @-@ acting anticholinergic ) or long @-@ acting beta agonists ( LABAs ) are better , and it may be worth trying each and continuing the one that worked best . Both types of agent appear to reduce the risk of acute exacerbations by 15 – 25 % . While both may be used at the same time , any benefit is of questionable significance .
There are several short @-@ acting β2 agonists available including salbutamol ( Ventolin ) and terbutaline . They provide some relief of symptoms for four to six hours . Long @-@ acting β2 agonists such as salmeterol and formoterol are often used as maintenance therapy . Some feel the evidence of benefits is limited while others view the evidence of benefit as established . Long @-@ term use appears safe in COPD with adverse effects include shakiness and heart palpitations . When used with inhaled steroids they increase the risk of pneumonia . While steroids and LABAs may work better together , it is unclear if this slight benefit outweighs the increased risks .
There are two main anticholinergics used in COPD , ipratropium and tiotropium . Ipratropium is a short @-@ acting agent while tiotropium is long @-@ acting . Tiotropium is associated with a decrease in exacerbations and improved quality of life , and tiotropium provides those benefits better than ipratropium . It does not appear to affect mortality or the overall hospitalization rate . Anticholinergics can cause dry mouth and urinary tract symptoms . They are also associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke . Aclidinium , another long acting agent which came to market in 2012 , has been used as an alternative to tiotropium .
= = = Corticosteroids = = =
Corticosteroids are usually used in inhaled form but may also be used as tablets to treat and prevent acute exacerbations . While inhaled corticosteroids ( ICS ) have not shown benefit for people with mild COPD , they decrease acute exacerbations in those with either moderate or severe disease . By themselves they have no effect on overall one @-@ year mortality . It is unclear if they affect the progression of the disease . When used in combination with a LABA they may decrease mortality compared to either ICS or LABA alone . Inhaled steroids are associated with increased rates of pneumonia . Long @-@ term treatment with steroid tablets is associated with significant side effects .
= = = Other medication = = =
Long @-@ term antibiotics , specifically those from the macrolide class such as erythromycin , reduce the frequency of exacerbations in those who have two or more a year . This practice may be cost effective in some areas of the world . Concerns include that of antibiotic resistance and hearing problems with azithromycin . Methylxanthines such as theophylline generally cause more harm than benefit and thus are usually not recommended , but may be used as a second @-@ line agent in those not controlled by other measures . Mucolytics may help to reduce exacerbations in some people with chronic bronchitis . Cough medicines are not recommended .
= = = Oxygen = = =
Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest ( a partial pressure of oxygen of less than 50 – 55 mmHg or oxygen saturations of less than 88 % ) . In this group of people it decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day and may improve people 's ability to exercise . In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels , oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath . There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke . In this situation some recommend against its use . During acute exacerbations , many require oxygen therapy ; the use of high concentrations of oxygen without taking into account a person 's oxygen saturations may lead to increased levels of carbon dioxide and worsened outcomes . In those at high risk of high carbon dioxide levels , oxygen saturations of 88 – 92 % are recommended , while for those without this risk recommended levels are 94 – 98 % .
= = = Surgery = = =
For those with very severe disease , surgery is sometimes helpful and may include lung transplantation or lung volume reduction surgery . Lung volume reduction surgery involves removing the parts of the lung most damaged by emphysema allowing the remaining , relatively good lung to expand and work better . Lung transplantation is sometimes performed for very severe COPD , particularly in younger individuals .
= = = Exacerbations = = =
Acute exacerbations are typically treated by increasing the usage of short @-@ acting bronchodilators . This commonly includes a combination of a short @-@ acting inhaled beta agonist and anticholinergic . These medications can be given either via a metered @-@ dose inhaler with a spacer or via a nebulizer with both appearing to be equally effective . Nebulization may be easier for those who are more unwell .
Oral corticosteroids improve the chance of recovery and decrease the overall duration of symptoms . They work equally well as intravenous steroids but appear to have fewer side effects . Five days of steroids work as well as ten or fourteen . In those with a severe exacerbation , antibiotics improve outcomes . A number of different antibiotics may be used including amoxicillin , doxycycline and azithromycin ; it is unclear if one is better than the others . The FDA recommends against the use of fluoroquinolones when other options are available due to higher risks of serious side effects . There is no clear evidence for those with less severe cases .
For those with type 2 respiratory failure ( acutely raised CO2 levels ) non @-@ invasive positive pressure ventilation decreases the probability of death or the need of intensive care admission . Additionally , theophylline may have a role in those who do not respond to other measures . Fewer than 20 % of exacerbations require hospital admission . In those without acidosis from respiratory failure , home care ( " hospital at home " ) may be able to help avoid some admissions .
= = Prognosis = =
COPD usually gets gradually worse over time and can ultimately result in death . It is estimated that 3 % of all disability is related to COPD . The proportion of disability from COPD globally has decreased from 1990 to 2010 due to improved indoor air quality primarily in Asia . The overall number of years lived with disability from COPD , however , has increased .
The rate at which COPD worsens varies with the presence of factors that predict a poor outcome , including severe airflow obstruction , little ability to exercise , shortness of breath , significantly underweight or overweight , congestive heart failure , continued smoking , and frequent exacerbations . Long @-@ term outcomes in COPD can be estimated using the BODE index which gives a score of zero to ten depending on FEV1 , body @-@ mass index , the distance walked in six minutes , and the modified MRC dyspnea scale . Significant weight loss is a bad sign . Results of spirometry are also a good predictor of the future progress of the disease but not as good as the BODE index .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally , as of 2010 , COPD affected approximately 329 million people ( 4 @.@ 8 % of the population ) . The disease affects men and women almost equally , as there has been increased tobacco use among women in the developed world . The increase in the developing world between 1970 and the 2000s is believed to be related to increasing rates of smoking in this region , an increasing population and an aging population due to fewer deaths from other causes such as infectious diseases . Some developed countries have seen increased rates , some have remained stable and some have seen a decrease in COPD prevalence . The global numbers are expected to continue increasing as risk factors remain common and the population continues to get older .
Between 1990 and 2010 the number of deaths from COPD decreased slightly from 3 @.@ 1 million to 2 @.@ 9 million and became the fourth leading cause of death . In 2012 it became the third leading cause as the number of deaths rose again to 3 @.@ 1 million . In some countries , mortality has decreased in men but increased in women . This is most likely due to rates of smoking in women and men becoming more similar . COPD is more common in older people ; it affects 34 – 200 out of 1000 people older than 65 years , depending on the population under review .
In England , an estimated 0 @.@ 84 million people ( of 50 million ) have a diagnosis of COPD ; this translates into approximately one person in 59 receiving a diagnosis of COPD at some point in their lives . In the most socioeconomically deprived parts of the country , one in 32 people were diagnosed with COPD , compared with one in 98 in the most affluent areas . In the United States approximately 6 @.@ 3 % of the adult population , totaling approximately 15 million people , have been diagnosed with COPD . 25 million people may have COPD if currently undiagnosed cases are included . In 2011 , there were approximately 730 @,@ 000 hospitalizations in the United States for COPD . In the United State , COPD , is estimated to be the third leading cause of death in 2011 .
= = History = =
The word " emphysema " is derived from the Greek ἐμφυσᾶν emphysan meaning " inflate " -itself composed of ἐν en , meaning " in " , and φυσᾶν physan , meaning " breath , blast " . The term chronic bronchitis came into use in 1808 while the term COPD is believed to have first been used in 1965 . Previously it has been known by a number of different names , including chronic obstructive bronchopulmonary disease , chronic obstructive respiratory disease , chronic airflow obstruction , chronic airflow limitation , chronic obstructive lung disease , nonspecific chronic pulmonary disease , and diffuse obstructive pulmonary syndrome . The terms chronic bronchitis and emphysema were formally defined in 1959 at the CIBA guest symposium and in 1962 at the American Thoracic Society Committee meeting on Diagnostic Standards .
Early descriptions of probable emphysema include : in 1679 by T. Bonet of a condition of " voluminous lungs " and in 1769 by Giovanni Morgagni of lungs which were " turgid particularly from air " . In 1721 the first drawings of emphysema were made by Ruysh . These were followed with pictures by Matthew Baillie in 1789 and descriptions of the destructive nature of the condition . In 1814 Charles Badham used " catarrh " to describe the cough and excess mucus in chronic bronchitis . René Laennec , the physician who invented the stethoscope , used the term " emphysema " in his book A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation ( 1837 ) to describe lungs that did not collapse when he opened the chest during an autopsy . He noted that they did not collapse as usual because they were full of air and the airways were filled with mucus . In 1842 , John Hutchinson invented the spirometer , which allowed the measurement of vital capacity of the lungs . However , his spirometer could only measure volume , not airflow . Tiffeneau and Pinelli in 1947 described the principles of measuring airflow .
In 1953 , Dr. George L. Waldbott , an American allergist , first described a new disease he named " smoker 's respiratory syndrome " in the 1953 Journal of the American Medical Association . This was the first association between tobacco smoking and chronic respiratory disease .
Early treatments included garlic , cinnamon and ipecac , among others . Modern treatments were developed during the second half of the 20th century . Evidence supporting the use of steroids in COPD were published in the late 1950s . Bronchodilators came into use in the 1960s following a promising trial of isoprenaline . Further bronchodilators , such as salbutamol , were developed in the 1970s , and the use of LABAs began in the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Society and culture = =
COPD has been referred to as " smoker 's lung " . People with emphysema have been known as " pink puffers " or " type A " due to their frequent pink complexion , fast respiratory rate and pursed lips , and people with chronic bronchitis have been referred to as " blue bloaters " or " type B " due to the often bluish color of the skin and lips from low oxygen levels and their ankle swelling . This terminology is no longer accepted as useful as most people with COPD have a combination of both emphysema and chronic bronchitis .
Many health systems have difficulty ensuring appropriate identification , diagnosis and care of people with COPD ; Britain 's Department of Health has identified this as a major issue for the National Health Service and has introduced a specific strategy to tackle these problems .
= = = Economics = = =
Globally , as of 2010 , COPD is estimated to result in economic costs of $ 2 @.@ 1 trillion , half of which occurring in the developing world . Of this total an estimated $ 1 @.@ 9 trillion are direct costs such as medical care , while $ 0 @.@ 2 trillion are indirect costs such as missed work . This is expected to more than double by the year 2030 . In Europe , COPD represents 3 % of healthcare spending . In the United States , costs of the disease are estimated at $ 50 billion , most of which is due to exacerbation . COPD was among the most expensive conditions seen in U.S. hospitals in 2011 , with a total cost of about $ 5 @.@ 7 billion .
= = Research = =
Infliximab , an immune @-@ suppressing antibody , has been tested in COPD but there was no evidence of benefit with the possibility of harm . Roflumilast shows promise in decreasing the rate of exacerbations but does not appear to change quality of life . A number of new , long @-@ acting agents are under development .
Treatment with stem cells is under study . While there is tentative data that it is safe and with promising animal data there is little human data as of 2014 . Some of the human data that is available has found poor results .
= = Other animals = =
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may occur in a number of other animals and may be caused by exposure to tobacco smoke . Most cases of the disease , however , are relatively mild . In horses it is known as recurrent airway obstruction , can be quite severe , and most often is linked to an allergic reaction to a fungus contained in contaminated hay or straw . COPD is also commonly found in old dogs .
= Trouble ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" Trouble " is a song recorded by British recording artist Leona Lewis and American entertainer Childish Gambino for Lewis ' third studio album , Glassheart ( 2012 ) . Inspired by Lewis ' break @-@ up with childhood sweetheart Lou Al @-@ Chamaa , " Trouble " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B and trip hop ballad , with a piano and strings @-@ driven melody . It was written by a British writing collective consisting of Lewis , Donald Glover , Hugo Chegwin , Harry Craze , Shahid Khan , James Murray , Mustafa Omer , Emeli Sandé and Fraser T Smith . Production came courtesy of Khan under his production name of Naughty Boy and Smith , along with co @-@ producer Chris Loco and additional producer Jahlil Beats . Music critics noted that the urban production marked a new direction for Lewis , particularly by featuring Gambino during the song 's middle eight breakdown with a poetic rap verse . A version excluding Gambino is also included on Glassheart .
" Trouble " was also influenced by British trip hop duo Massive Attack , who Lewis cited as a musical inspiration . Lewis ' falsetto and soprano vocal performance on the song garnered early praise from critics who commended the raw emotions , as well as Gambino 's guest rap and the song 's melodic strings- and piano @-@ heavy production . " Trouble " premiered on 21 August 2012 on BBC Radio 1 's Breakfast with Scott , ahead of its release as Glassheart 's lead single , superseding the 2011 single " Collide " , a collaboration with Swedish DJ and record producer Avicii . " Trouble " was released on 5 October 2012 , preceding the album by one week , and entered the UK Singles Chart at number seven becoming Lewis 's ninth top @-@ ten single . In Ireland " Trouble " charted at number twenty @-@ one becoming Lewis 's eighth top @-@ thirty single .
As part of promotion of the song , fans were given chance to produce their own remix of " Trouble " which was released alongside the single on Lewis ' official music store . An accompanying music video was filmed on 22 August in Los Angeles , with Teen Wolf actor Colton Haynes cast as Lewis ' love interest . Haynes , a friend of Lewis , was chosen due to his physical resemblance to Lewis ' ex Al @-@ Chaama . In the video , Lewis and Haynes ' relationship begins to unfold and culminates in an altercation between the duo before Haynes leaves and Lewis breaks down in tears . Lewis also recorded an acoustic performance of the song for her Vevo account . " Trouble " was promoted with performances on the ninth series of The X Factor ( UK ) , on 7 October 2012 , later on Alan Carr : Chatty Man and also during a set at London nightclub , G @-@ A @-@ Y.
= = Background and release = =
Lewis began to conceptualise her third album Glassheart in the second half of 2010 , shortly after completing her first headline concert tour , The Labyrinth . " Trouble " was one of the earlier songs recorded by Lewis , and one of several tracks that Lewis worked on with British duo Emeli Sandé and Naughty Boy . Sandé first conceived the loose concepts for " Trouble " in 2009 . It was not until British hip @-@ hop artist Tinie Tempah began working with Sandé for his own debut album Disc @-@ Overy ( 2011 ) , that " Trouble " was pitched to Lewis ; Tempah approached Lewis to record " Trouble " as a duet with himself . Upon hearing the demo , Lewis asked Tempah if she could have the song and subsequently entered the recording studios with Sandé and Fraser T Smith to record and finish the song . Sandé later wrote two more songs for Lewis , including " I to You " and " Sugar " . A fourth song , " Mountains " , was reclaimed by Sandé and was recorded for her debut album Our Version of Events ( 2012 ) .
With a November 2011 release date set for Glassheart , Lewis proceeded with the release of the album 's first single " Collide " on 15 July 2011 . However , Swedish house music DJ Avicii sued Lewis and Sony Music , claiming that " Collide " was a reproduction of his own instrumental single " Penguin , " for which he had sought the legal permission to sample Simon Jeffes ' " Perpetuum Mobile " . Following a settlement out of court , " Collide " was released crediting both Lewis and Avicii . " Collide " reached number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , number three in Ireland and number four in the United Kingdom . Despite this , Glassheart was pushed into early 2012 to accommodate new recording sessions . During this time Lewis would work with Scottish DJ Calvin Harris and record a song called " We Found Love " . Harris wanted Lewis to release " We Found Love " at the end of 2011 , yet Lewis and her label had already decided " Trouble " would be the second single from Glassheart . During an interview with Digital Spy , Lewis said " Yes , I think ' Trouble ' will be the second single . I can 't wait for everyone to hear it . I 'm really excited about it . It 's one that I really love . " Once the album was pushed back again to mid @-@ 2012 , and then October 2012 , Harris reclaimed " We Found Love " , which was subsequently recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna for her album Talk That Talk and became a number one hit worldwide .
Nearly a year later as work for the album neared completion , Lewis was able to confirm that " Trouble " would still be the album 's second single and was due for release in October 2012 alongside the album . Between the announcement in 2011 and the song 's release in 2012 , Sony Music Entertainment re @-@ organised operations , which resulted in the closure of J Records and all previously signed artists being absorbed into RCA Records . " Trouble " is thus Lewis ' first release in partnership with RCA Records . Sony Music made " Trouble " a global priority , making it supersede " Collide " as the album 's lead single and focussing on promoting the song in the UK first before a worldwide release . A new version of " Trouble " was recorded to feature American rapper Childish Gambino and premiered on radio on 21 August 2012 . " Trouble " was played at a press premiere for Tracey Hart from Music Week magazine , along with new songs " Come Alive " and " Un Love Me " . The song was also played for Popjustice twice , first in an early form last year in 2011 and secondly in a finished form on 16 August 2012 . The website noted that the new version of " Trouble " sounded more finished and complete with the addition of Gambino 's verse . " Trouble " premiered on BBC Radio 1 's Breakfast with Scott on 21 August 2012 , ahead of its Irish release on 5 October and UK release on 7 October 2012 . It was released 14 December 2012 in Germany .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Trouble " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B and trip hop song written by Lewis and collective of British songwriters , including Hugo Chegwin , Harry Craze , Shahid Khan , James Murray , Mustafa Omer , Emeli Sandé and Fraser T Smith . It is primarily an R & B and trip hop song , built around a strings- and piano @-@ driven melody . Production was done by Khan under his production name of Naughty Boy and Smith , while secondary production was provided by Chris Loco . Orlando " Jahlil Beats " Tucker provided some additional production . A reviewer from the The Metro noted that the song had a hip hop vibe and feel to its production . " Trouble " was recorded in the key of A @-@ minor and written in time signature of common time , set at a tempo of 104 beats per minute . Sony Music executive Sonny Thakrar described Lewis and Sandé 's work together on " Trouble " as " killer chemistry , " praising Sandé 's " storytelling " abilities and Lewis ' " vocal prowess " . Thakrar , who is also involved with A & R , said that " Trouble " was a showcase of an " emotional and raw " vocal from Lewis . Vocals throughout the song are sung in Lewis ' falsetto and soprano registers , spanning a range of E4 – 5 . The tone and mood of the song is ethereal , with Lewis ' vocals taking on a " haunting " tone that is only broken during middle eight section when Childish Gambino delivers his " poetic " rap verse . " Trouble " featuring Gambino appears on Glassheart as track number thirteen , whilst a solo no @-@ rap version appears on the album as track number one .
In a press release , Lewis explained the meaning behind " Trouble " : " it tells the story of love going bad and becoming destructive , aspects of which we can all relate to . It ’ s a deeply emotional and poignant song that I have a real connection to . " According to the Sunday Mirror , " Trouble " was inspired by Lewis ' break @-@ up with her childhood sweetheart Lou Al @-@ Chamaa . Lyrics which reference her relationship with Chamaa include the lines : " I told you never to get used to me , I stay awake while you fall asleep . I 'm a whole lot of trouble , we 're in a whole lot of trouble . You shout louder than you used to , and you hold on tighter in the bedroom . " During an interview with Digital Spy , Lewis further explained that she was inspired and influenced by British trip @-@ hop pioneers Massive Attack . The Sun 's showbiz editor Gordan Smart also picked up on the similarities , noting that " Trouble " sounds similar to " Unfinished Sympathy " ( 1991 ) and " Teardrop " ( 1998 ) by Massive Attack . " Trouble " drew comparisons to Sandé 's own singles ; according to Michael Cragg from The Guardian , " Trouble " was much like " Heaven " ( 2011 ) while MSN 's Danielle Cheeseman compared it to Sandé collaboration with Naughty Boy , " Daddy " ( 2011 ) .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Trouble " received mainly positive reviews from critics , who praised Childish Gambino 's featured rap , the musical production and Lewis 's emotive vocals . A reviewer from Pop Justice said that the site had twice heard " Trouble " ; the first time was just before " Collide " was released in September 2011 , while a second finished version was played for them on 16 August 2012 . The final track featured the same " beguiling feel " as the earlier version but was more " finished . " The reviewer commented , " [ ' Trouble ' has ] a convincing , compelling and dramatic vocal performance which works brilliantly against the song 's opulent but bleak mid @-@ tempo production " , adding that although Childish Gambino 's " rap in the middle eight sounds great " , it almost " slightly dilutes Leona 's big comeback " . These sentiments were echoed by Kim Dawson from the Daily Star , describing the song as bringing Lewis " bang up to date " thanks to " a mid @-@ tempo melody , epic strings , sharp lyrics " and a " slammin ' rap from Gambino " . Meanwhile , Kirsten McCormack from the Daily Mail praised Lewis ' " ethereal and haunting vocal tones " make " Trouble " a " showcase [ for ] the sheer power and intimacy of Leona ’ s incredible talent " . McCormack also praised the " home @-@ grown " talent of a completely British writing camp which conceptualised the song , calling it a " standout track " and something that Lewis could be passionate about .
During early previews of the song , Corner spoke most on Gambino 's guest appearance , describing the collaboration as " unlikely on paper " but then in reality " it results in one of Leona 's most natural collaborations to date " . Commenting on the song as a whole , Corner said " Trouble " was a powerful comeback , " It 's big , it 's emotional and it 's what we 've come to expect from the Hackney belle – but we wouldn 't want it any other way . " Gordon Smart , showbiz editor for The Sun added that although " it was a long time coming , [ ... ] ' Trouble ' will definitely make people interested in a full album " mainly down the new sound , image and Gambino 's guest rap which will " help shake off Lewis ' safe image . " Lewis Corner from Digital Spy also picked up on the change of direction and commented that people would be " shocked , " but then added that " when " it results in an emotive anthem like this , we hope she unleashes it more often . " The Guardian 's Michael Cragg called " Trouble " a return to the " safer " templates of her first two albums , but praised the song 's production calling it " a vaguely trip @-@ hop beat buffeted by soaring strings and a troubled lyric in the chorus . " Like previous reviews , Cragg also praised Gambino stating that he " manages to stamp his own personality on the song " despite appearing near the end of the song and that perhaps it was Lewis ' best chance at " regaining her footing in America " .
In a later review , Corner said that " Trouble " was built around " echoing beats and heart @-@ tugging piano riff , " which when combined with " her unmistakable falsetto " was as dramatic as a scene from the film The Hunger Games . Elena Gorgon from Softpedia echoed earlier sentiments , concluding that the song " was powerful , it 's heartfelt and it confirms Leona as one of the most remarkable vocalists of the day . " However MSN 's Danielle Cheeseman said that " Trouble " being a safe return to what Lewis has always done wasn 't necessarily a good thing . In her review , Cheeseman called the song the " same melodrama " as past Lewis songs and that due to the song sounding familiar to Sandé 's song " Daddy " , " Lewis has yet to find her own stride " . Corner featured " Trouble " on his weekly playlist " 10 Songs You Need to Hear " for the week beginning 27 August 2012 . There he described elaborated that the song was a welcome return for Lewis thanks to " big beats , big strings and even bigger vocals " . Whilst the majority of reviews praised Gambino 's appearance on the song , Cheeseman described the collaboration as " a saviour " but that it did nothing for Lewis ' " credibility " . Her review was subtitled " Leona Lewis Tries to Convince Us She 's ' Trouble ' — We 're not buyin ' what she 's sellin ' " and concluded that if the best that Glassheart could preview after all the delays was " Trouble " , " it won 't be worth the wait . " NME 's Jeremy Allen agreed , praising the production on " Trouble " as " slick " but stating that from Lewis it does not come across with conviction nor is it believable .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On 12 September 2012 , " Trouble " was added the C @-@ Playlist of UK mainstream radio station BBC Radio 1 . A week later it was moved up to the B @-@ Playlist . " Trouble " made its Irish Singles Chart debut at number twenty @-@ one , becoming her eighth top @-@ thirty single . It is Lewis 's third single after " Footprints in the Sand " ( 2008 ) and " I Got You " ( 2010 ) to miss the top five . In the United Kingdom the song fared somewhat better , debuting at number two on the R & B Singles Chart and number seven on the main UK Singles Chart . " Trouble " is the second single to miss the top five in the UK after " I Got You " , but is Lewis ' ninth UK top ten . In total , " Trouble " spent four weeks within the top 100 . Elsewhere , song made a brief appearance Swiss Singles Chart , where it peaked at number seventy @-@ five for one week before dropping off the chart , and at number ninety @-@ three on the South Korea Gaon International singles chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
A music video for " Trouble " began production on 22 August 2012 with Lewis confirming , via her Twitter account , that Teen Wolf actor Colton Haynes will play her love interest in the video . It is the second time that Lewis has enlisted a Hollywood actor to play a love interest , previously casting Chace Crawford to play her leading man in the video for Lewis ' single " I Will Be " ( 2009 ) . According to MSN 's Felicity Thistlewaithe , Haynes was chosen due to his physical resemblance to Lewis ' ex @-@ boyfriend Lou Al @-@ Chamaa , who is thought to be the inspiration for the song . Haynes said that his and Lewis ' managers were good friends and thus the casting was arranged through them . Described by Capital FM as " Lewis enduring an awkward break @-@ up " interpolated with " time [ s ] when the couple were happy and in love , " the music video for " Trouble " uses the solo version of the song , which excludes Childish Gambino 's rap verse . It was filmed in Los Angeles and sees the relationship between Haynes and Lewis unfold in various scenarios , particularly focussing on how the couple argue before walking away from each other .
Helmed by Raul B. Fernandez , the principle filming of the video took place in just one day . While filming the bedroom scene for the video , Lewis fell from the bed and injured her toe . A doctor was called on set to examine the injury , but Lewis was given the all clear and resumed filming barefoot for the rest of the video . On 29 August 2012 , the official lyrics video was uploaded to Lewis ' YouTube page . Two weeks later , Lewis uploaded some still images from the music video . On 14 September 2012 , Lewis uploaded the official music video for " Trouble " to her VEVO account . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from the video shoot was released on 4 October 2012 , and shows Lewis and Haynes filming each of the scenes with commentary from Fernandez , Haynes and Lewis .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a view of the apartment that Lewis and Haynes shared . Books and a vase lay strewn across the floor , while Lewis weeps in the corner and Haynes watches from a distance teary @-@ eyed . The video switches to several other shots of Lewis singing the first verse , looking morose . In a third shot , Lewis is seen standing on a rooftop against the Los Angeles skyline dressed in a dark red crop top . Then the video switches to Lewis standing in front of projected images of the memorable times of her relationship with Haynes . Lewis and Haynes are seen sat at opposite ends of the sofa looking into the distance , spliced with more scenes of Lewis on the rooftop . The couple are seen during an awkward dinner before switching to images of the couple in bed together , seemingly happy . As the chorus kicks in for the first time , the couple are seen arriving at a party , with Lewis wearing an aqua @-@ coloured dress with a portion of her midriff revealed , meanwhile Haynes wears a plaid shirt and jeans . Initially the couple are content , embracing guests but socialising separately and avoiding contact with each other . The camera switches between these and the earlier scenes of Lewis in front of projected images and the LA skyline throughout the chorus . As Lewis sings " I 'm a whole lot of trouble / We 're in a whole lot of trouble " , she glances over to see Haynes flirting with another girl .
In the following verse , Lewis and Haynes are seen having several embraces , some joyful while others are more tense as Lewis is sad . The couple are then seen leaving the party ; Haynes walks over to Lewis and attempts to kiss , but she proceeds to push him away . During the second airing of the chorus , more images of happy scenes between the couple are spliced with Lewis waking up in bed to find Haynes has slept on the sofa . More passionate embraces between the couple are seen before Lewis is seen breaking down in tears . At the breakfast that follows , the couple break into a series of arguments . Lewis shoves Haynes onto the sofa , and Haynes grabs Lewis as she turns away . Lewis then slaps Hayne around the face . During the middle eight breakdown in the song , Haynes throws books from a shelf , and Lewis throws objects at Haynes including a cushion , as well as pushing over a lamp . Haynes subsequently leaves , driving away into the distance , and Lewis falls to the wall and breaks down in tears .
= = = Reception = = =
Anna Lewis from Heatworld.com praised the music video and said that fans who " like listening to good tunes and looking at hot guys " would be impressed . In the review A. Lewis also commended the decision to hire Haynes and summarised by saying " Bravo Leona . Bravo . " 4 Music 's Chris Younie agreed calling Lewis " one lucky lady , " as well as being surprised by the video . In his review Younie said " If you thought butter @-@ wouldn 't @-@ melt in the mouth of Leona Lewis , think again , as the video gets steamy ! " He concluded by praising the song and video 's potential with the comment " [ it ] could be another No 1 for the ballad @-@ belting beauty . "
= = Promotion and live performances = =
In a 24 August 2012 newsletter to fans about the upcoming release of " Trouble , " it was announced that aspiring musicians and fans could produce their own remix for " Trouble " and win the chance to have their remix released along with the single . Lewis told fans , " I can 't wait for you guys to start remixing ' Trouble ' . It is such an important song to me and I know that you will put all your creative talents into it ! I 'm looking forward to hearing what you come up with and don 't forget there are some great prizes to be won too ! " Lewis and Fraser T Smith ( co @-@ producer and co @-@ writer of the song ) were amongst the judges for the shortlisted songs . Matty Graham won the competition , and his remix of " Trouble " was released alongside the original version as part of a Digital EP available exclusively to MyPlayDirect.com , Lewis ' official music store .
On 5 September 2012 , Lewis uploaded her first live performance of " Trouble " to her official Vevo account . The acoustic performance was recorded live in a studio in just one take , and was filmed in black and white . The video features a stripped vocal performance set against a minimal cello and piano production . It is one of five such acoustic performances that Lewis recorded of songs from Glassheart in August 2012 . Deekay from soul music website Soulculture.co.uk praised the acoustic performance , saying that while the original version " just about added up to the sum of its individually brilliant parts " , the acoustic " [ is ] perhaps even better than the original " . The reviewer praised Lewis ' balance of " powerhouse vocals with the soul and emotion that her critics claim she lacks " .
A tour of local radio stations in the UK began on 17 September , lasting for four days and visiting six cities to promote both " Trouble " and Glassheart . Lewis performed " Trouble " live for the first time on ninth series of The X Factor , the same show which launched Lewis ' career six years earlier . Music Week magazine was first to reveal that Lewis would be performing over the first live shows on 7 October , directly preceding the song 's release . Dressed in a purple Ariella Courture gown , Lewis ' performance was called " flawless " by writers for the Daily Mail , who commended Lewis for cementing her comeback . On 12 October 2012 , Lewis performed " Trouble " live on Alan Carr : Chatty Man , and a day later reprised the performance during at set at G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub in London . Internationally , Lewis took to the stage for second season finale of The Voice of Germany , where she performed " Trouble " as a duet with finalist Michael Lane . " Trouble " is performed as the eleventh song on the set list of Lewis ' 2013 tour called the Glassheart Tour .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Recording
Recorded at Henson Recording Studios in Los Angeles and MyAudioTonic Studios ( The Matrix ) in London , United Kingdom .
Mixed at Ninja Beat Club , Atlanta , Georgia .
Mastered at SING Mastering , Atlanta , Georgia .
Personnel
Credits adapted from album booklet .
= = Charts = =
= = Radio adds and release history = =
= No. 482 Squadron RAAF =
No. 482 Squadron was a maintenance unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It was formed in May 1942 as No. 4 Repair and Salvage Unit , renamed No. 4 Repair and Servicing Unit in January 1945 and re @-@ formed as No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron in May 1946 . The squadron then became a component of No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing at RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland . Over the years it serviced the wing 's Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberators , Avro Lincolns , English Electric Canberras , McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms , and General Dynamics F @-@ 111Cs . No. 482 Squadron merged with No. 3 Aircraft Depot to form No. 501 Wing in March 1992 . No. 501 Wing continued to provide maintenance and logistics support for the F @-@ 111Cs at Amberley until disbanding in 2001 .
= = History = =
No. 4 Repair and Salvage Unit ( RSU ) was formed at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , on 18 May 1942 . Its inaugural commanding officer , from 1 June , was acting Flight Lieutenant H.R.P. Relf . On 20 October , it commenced a move to Pell Airfield , Northern Territory , becoming operational on 26 December . Coming under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , No. 4 RSU was responsible for salvaging damaged aircraft , which it subsequently repaired or dismantled for spare parts . By December 1943 , its strength was over 500 officers and men . It was renamed No. 4 Repair and Servicing Unit on 1 January 1945 , and re @-@ located to Winnellie , Northern Territory , on 11 May . As the war in the Pacific moved northward , No. 4 RSU 's strength was reduced ; by August it was under 400 , including 11 officers . On 15 December 1945 , it moved to RAAF Station Parkes , New South Wales . The unit re @-@ located from Parkes to RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , on 15 April 1946 .
No. 4 RSU re @-@ formed as No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron on 10 May 1946 . Commanded by Squadron Leader J.E. Jackson , it became a component of No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing . The squadron 's motto was " Trenchant " . No. 82 Wing 's flying complement included Nos. 12 , 21 , and 23 Squadrons , but these were renumbered Nos. 1 , 2 and 6 Squadrons respectively in February 1948 . At the same time , the wing 's Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers were replaced by Avro Lincolns . During 1949 – 50 , some of the Lincolns were specially modified with advanced radar and other instrumentation to participate in Operation Cumulative , a joint program with the Royal Air Force gathering long @-@ range navigation and bombing data for use in potential air campaigns against the Soviet Union . No. 482 Squadron faced a critical shortage of Merlin engines in mid @-@ 1950 , but the situation improved the next year .
In October 1950 , No. 482 Squadron personnel undertook airframe and Avon engine courses in preparation for the introduction of the recently ordered English Electric Canberra jet bomber , forty @-@ eight of which began re @-@ equipping No. 82 Wing 's flying squadrons in December 1953 . During the 1950s and 60s , No. 482 Squadron provided ground support for exercises involving the Canberras in Darwin and New Guinea , and for ceremonial occasions including several royal visits . In April 1968 , No. 1 Operational Conversion Unit ( OCU ) , responsible for converting aircrew to the Canberra , was made independent of No. 82 Wing to concentrate on providing crews for No. 2 Squadron , which was on active duty in the Vietnam War . Maintenance responsibilities for the Canberras then transferred from No. 482 Squadron to No. 1 OCU , along with relevant staff and equipment .
Between 1970 and 1973 , as an interim measure pending the long @-@ delayed delivery of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber , No. 82 Wing operated leased McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms . They were maintained by No. 482 Squadron in conjunction with No. 3 Aircraft Depot ; as well as routine servicing , the units modified the Phantoms ' AN / APQ @-@ 120 radars during early 1971 . No. 482 Squadron 's hangar , electronics , and training facilities had been upgraded in the late 1960s in anticipation of the arrival of the F @-@ 111 ; the unit 's main hangar became known as the " Taj Mahal " . By 1973 , the year the F @-@ 111 finally entered service , No. 482 Squadron had a strength of over 700 . Borrowing a concept from the United States Air Force , the RAAF employed a centralised servicing regime , whereby all aircraft and maintenance personnel were held by No. 482 Squadron , which serviced and released the F @-@ 111s in line with Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons ' joint flying program . According to Air Marshal Errol McCormack , an F @-@ 111 pilot who rose to become Chief of the Air Staff , the system was a " disaster " that was doomed to failure owing to the relatively small size of the RAAF 's F @-@ 111 fleet .
Responsibility for operational @-@ level servicing of the F @-@ 111s was transferred to the flying squadrons on 1 February 1981 . Under this arrangement , 200 personnel moved from No. 482 Squadron to Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons , which for the first time took direct control of their F @-@ 111s . No. 482 Squadron continued to provide intermediate @-@ level servicing for the bombers , while major upgrades and complex maintenance involving stripping down the airframe and engines were carried out by No. 3 Aircraft Depot . No. 482 Squadron also operated the F @-@ 111 flight simulator . The squadron 's personnel deployed with the F @-@ 111s on exercises , and took part in investigations and recovery operations following accidents . On 17 March 1983 , Sir Ninian Stephen presented No. 482 Squadron with the Governor @-@ General 's Banner . No. 482 Squadron merged with No. 3 Aircraft Depot to form No. 501 Wing on 16 March 1992 . It became the largest unit in the RAAF , with a total strength of over 1 @,@ 200 . No.
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icketts . The wooden addition to the stone house was torn down in either 1897 or 1903 , and the land became a garden . The hotel closed in November 1903 , and the fishing club and passenger train service ended with the closure .
The stone house remained the Ricketts family 's summer home . After the hotel closed , several small cabins were built around the lake for rental to sportsmen . Ricketts proposed moving the highway from his front yard in 1904 ; the Pennsylvania General Assembly approved this in 1908 , after he paid for the construction of the new highway . The house was renovated and added to in 1913 , and Ricketts died there during the 1918 flu pandemic . His wife died shortly thereafter , and they are buried in the small Ricketts family cemetery near the north end of the lake .
= = = Modern era = = =
R. B. Ricketts and his wife had three children ; their son William Reynolds Ricketts lived in the house after his parents ' deaths . Between 1920 and 1924 the Pennsylvania Game Commission bought 48 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 000 ha ) from the Ricketts heirs , via the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company . This became most of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 13 , west of the lake in Sullivan County . These sales left the Ricketts heirs with over 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 ha ) surrounding Ganoga Lake and the glens with their waterfalls . The stone house was listed on the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1936 , which gave its name as " Ganoga " . The area was approved as a national park site in the 1930s , and the National Park Service operated a Civilian Conservation Corps camp at " Ricketts Glynn " ( sic ) . Budget problems and World War II brought an end to national plans for development .
In 1942 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania bought 1 @,@ 261 acres ( 510 ha ) , including the glens and their waterfalls , from the heirs for $ 82 @,@ 000 . Ricketts Glen State Park opened in 1944 . The state bought a total of 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 500 ha ) more from the heirs in 1945 and 1950 for $ 68 @,@ 000 ; the park today has about 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) from the Ricketts family and about 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) acquired from others . After World War II , William Reynolds Ricketts also sold the old @-@ growth timber around Ganoga Lake to help pay property taxes .
William Reynolds Ricketts died in 1956 and the lake and surrounding land were sold in October 1957 for $ 109 @,@ 000 . The Department of Forests and Waters ( predecessor of the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ) bid on the 3 @,@ 140 acres ( 1 @,@ 270 ha ) including the lake , but were outbid by a group of private investors . They initially planned to sell up to 788 building lots around the lake , but when sales were slower than expected , they instead " formed the Lake Ganoga Association in September 1959 to regulate and preserve the recreation and residential facilities at Lake Ganoga " . Thus , private development of houses on the lake only began in the 20th century .
The association built 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of roads around the lake ; the Air Force paved some of these to provide better access from the Benton Air Force Station in the park to a radio transmitter southwest of the lake . The Ganoga Lake Association also cleared some land at the lake 's southern end , and its members built more than 50 houses on the lake shore . The stone house serves as the association 's headquarters and clubhouse , and is used for association meetings , weddings , and picnics ; in 1983 the house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Clemuel Ricketts Mansion . Today the lake is used by kayakers and wind surfers . As a private development , " To all outsiders that have no property around the lake , the lake and grounds are off limits . "
= = Geology and climate = =
The rocks underlying Ganoga Lake are from the Mississippian Pocono Formation , which is a " light @-@ gray to buff or light @-@ olive @-@ gray , medium @-@ grained , crossbedded sandstone " , with some siltstone and conglomerates . The Pocono Formation formed more than 340 million years ago , when the land was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a build @-@ up of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure on the sediment caused the formation of the rocks that are found at the lake and in the drainage basin for Kitchen Creek : sandstone , shale , siltstone , and conglomerates . In 1894 R. Bruce Ricketts planned to mine yellow ocher near the lake .
Ganoga Lake is on the Allegheny Plateau , just north of the Allegheny Front , which is the boundary between the dissected plateau to the north and the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians to the south . Kitchen Creek , which drains the lake , drops approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) in 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) as it flows down the steep escarpment of the Allegheny Front . About 300 to 250 million years ago , the Allegheny Plateau , Allegheny Front , and Appalachian Mountains all formed in the Alleghenian orogeny . This happened long after the sedimentary rocks at the lake were deposited , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with what became North America , forming Pangaea . In the years since , up to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of rock has been eroded away by streams and weather . At least three major glaciations in the past million years have been the final factor in shaping the land around the lake today .
Prior to the last ice age , Ganoga Lake drained into Big Run , a tributary of Fishing Creek . This changed when the glaciers retreated to the northeast about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , and formed glacial lakes . The retreating glaciers also left deposits of debris 20 to 30 feet ( 6 to 9 m ) thick , which formed a dam blocking water from draining into Big Run . Instead , water from Ganoga Lake and the area that later became Lake Jean was diverted into the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek . These diversions added about 7 square miles ( 18 km ² ) to the Kitchen Creek drainage basin , increasing it by just over 50 percent to 20 @.@ 1 square miles ( 52 km2 ) . The result was increased water flow in Kitchen Creek , which has been cutting the falls in the glens since . Glacial striations are found on the eastern side of the lake . The lake is in a shallow valley , 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) deep , which is impounded by glacial till up to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) thick at the southeast end , where Kitchen Creek exits .
The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges ( the difference between the daily high and low ) of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . Ganoga Lake is part of the Huntington Creek watershed , where the mean annual precipitation is 40 to 48 inches ( 1 @,@ 016 to 1 @,@ 219 mm ) . Weather records are not available for Ganoga Lake , but they are known for the adjoining Ricketts Glen State Park . The highest recorded temperature at the park was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) in 1988 , and the record low was − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) in 1984 . On average , January is the coldest month , July is the hottest month , and June is the wettest month .
= = Ecology = =
Ganoga Lake is the largest tributary of Lake Jean , via a 0 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) branch of Kitchen Creek . While Lake Jean lies entirely within Ricketts Glen State Park , much of its 1 @,@ 998 @-@ acre ( 809 ha ) drainage basin extends beyond the park , and Ganoga Lake 's 960 @-@ acre ( 390 ha ) watershed accounts for nearly half of the total area . Lake Jean covers 253 acres ( 102 ha ) ; the remaining 1 @,@ 745 acres ( 706 ha ) of the Lake Jean watershed are 81 @.@ 0 % hardwood forest , 12 @.@ 6 % pastures , 4 @.@ 7 % other lakes ( including Ganoga Lake 's 78 @.@ 8 acres ( 31 @.@ 9 ha ) ) , and 1 @.@ 7 % wetlands . The park has more than 80 species of vines , shrubs , and trees ; black gum , black spruce , eastern hemlock , eastern white pine , eastern larch , red maple , and yellow birch are found in area forests .
In the 19th century Ganoga Lake was home to trout , bullhead catfish , pike , pickerel , and black bass . The lake had very few plants in it , but its shore was lined with mountain laurel and , in the east , mountain ash . After the Ganoga Lake Association 's 1957 purchase , they drained the lake to kill its fish , then stocked it with " 30 @,@ 000 fingerling brook trout " . In 2007 Lake Jean , which is connected to Lake Ganoga via Kitchen Creek , was still home to many of the fish found there in the 19th century : brook trout , brown trout , brown bullhead , yellow bullhead , chain pickerel , and largemouth bass .
Although there are no pollution point sources in the drainage basin , acid rain is a major concern . Acidification has altered the ecology of the lakes and region ; in Lake Jean low pH has decreased the number and quality of insects and plankton at the base of the food chain . Fish which are acid tolerant are predominant , including fathead minnow , muskellunge , pumpkinseed , walleye , and yellow perch . There are relatively few predators like chain pickerel and largemouth bass , and adult fish " appear to have good growth rates but poor reproductive success " .
Despite the increased acidity , all of the Kitchen Creek drainage basin , which includes Ganoga Lake , is classified by the state of Pennsylvania as a " High Quality @-@ Cold Water Fishery " . Under the Clean Water Act a Total Maximum Daily Load ( TMDL ) has been established for acidic pollution in the Lake Jean watershed . Ganoga Lake 's TMDL for acidity is 4 @.@ 1 pounds ( 1 @.@ 9 kg ) per day . Long term exposure to acid rain also damages soil , depleting calcium levels , which may in turn affect insect populations and reproduction in birds . Lake Jean is also " impaired for mercury due to atmospheric deposition " , although TMDLs have not yet been established for this .
Ganoga Lake and Ricketts Glen State Park are part of the much larger 114 @,@ 978 @-@ acre ( 46 @,@ 530 ha ) Pennsylvania Important Bird Area ( IBA ) # 48 , which the Audubon Society describes as " the largest extant forest in northeastern Pennsylvania and one of the largest in the Commonwealth " . Over 75 species of bird are known to breed in the state park adjoining the lake . Lake Jean is home to bald eagle and Canada goose ; aquatic birds found in the IBA include American bittern , American black duck , great blue heron , green @-@ winged teal , hooded merganser , mallard duck , osprey , Virginia rail , and wood duck . Historically , common pheasant were found in the woods around the lake .
Ganoga Lake is on the Allegheny Plateau just north of the Allegheny Front ; this region is known locally as North Mountain . Many bird species are found in the forests on North Mountain , including the state 's only population of blackpoll warbler ; other birds seen there include evening grosbeak , northern goshawk , red crossbill , and Swainson 's thrush . Historically North Mountain was home to olive @-@ sided flycatcher , and " was one of the few places one could enjoy the songs of all of Pennsylvania 's native thrushes " ; today it is home to the state 's largest yellow @-@ bellied flycatcher population .
Ganoga Lake and its surroundings have a variety of insects and animals . Butterflies in the region are studied by lepidopterists , and the hemlock woolly adelgid threatens many of the hemlock trees . Animals found on North Mountain and in the park include squirrel , black bear , fisher , hoary bat , otter , porcupine , raccoon , and white @-@ tailed deer . In 1912 , white @-@ tailed deer around the lake became locally extinct due to loss of habitat from lumbering and overhunting . Pennsylvania imported nearly 1 @,@ 200 white @-@ tailed deer from Michigan between 1906 and 1925 to re @-@ establish the species , and made it the official state animal in 1959 . By 2001 , deer populations had increased to the point where it was feared that " Pennsylvania is losing its vegetative diversity from deer over @-@ browsing " .
= Undertale =
Undertale is a role @-@ playing video game created by indie developer Toby Fox . In the game , players control a human child who has fallen into the Underground , a large , secluded region underneath the surface of the Earth , separated by a magic barrier . The player meets various monsters during a quest to return to the surface , mainly through the combat system ; the player navigates through mini @-@ bullet hell attacks by the opponent cyclically , and can opt to spare monsters instead of attacking and killing them . These choices affect the game , with the dialogue , characters , and story changing based on outcomes .
Fox developed the entirety of the game independently , including writing and composing the score , with only additional art created by other artists . The game was inspired by the Mother and Mario & Luigi role @-@ playing series , the bullet hell shooter series Touhou Project , and the British comedy show Mr. Bean . Undertale was initially meant to be two hours in length and released in mid @-@ 2014 , but development took over three years , effectively extending the campaign and delaying the release .
The game was released on Steam for Microsoft Windows and OS X on September 15 , 2015 . Upon release , the game was acclaimed for its writing , thematic material , intuitive combat system , musical score , and originality ; with praise directed towards its story , dialogue , and characters . The game sold over a million copies , and was nominated for multiple accolades and awards , including Game of the Year from several gaming publications , winning others from conventions including South by Southwest .
= = Gameplay = =
Undertale is a role @-@ playing game that uses a top @-@ down perspective . In the game , players control a child and complete objectives in order to progress through the story . Players explore an underground world of towns and caves , and are required to solve numerous puzzles on their journey . The underground world is the home of monsters , many of whom challenge the player in combat ; players decide to kill , flee , or befriend them .
When players encounter enemies in either scripted events or random encounters , they enter a battle mode . During battles , players control a small red heart which represents their soul , and must avoid attacks unleashed by the opposing monster in a similar fashion to a bullet hell shooter . As the game progresses , new elements are introduced , such as colored obstacles which require players to remain stationary or move through them , and boss battles which change the way players control the heart . Players may choose to attack the enemy , which involves timed button presses , earning EXP and gold for defeating them . Alternatively , they can use the ACT option to perform non @-@ violent actions , which vary depending on the enemy . If players uses the right actions to respond to the enemy , they can choose to spare them and end the fight without killing them . In order for some boss encounters to be completed peacefully , the player is required to survive until the character they are facing has finished their dialogue . The game features various story branches and endings depending on whether players choose to kill or spare their enemies ; and as such , it is possible to clear the game without killing a single enemy .
Monsters will converse with players during the battles , and the game will tell the players what the monster 's feelings and actions are . Enemy attacks alter based on how players interact with them : should players choose non @-@ violent options , enemy attacks are easy , whereas they become difficult if players choose violent options . The game relies on a number of metafictional elements in both its gameplay and story . When players participate in a boss battle on a second playthrough , the dialogue will be altered depending on actions in previous playthroughs .
= = Plot = =
Undertale takes place in the Underground , a realm where monsters , once equal to humans , were banished to after war broke out between them . The Underground is sealed from the surface world by an imperfect magic barrier , the only point of entry being at Mount Ebott . A human child falls into the Underground and encounters Flowey , a sentient flower who teaches them the game 's mechanics and encourages them to raise their " LV " , or " LOVE " , by gaining " EXP " through killing monsters . When Flowey attempts to murder the human to take their soul for himself , the human is rescued by Toriel , a motherly goat @-@ like monster , who teaches the human to solve puzzles and survive conflict in the Underground without killing . She intends to adopt the human , wanting to protect them from Asgore Dreemurr , the king of the Underground .
The human eventually leaves Toriel to search for Asgore 's castle , which contains the barrier leading to the surface world . Along the way , the human encounters several monsters , including : the skeletons Sans and Papyrus , two brothers who act as sentries for the Underground ; Undyne , the head of the royal guard ; Alphys , the kingdom 's royal scientist ; and Mettaton , a robotic television host Alphys created . Some of them are fought , with the human having to choose whether to kill them or to show mercy ; should the human spare them , they become friends . During their travels , the human learns the cause of the war between humans and monsters . Asriel , the son of Asgore and Toriel , befriended a human child who fell into the Underground and was adopted by Asgore and Toriel . One day , the child was fatally poisoned by some flowers . When Asriel returned their body to the humans , they attacked and killed him , resulting in Asgore declaring war . Asgore now seeks to break the barrier , which requires him to collect seven human souls , of which he has six .
The game 's ending depends on how the player resolved encounters with monsters . If the player killed some but not all monsters , the human arrives at Asgore 's castle and learns that they also need a monster 's soul to cross the barrier , forcing them to fight Asgore . Sans stops the human before their confrontation , revealing that the human 's " LOVE " is an acronym for " Level Of ViolencE " and " EXP " for " EXecution Points . " Sans judges the human based on the combined resolution of the encounters . The human fights Asgore , but Flowey interrupts them , killing Asgore and stealing the human souls , becoming a monstrous abomination named ' Photoshop Flowey ' . With the aid of the rebelling souls , the human defeats Flowey , falls unconscious , and awakens on the human side of the barrier ; they receive a phone call from Sans , explaining the state of the Underground after the human 's departure . In order for the player to proceed and obtain the pacifist ending , they must complete a neutral ending first , regardless as to whether they spared monsters or not - Thus , Photoshop Flowey is the only final boss that appears in multiple paths .
If the player instead kills no monsters , as well as having completed a previous Neutral playthrough of the game , Flowey is revealed to be a reincarnation of Asriel , created as part of Alphys 's experiments . Toriel intervenes before the human fights Asgore , and is joined by the other monsters the human has befriended . Flowey ambushes the group , using the souls of all the monsters to take an older Asriel 's form to fight the human . The human connects with their new friends during the fight , eventually triumphing . Asriel reverts to his child form , destroys the barrier , and expresses his remorse to the others before leaving . The human falls unconscious , and is awoken to see their friends surrounding them , with the knowledge of the human 's name – Frisk . The monsters reintegrate with the humans on the surface , while Frisk has the option of accepting Toriel as their adoptive mother .
Another ending ensues if the player kills all monsters , in which Frisk becomes influenced by the malevolent spirit of the fallen human child whose body Asriel attempted to return . When Frisk reaches Asgore 's castle , Sans attempts to stop them , but Frisk kills him along with Asgore and Flowey . The fallen human child assumes control and , with or without the player 's consent , destroys the universe . In order to enable further replays of the game , Frisk must first give their soul to the fallen human child in exchange for restoring the universe . In doing so , every future playthrough becomes marred by the fallen child 's presence .
= = Development = =
Undertale was developed by Toby Fox across 2 @.@ 7 years . Development was financed through a crowdfunding campaign on the website Kickstarter . The campaign was launched on June 25 , 2013 with a goal of US $ 5 @,@ 000 ; it ended on July 25 , 2013 , with US $ 51 @,@ 124 raised by 2 @,@ 398 people ( 1022 @.@ 48 % of the original goal ) . Undertale 's creation ensued after Fox created a battle system using the game creation system GameMaker : Studio . He wanted to develop a role @-@ playing game that was different from the traditional design , which he often found " boring to play " . He set out to develop a game with " interesting characters " , and that " utilizes the medium as a storytelling device ... instead of having the story and gameplay abstractions be completely separate " .
Fox worked on the entire game independently , besides some of the art ; he decided to work independently to avoid relying on others . Fox had little experience with game development ; he and his three brothers often used RPG Maker 2000 to make role @-@ playing games , though few were ever completed . Fox also worked on a number of EarthBound ROM hacks while in high school . Temmie Chang worked as the main artistic assistant for the game , providing most of the sprites and concept art . Fox has said that the game 's art style would likely remain the same if he had access to a larger team of artists . He found that " there 's a psychological thread that says audiences become more attached to characters drawn simply rather than in detail " , particularly benefiting from the use of visual gags within the art .
= = = Game design = = =
The defensive segment within the battle system was inspired by the Mario & Luigi series , as well as bullet hell shooters such as the Touhou Project series . When working on the battle system , Fox set out to create a mechanic that he would personally enjoy . He wanted Undertale to have a battle system as equally engaging as Super Mario RPG ( 1996 ) and Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga ( 2003 ) . Fox did not want grinding to be necessary at any point in the game , instead leaving it optional to players . He also did not wish to introduce fetch quests , as they involve backtracking , which he dislikes . In terms of the game 's difficulty , Fox ensured that it was easy and enjoyable . He asked some friends who are inexperienced with bullet hell shooters to test the game , and found that they were able to complete it . He felt that the game 's difficulty is optimal , particularly considering the complications involved in adding another difficulty setting .
The game 's dialogue system was inspired by Shin Megami Tensei ( 1992 ) , particularly the gameplay mechanic whereby players can talk to monsters to avoid conflict . Fox intended to expand upon this mechanic , as failing to negotiate resulted in a requirement to fight . " I want to create a system that satisfied my urge for talking to monsters , " he said . When he began developing this mechanic , the concept of completing the game without killing any enemies " just evolved naturally " . However , he never considered removing the option to fight throughout development . When questioned on the difficulty of playing the game without killing , Fox responded that it is " the crux of one of the major themes of this game " , asking players to think about it themselves .
= = = Writing = = =
For the game 's writing , Fox was partly influenced by the silliness of internet culture , as well as comedy shows like Mr. Bean ( 1990 – 1995 ) . He was also inspired by the unsettling atmosphere of EarthBound ( 1994 ) . Fox 's desire to " subvert concepts that go unquestioned in many games " further influenced Undertale 's development . Fox found that the writing became easier after establishing a character 's voice and mood . He also felt that creating the world was a natural process , as it expressed the stories of those within it . Fox felt the importance to make the game 's monsters " feel like an individual " . He cited the Final Fantasy series ( 1987 – present ) as the opposite ; " all monsters in RPGs like Final Fantasy are the same ... there 's no meaning to that " .
The character of Toriel , who is one of the first to appear in the game , was created as a parody of tutorial characters . Fox strongly disliked the use of the companion character Fi in The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword ( 2011 ) , in which the answers to puzzles were often revealed early . Fox also felt that role @-@ playing video games generally lack mother characters ; in the Pokémon series ( 1996 – present ) , as well as Mother ( 1989 ) and EarthBound , Fox felt that the mothers are used as " symbols rather than characters " . In response , Fox intended for Toriel 's character to be " a mom that hopefully acts like a mom " , and " genuinely cares " about players ' actions .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's soundtrack was entirely composed by Fox . A self @-@ taught musician , he composed most of the tracks with little iteration ; the game 's main theme , " Undertale " , was the only song to undergo multiple iterations in development . The soundtrack was inspired by music from Super NES role @-@ playing games , such as EarthBound , as well as the webcomic Homestuck , for which Fox also provided some of the music . Fox also stated that he tries to be inspired by all music he listens to , particularly those in video games . According to Fox , over 90 % of the songs were composed specifically for the game . " Megalovania " , the song used during the boss battle with Sans , had previously been used within the Homestuck webcomic and in one of Fox 's EarthBound ROM hacks . For each section of the game , Fox composed the music prior to programming , as it helped " decide how the scene should go " . He initially tried using a music tracker to compose the soundtrack , but found it difficult to use . He ultimately decided to play segments of the music separately , and connect them on a track .
Undertale 's soundtrack has been well received by critics as part of the success of the game , in particular for its use of various leitmotifs for the various characters used throughout various tracks . In particular , " Hopes and Dreams " , the boss theme when fighting Asriel in the run @-@ through where the player avoids killing any monster , brings back most of the main character themes , and is " a perfect way to cap off your journey " , according to USgamer 's Nadia Oxford . Oxford notes this track in particular demonstrates Fox 's ability to " turning old songs into completely new experiences " , used throughout the game 's soundtrack . Tyler Hicks of GameSpot compared the music to " bit @-@ based melodies " .
= = Release = =
The game was released on September 15 , 2015 , for Microsoft Windows and OS X. Fox has expressed interest in releasing Undertale on other platforms , but is unable to port it to Nintendo platforms without reprogramming the game due to the engine 's lack of support for the platforms . A patch was released in January 2016 , fixing bugs and altering the appearance of blue attacks to help colorblind players see them better .
Other Undertale media and merchandise have been released , including toy figurines and plush toys based on characters from the game . The game 's official soundtrack was released in 2015 simultaneously with the game 's release . Additionally , two official Undertale cover albums have been released : the 2015 metal album Determination by RichaadEB and Ace Waters , and the 2016 jazz album Live at Grillby 's by Carlos Eiene .
On July 17 , 2016 , Toby Fox announced on Twitter that he has officially released the game on Linux .
= = Reception = =
Undertale received critical acclaim , and was quickly considered a cult video game by numerous publications . Review aggregator Metacritic calculated an average score of 92 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 42 reviews . Metacritic ranks the game the third @-@ highest rated Windows game released in 2015 , and among the top 25 of all time . Praise was particularly directed at the game 's writing , unique characters , and combat system . GameSpot 's Tyler Hicks declared it " one of the most progressive and innovative RPGs to come in a long time " , and IGN 's Kallie Plagge called it " a masterfully crafted experience " . By the end of 2015 , in a preliminary report by Steam Spy , Undertale was one of the best @-@ selling games on Steam , with 530 @,@ 343 copies sold . By early February 2016 , the game surpassed one million .
Daniel Tack of Game Informer called the game 's combat system " incredibly nuanced " , commenting on the uniqueness of each enemy encounter . Giant Bomb 's Austin Walker praised the complexity of the combat , commenting that it is " unconventional , clever , and occasionally really difficult " . Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of The Escapist commended the game 's ability to blend " turn @-@ based and live combat elements in a way that actually fucking works " . IGN 's Plagge praised the ability to avoid combat , opting for friendly conversations instead . Jesse Singal of The Boston Globe found the game 's ability to make the player empathize with the monsters during combat if they opted for non @-@ violent actions was " indicative of the broader , fundamental sweetness at the core " of Undertale .
Reviewers praised the game 's writing and narrative , with IGN 's Plagge calling it " excellent " . The Escapist 's Croshaw considered Undertale the best @-@ written game of 2015 , writing that is " on the one hand hilarious ... and is also , by the end , rather heartfelt " . Destructoid 's Ben Davis praised the game 's characters and use of comedy , and compared its tone , characters and storytelling to Cave Story ( 2004 ) . PC Gamer 's Richard Cobbett provided similar comments , writing that " even its weaker moments ... just about work " . Breitbart 's Ned Price commended the " soul and charm " that the game conveys through its writing , but noted that the dialogue often " borders on cringey random humor " .
The game 's visuals received mixed reactions . Giant Bomb 's Walker called it " simple , but communicative " . IGN 's Plagge wrote that the game " isn 't always pretty " and " often ugly " , but felt that the music and animations compensate . Breitbart 's Price named the art " bland and not on the same level of detail as the excellent character design " , and The Escapist 's Croshaw remarked that " it wobbles between basic and functional to just plain bad " . Other reviewers liked the graphics : Daniel Tack of Game Informer felt that the visuals appropriately match the characters and settings , while Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer commended the ability of the visuals to convey emotion .
= = = Accolades = = =
Undertale has received multiple awards and nominations from several gaming publications . It won Game of the Year from The Jimquisition and Zero Punctuation , as well as Game of the Month from Rock , Paper , Shotgun . The game won the Best Game Ever poll from GameFAQs , and was awarded Best PC Game from Destructoid and IGN . At the Independent Games Festival Awards , it won the Audience Award , while the SXSW Gaming Awards named it the Most Fulfilling Crowdfunded Game , and awarded it the Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award .
= Bayt Jibrin =
For the history of the site see in chronological order Maresha , Beit Guvrin , Eleutheropolis , Bethgibelin , Bayt Jibrin , Kibbutz Beit Guvrin and Beit Guvrin National Park
Bayt Jibrin ( Arabic : بيت جبرين , also transliterated Beit Jibrin ; Hebrew : בית גוברין ) , was a Palestinian Arab village located 21 kilometers ( 13 mi ) northwest of the city of Hebron . The village had a total land area of 56 @,@ 185 dunams or 56 @.@ 1 km2 ( 13 @,@ 900 acres ) , of which 0 @.@ 28 km2 ( 69 acres ) were built @-@ up while the rest remained farmland .
During the 8th century BCE , the village was part of the Kingdom of Judah . During the days of Jewish king Herod the town was the administrative center for the district of Idumea . After the turmoil of the First Jewish @-@ Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt the town became a thriving Roman colony and a major administrative center under the name of Eleutheropolis . In the early 7th century CE , Bayt Jibrin was conquered by Muslim forces led by ' Amr ibn al- ' As . Under the Crusaders in the 12th century , it had a population of 1 @,@ 500 , compared to 100 @-@ 150 in the average village of the time . It fell to the Mamluks and then the Ottoman Turks . In the 19th century , the al- ' Azza family took control of Bayt Jibrin and unsuccessfully attempted to rebel against the Ottomans , ending in the exile and execution of local leaders .
Under the British Mandate of Palestine , Bayt Jibrin again served as a district center for surrounding villages . It was captured by Israeli forces during the 1948 War , causing its inhabitants to flee eastward . Today , many of the refugees of Bayt Jibrin and their descendants live in the Bayt Jibrin and Fawwar camps in the southern West Bank . The kibbutz of Beit Guvrin was established on Bayt Jibrin 's lands in 1949 . The underground caves of Bayt Jibrin have been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
= = Name = =
The town was renamed over the centuries . Its Aramaic name Beth Gabra , preserved by the geographer Ptolemy in the Greek variation of Βαιτογάβρα ( Baitogabra ) , translates as the " house of the [ strong ] man " or " house of the mighty one " . The antecedent might be seen in the name of an Edomite king : Ḳaus @-@ gabri or Kauš @-@ Gabr , found on an inscription of Tiglathpileser III . The Romans gave it a Greek name , Eleutheropolis ( Ἐλευθερόπολις ) , meaning " City of the Free " . In the Peutinger Tables in 393 CE , Bayt Jibrin was called Beitogabri . In the Talmud , compiled between the 3rd and 4th centuries , it was known as Beit Gubrin ( or Guvrin ) . To the Crusaders , it was known as Bethgibelin or Gibelin . Another name in medieval times may have been Beit Jibril , meaning " house of Gabriel " . In Arabic , Bayt Jibrin or Jubrin ( بيت جبرين ) means " house of the powerful " , reflecting its original Aramaic name. and the town was probably called Bayt Jibrin or Beit Jibril throughout its rule by various Muslim dynasties .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient period = = =
The excavations have revealed no remains older than the Iron Age , a time when the Judahite town of Maresha rose on the tell known in Arabic as Tell Sandahanna and in Hebrew as Tel Maresha . This corresponds to several Hebrew Bible mentions of Maresha . However , local folklore tells that the former Arab village of Bayt Jibrin was first inhabited by Canaanites . After the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE , the city of Maresha became part of the Edomite kingdom . In the late Persian period a Sidonian community settled in Maresha , and the city is mentioned in the Zenon Papyri ( 259 BCE ) . During the Maccabean Revolt , Maresha was a base for attacks against Judea and suffered retaliation from the Maccabees . In 112 BCE , Maresha was conquered and destroyed by the Hasmonean king , John Hyrcanus I , after which the region of Idumea ( the Greek name of Edom ) remained under Hasmonean control and Idumeans were forced to convert to Judaism . In 40 BCE , the Parthians devastated completely the " strong city " , after which it was never rebuilt . After this date , nearby Beit Guvrin succeeded Maresha as the chief center of the area .
= = = Antiquity = = =
In the Jewish War ( 68 CE ) , Vespasian slaughtered or enslaved the inhabitants of Betaris . According to Josephus : " When he had seized upon two villages , which were in the very midst of Idumea , Betaris , and Caphartobas , he slew above ten thousand of the people , and carried into captivity above a thousand , and drove away the rest of the multitude , and placed no small part of his own forces in them , who overran and laid waste the whole mountainous country . " However , it continued to be a Jewish @-@ inhabited city until the Bar Kokhba revolt ( 132 @-@ 135 CE ) .
Septimius Severus , Roman Emperor from 193 to 211 , granted the city municipal status , renaming it Eleutheropolis meaning " City of the Free " and exempting its citizens from taxes . Coins minted by him , bearing the date 1 January 200 , commemorate its founding . Eleutheropolis , which covered an area of 65 hectares ( 160 acres ) ( larger at the time than Aelia Capitolina - the Roman city built over the ruins of Jewish Jerusalem ) , flourished under the Romans , who built public buildings , military installations , aqueducts and a large amphitheater . Towards the end of the 2nd century CE , Rabbi Judah the Prince ameliorated the condition of its Jewish citizens by releasing the city from the obligations of tithing home @-@ grown produce , and from observing the Seventh Year laws with respect to the same produce , as believing this area of the country was not originally settled by Jews returning from the Babylonian captivity . The vita of Epiphanius of Salamis , born into a Christian family near Eleutheropolis , describes the general surroundings in Late Antique Judaea . The second chapter of the vita describes the details of the important market of Eleutheropolis . Seven routes met at Eleutheropolis , and Eusebius , in his Onomasticon
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ik " which means " very religious " .
= 2003 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2003 Atlantic hurricane season was an active Atlantic hurricane season with tropical activity before and after the official bounds of the season – the first such occurrence in 50 years . The season produced 21 tropical cyclones , of which 16 developed into named storms ; seven cyclones attained hurricane status , of which three reached major hurricane status . With sixteen storms , the season was tied for the sixth most active Atlantic hurricane season on record . The strongest hurricane of the season was Hurricane Isabel , which reached Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale northeast of the Lesser Antilles ; Isabel later struck North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane , causing $ 3 @.@ 6 billion in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 4 @.@ 63 billion 2016 USD ) and a total of 51 deaths across the Mid @-@ Atlantic region of the United States .
The season began with Subtropical Storm Ana on April 20 , prior to the official start of the season ; the bounds of the season are from June 1 to November 30 , which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . In early September , Hurricane Fabian struck Bermuda as a Category 3 hurricane , where it was the worst hurricane since 1926 ; on the island it caused four deaths and $ 300 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 386 million 2016 USD ) . Hurricane Juan caused considerable destruction to Nova Scotia , particularly Halifax , as a Category 2 hurricane , the first hurricane of significant strength to hit the province since 1893 . Additionally , Hurricanes Claudette and Erika struck Texas and Mexico , respectively , as minimal hurricanes .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
= = = Pre @-@ season outlook = = =
On May 19 , prior to the start of the season , NOAA forecasters issued a 55 % probability of above normal activity . The forecasters predicted 11 – 15 tropical storms , 6 – 9 of those becoming hurricanes , and 2 – 4 of those hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The above normal activity predicted was due to the likelihood of La Niña developing in the season .
Noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray on April 4 predicted twelve named storms , with eight reaching hurricane strength and three of the eight reaching Category 3 strength . The prediction issued on May 30 was similar , increasing the named storms to fourteen . The synoptic pattern of the season prior to June 1 resembled other previous seasons , with the 1952 , 1954 , 1964 , 1966 , and 1998 seasons considered the best analogs for the season . The prediction also included a 68 % probability for a hurricane landfall along the United States .
= = = Mid @-@ season outlook = = =
On August 6 , Dr. Gray announced he had maintained his previous prediction ; with an active start of the season , the rest of the season was forecast to have been only slightly above average , due to an anticipated overall less favorable environment across the Atlantic Ocean . A day later , NOAA released an updated prediction as well , with a 60 % probability of above normal activity , with 12 – 15 named storms , 7 – 9 hurricanes , and 3 – 4 major hurricanes expected .
A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 6 – 14 tropical storms , 4 – 8 of which reach hurricane strength , and 1 – 3 of those reaching Category 3 strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = April through July = = =
The official beginning of the season was on June 1 , 2003 , though Subtropical Storm Ana formed on April 20 , well before the start to the season . When Ana transitioned into a tropical cyclone the next day , it became the first Atlantic tropical storm on record in the month of April . The storm caused two deaths in Florida from increased waves and rip currents .
Starting at the official start of the season , the National Hurricane Center began issuing five @-@ day forecasts , extending from the three @-@ day forecasts issued since 1964 . Officials conducted tests during the previous two seasons , indicating the new five @-@ day forecasts would be as accurate as the three @-@ day forecasts were 15 years earlier . The tropics were active and well ahead of climatology in the early portion of the season , with the seventh tropical depression forming by the end of July .
Within the first week of the official start of the season , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa , and on June 11 developed into Tropical Depression Two ; unfavorable conditions prevailed , and it dissipated within 24 hours of developing .
By the end of June , the third tropical depression of the season developed near the Yucatán Peninsula ; it tracked northward , strengthening into Tropical Storm Bill before striking the southern Louisiana coast on June 30 . The storm caused moderate rainfall and a tornado outbreak across the southern United States , resulting in four deaths and $ 30 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 38 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) .
On July 8 , a well @-@ organized tropical wave in the Caribbean Sea organized into Tropical Storm Claudette . Its intensity fluctuated while crossing the basin , attaining hurricane status before weakening and striking the Yucatán Peninsula as a tropical storm . Claudette re @-@ intensified to hurricane status and struck southeastern Texas on July 15 , causing a total of three deaths , one of which directly , and $ 180 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 232 million 2016 USD ) .
Hurricane Danny formed on July 16 from a tropical wave well to the east of Bermuda . It strengthened while tracking around an anticyclone , and attained hurricane status further north than any other Atlantic tropical cyclone in July . It turned to the east and dissipated without affecting land .
Tropical Depression Six developed on July 19 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean , and was initially forecast to attain hurricane status . However , it tracked quickly westward , and degenerated into an open tropical wave on July 21 near the Lesser Antilles .
The tropical wave that spawned the previous tropical depression developed an area of convection further to the north , which organized into Tropical Depression Seven on July 25 off the coast of Florida . It failed to develop , and made landfall on Georgia as a tropical depression before dissipating on July 27 .
= = = August = = =
After a short respite in activity , a westward @-@ moving tropical disturbance organized near Florida and developed into Tropical Storm Erika in the Gulf of Mexico on August 14 . It continued quickly across the body of water , and made landfall in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas as a hurricane on August 17 . The hurricane caused two deaths from floodwater drowning in Mexico , as well as minor damage in southern Texas .
Tropical Depression Nine formed on August 21 in the eastern Caribbean Sea from a tropical wave . Despite predictions of it intensifying to a strong tropical storm , it failed to strengthen due to strong wind shear , and on August 22 the depression dissipated .
Hurricane Fabian developed from a tropical wave on August 27 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . Tracking west @-@ northwestward around the subtropical ridge , it encountered favorable conditions , and steadily intensified to reach peak winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 1 . Fabian turned to the north and gradually weakened , passing just west of Bermuda on September 5 as a major hurricane . On September 8 , it became an extratropical cyclone after causing four deaths and $ 300 million ( 2003 USD , $ 386 million 2016 USD ) in damage on Bermuda ; there , it was considered the worst hurricane in nearly 80 years . Elsewhere , rough waves from the hurricane killed a surfer in North Carolina and three fishermen off Newfoundland .
A tropical disturbance organized into Tropical Storm Grace in the Gulf of Mexico on August 30 ; with a nearby upper @-@ level low causing unfavorable wind shear , the storm failed to organize significantly , and it moved ashore along Texas . The storm dropped moderate rainfall across much of the southern United States .
= = = September = = =
Tropical Storm Henri formed in the Gulf of Mexico on September 3 , and it crossed central Florida without causing significant damage or flooding . On September 8 it degenerated into a remnant low pressure area , which dropped heavy rainfall in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . Flooding from the storm 's remnants caused about $ 19 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 25 @.@ 2 million 2016 USD ) , which was compounded by the effects of Hurricane Isabel a week later .
A tropical wave spawned Hurricane Isabel on September 6 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . Encountering favorable conditions , it gradually intensified while tracking generally west @-@ northwestward , and on September 11 Isabel attained peak winds of 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) , the strongest storm of the season . After fluctuating in intensity for the subsequent four days , it weakened and struck North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale . Across the East Coast of the United States , Isabel caused a total of 51 fatalities and $ 3 @.@ 6 billion in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 4 @.@ 63 billion 2016 USD ) .
Brief Tropical Depression Fourteen formed on September 8 just off the coast of Africa . An upper @-@ level low hindered its development and changed its motion to the north @-@ northwest , and on September 10 the depression dissipated after passing near the Cape Verde islands .
On September 24 a tropical depression developed southeast of Bermuda , and while tracking northward it quickly intensified to become Hurricane Juan . Juan maintained its strength as it accelerated northward , and on September 29 it struck Halifax , Nova Scotia with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . The hurricane caused a total of 8 fatalities , as well as $ 150 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 193 million 2016 USD ) . It was considered one of the worst hurricanes on modern record in Halifax .
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on September 25 , which tracked northwestward before turning to the northeast and becoming Hurricane Kate . The hurricane then turned sharply westward , reaching major hurricane status before turning northward and becoming extratropical on October 7 . It did not have a significant effect on land .
= = = October through December = = =
An extratropical storm formed in the Bay of Campeche on September 30 , and remaining nearly stationary it transitioned into Tropical Storm Larry by October 1 . The storm drifted southward , reaching peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 mph ) before moving ashore along the Mexican state of Tabasco . Larry caused five deaths in Mexico , as well as heavy rainfall and mudslides .
On October 10 , a tropical disturbance organized into Tropical Storm Mindy just off the northeast coast of the Dominican Republic . After moving northwestward , it turned sharply eastward and dissipated on October 14 , after earlier dropping light to moderate rainfall across the Greater Antilles .
Tropical Storm Nicholas developed from a tropical wave on October 13 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . The storm strengthened to near @-@ hurricane intensity before weakening while turning northward and later to the northwest . On October 24 , Nicholas transitioned into an extratropical low , which , after executing an anticyclonic loop , meandered erratically before being absorbed by a non @-@ tropical low to the southwest of Bermuda on November 1 .
Early in November , the system that absorbed Nicholas tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean , nearly developing into a subtropical cyclone before crossing Florida and dissipating on November 5 . The season officially ended on November 30 , 2003 , although Tropical Storm Odette formed on December 4 to the northwest of Colombia from a tropical disturbance ; it became the second December tropical storm on record to form in the Caribbean Sea , after a hurricane in 1822 .
The final storm of the season , Tropical Storm Peter , formed on December 7 in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . It strengthened to near hurricane status , but rapidly weakened due to increased wind shear and dissipated on December 11 .
= = Impact and records = =
No cyclones in the season had a significant impact on South America or Central America . However , a total of eight tropical cyclones made landfall on Mexico from either the Atlantic or the Pacific Ocean , which was the greatest total since the record of nine in 1971 . A total of seven deaths occurred in Mexico from Atlantic hurricanes . Much of the Caribbean did not receive significant impact from tropical cyclones during the season . However , Tropical Storm Odette caused eight direct deaths , as well as two indirect deaths , when it crossed the Dominican Republic in December . The storm damaged or destroyed over 1 @,@ 000 homes , and heavy damage was reported to the banana crop .
Six tropical cyclones made landfall along the coast of the United States during the season , including two hurricanes . The first , Claudette , caused locally heavy damage in southeastern Texas in July ; two deaths were reported in the state , while earlier in its duration it caused an indirect death from rough waves in Florida . In September , Hurricane Isabel caused deaths and damage from North Carolina through southern Canada . The worst damage from the hurricane occurred in Virginia , where it was the costliest disaster in the history of the state ; there , damage totaled $ 1 @.@ 85 billion ( 2003 USD , $ 2 @.@ 38 billion 2016 USD ) , and there were 32 fatalities , ten of which were caused directly by the hurricane . Hurricane Isabel caused deaths in seven states and one Canadian province , and about 6 million people were left without power as a result of the storm .
Several cyclones impacted Bermuda during the season , most significantly Hurricane Fabian . On the island , its passage proved to be the costliest and resulted in the first death since a hurricane in 1926 . The hurricane killed four on the island when its strong waves and storm surge washed two cars off the causeway between St. George 's Parish and St. David 's Island . Damage from the hurricane totaled $ 300 million ( 2003 USD , $ 386 million 2016 USD ) . Elsewhere , Hurricane Juan was considered among the most damaging in the history of Halifax , Nova Scotia , where strong winds downed thousands of trees and left low @-@ lying areas flooded from a record storm surge to the city . The hurricane caused a total of eight deaths and damage estimated at $ 200 million ( 2003 CAD , $ 150 million 2003 USD , $ 193 million 2016 USD ) .
The season is one of only six with a storm before and after the official bounds of the season ; the others are 1887 , 1951 , 1953 , 1954 and 2007 . When Tropical Storm Peter formed on December 7 , the season became the second on record with two December storms . The 235 days between the development of the first storm , Tropical Storm Ana , and the dissipation of the last storm , Peter , made the 2003 season the longest season since 1952 . The season was the eighth most active on record , behind the 2005 , 1933 , 2012 , 2011 , 2010 , 1995 , 1887 , and 1969 seasons , and tied with the 1936 and 2008 seasons .
= = Season effects = =
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2003 . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2009 season . This is the same list used for the 1997 season . Storms were named Larry , Mindy , Nicholas , Odette , and Peter for the first time in 2003 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . Ana became the first name in the six list rotation to be used five times . Both Ana and Claudette were used in 1979 , 1985 , 1991 , 1997 , 2003 , 2009 and 2015 .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired three names in the spring of 2004 : Fabian , Isabel , and Juan . They were replaced in the 2009 season by Fred , Ida , and Joaquin , respectively . However the name Joaquin wasn 't used during the course of 2009 and was used for the first time in the 2015 season instead .
= Sandown Castle , Isle of Wight =
Sandown Castle was a Device Fort built at Sandown on the Isle of Wight by Henry VIII in 1545 to protect against the threat of French attack . Constructed from stone with angular bastions , its design was a hybrid of Italian military architectural thinking with traditional English military design . The site was raided by a French force that summer while the fortification was still being constructed . The site suffered from coastal erosion and the castle was demolished in 1631 .
= = History = =
= = = 16th century = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
Sandown Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a small role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry then broke with Pope Paul III to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon and remarry . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . Henry responded in 1539 by ordering , through an instruction called a " device " , the construction of fortifications along the most vulnerable parts of the coast . The immediate threat passed , but resurfaced in 1544 , with France threatening an invasion across the Channel , backed by her allies in Scotland . Henry therefore issued another device in 1544 to further improve the country 's defences , particularly along the south coast .
= = = = Construction = = = =
Built between April and September 1545 to protect the south @-@ east coast of the Isle of Wight , Sandown Castle overlooked Sandown Bay . It was constructed by the Italian engineer Giovanni Portinari , the surveyor William Ridgeway and the captain of labourers , John Portinar , at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 400 . Designed around a central courtyard , it had a square tower and two angular bastions on one side , and a circular bastion looking out to sea . The rear of the stone defences was protected by a moat , and the castle had a wooden pier for boats to dock at .
The angular bastions echoed contemporary Italian thinking on military architecture , and may have been influenced by Richard Lee , the King 's Surveyor of Works , as well as by Portinari 's own continental background . Despite being relatively advanced for an English fortification , the castle did not feature the more fashionable Italianate " arrow @-@ head " bastion design used at nearby Yarmouth Castle and has been critiqued by historians : Andrew Saunders describes it as an imperfect " hybrid " of English and continental ideas , John Hale as a timid , confused flirtation with modern designs .
Before the castle could be completed , however , the French attacked . Admiral Claude d 'Annebault crossed the Channel and arrived off the Solent with 200 ships on 19 July , where the local authorities feared Sandown Castle might be the target of a night attack . 2 @,@ 000 French soldiers men landed on the Isle of Wight and attacked Sandown , where labourers were still present . Their advance soon stalled , however , and the French retreated back to their fleet , bringing the invasion threat to an end ; the castle was finally completed after their departure .
= = = 17th century = = =
By the 17th century , coastal erosion had undermined the castle 's walls . In 1627 , Charles I announced that he would repair the fortification but instead the ruins were dismantled in 1631 by Sir John Oglander . A new fortification , Sandown Fort was built in its place , positioned further inland , but the possible remains of the foundations of the original castle are still visible along the shore at low tide .
= Congregation ( album ) =
Congregation is the third studio album by American alternative rock band The Afghan Whigs , released on January 31 , 1992 , by Sub Pop . After touring for two years in support of their 1990 album Up in It , the band received $ 15 @,@ 000 advance from Sub Pop to record a follow @-@ up album . It was primarily recorded at Bear Creek Studios in Woodinville and Buzz 's Kitchen in Los Angeles during July to August 1991 . The band 's frontman Greg Dulli produced the album entirely with audio engineer Ross Ian Stein . The album 's production and release were hindered by Sub Pop 's financial difficulties , which were eventually resolved by the massive commercial success of Nirvana 's 1991 album Nevermind .
Expanding on the aggressive sound of the band 's previous work , Congregation has more refined musical details and slower songs such as ballads . Its music also incorporates R & B , soul , and funk influences . The album 's cover depicts a nude black woman holding a white baby in her arms and alludes comically to the band 's African @-@ American music influences . The songs have themes of pleasure and guilt , and deal with topics such as dysfunctional relationships and sexual deviancy . Conceived during the burgeoning grunge scene , the album has been viewed by music writers as stylistically distinct from other Sub Pop and grunge music .
Upon its release , Congregation was very well received by music critics , who praised its musical quality , stylistic elements , and emotional content . It was promoted with two singles , " Turn On the Water " and " Conjure Me " , and The Afghan Whigs ' extensive touring in the United States and Europe . Although it did not chart , the album helped the band attain a cult following and receive offers from major record labels , leading to their signing to Elektra Records . Since its initial reception , Congregation has been viewed by writers as the band 's breakthrough album and a significant release in rock music during the 1990s .
= = Background = =
After forming in 1986 in Cincinnati , The Afghan Whigs — vocalist and rhythm guitarist Greg Dulli , bassist John Curley , lead guitarist Rick McCollum , and drummer Steve Earle — released their 1988 debut album Big Top Halloween on an independent record label and gained the attention of Seattle @-@ based label Sub Pop . With their second album Up in It ( 1990 ) released on the label , the band toured regularly in the United States for two years and occasionally in Europe before recording Congregation . Sub Pop gave the band a $ 15 @,@ 000 advance to record the album , which Dulli later said was a " then @-@ unheard @-@ of " and " bloated " amount .
The album 's cover shows a nude black woman sitting on a blanket with a white baby held in her arms . It serves as a comical reference to the band 's African @-@ American music roots . Along with a collective interest in classic rock , band members had other individual tastes in music , including McCollum 's interest in free jazz , experimental , and Indian music , and Dulli 's love of hip hop , soul , and funk , particularly Motown artists and Prince .
= = Recording = =
The Afghan Whigs began recording the album in July 1991 . They held recording sessions for Congregation at Bear Creek Studios in Woodinville , Washington and Buzz 's Kitchen in Los Angeles , California . Dulli wrote most of its songs and produced the album with audio engineer Ross Ian Stein . Session musicians such as Miss Ruby Belle , Shecky Stein , and Lance Ellison also contributed ; Belle sung lead vocals on " Her Against Me " , Stein played piano on " Conjure Me " , and Ellison played piano and sung lead vocals on " The Temple " with John Curley and Rick McCollum . Singer @-@ songwriter Shawn Smith contributed backing vocals to " This Is My Confession " and " Dedicate It " . After the rest of the band finished recording their parts , Dulli stayed in Los Angeles to record his vocals , overdub the recorded tracks , and mix the album . However , the album 's production was delayed due to Sub Pop 's financial difficulties , and Dulli got another job in Los Angeles to pay for the studio .
Although the label eventually settled the studio 's bills and the album 's sessions ended in August 1991 , the band was unsure if Sub Pop had enough money to release any more albums , let alone Congregation . After the massive commercial success of Nirvana 's 1991 album Nevermind , Sub Pop recovered financially by receiving royalties from the album after the band left them for a major label . Dulli later said that while he was " stranded in L.A. ... Nirvana saved the whole fuckin ' label " . He recalled thanking the band 's frontman Kurt Cobain upon the album 's completion , saying that " I went to Nirvana 's show at the Palace in L.A. and hugged Kurt and said , ' Good one , bro . Congratulations . And thank you — now I can go home . ' "
After the album 's sessions were done , Dulli was inspired to write and record an additional track on the day of Miles Davis ' death , September 28 , 1991 . He received two messages on his answering machine from music executive David Katznelson , the first providing directions to a cookout and the second informing Dulli that Davis had passed , saying that " Miles is dead . Don 't forget the alcohol . " Working at Ultrasuede in Cincinnati , Dulli incorporated Katznelson 's line as a lyric and , with a guitar riff from Rick McCollum , hastily recorded " Miles Iz Ded " , which was included as a hidden track on the album . Congregation was mastered by Jack Skinner at K Disc Mastering in Hollywood . Dulli subsequently took a drive in his car and listened to the album while observing his scenery , a practice he continued with future albums .
= = Music = =
The album expands on the aggressive sound of the band 's previous work with refined musical details and occasionally slower songs . In The Rough Guide to Rock ( 2003 ) , music journalist Alex Ogg writes that The Afghan Whigs were " managing to balance volume with subtlety " amid the burgeoning grunge music scene . The album 's music incorporates heavy counterpoint rhythms , indie rock harmonics , wah @-@ wah and slide guitars , and staccato riffs with funk , metal , and blues influences . Chicago Tribune writer Brad Webber compares its melodies to those of " later Hüsker Dü " . Option perceives influences from " ex @-@ indie guitar bands " such as Dinosaur Jr. and Nirvana in the songs ' " catch @-@ iness and in the arrangements ' juxtaposition of frenzy and laziness . " David Sprague of the Trouser Press comments that the band 's instrumentation " contriv [ es ] panoramic images through judicious use of wah @-@ wah guitar ... and the tribal drumbeats with which Steven Earle invokes an air of ritualistic surrender . "
The album 's rock sound is complemented by a predominant soul influence . Magic magazine 's Christophe Basterra characterizes the music as " The Four Tops appropriating ' Search and Destroy ' by Iggy & the Stooges " . The slow @-@ burning ballad " Let Me Lie to You " incorporates soul and grunge musical styles . Dulli wrote the song in an attempt to deviate from the aesthetic of Sub Pop , whom he felt discouraged its acts from recording slow songs . He cites writing the song as the moment he began having faith in himself as a songwriter . Songs such as " Miles Iz Ded " , " Conjure Me " , and " Turn On the Water " incorporate funk influences and wah @-@ wah guitar . Pitchfork Media 's Stephen M. Deusner cites the latter song as an example of how the band " integrate [ d ] African @-@ American sounds and influences into their white rock " , writing that it " uses Isaac Hayes ' wakka @-@ chikka guitars as a punk accessory , and its jumpy guitar riffs instill these songs with a sense of motion that suggests amped @-@ up r & b . " " Tonight " features bluesy acoustic guitar .
= = Lyrics = =
The songs discuss dysfunctional intimate relationships and sexual deviancy , and feature themes of pleasure and guilt . They are narrated from the perspective of a broken sinner and lothario with sinister and narcissistic tones . Dulli 's lyrics incorporate haunting refrains and express angst and melodrama . His baritone vocals are moaningly husky and feature falsetto wails . Daniel Fidler of Spin compares Dulli 's vocals on the album to those of " a young Paul Westerberg in heat . " David Sprague of the Trouser Press calls Congregation a " strangely flamboyant " album that showcases " Dulli 's metamorphosis from everypunk wallflower to rakish scoundrel with a heart of glass . " Jason Ankeny of AllMusic calls Dulli " a truly magnetic presence " and writes of his performance on the album , " by turns predator ( ' Tonight ' ) and prey ( ' I 'm Her Slave ' ) , he 's the guy your parents always warned you about , delivering each syllable of his remarkable lyrics with equal measures of innuendo and venom . " Stephanie Benson of Rhapsody comments that his lyrics are " full of stifling dissatisfaction and boozy philosophy " .
" I 'm Her Slave " is a heroin anecdote with lyrics narrated by a subjugate lover . Music critic Greg Kot cites " Turn On the Water " as an example of when " the twisted narrator is the victim " and " cast adrift " in Dulli 's lyrics . Inspired by a paranoid breakup , " Conjure Me " is told from the perspective of an aggressive predator and obscure object of desire . On " Kiss the Floor " , the narrator recounts stealing a girl 's virginity and avoiding her brothers . " This Is My Confession " has a theme of absolution . The lyrics depicts it as an empty sexual experience : " Shove my head against the door , crawl inside and kiss the floor / Waiting for the sun again , drink it , smoke it , stick it in . " " The Temple " is a cover of the song of the same name from the 1970 rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar . Dulli became a fan of the rock opera as a child when his babysitter played it . " Let Me Lie to You " has lyrics expressing passive cruelty and subtle manipulation . " Tonight " depicts a peaceful night as the backdrop for the narrator 's corrupt one @-@ track mind : " Follow me down to the bushes , dear / No one will know , we 'll disappear / I 'll hold your hand , we 'll never tell / Our private little trip to hell " . The album 's hidden track " Miles Iz Ded " is about seduction and alcohol , with a last call sensibility and despairing tone .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released by Sub Pop on January 31 , 1992 , and distributed by Caroline Records . It was issued on LP and CD formats . Congregation was promoted with two singles . " Turn On the Water " was released in January as a 7 @-@ inch single with " Miles Iz Ded " on its B @-@ side . It was also released as a CD single coupled with the tracks " Chalk Outline " and " Miles Iz Ded " . On February 25 , " Turn On the Water " was released as a cassette single . " Conjure Me " was released in May as a 7 @-@ inch single backed with a cover of The Supremes ' 1965 song " My World Is Empty Without You " . A music video for the single was filmed , featuring a topless woman caressing Dulli as he lip syncs the song , and received rotation on MTV . Congregation was reissued in September 1998 . It was released in the United Kingdom on November 22 , 1999 , through PIAS Recordings .
The Afghan Whigs promoted the album with an appearance on MTV and an international tour with dates in major American cities and Europe . During their shows , the band interspersed R & B songs in their set list , including an interpolation of The Spinners ' 1972 song " I 'll Be Around " in " Turn On the Water " . Their extensive touring for the album helped the band garner a larger audience .
= = Reception = =
Although it did not chart , Congregation received very positive reviews from music critics upon its release . Michael Azerrad of Rolling Stone called it " superb " . Daniel Fidler of Spin called the album " a clean move toward musical excellence " and commented that it " shows the band bursting its Sub Pop chains with catchy , heavy guitar riffs , downright lovable song arrangements , melodies that jerk your emotions back and forth , and yes , endearing , raspy vocals that wail , moan , scream , and shout " . Brad Webber of the Chicago Tribune gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and described the album as " a more accessible brand of music than normally associated with the Seattle @-@ Minneapolis axis of grunge guitar groups . " He found The Afghan Whigs to be " on rock 's cutting edge " and commented that the band " stirs a torrent of emotions on neatly paced songs " .
J. D. Considine of Musician characterized the band as " clever enough to find hooks in the sort of gnarled riffs and guitar noise Fugazi plays for atmosphere " , as well as " canny enough to avoid most of the mannerisms that make much Amerindie rock seem so cliched . " Considine concluded in his review , " The best reason to join this Congregation is that the songs are catchy enough to hold their own against the best work of bands like Dinosaur Jr. or the Replacements . " In a mixed review , Option commended the album 's " sheer listenability " , " clear recording and dynamic performances " , but criticized Dulli 's subject matter and panned the band 's cover of " The Temple " . Melody Maker ranked the album number 25 on its year @-@ end best albums for 1992 .
With the album 's critical acclaim and their steady touring , the band attained a cult following and was courted by several major labels who wanted to sign them . Frustrated with the distribution limitation of a small record label , they signed to Elektra Records after their final release for Sub Pop , an EP of soul cover songs called Uptown Avondale ( 1992 ) . Their major label debut Gentlemen was released in 1993 to critical acclaim and mainstream exposure .
= = Legacy = =
Along with Gentlemen , Congregation is generally considered by music writers to be part of The Afghan Whigs ' peak era . Dulli cites it as " the record where we came into our own " . Melody Maker dubbed it " the finest rock LP of the decade " and commented that it is " nothing less than rock raping pop , a ferocious deflowering of Motown 's romantic ideal " . With Congregation , Stephanie Benson of Rhapsody found the band to be " crucial to the birth of ' 90s alternative rock . " AllMusic 's Jason Ankeny said that it was the band 's artistic breakthrough and " ticket to the big leagues " . He gave the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars in a retrospective review and called it " an incendiary and insidious set which bridges the gap between the noisy aggression of the band 's early releases and the soulful swagger of their later work . " Ankeny also cited it as " the grunge era 's most overlooked masterpiece " and an indication of the band 's musical growth , writing that " while still unmistakably a member of the Sub Pop stable , there 's a greater maturity and depth to their sinewy sound , with a newfound grasp of mood and nuance " .
Yahoo ! Music 's Chris Norris called it a " disjointed set , which finds the band suspended between its punky roots and a more voluptuous later style . " The Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) noted " a creative musical blend " on the album , but concluded that " the results feel like dress rehearsals for Gentlemen , with one partial exception , ' Conjure Me , ' and one absolute triumph : a surging final track ... that might be the Afghan Whigs ' strongest recorded performance . " In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Rolling Stone journalist Joe Gross gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and viewed it as a " quantum leap " over the band 's previous work , commenting that it " shows that they ditched grunge for soul because they were no damn good at the former and ladies dig the latter . " In 2002 , Italian music magazine Il Mucchio Selvaggio included the album in its list of 100 Best Albums by Decade . Polish webzine Screenagers ranked it number 79 on its 2004 list of the Top 100 Albums of the ' 90s . Italian music journalists Eddy Cilìa and Federico Guglielmi included Congregation in their 2010 book on essential rock albums .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were produced by Greg Dulli and Ross Ian Stein .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
The Afghan Whigs
John Curley – bass , photography , vocals
Greg Dulli – producer , rhythm guitar , vocals
Steve Earle – drums
Rick McCollum – guitar , vocals
Additional personnel
Miss Ruby Belle – vocals
Larry Brewer – engineer , second engineer
Chris Cuffaro – photography
Caroline De Vita – design
Lance Ellison – piano , vocals
D.A. Fleischer – photography
Jane Higgins – design
Rick and Bubba – vocals
Jack Skinner – mastering
Shawn Smith – background vocals , vocals
Ross Ian Stein – engineer , producer
Shecky Stein – piano
= Robert II of Scotland =
Robert II ( 2 March 1316 – 19 April 1390 ) reigned as King of Scots from 1371 to his death as the first monarch of the House of Stewart . He was the son of Walter Stewart , 6th High Steward of Scotland and of Marjorie Bruce , daughter of Robert the Bruce and of his first wife Isabella of Mar.
Edward Bruce was named heir to the throne but he died without legitimate children on 3 December 1318 in a battle near Dundalk in Ireland . Marjorie by this time had died in a riding accident - probably in 1317 . Parliament decreed her infant son , Robert Stewart , as heir presumptive , but this lapsed on 5 March 1324 on the birth of a son , David , to King Robert and his second wife , Elizabeth de Burgh . Robert Stewart inherited the title of High Steward of Scotland on his father 's death on 9 April 1326 , and a Parliament held in July 1326 confirmed the young Steward as heir should Prince David die without a successor . In 1329 King Robert I died and the six @-@ year @-@ old David succeeded to the throne with Sir Thomas Randolph , Earl of Moray appointed Guardian of Scotland .
Edward Balliol , son of King John Balliol , assisted by the English and Scottish nobles disinherited by Robert I , invaded Scotland inflicting heavy defeats on the Bruce party on 11 August 1332 at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill on 19 July 1333 . Robert fought at Halidon , where his uncle and former guardian , Sir James Stewart , was killed . Following this battle , Robert 's lands in the west were given by Balliol to his supporter David Strathbogie , the titular Earl of Atholl . Robert took refuge in the fortress of Dumbarton Castle in the Clyde estuary to join his uncle , King David . In May 1334 David escaped to France leaving Robert and John Randolph , 3rd Earl of Moray as joint Guardians of the kingdom . Robert succeeded in regaining his lands but following Randolph 's capture by the English in July 1335 , his possessions were once again targeted by the forces of Balliol and King Edward III of England . This may have persuaded Robert to submit to Balliol and the English king and may explain his removal as Guardian by September 1335 . The Guardianship transferred to Sir Andrew Murray of Bothwell but following his death in 1338 Robert was re @-@ appointed and retained the office until King David returned from France in June 1341 . Robert accompanied David into battle at Neville 's Cross on 17 October 1346 but he and Patrick Dunbar , Earl of March escaped or fled the field and David was taken prisoner . In October 1357 , the king was ransomed for 100 @,@ 000 marks to be paid in installments over ten years .
Robert married Elizabeth Mure around 1348 , legitimising his four sons and five daughters . His subsequent marriage to Euphemia de Ross in 1355 produced two sons and two surviving daughters and provided the basis of a future dispute regarding the line of succession . Robert joined a rebellion against David in 1363 but submitted to him following a threat to his right of succession . In 1364 , David presented a proposal to Parliament that would cancel the remaining ransom debt if it was agreed that a Plantagenet heir would inherit the Scottish throne should he die without issue . This was rejected and Robert succeeded to the throne at the
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named after a transducer used by Paul Langevin in early sonar research . This is good for longitudinal modes of vibration . It can also be used on resonators with other modes of vibration if the motion can be mechanically converted into a longitudinal motion . The transducer consists of a layer of piezoelectric material sandwiched transversally into a coupling rod or resonator .
Another kind of piezoelectric transducer has the piezoelectric material sandwiched in longitudinally , usually into the resonator itself . This kind is good for torsional vibration modes and is called a torsional transducer .
= = Resonators = =
It is possible to achieve an extremely high Q with mechanical resonators . Mechanical resonators typically have a Q of 10 @,@ 000 or so , and 25 @,@ 000 can be achieved in torsional resonators using a particular nickel @-@ iron alloy . This is an unreasonably high figure to achieve with LC circuits , whose Q is limited by the resistance of the inductor coils .
Early designs in the 1940s and 1950s started by using steel as a resonator material . This has given way to nickel @-@ iron alloys , primarily to maximise the Q since this is often the primary appeal of mechanical filters rather than price . Some of the metals that have been used for mechanical filter resonators and their Q are shown in the table .
Piezoelectric crystals are also sometimes used in mechanical filter designs . This is especially true for resonators that are also acting as transducers for inputs and outputs .
One advantage that mechanical filters have over LC electrical filters is that they can be made very stable . The resonance frequency can be made so stable that it varies only 1 @.@ 5 parts per billion ( ppb ) from the specified value over the operating temperature range ( − 25 to 85 ° C ) , and its average drift with time can be as low as 4 ppb per day . This stability with temperature is another reason for using nickel @-@ iron as the resonator material . Variations with temperature in the resonance frequency ( and other features of the frequency function ) are directly related to variations in the Young 's modulus , which is a measure of stiffness of the material . Materials are therefore sought that have a small temperature coefficient of Young 's modulus . In general , Young 's modulus has a negative temperature coefficient ( materials become less stiff with increasing temperature ) but additions of small amounts of certain other elements in the alloy can produce a material with a temperature coefficient that changes sign from negative through zero to positive with temperature . Such a material will have a zero coefficient of temperature with resonance frequency around a particular temperature . It is possible to adjust the point of zero temperature coefficient to a desired position by heat treatment of the alloy .
= = = Resonator modes = = =
It is usually possible for a mechanical part to vibrate in a number of different modes , however the design will be based on a particular vibrational mode and the designer will take steps to try to restrict the resonance to this mode . As well as the straightforward longitudinal mode some others which are used include flexural mode , torsional mode , radial mode and drumhead mode .
Modes are numbered according to the number of half @-@ wavelengths in the vibration . Some modes exhibit vibrations in more than one direction ( such as drumhead mode which has two ) and consequently the mode number consists of more than one number . When the vibration is in one of the higher modes , there will be multiple nodes on the resonator where there is no motion . For some types of resonator , this can provide a convenient place to make a mechanical attachment for structural support . Wires attached at nodes will have no effect on the vibration of the resonator or the overall filter response . In figure 5 , some possible anchor points are shown as wires attached at the nodes . The modes shown are ( 5a ) the second longitudinal mode fixed at one end , ( 5b ) the first torsional mode , ( 5c ) the second torsional mode , ( 5d ) the second flexural mode , ( 5e ) first radial expansion mode and ( 5f ) first radially symmetric drumhead mode .
= = Circuit designs = =
There are a great many combinations of resonators and transducers that can be used to construct a mechanical filter . A selection of some of these is shown in the diagrams . Figure 6 shows a filter using disc flexural resonators and magnetostrictive transducers . The transducer drives the centre of the first resonator , causing it to vibrate . The edges of the disc move in antiphase to the centre when the driving signal is at , or close to , resonance , and the signal is transmitted through the connecting rods to the next resonator . When the driving signal is not close to resonance , there is little movement at the edges , and the filter rejects ( does not pass ) the signal . Figure 7 shows a similar idea involving longitudinal resonators connected together in a chain by connecting rods . In this diagram , the filter is driven by piezoelectric transducers . It could equally well have used magnetostrictive transducers . Figure 8 shows a filter using torsional resonators . In this diagram , the input has a torsional piezoelectric transducer and the output has a magnetostrictive transducer . This would be quite unusual in a real design , as both input and output usually have the same type of transducer . The magnetostrictive transducer is only shown here to demonstrate how longitudinal vibrations may be converted to torsional vibrations and vice versa . Figure 9 shows a filter using drumhead mode resonators . The edges of the discs are fixed to the casing of the filter ( not shown in the diagram ) so the vibration of the disc is in the same modes as the membrane of a drum . Collins calls this type of filter a disc wire filter .
The various types of resonator are all particularly suited to different frequency bands . Overall , mechanical filters with lumped elements of all kinds can cover frequencies from about 5 to 700 kHz although mechanical filters down as low as a few kilohertz ( kHz ) are rare . The lower part of this range , below 100 kHz , is best covered with bar flexural resonators . The upper part is better done with torsional resonators . Drumhead disc resonators are in the middle , covering the range from around 100 to 300 kHz .
The frequency response behaviour of all mechanical filters can be expressed as an equivalent electrical circuit using the impedance analogy described above . An example of this is shown in figure 8b which is the equivalent circuit of the mechanical filter of figure 8a . Elements on the electrical side , such as the inductance of the magnetostrictive transducer , are omitted but would be taken into account in a complete design . The series resonant circuits on the circuit diagram represent the torsional resonators , and the shunt capacitors represent the coupling wires . The component values of the electrical equivalent circuit can be adjusted , more or less at will , by modifying the dimensions of the mechanical components . In this way , all the theoretical tools of electrical analysis and filter design can be brought to bear on the mechanical design . Any filter realisable in electrical theory can , in principle , also be realised as a mechanical filter . In particular , the popular finite element approximations to an ideal filter response of the Butterworth and Chebyshev filters can both readily be realised . As with the electrical counterpart , the more elements that are used , the closer the approximation approaches the ideal , however , for practical reasons the number of resonators does not normally exceed eight .
= = = Semi @-@ lumped designs = = =
Frequencies of the order of megahertz ( MHz ) are above the usual range for mechanical filters . The components start to become very small , or alternatively the components are large compared to the signal wavelength . The lumped element model described above starts to break down and the components must be considered as distributed elements . The frequency at which the transition from lumped to distributed models takes place is much lower for mechanical filters than it is for their electrical counterparts . This is because mechanical vibrations travel at the speed of sound for the material the component is composed of . For solid components , this is many times ( x15 for nickel @-@ iron ) the speed of sound in air ( 343 m / s ) but still considerably less than the speed of electromagnetic waves ( approx . 3x108 m / s in vacuum ) . Consequently , mechanical wavelengths are much shorter than electrical wavelengths for the same frequency . Advantage can be taken of these effects by deliberately designing components to be distributed elements , and the components and methods used in electrical distributed element filters can be brought to bear . The equivalents of stubs and impedance transformers are both achievable . Designs which use a mixture of lumped and distributed elements are referred to as semi @-@ lumped .
An example of such a design is shown in figure 10a . The resonators are disc flexural resonators similar to those shown in figure 6 , except that these are energised from an edge , leading to vibration in the fundamental flexural mode with a node in the centre , whereas the figure 6 design is energised in the centre leading to vibration in the second flexural mode at resonance . The resonators are mechanically attached to the housing by pivots at right angles to the coupling wires . The pivots are to ensure free turning of the resonator and minimise losses . The resonators are treated as lumped elements ; however , the coupling wires are made exactly one half @-@ wavelength ( λ / 2 ) long and are equivalent to a λ / 2 open circuit stub in the electrical equivalent circuit . For a narrow @-@ band filter , a stub of this sort has the approximate equivalent circuit of a parallel shunt tuned circuit as shown in figure 10b . Consequently , the connecting wires are being used in this design to add additional resonators into the circuit and will have a better response than one with just the lumped resonators and short couplings . For even higher frequencies , microelectromechanical methods can be used as described below .
= = = Bridging wires = = =
Bridging wires are rods that couple together resonators that are not adjacent . They can be used to produce poles of attenuation in the stopband . This has the benefit of increasing the stopband rejection . When the pole is placed near the passband edge , it also has the benefit of increasing roll @-@ off and narrowing the transition band . The typical effects of some of these on filter frequency response are shown in figure 11 . Bridging across a single resonator ( figure 11b ) can produce a pole of attenuation in the high stopband . Bridging across two resonators ( figure 11c ) can produce a pole of attenuation in both the high and the low stopband . Using multiple bridges ( figure 11d ) will result in multiple poles of attenuation . In this way , the attenuation of the stopbands can be deepened over a broad frequency range .
The method of coupling between non @-@ adjacent resonators is not limited to mechanical filters . It can be applied to other filter formats and the general term for this class is cross @-@ coupled filter . For instance , channels can be cut between cavity resonators , mutual inductance can be used with discrete component filters , and feedback paths can be used with active analogue or digital filters . Nor was the method first discovered in the field of mechanical filters ; the earliest description is in a 1948 patent for filters using microwave cavity resonators . However , mechanical filter designers were the first ( 1960s ) to develop practical filters of this kind and the method became a particular feature of mechanical filters .
= = Microelectromechanical filters = =
A new technology emerging in mechanical filtering is microelectromechanical systems ( MEMS ) . MEMS are very small micromachines with component sizes measured in micrometres ( μm ) , but not as small as nanomachines . These systems are mostly fabricated from silicon ( Si ) , silicon nitride ( Si3N4 ) , or polymers . A common component used for radio frequency filtering ( and MEMS applications generally ) , is the cantilever resonator . Cantilevers are simple mechanical components to manufacture by much the same methods used by the semiconductor industry ; masking , photolithography and etching , with a final undercutting etch to separate the cantilever from the substrate . The technology has great promise since cantilevers can be produced in large numbers on a single substrate — much as large numbers of transistors are currently contained on a single silicon chip .
The resonator shown in figure 12 is around 120 μm in length . Experimental complete filters with an operating frequency of 30 GHz have been produced using cantilever varactors as the resonator elements . The size of this filter is around 4 × 3 @.@ 5 mm . Cantilever resonators are typically applied at frequencies below 200 MHz , but other structures , such as micro @-@ machined cavities , can be used in the microwave bands . Extremely high Q resonators can be made with this technology ; flexural mode resonators with a Q in excess of 80 @,@ 000 at 8 MHz are reported .
= = Adjustment = =
The precision applications in which mechanical filters are used require that the resonators are accurately adjusted to the specified resonance frequency . This is known as trimming and usually involves a mechanical machining process . In most filter designs , this can be difficult to do once the resonators have been assembled into the complete filter so the resonators are trimmed before assembly . Trimming is done in at least two stages ; coarse and fine , with each stage bringing the resonance frequency closer to the specified value . Most trimming methods involve removing material from the resonator which will increase the resonance frequency . The target frequency for a coarse trimming stage consequently needs to be set below the final frequency since the tolerances of the process could otherwise result in a frequency higher than the following fine trimming stage could adjust for .
The coarsest method of trimming is grinding of the main resonating surface of the resonator ; this process has an accuracy of around ± 800 ppm . Better control can be achieved by grinding the edge of the resonator instead of the main surface . This has a less dramatic effect and consequently better accuracy . Processes that can be used for fine trimming , in order of increasing accuracy , are sandblasting , drilling , and laser ablation . Laser trimming is capable of achieving an accuracy of ± 40 ppm .
Trimming by hand , rather than machine , was used on some early production components but would now normally only be encountered during product development . Methods available include sanding and filing . It is also possible to add material to the resonator by hand , thus reducing the resonance frequency . One such method is to add solder , but this is not suitable for production use since the solder will tend to reduce the high Q of the resonator .
In the case of MEMS filters , it is not possible to trim the resonators outside of the filter because of the integrated nature of the device construction . However , trimming is still a requirement in many MEMS applications . Laser ablation can be used for this but material deposition methods are available as well as material removal . These methods include laser or ion @-@ beam induced deposition .
= Tropical Storm Laura ( 1971 ) =
Tropical Storm Laura was the final storm in the active 1971 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on November 12 in the western Caribbean Sea , and reached winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) as it approached western Cuba . Across the island , Laura produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 32 @.@ 5 inches ( 83 cm ) . The resulting flooding killed one person and caused crop damage . 26 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate their homes . Initially , Laura was forecast to move across the island and impact the southern United States , but it executed a small loop and turned to the southwest . The storm moved ashore on Belize , one of only four November storms to affect the country . Little impact occurred during Laura 's final landfall , and it dissipated on November 22 over central Guatemala .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Laura began in a large area of convection across the southwest Caribbean Sea in mid @-@ November . On November 12 , a tropical depression formed about 175 miles ( 280 km ) north of Panama . It moved northwestward , slowly organizing and becoming a tropical storm on November 14 . Receiving the name Laura , the storm continued to intensify as it turned northward toward western Cuba ; late on November 15 , it attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Originally , the National Hurricane Center anticipated Laura would attain hurricane status , as well as for it to continue northward into the Gulf of Mexico . Although a cold front was expected to bring the storm to the north , a ridge instead increased over the southeastern United States , which prevented Laura from moving ashore .
Tropical Storm Laura maintained peak winds for about 48 hours , during which a minimum pressure of 994 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) was recorded . Steering currents were initially weak , which caused the storm to drift toward the northeast , before the ridge to its north forced the storm to the southwest ; by late on November 17 , Laura finished executing a clockwise loop . Its path to the southwest away from Cuba was unusual ; only two other storms on record – a hurricane in 1888 and Hurricane Ike in 2008 – had a southward element in their path when they affected Cuba , and each struck the northern coast of the country . Laura weakened as it turned westward and later to the south and southwest . After the winds decreased to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , however , the storm began re @-@ intensifying as it approached Central America . Late on November 20 , Laura again reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) , which was maintained for 30 hours until the storm made landfall in Punta Gorda , Belize . Early on November 22 , the system dissipated over central Guatemala .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When Tropical Storm Laura first passed the Cayman Islands , it produced up to 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 cm ) of rainfall . As it was slowly moving off of the coast of Cuba , Laura dropped heavy rainfall , including nearly 20 inches ( 50 cm ) across most of the Isle of Youth ; one station on the island reported 14 inches ( 36 cm ) in 24 hours . The highest total in the country was 32 @.@ 5 inches ( 83 cm ) , and overall the storm impacted four provinces , including Isle of Youth , Pinar del Río , La Habana , and the city of Havana . On the Isle of Youth , Laura produced winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) , with gusts to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . On the mainland , the storm destroyed 20 homes and several tobacco sheds , with damage also reported to the coffee , sugar , fruit , and vegetable crops . Due to the flooding , officials forced 26 @,@ 000 people from their homes in Pinar del Río , and one person in that province drowned while crossing a river . The storm 's passage was believed to have diverted a flock of great black @-@ backed gulls toward Central America and north @-@ coastal South America ; the species is usually found in the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , and were migrating to the Gulf Coast or Cuba when they were affected by the storm .
When Laura 's path was uncertain , forecasters advised fishermen to remain at port along the Yucatan Peninsula and southern Florida . Gale warnings were also issued for the Florida Keys , due to the uncertainty . No significant damage or casualties were reported in Central America , although heavy rainfall was reported across the region . On Glover 's Reef off the coast of British Honduras ( now Belize ) , the storm stranded a group of about 20 scientists affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution ; the group was affected by the strong winds and rains , and required rescue . The storm damaged several buildings along the mainland .
Laura was one of only four storms to form in November and affect Belize , the others being a tropical storm in 1898 , a hurricane in 1942 , and Hurricane Ida in 2009 .
= Brad Mehldau =
Bradford Alexander " Brad " Mehldau ( / ˈmɛlˌdaʊ / ; born August 23 , 1970 ) is an American jazz pianist , composer , and arranger .
Mehldau studied music at The New School , and toured and recorded while still a student . He was a member of saxophonist Joshua Redman 's Quartet with bassist Christian McBride and drummer Brian Blade in the mid @-@ 1990s , and has led his own trio since at least 1992 . His first long @-@ term trio featured bassist Larry Grenadier and drummer Jorge Rossy ; in 2005 Jeff Ballard replaced Rossy . These bands have released a dozen albums under the pianist 's name .
Since the early 2000s Mehldau has experimented with other musical formats in addition to trio and solo piano . Largo , released in 2002 , contains electronics and input from rock and classical musicians ; later examples include touring and recording with guitarist Pat Metheny , writing and playing song cycles for classical singers Renée Fleming and Anne Sofie von Otter , composing orchestral pieces for 2009 's Highway Rider , and playing electronic keyboard instruments in a duo with drummer Mark Guiliana .
Aspects of pop , rock , and classical music , including German Romanticism , have been absorbed into Mehldau 's writing and playing . Through his use of some traditional elements of jazz without being restricted by them , simultaneous playing of different melodies in separate hands , and incorporation of pop and rock pieces , Mehldau has influenced musicians in and beyond jazz in their approaches to writing , playing , and choice of repertoire .
= = Early life = =
Mehldau was born on August 23 , 1970 , in Jacksonville , Florida . His father , Craig Mehldau , was a doctor ; and his mother , Annette , was a homemaker . His sister , Leigh Anne , became a social worker . There was always a piano in the house during Mehldau 's childhood , and he initially listened to pop and rock music on the radio . His family moved to West Hartford , Connecticut , when Mehldau was 10 . Up to this point he had played mostly simple pop tunes and exercises from books , but the move brought him a new piano teacher , who introduced him to classical music . This new interest lasted for a few years , but by the age of 14 he was listening more to jazz , including recordings by saxophonist John Coltrane and pianist Oscar Peterson .
Mehldau attended William H. Hall High School and played in its concert jazz band . From the age of 15 until he graduated from high school he had a weekly gig at a local club , and performed for weddings and other parties . In his junior year at the school he won Berklee College 's Best All Round Musician Award for school students . Mehldau described himself as being , up to this point , " a white , upper @-@ middle @-@ class kid who lived in a pretty homogenized environment " .
After graduating , Mehldau moved to New York City in 1988 to study jazz and contemporary music at The New School . He studied under pianists Fred Hersch , Junior Mance and Kenny Werner , and drummer Jimmy Cobb . In 1989 Mehldau was part of saxophonist Christopher Hollyday 's band that toured for several months ; as a result of playing so often with one group , Mehldau was able to assimilate the music of Wynton Kelly and McCoy Tyner , his two principal influences on piano up to that point , and began to develop his own sound . Before the age of 20 Mehldau also had gigs in Cobb 's band , along with fellow student Peter Bernstein on guitar .
= = Later life and career = =
= = = 1991 – 1998 = = =
Mehldau 's first recording was for Hollyday 's The Natural Moment in 1991 ; his first tour of Europe was also with the saxophonist that year . Mehldau 's interest in classical music returned when he was in his early twenties , and spurred him into developing his left @-@ hand playing . He led his own trio from at least 1992 , when he played at New York 's Village Gate . Mehldau also played as sideman with a variety of musicians around this time . His performances with saxophonist Perico Sambeat included a tour of Europe early in 1993 , and Mehldau 's first released recordings as co @-@ leader , from a May concert in Barcelona . Mehldau also toured for 18 months with saxophonist Joshua Redman . This association began in 1993 , but they had played together for a short period the previous year . Redman and his band attracted attention , with their 1994 album Moodswing also aiding Mehldau 's profile . They also played together for the soundtrack to the 1994 film Vanya on 42nd Street , for which Redman wrote the music .
Mehldau graduated from The New School in 1993 . He formed his first long @-@ term trio in 1994 , with bassist Larry Grenadier and drummer Jorge Rossy . In the following year , Mehldau recorded Introducing Brad Mehldau for Warner Bros. , his first album as sole leader . It was well received , with The Penguin Guide to Jazz commenting that " it 's as if he were aware of jazz tradition but entirely unencumbered by it . " His second album for Warner Bros. , The Art of the Trio Volume One , was recorded in 1995 and was widely praised by critics . The title was selected by producer Matt Pierson as one that would attract attention and help to build a brand .
By the mid- to late 1990s Mehldau was regarded by some as one of the leading jazz musicians : critic John Fordham described him as " the next great keyboard star of jazz " . The appreciation was not universal : some of the pianist 's self @-@ penned liner notes and interview comments , which included philosophical musings and complaints about comparisons with pianist Bill Evans , engendered dislike in some , thereby , in critic Nate Chinen 's words , " leaving Mehldau with a lingering reputation for pretentiousness and self @-@ indulgence . " Many critics did , though , reassess their judgment of his main influences , which previously had often been given as Evans , an assessment that was perhaps attributable more to race than to music . Another , non @-@ musical , similarity with Evans that was commented on was Mehldau 's struggle with an addiction to heroin during the 1990s , up to 1998 . Around 1996 he moved to Los Angeles , to try to overcome this drug problem . Mehldau later stated that " Once I stopped using heroin , it was like a rush of creativity that had been held in check came out " .
In 1996 Mehldau made the first of several recordings with saxophonist Lee Konitz and bassist Charlie Haden . Mehldau 's contributions to film music continued in 1997 , with an accompanist role for some of the tracks recorded for Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil . His series of trio albums also continued , employing some of the traditional elements of jazz while not conforming to or being restricted by its norms . Live at the Village Vanguard : The Art of the Trio Volume Two consisted entirely of standards , and was recorded at a series of 1997 concerts at the Village Vanguard , and released the following year . The title again attracted attention , as concert recordings from the same club had been issued by some of the biggest names in jazz , including Evans , and saxophonists Coltrane and Sonny Rollins . The studio album Songs : The Art of the Trio Volume Three followed later in 1998 , and contained Mehldau originals , standards , plus Nick Drake 's " River Man " , and Radiohead 's " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " . This album was chosen by Fordham as his jazz CD of the year . " [ Although it ] might seem to some a little introverted , and certainly distinctly classical in flavor " , he wrote , " the intricacy and counter @-@ melodic richness of a great pianist is astonishingly balanced against the more direct and open eloquence a great vocalist might bring . "
Mehldau became established on the international jazz festival scene in the mid- to late 1990s , having played at events such as the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1997 , and the North Sea Jazz Festival in 1998 . Also in 1998 , the pianist reunited with Redman for the saxophonist 's Timeless Tales ( For Changing Times ) , and played on country artist Willie Nelson 's Teatro . That summer , Mehldau spent a few months in Germany , developing his interest in its language , literature , and music .
= = = 1999 – 2004 = = =
Mehldau 's interest in figures of 19th century German Romanticism , including Brahms , Schubert , and Schumann , influenced his first solo piano release , Elegiac Cycle , which was recorded in 1999 and broke the sequence of trio recordings under his name . Art of the Trio 4 : Back at the Vanguard was recorded and released in the same year , presenting more performances from the Village Vanguard . The recording features standards , Mehldau originals , Miles Davis ' " Solar " , and another version of " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " . Also in 1999 , Mehldau was pianist for two albums by saxophonist Charles Lloyd . In the following year , Places , an album containing both Mehldau solo piano pieces and trio performances , was released . All of the tracks were Mehldau originals , and were based on his experiences of visiting and revisiting various locations worldwide . Progression : The Art of the Trio , Vol . 5 , the final album in that series , was another concert recording from the Village Vanguard , and was recorded in 2000 and released in 2001 . Looking back on his earlier career , Mehldau commented in 2005 that " The trio created my identity " . In the three or four years up to the end of 2001 , his trio had toured for the majority of each year .
In 2001 Mehldau expanded from playing on film soundtracks , which had included The Million Dollar Hotel and Space Cowboys , to scoring , with the French film Ma femme est une actrice . In the same year , he left Los Angeles . He first played with saxophonist Wayne Shorter that year , and recorded the Grammy Award @-@ winning Alegría with him a couple of years later .
While trio performances and recordings continued , Mehldau began in the early to mid @-@ 2000s to broaden the musical settings in which he appeared as leader . An early instance was his 2002 album Largo , which was Mehldau 's first departure from piano solo or trio albums . It was produced by Jon Brion , whom Mehldau had met at a California club that hosted weekly happenings . On the album , in addition to Mehldau 's usual trio , rock musicians and instruments associated more with classical music were employed , as were experiments with prepared piano and " multiple layers of electronically enhanced sound " . As of 2010 , this was reported to be Mehldau 's best @-@ selling album .
The results of two further days of recording in 2002 were split over two trio albums : Anything Goes , released in 2004 , contained performances of compositions by others ; the Mehldau originals were released two years later on House on Hill . A solo piano recording from a 2003 concert , Live in Tokyo , showed greater lyricism appearing in Mehldau 's playing , and was released in 2004 as his first album for Nonesuch Records , an imprint of Warner Bros. In the summer of 2004 he toured Europe for three weeks with a band that included guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel and Redman . That autumn , Mehldau formed a quartet , with Mark Turner on saxophones , Grenadier on bass , and Jeff Ballard on drums .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
In 2005 Ballard replaced Rossy as the drummer in Mehldau 's trio . This , in the view of critic Ray Comiskey , did not radically change the trio 's sound , but it did give them " a harder edge and pushed Mehldau more , with bassist Larry Grenadier left more in a fulcrum role , the centre around which piano and drums cavort . " Another critic , Ben Ratliff , suggested that the new trio 's sound was " denser and more tumultuous " , with rhythms more overt than with the previous trio . In February 2005 Mehldau performed in Hong Kong for the first time , with his new trio . Their first album , Day Is Done , was recorded the following month .
Mehldau continued to expand beyond trio and solo playing . In the spring of 2005 he premiered a song cycle that he had written for classical music singer Renée Fleming . This association was based on a commission from Carnegie Hall ; their 2006 recording contained music set to poems by Rainer Maria Rilke and Louise Bogan . Mehldau also collaborated with guitarist Pat Metheny from 2005 – they recorded two albums together that year , along with Grenadier and Ballard , and in 2007 went on a worldwide tour .
Another Village Vanguard recording , Brad Mehldau Trio Live , was recorded in 2006 and released two years later . This also contained a variety of sources of material , including " Wonderwall " by rock band Oasis , " Black Hole Sun " by grunge band Soundgarden , and Chico Buarque 's samba " O Que Será " ; " it 's business as usual – state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art contemporary jazz piano " , commented Fordham . A further recording from 2006 was released as Live in Marciac in 2011 ; this contained two CDs and one DVD of a solo concert by the pianist . Mehldau asserted that his third solo recording " is the beginning of a freer approach , [ ... ] and maybe [ contains ] more ease and fluidity in a musical texture with several simultaneous voices " . In 2006 Mehldau also played on saxophonist Michael Brecker 's final album , Pilgrimage .
In March 2007 Mehldau first performed his piano concerto " The Brady Bunch Variations for Piano and Orchestra " , with the Orchestre national d 'Île @-@ de @-@ France at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris . Later that decade , Carnegie Hall awarded Mehldau another commission – to write the song cycle Love Songs for singer Anne Sofie von Otter ; they premiered it together in 2009 and recorded the songs the following year . In 2009 Mehldau began a two @-@ year period as curator of London 's Wigmore Hall jazz series , which included a performance with von Otter in the second year .
In 2009 Mehldau also recorded Highway Rider , an album that combined his usual trio with guest musicians and a 28 @-@ piece orchestra . Again based compositionally on the theme of travel or a journey , the album was produced by Brion , and , in critic Mike Hobart 's description , " probes the confluence of the arbitrary and non @-@ arbitrary in music , of balancing what is committed to the page with improvisation . " This was pursued further in the winter of 2010 – 11 , in public performances of pieces from the album in the US and Europe . Mehldau 's trio returned to the studio for the first time in several years in 2008 and again in 2011 , resulting in Ode , an album of the pianist 's originals , and Where Do You Start , an album of covers . Down Beat reviewer Jim Macnie commented that , on the former album , " More than ever , Mehldau uses his instrument as a drum , popping staccato notes into the maw of the rhythm section 's formidable bustle . "
During 2010 – 11 Mehldau held Carnegie Hall 's Richard and Barbara Debs Composer 's Chair , the first jazz musician to do so . In 2011 he toured with von Otter again , and played and recorded piano duets with Kevin Hays , and piano – mandolin duets with Chris Thile . The Hays collaboration was on arrangements by Patrick Zimmerli , with whom Mehldau had attended high school . One piece from their album , Modern Music , featured the pianists playing a composed left @-@ hand part while improvising with the other hand ; " to do both at once is a real test . The brain feels like it 's split in half " , commented Mehldau . In 2012 Mehldau and the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra performed his " Variations for Piano and Orchestra on a Melancholy Theme " in Europe . The piece was originally for solo piano , but was converted by Mehldau for a commission by the Orchestra ; it was performed in the US the following year .
In 2013 Mehldau began touring with drummer Mark Guiliana as a synthesizer @-@ oriented duo that was given the portmanteau name " Mehliana " . Their playing was largely improvised , and distantly influenced by dub , drum ' n ' bass , electro , and funk . They released an album , Mehliana : Taming the Dragon , in February 2014 . Late in 2015 , a collection of solo piano recordings from Mehldau 's concerts in Europe in the 2004 – 14 period was released , entitled 10 Years Solo Live . Another trio recording with Grenadier and Ballard , Blues and Ballads , was recorded in 2012 and 2014 and was released in 2016 . Also in 2016 , Mehldau and Guiliana formed a trio with guitarist John Scofield ; they played in the United States before touring Europe .
= = Inspiration , influences , and playing style = =
Mehldau has expressed an interest in , and knowledge of , philosophy and literature . In a 2003 interview he commented on romanticism and nostalgia , linking pleasure and pain to musical expression :
I love the part of the Orpheus myth where he is allowed to take his wife out of Hades on the condition that he doesn 't look back at her for the trip on the river Styx . When he can 't help himself , he looks back , and she is pulled back downstream away from him , taken away forever . Music is that moment right when he looks at her : seeing something that you love for an instant being
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taken away forever . There 's an element of folly to the whole thing – you look even though you know you shouldn 't . Music kind of yokes together the feeling of attainment and the feeling of loss at the same time .
In Stuart Nicholson 's words , " Mehldau 's art is not based on negotiating his way through a harmonic sequence with a string of bravura licks [ ... ] Instead he patiently weaves melodic developments from motifs , fragments and inversions of the [ ... ] songs he plays into the fabric of his extemporizations , making the tunes gradually assume the proportions of an alternative composition . " Fordham stated that " Mehldau demonstrates immense attention to detail , control of dynamics , and patience in developing an improvisation 's shape over a longer span than the chorus @-@ structure of a popular song . "
Mehldau often plays a separate melody with each hand , and one of the central features of his music is the playing of improvised counterpoint . He stated in 2002 that some of the content of his playing is affected by the music that he has recently been listening to : " If I 'm digging a Brahms intermezzo that 'll find its way in . If it 's McCoy Tyner , there 'll be more of that . " Mehldau 's performances often employ unusual rhythmic meters ; for example , he plays his arrangement of " All the Things You Are " on Art of the Trio 4 in 7 / 4 time , and " I Didn 't Know What Time It Was " on Art of the Trio 1 in 5 / 4 . He developed this ability over a period of around a year , with the help of Rossy . Mehldau is able to reach tenth and eleventh intervals on the piano .
Mehldau cites pianists Larry Goldings ( for " his full approach to the instrument " ) and Hays ( for adding alternative harmonies to the set one ) , as well as guitarist Bernstein ( for showing the value of playing melodic phrases instead of just rehearsed patterns ) as direct influences on his own playing , in addition to Jesse Davis , Kurt Rosenwinkel , David Sánchez , Mark Turner , and the other members of his own trio . He has stated that Hersch was his biggest influence as a player of solo piano .
= = Compositions = =
Fordham described Mehldau 's compositions as " miniature tapestries of taut lyricism and surprising turns " . Mehldau himself indicated that some of his compositions address a specific need , such as integrating a particular rhythm into his trio , while others emerge from something he has played while improvising . In the latter case , Mehldau likened the difficulty of the composition process to that of a game of chess : " The opening is always easy for me , the middle gets more difficult , more of an intellectual process , more trial and error at work , and the end is always difficult for me . " These struggles to find satisfactory endings stem from the tension between needing to close a piece and his desire to leave a sense of open @-@ endedness – " an escape duct of possibility " .
= = Personal life = =
Mehldau is married to Dutch jazz vocalist Fleurine , with whom he has recorded and toured . They met in 1997 , and have three children . The eldest is a daughter who was born in 2001 . Mehldau stated early in 2006 that family responsibilities meant that he was making shorter tours . As of 2010 , he divided his non @-@ touring time between living in Amsterdam and New York .
= = Influence = =
Mehldau 's trio was , in Hobart 's words , " the first successfully to add post @-@ Beatles pop into the jazz repertoire without trivialising either " , and shifted the " traditional emphasis on bravura technique and group dynamics [ ... ] to a focus on subtleties of touch and where @-@ my @-@ fancy @-@ takes @-@ me musings . " Such differences in repertoire and approach became common in small @-@ group jazz . His combining of right- and left @-@ hand playing , moving away from the more typical right @-@ hand dominated playing , also influenced pianists .
In 2013 Chinen stated that " Mehldau is the most influential jazz pianist of the last 20 years " . Pianist Ethan Iverson , a contemporary of Mehldau 's , stated that Mehldau was the principal influence on his peers , beginning in the late 1990s . Pianist Gerald Clayton ( born 1984 ) summarized Mehldau 's importance in a 2013 interview : " He brought in a new feel and sound in jazz . I don 't know a single modern pianist who hasn 't taken something from Brad . I told him that I should be arrested for all the stuff I 've stolen from him . " Redman said in 2010 that Largo had been particularly important to musicians : " Brad has had a lot of influential records , [ ... but ] if you talk to musicians , especially younger musicians , so many of them will name that as a defining record . " Marco Benevento and Aaron Parks are among the improvisers who have been affected by the 2002 album .
= = Honors = =
Mehldau won Down Beat 's Readers Poll piano award in 1999 , 2000 , 2002 , 2004 , 2007 , 2011 , and 2012 . He was the 2006 winner of the Miles Davis Prize , awarded by the Montreal International Jazz Festival for " jazz artists who have made significant artistic and innovative contributions to the genre " . In 2015 Mehldau received the Wigmore Medal , which " recognises significant figures in the international music world who have a strong association with the [ Wigmore ] Hall . "
As of December 2014 Mehldau had been nominated for five Grammy Awards . He was nominated for Best Jazz Instrumental Solo on " Blame It on My Youth " from The Art of the Trio Volume One in 1998 , Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Individual or Group for Art of the Trio 4 : Back at the Vanguard in 2000 , Best Jazz Instrumental Album , Individual or Group for Brad Mehldau Trio Live in 2009 , Best Improvised Jazz Solo for the title track of Ode in 2013 , and Best Improvised Jazz Solo for " Sleeping Giant " from Mehliana : Taming the Dragon in 2015 .
= = Discography = =
= Yoani Sánchez =
Yoani María Sánchez Cordero ( born September 4 , 1975 ) is a Cuban blogger who has achieved international fame and multiple international awards for her critical portrayal of life in Cuba under its current government .
Sanchez attended primary school during the affluent time when the Soviet Union was providing considerable aid to Cuba . However , her high school and university education coincided with the loss of financial aid to Cuba following the Soviet Union 's collapse , creating a highly public educational system and style of living that subsequently left Sanchez with a strong need for personal privacy . Sanchez 's university education left her with two understandings ; first , that she had acquired a disgust for “ high culture ” , and second that she no longer had an interest in philology , her chosen field of university study .
Sánchez , disillusioned with her home country , left Cuba for Switzerland in 2002 , and it was during this time that she became interested in computer science . When she finally returned to Cuba , Sanchez helped to establish Contodos , a magazine that continues to act as a forum for Cuban free expression , and a vehicle for reporting news . Sánchez is best known for her blog , Generación Y ( Generation Y ) ; which , despite censorship in Cuba , she is able to publish by e @-@ mailing the blog entries to friends outside the country who then post them online . The blog is translated and available in 17 languages .
Time magazine listed her as one of the world 's 100 most influential people in 2008 , stating that " under the nose of a regime that has never tolerated dissent , Sánchez has practiced what paper @-@ bound journalists in her country cannot ; freedom of speech " . In November 2009 , U.S. President Barack Obama , wrote that her blog " provides the world a unique window into the realities of daily life in Cuba " and applauded her efforts to " empower fellow Cubans to express themselves through the use of technology . "
= = Biography = =
Yoani Sánchez was born September 4 , 1975 , in central Havana , Cuba , one of two daughters , to William Sánchez and Maria Eumelia Cordero . Her father worked , as his father had before him , on the state railroad system , first as a laborer and later as an engineer . As the nation ’ s railroad system fell apart after the collapse of communism in Europe , William Sánchez , out of work along with many of his colleagues , became a bicycle repairman .
Sánchez grew up and attended school in central Havana during the years when the Soviet Union was supporting the island and its communist revolution with tangible aid , nearly $ 9 billion in the final year . Sánchez 's secondary and university years coincided with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the loss of its subsidies to Cuba that had for nearly three decades provided about 80 percent of Cuba ’ s international trade . During her high school years , she attended a " school in the countryside " about which she wrote :
I left high school in the countryside feeling that nothing belonged to me , not even my body . Living in shelters creates the sensation that your whole life , your privacy , your personal possessions and even your nakedness has become public property . " Sharing " is the obligatory word and it comes to seem normal not to be able — ever — to be alone . After years of mobilizations , agricultural camps , and a sad school in Alquízar , I needed an overdose of privacy .
Sánchez studied for two years in the Instituto Pedagógico with a major in Spanish literature . She transferred to the Faculty of Arts and Letters in 1995 , and gave birth to her son in August of that year . Sanchez graduated within five years with a degree in Hispanic philology and a specialty in contemporary Latin American literature . Her thesis was titled Words Under Pressure . A Study of the Literature of Dictatorship in Latin America . Sanchez says that by the end of her university studies she " understood two things : the first , that the world of intellectualism and high culture disgusted me and the saddest , that I no longer wanted to be a philologist . " By September 2000 , she had found a job with Editorial Gente Nueva , a publisher of children 's literature . After a short period of employment with Gente Nueva , Sanchez asked to be released from her position , then focused on a higher paying job as a freelance Spanish instructor for German tourists visiting Havana . According to Sánchez , this was during a time " when engineers preferred to drive taxis , teachers worked as hotel desk clerks , and store counters were tended by neurosurgeons or nuclear physicists . "
In 2002 , claiming disillusionment with her home country , Sánchez decided to leave Cuba and emigrated to Switzerland . She was eventually joined by her son and husband . Two years later she decided to return to Cuba citing “ family reasons " However , since she had been out of the country for more than eleven months without special permission , Sánchez had lost the right to return . Sánchez states that she then flew home to Cuba " for a two @-@ week family visit " on a round @-@ trip ticket , and by destroying her passport was able to avoid being forced on a plane back to Switzerland . The Cuban government says that she was granted a waiver allowing her to recover her permanent resident status in Cuba . She finally resettled in Havana . During this time , Sánchez discovered her current profession , computer science . In 2004 , she founded , together with a group of Cubans – all based on the island – a magazine , Consenso , based on reflection and debate . She also helped establish the web portal Desde Cuba ( From Cuba ) , an on @-@ line magazine and collection of individual blogs , of which Sánchez 's was the first . Sánchez began to sign her posts in 2008 , abandoning anonymous blogging . That year , she requested permission to travel to Spain to receive the Ortega y Gasset Journalism Award but permission was denied . Her request for permission to travel to an international documentary film festival in Prague , of which she was a member of the jury , was also denied .
In October 2009 , Sánchez was awarded Columbia University 's " Maria Moors Cabot prize " and was invited to New York to accept the award . The Cuban government denied her permission to attend . Nicholas Lemann , dean of Columbia 's Graduate School of Journalism , criticized the decision , stating that " The Cuban government ought to value Ms. Sanchez 's work as a sign that young Cubans are ready to take Cuba into a better future – one that will have the free press the Cuban people deserve . "
= = = A journey to South America and Europe = = =
Sánchez flew to Prague in the Czech Republic , where she was received by the Minister of Foreign Affairs and former presidential candidate Karel Schwarzenberg who was particularly interested in discussing the reforms that took place in Cuba during 2012 and the state of civil society there . Schwarzenberg remarked that he was not as enthusiastic regarding the reforms as representatives of some other countries , as he could still remember reforms from the communist era in former Czechoslovakia that " ... changed nothing , but to the West looked amazing . "
Sánchez was also a guest of human rights festival One world , organized by a non @-@ profit humanitarian organization People In Need . A film by a Swiss director Barbara Miller Forbidden Voices : How to Start a Revolution with a Laptop was among the films shown during the festival . The film presents three women - one of them being Sánchez - who use blogs and social networks to spread information from their countries living under authoritarian regimes , thus fighting for women rights or human rights in general . Sánchez was also invited to a discussion at the Charles University about independent journalism in Cuba .
= = Blogging and digital publishing = =
Sánchez established the magazine , Consenso ( later named Contodos ) , on her return from Switzerland . The magazine continues to be published today as a " forum for free expression " from the island , and as a vehicle for the reporting of news such as Father Jose Conrado ’ s February 2009 letter to Raúl Castro Ruz . The magazine 's editorial board consists of Dimas Castellanos , Miriam Celaya , Marta Cortízas , Reinaldo Escobar , Eugenio Leal , and Yoani Sánchez . Sánchez is also involved with the digital magazine Convivencia .
In January – February 2007 , Sánchez participated in an event referred to as the " debate of the intellectuals " , described as a " discussion among intellectuals and writers on Cuba ’ s repressive cultural policies . " She , along with several others , was not allowed into the formal conference being held in the House of The Americas . The debate of those who were excluded , and included , in the formal sessions , was captured in a several hundred pages of emails exchanged between the participants . These emails — exchanged by over one hundred participants — are preserved in the digital magazine Contodos , under the title : Polémica Intellectual 2007 .
According to Sánchez , what pushed her to write a blog was the bad taste left at the end of the controversy of the intellectuals in January 2007 . The meeting in the House of the Americas would try to channel and institutionalize a debate that had been raising the temperature of Cuban emails for a couple of weeks already . A select list of guests began entering the " Che Guevara Room " , while our “ group of impertinents ” watched , from outside , as midnight arrived . The protesters were blocked from entering by the custodians in order to keep them from debating and discussing their encounters with " censorship and dogmatism . " The protesters chanted “ Desiderio , Desiderio , hear my criteria , ” but this had no effect , while inside , the voice of the Minister of Culture repeated the idea that in a place under siege , dissent is treason . Sánchez believed that the " debate was hijacked by the institutions , jailed by an academic world full of concepts and fancy words , and condemned to take the course of the imminent conference of the UNEAC [ Cuban Writers and Artists Union ] .
In the end the protesters left with the conviction that they couldn 't wait to be allowed inside for the next debate . For Sánchez , this added a push to start what she terms " this exorcism called Generation Y. " Sánchez launched her blog , Generation Y , on April 9 , 2007 . The national baseball playoffs were underway , and the first post used the baseball fever to compare what Cubans are allowed to shout , and display on homemade posters , “ Santiago , Go Santiago ! ” and what they are not : “ Internet for all ! ” The blog was hosted in Germany on an Internet domain by Cronon AG , and was designed by Sánchez . Later , the blog was transferred to WordPress , and was eventually upgraded to allow comments by readers .
When the blog had been active for six months , Sánchez expressed her reason for blogging , saying that her initial inspiration had been to create an aid to help her deal with the frustrations she felt with the situation in Cuba , and of trying to go along with the advice of friends who suggested she be cautious and wait , rather than more " noble motives " . She tried " silence and evasion , " yoga , Tai Chi , going to the gym , all with no results . She finally found a means to express these frustrations , by blogging . Even so , she admits " I can both get discouraged have sudden starts . I alternate between “ It ‘ s working ! ” to “ It ’ s not worth the pain ” ; alerting her readers to not be " surprised if the catharsis rises in tone , if I become incendiary , or show a streak of pessimism . "
According to Sánchez , when she began blogging , Cubans , by law , were not allowed into tourist hotels , but with her “ European ” appearance , and ability to speak German , she routinely managed to get past the gatekeepers to work on her blog . Due to the difficulties in accessing the Internet , her access speed is determined by the speed of the bus that connects to La Víbora at Línea and G. " Each post depends on a countless chain of events that normally don ’ t go well . From my isolated PC to a flash memory and then to the public space of a cybercafé or a hotel . For this , without detailing all the complications , the elevator does not work , the gatekeeper asks me to show my passport to sit at the computer , or there are frustrations to sign on , plus the slow @-@ speeds imposed by proxies , filters and keylogger . "
= = = The Huffington Post blog = = =
In November 2008 , Sánchez was invited to post her blog entries on The Huffington Post , and she began writing occasional posts that described life in Cuba . Sánchez says she has strived to maintain a respectful tone , and she asks that those who leave comments on her blog do so as well .
In an interview with journalist Ted Henken published in Poder360 , she explained this view , saying :
I refuse to use incendiary language , defamation , or harangues , because that only exacerbates the cycle of intolerance that is an obstacle to reasoned debate . Cuba is a very diverse country . You walk out into the street , and you not only find diversity of races but also of opinions . The official press spends all its time trying to make us believe that this is a very monolithic country , that we all think the same , and it does so with a dose of revolutionary violence and ideological aggressiveness that is paralyzing . We have to find a way to put a stop to this never @-@ ending cycle , to this spiral of aggression that is very characteristic of Cuban journalism .
= = = International attention = = =
On October 9 , 2007 , Reuters published an article about bloggers in Cuba : " Cubans go to unusual lengths to post blogs " ; Sánchez featured prominently in the article . The article was republished by media around the world , and was followed by a Wall Street Journal article on December 22 , 2007 , called " Cuban Revolution : Yoani Sánchez fights tropical totalitarianism , one blog post at a time " . Sánchez has also appeared in interviews by Spain 's El País newspaper ; in an article in Germany 's Die Zeit ; and in the New York Times .
= = = Generation Y blocked = = =
On March 26 , 2008 , Sánchez announced to her readers that the recent problems accessing her blog appeared to be a deliberate action on the part of government censors to block access to her blog and the other blogs on the desdecuba.com website . While debate swirled back and forth on the web about whether the site was actually blocked , Sanchez stated that Generation Y could not be accessed in Cuba for the past several years . The debate about whether this was a year @-@ long plus “ fluke ” or some “ glitch ” in the software , seemed to be resolved about a year after the site became unavailable . Comments made by a Cuban State Security agent in an interview published on March 19 , 2009 , in the digital magazine Kaos en la Red , where “ Agent Miguel ” stated , “ I know State Security officials who literally prophesied that blocking the blog Generation Y within the country would , in a short time , cause the launching of Madame Sánchez into the stardom of the manipulative media campaign against Cuba . Regardless of these prophesies , they did it and now they ’ re paying the price . ”
Sánchez was well known by this time and the attempt to censor her by the sudden government shutdown of her blog attracted more international attention than ever . On April 2 , 2008 , the Washington Post devoted a long column to her , just one of hundreds of articles and blog posts appearing around the world . On June 23 , 2008 , Cuba ’ s daily newspaper , Granma , published a lengthy prologue , written by Fidel Castro , to the book Fidel , Bolivia y algo más , which had been re @-@ issued fifteen years after its initial publication . In a prologue to this new edition of a book commemorating his visit to Bolivia in 1993 , Fidel Castro took the opportunity to quote a long excerpt from Sánchez 's blog and , although he did not mention her name , expressed his disappointment that there are young persons in Cuba today who think as she does . Castro describes Sánchez 's statements as a generalization used as a slogan .
Sánchez responded to Castro 's comments by saying in her blog that she would allow her husband , journalist Reinaldo Escobar , to respond to Castro 's statements because she felt it best to leave the fighting at the " macho @-@ man @-@ male " level , and instead continue with her " womanly " labor of weaving together the " frayed tapestry " of their society . Sánchez 's husband responded with :
The ex @-@ president disapproves of the fact that Yoani accepted this year ’ s Ortega y Gasset Prize for Digital Journalism , arguing that the prize is something that imperialism favours to blow its own horn . I recognize the right of this gentleman to make this comment , but I allow myself to observe that the responsibility implied in receiving a prize is never comparable to that of bestowing one , and Yoani , at least , has never awarded a medal to a corrupt person , a traitor , a dictator or a murderer .
Escobar went on to enumerate a list of names he says are " terrible and undeserving " recipients who were awarded the Order of José Marti by Castro , including names such as Leonid Brezhnev , Nicolae Ceaușescu , Gustáv Husák , and Robert Mugabe , among others .
= = = Blogging blind = = =
Since her blog was blocked from public Internet sites in Cuba , Sánchez has relied on Cuban friends abroad to post her texts for her , which she sends to them by email , along with the accompanying photographs . In an 2009 interview with Ted Henken published in Poder360 , Sánchez commented on being a " blind blogger " by saying that the Cuban government “ filtered ” the DesdeCuba.com website from the Internet , including access from hotels in order to prevent Sánchez from updating her site . To combat this , Sánchez developed what she terms a “ citizen network ” , consisting of people outside Cuba who help distribute her posts .
As of January 2009 , Generation Y ( all languages ) was getting about 14 million ' hits ' a month . On the Spanish language site , each entry receives hundreds , if not thousands , of comments .
= = = 14ymedio = = =
On 21 May 2014 , Sánchez launched 14ymedio , the first independent digital media outlet in Cuba . Shortly after the launch , the website was blocked by the Cuban government but was later unblocked again .
= = Books = =
In 2011 , Sanchez published her first book Havana Real : One Woman Fights to Tell the Truth About Cuba Today , four years ' worth of her translated blog collected in book form , and which describes her views on everyday life in Cuba under the rule of both Fidel and Raúl Castro . She was not able to leave Cuba to promote her book , but smuggled flash drives out of Cuba containing videotaped book readings . She has written a second book , Word Press : A Blog for Speaking To The World . Sanchez has been described as a talented writer .
= = Growing the Cuban blogosphere = =
Given the challenges of blogging in Cuba , the number of blogs on the DesdeCuba site grew quickly . Eight months after she started Generation Y , she was joined on the Desdecuba website by her husband Reinaldo Escobar 's blog , Desde Aqui ( From Here ) , in December 2007 . In January three more Desdecuba blogs were launched : Sin EVAsion ( Without Evasion ) ; El Blog de Dimas ( The Blog of Dimas ) ; and Retazos ( Fragments ) . In March 2008 , Potro Salvaje ( Wild Pony ) was launched , joined by La Colmena ( The Beehive ) in May 2008 .
When the Cuban government blocked access to Sánchez 's blog from the island , it also blocked access to the DesdeCuba website , where these other blogs were housed . The other bloggers faced the same challenges Sánchez had in maintaining their blogs , and also needed to find ways around the censorship — either relying on friends with access inside Cuba from their government offices , using complex and time @-@ consuming workarounds to find ' back doors ' into their blogs , or reaching out to friends and strangers abroad who volunteered to help , and who posted email blog entries they would never be able to see . With their blogs targeted to Cuban readers on the island , the discouragement was compounded by knowing that even if they could post , their readers could not read the posts . This limitation was circumvented by making copies of the blogs on CDs , either from computers on the island with access to the website , or sent from friends abroad . Although this method of disseminating the blogs was slow and delayed , and readers could not comment directly on the website , it was quite effective and continues to this day [ March 2009 ] . Sanchéz said to a known Venezuelan blogger that visited her in Havana : " In any case we are trying to educate others so blogging would become in Cuba a permanent feature , a means of democratizing citizen expression , as in the free world . "
On January 28 , Sánchez launched Voces Cubanas . This citizen journalism project seeks to provide a multimedia platform to independent bloggers in Cuba to express the realities and hardships of everyday life there . During an interview published by Global Voices , Sánchez said this was a website " where all those who want to express ideas , put their projects online , can do so . " An article in El Nuevo Herald by Ivette Leyva Martinez , speaks to the role played by Sánchez and other young people , outside the Cuban opposition and dissidence movements , in working towards a free and democratic Cuba today . On March 29 , 2009 , at a performance by Tania Bruguera , a podium with an open microphone was staged for those wishing to have one minute of uncensored , public speech . Sánchez was among speakers who publicly criticized censorship and said that " the time has come to jump over the wall of control " . The Communist regime dismissed the event and Sánchez without using her name .
= = Support and detention = =
= = = Father José Conrado 's letter to Raúl Castro = = =
On February 5 , 2009 , Father José Conrado , Pastor of Santa Teresita del Niño Jesús in Santiago de Cuba , wrote an open letter to Cuban president Raúl Castro Ruz which was published in the digital magazine , Contodos .
Sánchez and Escobar traveled to Santiago de Cuba the weekend before the letter was released and spent several days there , meeting with Father Conrado . During the same visit they held a blogger meeting with young people there , and Sánchez put her Ortega y Gasset award in the sanctuary of the Virgin of Charity of Cobre , where “ the long arm of the censor does not enter . ” Excerpts from the letter were published on the Huffington Post .
= = = Abduction = = =
According to Sánchez , on Friday , November 6 , 2009 , she and three others were taken in her own neighborhood by men working for the Cuban government . She said that she was heading to an anti @-@ violence demonstration and was forcefully put into a car along with another Cuban blogger , Orlando Luis Pardo Lazo ( she stated that the other two were placed into another car ) . She characterizes the event on her blog , Generation Y , as a " kidnapping " and describes the event in detail . Sánchez said that when she was accosted on the street , " The curious crowded around and I shouted , ' Help , these men want to kidnap us , ' but they stopped those who wanted to intervene with a shout that revealed the whole ideological background of the operation , ' Don ’ t mess with it , these are counterrevolutionaries . ' " Sánchez said that she was put into the backseat of the car and received blows to her head , legs and buttocks as she was pinned down . The incident was condemned by the U.S. administration and by Human Rights Watch .
According to BBC reporter Fernando Ravsberg , who interviewed Sánchez on Monday , November 9 , 2009 , he did not see bruises , marks or scars on her body . When asked , she explained , " Throughout the weekend I had a swollen cheekbone and eyebrow . Above all I have a lot of pain in the lower back . " She still had marks on her buttocks however , which she couldn 't show to the reporter . She attributed that to the " skill of her captors " . When CNN 's David Ariosto reported on the incident , after Sánchez was injured but before she met with the BBC reporter , Sánchez is shown in video footage with bruising and swelling around her left eye and bruising on her arm . The video report appeared on CNN Espanol on Monday , November 9 , 2009 .
= = = President Obama = = =
In 2009 , Sánchez mailed seven questions to United States President Barack Obama . On November 18 , 2009 , Obama responded to these questions with a detailed expression of his support for the bloggers ' work :
Your blog provides the world a unique window into the realities of daily life in Cuba . It is telling that the Internet has provided you and other courageous Cuban bloggers with an outlet to express yourself so freely , and I applaud your collective efforts to empower fellow Cubans to express themselves through the use of technology . The government and people of the United States join all of you in looking forward to the day all Cubans can freely express themselves in public without fear and without reprisals .
The day after she received the unexpected answers from President Obama , Sanchez drafted seven questions for President Castro that she left with the council of state , supreme governing body for Cuba .
= = = 2012 arrest = = =
Sánchez and her husband were arrested on October 4 , 2012 , apparently in an attempt to prevent her from writing about the trial of conservative politician Ángel Carromero , who crashed a rental car , killing Oswaldo Payá . She was released a day later .
= = 2013 trip = =
With a change in the passport laws in January 2013 , Sánchez was granted a Cuban passport enabling her to travel abroad . She had previously applied for an exit permit 20 times without success . On February 17 , 2013 , Sánchez traveled to more than twelve countries in Europe and The Americas , including Brazil and the United States , where , in Miami , she criticized the inadequacy of Cuba 's reforms as well as the United States embargo against Cuba . She returned to Cuba on May 30 .
= = Awards = =
In 2008 , Sánchez was honored with awards that included Time magazine ’ s " One of the 100 Most Influential People in the World ” , one of Foreign Policy magazine ’ s “ 10 Most Influential Latin American Intellectuals ” of the year , and the El País 2008 “ Ortega y Gasset Prize for Digital Journalism ” . She was , as well , one of El País ’ 2008 100 most notable Hispanoamericans , and one of Gatopardo ’ s 10 most influential people of 2008 .
Time magazine named Sánchez 's blog , " Generation Y " , one of the “ 25 Best Blogs of 2009 ” . The World Economic Forum , yearly , selects a group of young global leaders of whom Sánchez was one , in 2009 . In the summer of 2009 , Sánchez was honored as one of the winners of the Columbia University School of Journalism 's “ Maria Moors Cabot Prize ” . The prize is the oldest in international journalism . Sánchez was denied an exit permit by the Cuban government to travel to the New York City award dinner . In 2010 , Sánchez was named a " World Press Freedom Hero " by the International Press Institute , and also received a Prince Claus Award from the Netherlands ' Prince Claus Fund , with an honorarium of € 25 @,@ 000 .
2008 – Ortega y Gasset Prize for Journalism
2008 – " 100 Most Influential People in the World ” – Time magazine
2008 – " 100 most notable Hispanoamericans " – El País newspaper
2008 – " 10 most influential people of 2008 " – Gatopardo Magazine
2008 – “ 10 Most Influential Latin American Intellectuals ” of the year – Foreign Policy magazine
2009 – " 25 Best Blogs of 2009 " – Time magazine
2009 – " Young Global Leader Honoree " – World Economic Forum
2009 – Maria Moors Cabot prize – Columbia University Prize
2010 – World Press Freedom Hero – International Press Institute
2010 – Prince Claus Award – Prince Claus Fund
2012 – “ 10 Most Influential Ibero American Intellectuals ” of the year – Foreign Policy magazine [ 1 ]
= No. 285 Squadron RAAF =
No. 285 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) training squadron . Controlled by No. 84 Wing , the squadron was formed in August 1999 and is responsible for training the RAAF 's Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Hercules aircrew and ground support staff . No. 285 Squadron does not control any flying aircraft but manages the flight simulator used for converting aircrew to the C @-@ 130Js operated by No. 37 Squadron . It is also allocated decommissioned Hercules airframes for training purposes , as well as flying aircraft from No. 37 Squadron when required . Since its formation , No. 285 Squadron has been located at RAAF Base Richmond in the western suburbs of Sydney .
= = Role and equipment = =
No. 285 Squadron is responsible for training aircrew and maintenance staff to operate the Lockheed Martin C @-@ 130J Hercules transport aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It is located at RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , and controlled by No. 84 Wing , which is part of Air Mobility Group . No. 285 Squadron 's motto is " Aspire " .
Twelve C @-@ 130Js are operated by No. 37 Squadron , also based at Richmond under No. 84 Wing . The aircraft are generally crewed by two pilots and a loadmaster , and are tasked with medium tactical airlift in Australia and overseas , transporting troops and cargo , and conducting medical evacuation , search @-@ and @-@ rescue , and airdrop missions . No. 285 Squadron manages the full @-@ flight mission simulator ( FFMS ) used to convert aircrew to the C @-@ 130J , as well as decommissioned Hercules airframes used for loadmaster training . It also employs computer @-@ based training tools and is allocated flying aircraft from No. 37 Squadron when required . As well as training aircrew new to the C @-@ 130J , the FFMS ( maintained by CAE Australia ) is employed for existing aircrew to maintain their currency .
No. 285 Squadron generally holds two pilot and navigator conversion courses per year . Each six @-@ month course includes approximately 120 hours in the FFMS and 30 hours in flying aircraft . It culminates in an airborne operation module , which includes formation flying , airdrops , night landings with night @-@ vision goggles , and simulated combat utilising the C @-@ 130 's self @-@ defence systems to prepare the aircrew for conditions in Middle East deployments . Following this exercise , the new C @-@ 130 aircrew are posted to No. 37 Squadron . No. 285 Squadron may run 30 or more courses each year for ground support staff ; these courses can last from one day to five weeks .
= = History = =
No. 285 Squadron was formed on 24 August 1999 at RAAF Base Richmond under the command of Squadron Leader Peter " Zip " Szypula . Coming under the control of the newly re @-@ formed No. 85 Wing , the squadron took over the training functions of No. 33 Squadron ( operating Boeing 707s ) , No. 36 Squadron ( C @-@ 130H Hercules ) , No. 37 Squadron ( C @-@ 130J Hercules ) and No. 503 Wing ( aircraft maintenance ) . It was equipped with three flight simulators ; one 707 , one C @-@ 130H and one C @-@ 130J . The squadron began operating a full @-@ flight mission simulator ( FFMS ) for the C @-@ 130Hs in 2003 , coinciding with the deployment of C @-@ 130Hs to the Middle East . Replacing a more basic C @-@ 130H simulator , the FFMS was used to train pilots , navigators and flight engineers . By mid @-@ 2006 , No. 85 Wing had been disbanded and No. 285 Squadron was under the control of No. 84 Wing at Richmond . RAAF Hercules operations were concentrated in No. 37 Squadron in November 2006 , when No. 36 Squadron transferred its C @-@ 130Hs prior to re @-@ equipping with Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy airlifters and relocating to RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland .
The Boeing 707 was retired from service in June 2008 . In April 2009 , No. 285 Squadron was named the most proficient RAAF training unit of the previous year . No. 37 Squadron joined No. 285 Squadron under No. 84 Wing in October 2010 , when it was transferred from No. 86 Wing . The C @-@ 130Hs were retired in 2012 , and with them No. 285 Squadron 's C @-@ 130H simulator ; the simulator remained at Richmond until 2016 , when it was sent to Jakarta to support training for the Indonesian Air Force 's fleet of ex @-@ RAAF C @-@ 130Hs . No. 285 Squadron was jointly responsible ( with No. 33 Squadron
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a year , and McKinnon said he wrote it about himself . McKinnon described the song as a " great way to end " the album , describing it as one of their " biggest songs . "
= = Recording = =
In an August 2008 interview with AbsolutePunk , McKinnon said the band were planning to start recording once the tour with New Found Glory had finished , " So Oct & Nov. " McKinnon said that having Wade , who had previously worked on the band 's other albums , on production duties , was a way for the album to have " A Day To Remember @-@ type feel " . Wade also recorded the band 's demos for the album , in the back of a bus . The album itself was recorded at Wade 's The Wade Studio , in Ocala , Florida , after the Easycore Tour had finished . Gilbert was touring with New Found Glory in Europe at the time , but with video conferencing he was able to offer input about the record . In September 2008 , a demo appeared on the band 's MySpace page , entitled " Wax Larry " . Documenting the recording process , the band released several webisodes on YouTube , under the name The Real ADTR : Homesick in Ocala , which had been called a spoof of The Real World . The webisodes were aided by director Drew Russ , as guitarist Neil Westfall states : " When he [ Drew Russ ] was telling us in the beginning that he was getting into video stuff , and we were like ' Well that 's kinda crazy ' cause we need a video guy to do these webisodes for us ' . And as we started talking he really kinda got our sense of humor " . While in the middle of recording Homesick , A Day to Remember released Old Record .
Homesick was produced by Gilbert , and was mixed by Adam Dutkiewicz of Killswitch Engage , with mixing taking place in December 2008 , at Zing Studios . Mastering took place at West West Side Studios , by Alan Douches . The album features three guesting vocalists : Mike Hranica of The Devil Wears Prada on " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What Are You Made Of ? " , Vincent Bennett of The Acacia Strain on " Welcome to the Family " , and Sierra Kusterbeck of VersaEmerge on " If It Means a Lot to You " . The latter featured harmonica played by Dave Guynn . One of the tracks written for Homesick was held over for What Separates Me from You ( 2010 ) . An instrumental entitled " Money Maker " was also recorded during the sessions , but McKinnon had difficulties with it . He later explained : " when it came down to writing vocal parts [ ... ] I just couldn 't get that song done . [ ... ] I think it was the best music for the whole record . The music was just so catchy on its own [ ... ] so we said we will just set this aside for next time around . "
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Initial releases and line @-@ up changes = = =
In 2008 , both Homesick and the re @-@ release of the band 's first album , as Old Record , were announced , with a further announcement claiming Homesick 's release as February 17 , 2009 . After being moved up the schedule , the album 's release date became February 3 for the U.S. In January 6 , 2009 , the track list of the album was revealed . In mid @-@ January , the song " Welcome to the Family " was put on the band 's Myspace profile , with " The Downfall of Us All " being added on 26 January . The following day , the song " NJ Legion Iced Tea " was released as the first single . Homesick was released on February 3 in the U.S. The cover art , designed by Dan Mumford based on an idea by McKinnon , is an interpretation of different paths in life , and how one road can change a person 's life . The second single was " The Downfall of Us All " and the music video was released on March 3 . " The Downfall of Us All " impacted radio on May 26 . For tours in promotion of Homesick , the band had a line @-@ up change adding Four Letter Lie guitarist Kevin Skaff and dropping Tom Denney , the latter of whom wanted to settle down , but was still working with the band behind the scenes .
The band called " The Downfall of Us All " the " most fun " track from Homesick to play live . A live video of the band performing " Mr. Highway 's Thinking About the End " was included in an episode of Victory 's VicTorV . A video of the band performing " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What Are You Made Of ? " , which was filmed on the Warped Tour , was added to the band 's MySpace profile on October 16 , 2009 . It was included as a DVD trailer on their profile , which people mistook as the song 's actual music video . " Have Faith in Me " was then announced as a single on September 25 , 2009 . In December , the band released a Christmas song , " Right Where You Want Me to Be " , on their MySpace account .
= = = Music videos and live performances = = =
Also in December , the music video for " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What Are You Made Of ? " was filmed , directed by Dan Dobi . In early March 2010 the band announced via their Twitter account that the video was set for release , with a date of March 16 . This was further confirmed a few days later , with some fans being able to view it before its release . A delay in releasing it occurred as the band were trying to negotiate with MTV , as Westfall commented : " I think it 's more important to have them [ MTV ] on board , instead of just putting it on , like , YouTube . " The video had its television premiere on MTV on March 16 . The music video was based on an idea from a friend Kyle Crawford , as McKinnon said : " He was like , ' Hey , you should totally make a video where you guys are playing kickball and you play a bunch of kids and just kick the s * * * out of them ? " I was like , " That is a great idea . Let 's look into it . ' " Asked why it was the band 's next music video , Westfall said " it stands out compared to the other songs " as " it 's a harder song . "
The band had performed acoustic versions of both " Homesick " and " Have Faith in Me " before a show in early April , for 98 Rock , and again , for KROQ , a few months later . The band also played " Have Faith in Me " acoustically for MTV , which was posted online mid @-@ April . At the beginning of May 2010 , the band asked fans to name their next tour , which was shortly afterwards named as Toursick . The band started the first of The AP Sessions for Alternative Press on June 30 , performing " Homesick " and " Have Faith in Me " . The music video for " Have Faith in Me " , directed by Mark Staubach , was released on July 14 , receiving its world premiere on MTV . The song was also released as a single .
= = Further releases and song appearances = =
A re @-@ issue of Homesick was announced on September 13 , 2009 , and released on October 27 , with the original track listing intact , but adding acoustic versions of " Homesick " and " Another Song About the Weekend " , and 9 live tracks from a performance in Switzerland , which was filmed during their European tour . The acoustic tracks were recorded at The Wade Studio from September 10 to September 21 . Westfall said the band wasn 't going to re @-@ issue the album " unless it 's worth the fans ' while . " The album , along with For Those Who Have Heart and Attack of the Killer B @-@ Sides ( 2010 ) , had a reissue on vinyl , in 2011 . Three songs have featured on various artist compilations : the acoustic version of " Homesick " was released on the Victory Records Fall Sampler 2010 , " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What are You Made Of ? " on SideOneDummy 's Warped Tour 2009 Tour Compilation , and " The Downfall of Us All " on Modern Rock Radio 's Promo Only : Modern Rock Radio ( July 2009 ) and 3Wise 's Soundwave 2012 . " NJ Legion Iced Tea " is available as downloadable content for Guitar Hero World Tour . The songs " The Downfall of Us All " , " Have Faith in Me " , " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What Are You Made Of ? " and " If It Means a Lot to You " are available as downloadable content for Rock Band . " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What Are You Made Of ? " had been added at the request of the band 's fans . Another vinyl reissue was announced on July 30 , 2013 , and released on August 6 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
The album charted at number 21 on the Billboard 200 , number 1 on Top Independent Albums , number 2 on Hard Rock Albums , number 21 on Digital Albums , and number 5 on the Alternative Albums charts . It sold 22 @,@ 000 copies within its first week and reached 80 @,@ 000 copies by June 2010 . The album charted at number 165 in the UK . " Have Faith in Me " charted at number 40 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . Homesick was voted by fans as number 1 on Kill Your Stereo 's Album of the Year 2009 . Rock Sound , in 2012 , ranked the album at number 82 on their list of the greatest 101 albums of the past 15 years . In February 2014 , " The Downfall of Us All " was certified gold , and in September , " If It Means a Lot to You " was certified . In July 2015 , the album was certified silver in the UK , after selling 60 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . In March 2016 , Homesick was certified gold in the U.S.
Thomas Nassiff of AbsolutePunk called Homesick " a record that is honest and entertaining " , despite how " repetitive " and " dense it may be " . Nassiff went on to say that the album wouldn 't appeal to the public , but it would be " welcomed with open arms " by the band 's fans . When referring to the album 's lyrics , Nassiff called the album " a concept one " , with a theme of " the glory of being a musician " , which encompasses having to be away from home for a period of time . " The Downfall of Us All " , as Nassiff put it , " gets the listener psyched for the rest of the album " . Rock on Request reviewer Anthony Avina furthered this comment by naming the songs " Welcome to the Family " and the title track as examples of the band showing off their " wide range of talent while producing a harmonious album " that the band 's fans " will instantly fall in love with " . Avina noted the album had " a unique sound that has elements " from other bands such as Chiodos . Petteri Pertola , for Rockfreaks.net , " appreciate [ s ] the way these guys fuse metalcore and pop punk seamlessly together " , adding that " many songs are plagued by an overtly formulaic approach , but when it works , [ ... ] Homesick is one of the catchiest listens you 'll experience this year . " Punknews.org reviewer Elliot said the album had an " undeniable quality " , that is " melodic competence " . He viewed the a capella intro to " The Downfall of Us All " as being " a little gimmicky " , while " Have Faith in Me " was called a tribute to Blink @-@ 182 . Despite noting that three of the songs " stray " from a format that the other songs on the album share , he referred to them as being " not very impressive " .
Allmusic reviewer James Christopher Monger said " The Downfall of Us All " would gain an extra " life in countless montages on MTV reality shows and 30 @-@ second cola commercials " . Monger said that the album consisted " of perfectly executed and fairly standard clean vocal post @-@ hardcore emo @-@ pop " which shows the " limitations of the genre " . Monger called the backing vocals " exciting at first " , but felt that they " eventually dissolve into the waves of distortion mid @-@ album " , becoming an " audio equivalent of an energy drink crash " . The final track , " If It Means a Lot to You " , as Monger noted , was different from the preceding tracks , as they were " deafening , ultimately forgettable , over @-@ compressed slabs of twentysomething angst " . Sputnikmusic 's John Hanson said the album was an " incredibly derivative and plodding record " that was filled with " laughable moments " . He also noted the band " haven 't seemed to progress that basic combination of ideas " in combining pop @-@ punk and metalcore , and that the intro to " The Downfall of Us All " is " just one example of embarrassing decisions " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by A Day to Remember . All lyrics written by Jeremy McKinnon , except " Have Faith in Me " by McKinnon and Jason Lancaster .
Other editions
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per Special Edition booklet .
= = Chart positions and certifications = =
= L.A.P.D. ( band ) =
L.A.P.D. ( Love And Peace Dude , later Laughing As People Die ) was an American funk metal band formed in 1989 in Bakersfield , California . From 1989 to 1991 , the member line @-@ up was James Shaffer , Reginald Arvizu , David Silveria and Richard Morrill . The group has released one studio album , one extended play , and one compilation album .
The band was originally formed by Shaffer , Arvizu , and Morrill . Capra approached the band introducing them to bands like the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Faith No More . Still in need for a drummer , the band placed an advertisement in a local newspaper which was answered by Silveria . Shortly after this , the band recorded a demo album which was meant to be sent out to record companies . Realizing they would have to continue the band in a more populated area in order for them to expand , all of the members but Shaffer left Bakersfield and resided in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California ( Shaffer later moved to Hollywood as well ) . In late 1989 , the band hired a man named Arthur as their manager , resulting in them getting signed to Triple X Records . The band recorded and released their first extended play in 1989 , but it suffered from poor distribution .
In 1991 , they released Who 's Laughing Now , their first full @-@ length studio album . Shortly after the album 's release , Capra left the band and was replaced by someone only noted by his first name Corey . Corey was fired from the band several weeks later . After this , Morrill quit the band , and the rest of the group set out to form the band Korn with two other people . Several of the band 's former members have formed solo projects . In 1997 , a compilation album consisting of fourteen tracks was released .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early days ( 1989 ) = = =
L.A.P.D. formed in Bakersfield , California , in 1989 . The band was started with Richard Morrill , James Shaffer , and Reginald Arvizu . With both guitarist and bass guitar positions filled , there was still a need for a lead vocalist , as well as a percussionist . The group asked Pete Capra to join their band . Capra joined the band and was positioned as lead vocalist . Although he had not been a vocalist for other bands , Capra introduced the group to bands like the Red Hot Chili Peppers and Faith No More . The group was inspired by the bands that Capra had shown them , and committed to head into those band 's genres and style .
The band still needed a drummer , so they put an ad in a local newspaper . The ad description stated that they were a " funk , thrash , metal groove band looking for a drummer . " This resulted in David Silveria auditioning for the band . Although at the time Silveria was only fifteen , he was still recruited to the band , filling the percussionist position . L.A.P.D. recorded a demo album consisting of four songs , " James Brown " , " Stinging Like a Bee " , " Jesus " , and " Don 't Label Me " , which were all ready to be sent out to various record labels .
The group left Bakersfield and set out for Los Angeles , California . Shaffer was the only band member that was not in favor of the act . He was the only one to stay in Bakersfield , while all the other band members left . Silveria dropped out of high school to leave Bakersfield . L.A.P.D. began rehearsing at a space located in Hollywood , California , near Western Avenue . Shaffer decided to return to the band when he and his girlfriend broke up . Brian Welch , a guitarist who knew Shaffer and Arvizu when they were in high school ( and who later joined the band when they reformed as Korn ) , would occasionally " check out the [ band 's ] music scene . " At the time , Welch was a member of the band Creep .
= = = Releases and break @-@ up ( 1989 – 90 ) = = =
L.A.P.D. was performing at several gigs in Hollywood throughout their self @-@ titled EP era . After one of their shows , a local and drumming protege of Gene Krupa known as Arthur Von Blomberg was positioned as manager . After the group was kicked out of their original studio for not paying the rent on time , they quickly found another practice space in Santa Monica , California . In 1990 , their manager introduced them to Triple X Records , an independent Los Angeles based record company that has signed artists such as Dr. Dre , Social Distortion , Jane 's Addiction , and The Vandals . The company offered them a contract after seeing them in concert . Bassist Arvizu described the contract as " pitiful , " but L.A.P.D. still signed and began recording their album . According to Arvizu , the record company did not distribute the album properly . In 1989 , the group released their first EP Love and Peace Dude through Triple X Records .
In 1991 , L.A.P.D. recorded their second album , Who 's Laughing Now . Released on May 3 , 1991 , it was their first full @-@ length studio album , and consisted of eleven tracks . After they recorded the album , the group 's lead vocalist , Pete Capra , left L.A.P.D. and was replaced by someone affectionately known by other band members as Corey . Bassist Arvizu wrote : " Pete [ Capra ] was always doing amphetamines and stuff . He pretty much left just because of his drug abuse . So Munky [ Shaffer ] , David [ Silveria ] , and I had to start all over again . " The band later fired Corey after his behavior during an audition with producer Ross Robinson . While looking for a new singer , they heard Jonathan Davis singing for the alternative metal band Sexart . After the show , the remaining band members of L.A.P.D. asked him to join their band . Shortly after this , the band changed their name to Korn and added Brian Welch to the member line @-@ up .
= = = Post – breakup and subsequent projects ( 1992 – 2010 ) = = =
The band continued on through Shaffer , Arvizu , and Silveria , who soon added Jonathan Davis as lead singer and Brian Welch as another guitarist . Bassist Reginald Arvizu , ( now known better as " Fieldy " ) released a solo album entitled Rock 'n Roll Gangster on January 22 , 2002 . In 2006 , Fieldy formed the band StillWell with Q @-@ Unique and P.O.D. drummer Noah " Wuv " Bernardo . Fear and the Nervous System is currently one of James Shaffer 's ( now known by band members as " Munky " ) side projects , formed in 2008 . As of 2009 , Pete Capra , Richard Morrill , remain good friends with all of L.A.P.D. ' s members . Aside from projects by the members of L.A.P.D. , in 1997 a compilation album was also released . The album featured songs from both their EP , Love and Peace Dude , and their full – length studio album , Who 's Laughing Now . In 2010 , L.A.P.D. had a short revival , when Morrill began playing with a new line @-@ up that included Derek Campbell ( guitar ) , Jason Torres ( drums ) , Troy Sandoval ( bass ) & Kevin Guariglia ( dj ) in Denver , CO . The group recorded a 5 track demo , that was never officially released , but was posted on the band 's social media pages . The group split in early 2011 .
= = Style and influence = =
The group considered themselves to be a " funk , thrash metal groove band " when they posted an ad in a Bakersfield newspaper . Bradley Torreano from Allmusic noted that the band was " a far different beast than what its members would move on to , " while also saying it incorporated " elements of funk into their thrashy stew . " Bassist Reginald Arvizu describes L.A.P.D. ' s music as being " very heavy , " and also said that " audiences loved [ them ] . "
L.A.P.D. ' s art and visual imagery complemented the themes of their music and performance . The band members adopted a " baggy hip @-@ hop street way of dressing . " Bassist Arvizu had dreadlocks , and said that there " was absolutely nothing femme about [ the band ] . " L.A.P.D. ' s final singer , Corey , was described by Arvizu as the following :
When the band was first started , their lead vocalist introduced them to bands such as Red Hot Chili Peppers and Faith No More , and the group has since cited them as major influences to their musical style . The group is considered to have launched the careers of three members of the nu metal band Korn . Drummer David Silveria said that " L.A.P.D. really was good for us because we learned about the industry and how things work . " Korn has influenced bands such as Slipknot , Saliva , Breaking Benjamin , and Flyleaf .
= = Discography = =
= = Members = =
= Small Mercies =
Small Mercies were an Australian alternative rock group from Brisbane , which formed in 1997 . They used the names , Seventh Avenue and Blaik , before adopting Small Mercies in 2004 . Their final line @-@ up was Steve Blaik on lead vocals and guitar , Marty O 'Brien on drums , Danny Procopis on lead guitar , and Jeff Reeves on bass guitar . Small Mercies released two EPs , Is This Life ? ( 2003 ) and Off the Record ( 2004 ) , and one studio album , Beautiful Hum ( May 2008 ) . Their highest charting release , " Innocent " ( May 2007 ) , reached the ARIA Singles Chart Top 40 and was nominated at the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 for Breakthrough Artist – Single . By December 2010 the group had disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early EPs = = =
Small Mercies were established in 1997 in Brisbane by Steve Blaik ( a.k.a Steve Martin ) on lead vocals ( later on guitar ) , Marty O 'Brien on drums , and Danny Procopis on lead guitar – all attended local secondary schools , St. Laurence 's College ( Blaik ) and Padua College ( O 'Brien and Procopis ) . The trio were initially named Psybin Trip before changing to Blaik ( styled as blaik ) . By 1999 the band were renamed Seventh Avenue and also included Simon O 'Connor on rhythm guitar and Shaun Spooner on bass guitar and backing vocals – both also from Padua College and both were ex @-@ Nobenn , another Brisbane group .
During 2001 Seventh Avenue were finalists for the Brisbane Rock Award , which earned them the right to play at Queen Street Mall Basement . This performance attracted Shawthing Entertainment 's Greg Shaw , who became their manager . The band worked with Stuart Stuart ( The Veronicas ) , Dave Nicholas ( INXS , Sting ) , Trey Bruce ( Faith Hill ) and Randy Staub ( Nickelback , Metallica ) on song writing or recordings . They met John Woodruff ( Savage Garden , Evermore ) , after he had heard their early demos , who became their next manager in 2001 . He recommended them to Sony BMG .
In 2002 the band 's name returned to Blaik , they released material on their official website , such as a four @-@ track , Blaik Sampler ( December 2002 ) , which includes an early version of " Innocent " . In June 2003 they recorded with Bruce producing at Rockinghorse Studios , Byron Bay . Blaik released a five @-@ track EP , Is This Life ? , in November that year .
Under the name , Small Mercies , in May 2004 they signed with Modern Music . They released a five @-@ track EP , Off the Record , on 10 September 2004 on Sony BMG and Modern Music . Their producer was Dave Nicholas . " Pellet Gun " , a track from the EP , was issued as a single , it was co @-@ written by Blaik , O 'Brien , O 'Connor , Procopis and Spooner . It was added to the Triple J play list and In October 2007 it appeared on Power On – Rock Hits 2007 , a various artists ' compilation album . By 2005 the band 's line @-@ up was Blaik , Procopis , O 'Brien , and Jeff Reeves on bass guitar .
= = = Beautiful Hum = = =
Small Mercies contacted their next producer , Matt Wallace ( Faith No More , Maroon 5 , Train ) , after he left a message on their MySpace website : " Hey guys , love this stuff . Are you still looking for a producer ? " Wallace was at the top of their " wish list " of possible producers . The group recorded their debut album , Beautiful Hum ( May 2008 ) , over an eight @-@ week span in late 2006 in Los Angeles and San Fernando Valley , working at The Pass and Sound City Studios . The recording was mixed by Tim Palmer , who had worked with Pearl Jam and U2 . The album was released on 24 May 2008 , which reached the top 60 of the ARIA Albums Chart .
The first single from the album , " Innocent " , was released on 28 May 2007 , which reached the ARIA Singles Chart top 40 . The track was co @-@ written by Blaik , Procopis and Stuart . At the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 " Innocent " was nominated for Breakthrough Artist – Single . It also appeared on the ARIA End of Year Charts : Top 50 Australian Artist Singles 2007 . " Innocent " was used on the TV promo ad for United States series , Prison Break .
The album 's second single , " Sorry " ( November 2007 ) , made the top 60 . In November they appeared at the Bourbon Fest in Sydney , alongside Spiderbait and After the Fall . Small Mercies supported tours by headlining bands , Hinder ( October 2007 ) , Nickelback and Daughtry ( May 2008 ) . In April 2008 they travelled to the US to perform at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York , Musexpo in Los Angeles and backing Goo Goo Dolls at the Rose Bowl . Through the rest of 2008 they toured Australia to promote the album . By December 2010 Small Mercies had disbanded . In June 2014 Blaik performed as a solo artist after having been in a duo , the Associates , with Stuart McLean .
= = Musical styles and influences = =
Small Mercies and their antecedents ' music was influenced by numerous artists . In January 2001 Blaik described 7th Avenue 's connections , " bands like Live , Counting Crows and Pearl Jam so it ’ s not too heavy ... We mainly play covers at gigs but we add our own flavour as well . It ’ s a change that keeps us interested and our influence comes through in the music . " He identified his favourite albums : August and Everything After by Counting Crows , Live 's Throwing Copper , and The Joshua Tree by U2 . Blaik summarised that he " loves great storytellers " . As blaik , the band , in June 2003 their website wrote that their sound was " emotional folk pop " .
Blaik , the vocalist , described recording Off the Record as " five guys in a room playing rock music ... hoping that the music strikes a chord with those who listen to it . " It showed the influences of U2 , Counting Crows , Aerosmith and Pearl Jam . Jacqui Curtis of The Program felt the EP " offers listeners yet another melodic rock band with ever @-@ so @-@ catchy tunes to add to their rotation of summer jams ... [ which ] delivers five delectable rock tracks . " Curtis described how " Pellet Gun " , the lead single " couples hard @-@ hitting lyrics and memorable guitar riff ... and attacks every listener 's past loves with an attitude and vindictiveness that the heartbroken , dumped and hard @-@ done @-@ by deserve . Picture yourself burning your ex 's clothes and you 'll find the essence of ' Pellet Gun ' . "
In an interview on Australian Music Online Blaik listed his favourite Australian artists , and specified some of their attributes or albums : INXS and their lead singer Michael Hutchence 's ability " to create so much power and emotion " ; Powderfinger 's dedication and uniqueness , and Odyssey Number Five which had " everything that I love about Powderfinger " ; Crowded House especially Neil Finn 's song writing capabilities ; Silverchair 's Diorama which was " a journey from beginning to end " ; The Cruel Sea 's live performances ; and End of Fashion 's self @-@ titled debut album , which he opined " represent to us a place that we would want to be in the near future . " He also acknowledged AC / DC , especially their Back in Black album , as being highly influential , claiming " I don 't think I know a single musician who doesn 't have this record and this band in their record collection " , and asking " How can you not be inspired by this band ? "
For Beautiful Hum the band provided about 50 tracks and , according to Wallace , there was " not a clunker in the bunch . " He described Beautiful Hum as somewhat of a " best of " album , as there was so much content to choose from . Blaik told Tim Colman of The Sydney Morning Herald that " There are actually some songs on the record that are four or five years old , they 've sort of just evolved as the band 's evolved . The songs have progressed to a point where they 're really representative of where the band is now . " In November 2007 FasterLouder 's Melbjuz caught their performance at the Chapel in Melbourne , she felt they provided " Emotionally charged melodies ... ringing guitar work from Procopis and Blaik ’ s charismatic stage persona " moving from " a real rock @-@ edged buzz " with " Sorry " to " a slower , evocative track " with " Fools " .
American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) reported that critics had found that Small Mercies ' " sound has elements of Matchbox 20 , Maroon 5 , Bon Jovi and Nickelback with memorable melodies , along with the heartfelt voice of Steve Blaik and the songs he creates with writing partner , guitarist Danny Procopis . " Elisa Scarton of Mediasearch described " how distinctly international their sound is " on the album , where the " sound is fresh , Steve Blaik 's vocals are unique and appealing to the ears and the songs fulfill their rock agenda . " TheDwarf.com.au website 's MikeOwnsYourFace praised " Innocent " as " an epic rock ballad that beckons for lighters and mobile phones to be raised in salutation " but noticed that for the album 's later tracks " The band seems to run out of steam , with most of the songs ending up sounding the same as the last . "
In an interview in the Cairns community newspaper , Cairns Bulletin , O 'Brien described their musical forte : " Rock 's such a broad term ... we do a lot of harder stuff but we also do softer variations " and that his fellow members know " which buttons to press to make things kick in and when to give space when one needs it . "
= = Members = =
Steve Blaik – lead vocals , guitar ( 1997 – 2010 )
Marty O 'Brien – drums , percussion ( 1997 – 2010 )
Danny Procopis – lead guitar ( 1997 – 2010 )
Simon O 'Connor – rhythm guitar ( 1999 – 2004 )
Shaun Spooner – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1999 – 2004 )
Jeff Reeves – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 2005 – 2010 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Beautiful Hum ( 24 May 2008 ) AUS – No. 54
= = = Extended plays = = =
Blaik Sampler ( by Blaik ) ( December 2002 )
Is This Life ? ( by Blaik ) ( November 2003 )
Off the Record ( 10 September 2004 )
= = = Singles = = =
" Pellet Gun " ( August 2004 )
" Innocent " ( 28 May 2007 ) AUS – No. 38 EoY – No. 41
" Sorry " ( November 2007 ) AUS – No. 54
" Don 't You Know Who I Am ? " ( April 2008 )
= Northern cardinal =
The northern cardinal ( Cardinalis cardinalis ) is a North American bird in the genus Cardinalis ; it is also known colloquially as the redbird or common cardinal . It can be found in southern Canada , through the eastern United States from Maine to Texas and south through Mexico . It is found in woodlands , gardens , shrublands , and swamps .
The northern cardinal is a mid @-@ sized songbird with a body length of 21 – 23 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) . It has a distinctive crest on the head and a mask on the face which is black in the male and gray in the female . The male is a vibrant red , while the female is a dull reddish olive . The northern cardinal is mainly granivorous , but also feeds on insects and fruit . The male behaves territorially , marking out his territory with song . During courtship , the male feeds seed to the female beak @-@ to @-@ beak . A clutch of three to four eggs is laid , and two to four clutches are produced each year . It was once prized as a pet , but its sale as a cage bird was banned in the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 .
= = Taxonomy = =
The northern cardinal is one of three birds in the genus Cardinalis and is included in the family Cardinalidae , which is made up of passerine birds found in North and South America .
The northern cardinal was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th @-@ century work , Systema Naturae . It was initially included in the genus Loxia , which now contains only crossbills . In 1838 , it was placed in the genus Cardinalis and given the scientific name Cardinalis virginianus , which means " Virginia cardinal " . In 1918 , the scientific name was changed to Richmondena cardinalis to honor Charles Wallace Richmond , an American ornithologist . In 1983 , the scientific name was changed again to Cardinalis cardinalis and the common name was changed to " northern cardinal " , to avoid confusion with the seven other species also termed cardinals .
The common name , as well as the scientific name , of the northern cardinal refers to the cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church , who wear distinctive red robes and caps . The term " northern " in the common name refers to its range , as it is the northernmost cardinal species .
= = = Subspecies = = =
There are 19 subspecies :
C. c. cardinalis ( Linnaeus , 1758 )
C. c. affinis Nelson , 1899
C. c. canicaudus Chapman , 1891
C. c. carneus ( Lesson , 1842 )
C. c. clintoni ( Banks , 1963 )
C. c. coccineus Ridgway , 1873
C. c. flammiger J.L. Peters , 1913
C. c. floridanus Ridgway , 1896
C. c. igneus S.F. Baird , 1860
C. c. littoralis Nelson , 1897
C. c. magnirostris Bangs , 1903
C. c. mariae Nelson , 1898
C. c. phillipsi Parkes , 1997
C. c. saturatus Ridgway , 1885
C. c. seftoni ( Huey , 1940 )
C. c. sinaloensis Nelson , 1899
C. c. superbus Ridgway , 1885
C. c. townsendi ( van Rossem , 1932 )
C. c. yucatanicus Ridgway , 1887
= = Description = =
The northern cardinal is a mid @-@ sized songbird with a body length of 21 – 23 @.@ 5 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 3 in ) and a wingspan of 25 – 31 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 12 @.@ 2 in ) . The adult weighs from 33 @.@ 6 – 65 g ( 1 @.@ 19 – 2 @.@ 29 oz ) , with an average 44 @.@ 8 g ( 1 @.@ 58 oz ) . The male averages slightly larger than the female . The adult male is a brilliant crimson red color with a black face mask over the eyes , extending to the upper chest . The color becomes duller and darker on the back and wings . The female is fawn , with mostly grayish @-@ brown tones and a slight reddish tint on the wings , the crest , and the tail feathers . The face mask of the female is gray to black and is less defined than that of the male . Both sexes possess prominent raised crests and bright coral @-@ colored beaks . The beak is cone @-@ shaped and strong . Young birds , both male and female , show coloring similar to the adult female until the fall , when they molt and grow adult feathers . They are brown above and red @-@ brown below , with brick @-@ colored crest , forehead , wings , and tail . The legs and feet are a dark pink @-@ brown . The iris of the eye is brown . The plumage color of the males is produced from carotenoid pigments in the diet . Coloration is produced from both red pigments and yellow carotenoid pigments . Northern cardinal males possess the ability to metabolize carotenoid pigments to create plumage pigmentation of a color different from the ingested pigment . When fed only yellow pigments , males become a pale red color , rather than a yellow . However , there are rare " yellow morph " cardinals , where all feathers ( except for black face mask ) and beak are a moderate yellow color . During the winter months , both male and female will fluff up their down feathers in order to trap warm air next to their body and keeping cold air from reaching their body . The down feathers are small and hairlike at the base of each flight feather . The legs and feet of almost all birds are thin and lack feathers , and so are vulnerable to rapid heat loss . Therefore , many take turns tucking one leg at a time into their body to keep them warm while still using the other to stand .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Northern cardinals are numerous across the eastern United States from Maine to Texas and in Canada in the provinces of Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia . Its range extends west to the U.S. – Mexico border and south through Mexico to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , northern Guatemala , and northern Belize . An allopatric population is found on the Pacific slope of Mexico from Jalisco to Oaxaca ; note that this population is not shown on the range map . The species was introduced to Bermuda in 1700 . It has also been introduced in Hawaii and southern California . Its natural habitat is woodlands , gardens , shrublands , and swamps .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Song = = =
The northern cardinal is a territorial song bird . The male sings in a loud , clear whistle from the top of a tree or another high location to defend his territory . He will chase off other males entering his territory . He may mistake his image on various reflective surfaces as an invading male , and will fight his reflection relentlessly . The northern cardinal learns its songs , and as a result the songs vary regionally . Mated pairs often travel together .
Both sexes sing clear , whistled song patterns , which are repeated several times , then varied . Some common phrases are described as cheeeer @-@ a @-@ dote , cheeer @-@ a @-@ dote @-@ dote @-@ dote , purdy , purdy , purdy ... whoit , whoit , whoit , whoit , what @-@ cheer , what @-@ cheer ... wheet , wheet , wheet , wheet and cheer , cheer , cheer , what , what , what , what The northern cardinal has a distinctive alarm call , a short metallic chip sound . This call often is given when predators approach the nest , in order to give warning to the female and nestlings . In some cases it will also utter a series of chipping notes . The frequency and volume of these notes increases as the threat becomes greater . This chipping noise is also used by a cardinal pair to locate each other , especially during dusk hours when visibility wanes .
= = = Predators = = =
Northern cardinals are preyed upon by a wide variety of predators native to North America , including falcons , all Accipiter hawks , shrikes , and several owls , including long @-@ eared owls , and eastern screech owls . Predators of chicks and eggs include milk snakes , coluber constrictors , blue jays , eastern gray squirrels , fox squirrels , eastern chipmunks , and domestic cats .
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of the northern cardinal consists mainly ( up to 90 % ) of weed seeds , grains , and fruits . It is a ground feeder and finds food while hopping on the ground through trees or shrubbery . It will also consume insects , including beetles , cicadas , grasshoppers , and snails ; it feeds its young almost exclusively on insects . Other common items include corn ( maize ) and oats , sunflower seeds , the blossoms and bark of elm trees , and drinks maple sap from holes made by sapsuckers , an example of commensalism . During the summer months it shows preference for seeds that are easily husked , but is less selective when food is scarce during winter .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Pairs mate for life , and stay together year @-@ round . Mated pairs sometimes sing together before nesting . During courtship they may also participate in a bonding behavior where the male collects food and brings it to the female , feeding her beak @-@ to @-@ beak . If the mating is successful , this mate @-@ feeding may continue throughout the period of incubation .
Males sometimes bring nest material to the female , who does most of the building . She crushes twigs with her beak until they are pliable , then turns in the nest to bend the twigs around her body and push them into a cup shape with her feet . The cup has four layers : coarse twigs ( and sometimes bits of trash ) covered in a leafy mat , then lined with grapevine bark and finally grasses , stems , rootlets , and pine needles . The nest typically takes three to nine days to build ; the finished product is 5 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) tall , 10 @.@ 1 cm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) across , with an inner diameter of about 7 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) . Cardinals do not usually use their nests more than once . The female builds a cup nest in a well @-@ concealed spot in dense shrub or a low tree 1 – 3 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) off the ground . The nest is made of thin twigs , bark strips , and grasses , lined with grasses or other plant fibers . Eggs are laid one to six days following the completion of the nest . The eggs are white , with a tint of green , blue or brown , and are marked with lavender , gray , or brown blotches which are thicker around the larger end . The shell is smooth and slightly glossy . Three or four eggs are laid in each clutch . Eggs measure approximately 26 mm × 19 mm ( 1 @.@ 02 in × 0 @.@ 75 in ) in size . The female generally incubates the eggs , though , rarely , the male will incubate for brief periods of time . Incubation takes 12 to 13 days . Young fledge 10 to 11 days after hatching . Two to three , and even four , broods are raised each year . The male cares for and feeds each brood as the female incubates the next clutch of eggs .
The oldest wild cardinal banded by researchers lived at least 15 years and 9 months , although 28 @.@ 5 years was achieved by a captive bird . Annual survival rates for adult northern cardinals have been estimated at 60 to 65 % ; however , as with other passerine birds , the high mortality of juveniles means that the average lifespan is only about a year .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The northern cardinal is found in residential areas throughout its range . Backyard birders attract it using feeders containing seeds , particularly sunflower seeds and safflower seeds . Although some controversy surrounds bird feeding , an increase in backyard feeding by humans has generally been beneficial to this species . It is listed as a species of least concern by the IUCN Red List , with an estimated global range of 5 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 km2 ( 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and a global population of some 100 million . Populations appear to remain stable and not threatened to reach the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species , which requires a decline of more than 30 % in ten years or three generations . It was once prized as a pet due to its bright color and distinctive song . In the United States , this species receives special legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 , which also banned their sale as cage birds . It is also protected by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada . It is illegal to take , kill , or possess northern cardinals , and violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to US $ 15 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to six months .
In the United States , the northern cardinal is the mascot of numerous athletic teams ; however , most teams portray the bird with a yellow beak and legs . In professional sports , it is the mascot of the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball 's National League and the Arizona Cardinals of the National Football League . In college athletics , it is the mascot of many schools including Ball State University , The Catholic University of America , Illinois State University , Iowa State University , Lamar University , the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences , North Idaho College , Saint John Fisher College , the State University of New York at Plattsburgh , the University of Louisville , the University of the Incarnate Word , Wesleyan University , and Wheeling Jesuit University .
= = State bird = =
The northern cardinal is the state bird of seven states , more than any other species : Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , North Carolina , Ohio , Virginia , and West Virginia . It was also a candidate to become the state bird of Delaware , but lost to the Delaware Blue Hen .
= The Road Not Taken ( Fringe ) =
" The Road Not Taken " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It centers on the death of a young woman ( Jennifer Ferrin ) , who spontaneously combusts in the middle of a street . The Fringe team 's investigation leads them to learn more about the drug trials Olivia ( Anna Torv ) experienced as a child , as well as other revelations .
The episode 's story was written by Akiva Goldsman , while the teleplay was co @-@ written by executive producer Jeff Pinkner and supervising producer J.R. Orci . It was directed by Fred Toye . The title is based on the Robert Frost poem of the same name . Robert Chiappetta and Glen Whitman , frequent contributors to the series , aided in the episode 's production by " find [ ing ] a new and gruesome way to blow people up , " and rooting its explanation in science .
It first aired in the United States on May 5 , 2009 on the Fox network . An estimated 9 @.@ 245 million viewers watched the episode , making it the network 's fifth most watched show for the week . " The Road Not Taken " received mostly positive reviews from television critics , with many praising Olivia 's visions of the other universe and John Noble 's performance .
= = Plot = =
The Fringe Division investigates the case of a woman ( Jennifer Ferrin ) who " spontaneously combusts " in the middle of a busy New York street . The team discovers that the victim is the subject of a ZFT experiment to cultivate pyrokinesis . As they investigate , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) experiences " visions " while awake . Walter ( John Noble ) suggests she is seeing a parallel universe which has branched off from our own . Olivia and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) visit an agoraphobic website designer ( Clint Howard ) who is apparently aware of William Bell , the drug trials , and the coming war
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nearby municipalities , such as Blue River , British Columbia .
It has a number of employees available , with Fred Legace serving as airport manager and a number of maintenance workers serving the airport ; Ed Ratuski also manages it . The Kamloops Airport has been owned by a number of companies since its opening . It was initially owned by the RCAF , but later there was a proposal led the RCAF to transfer airport ownership to Kamloops itself , hence why the name was changed to the Kamloops Airport , although it is commonly referred to as Fulton Field or Fulton Airport . During the 1990s , Transport Canada , the owner at that time , began a program to transfer ownership of selected regional airports and the ownership of the Kamloops Airport was transferred to the then @-@ new Kamloops Airport Authority Society by August 1997 which is a department of the Kamloops City Council and was composed of its members ; it was deemed a commercial operation . Kamloops Airport Authority Society have a contract with the Vancouver Airport Authority , which allow them to manage and operate the airport . It is operated by Kamloops Airport Limited .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
As of 2012 , the Kamloops Airport offers scheduled flights to the Calgary International Airport and Vancouver International Airport , which are provided by Air Canada Express and operated by Jazz Air . In addition , Central Mountain Air flights are offered to the Prince George Airport , along with WestJet flights , which were added in November 2009 , to the Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport ; the latter has been serviced since January 2010 . All of these flights are provided daily .
Kamloops Airport has provided flights to several destinations by charter airlines as well , including the Denver International Airport , San Diego International Airport , San Jose International Airport and Seattle – Tacoma International Airport . In 2010 , the airport garnered 36 @,@ 094 aircraft movements , while in 2012 , it served approximately 275 @,@ 424 passengers , representing a 4 @.@ 4 percent increase from the 2011 amount of about 263 @,@ 290 passengers . The majority of this increase occurred in December 2012 , which the Canadian Flight Centre contributed to .
= = = Cargo = = =
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On July 31 , 2010 , a Convair CV @-@ 580 airtanker operated by Conair Aviation as Flight 448 , on route to the Kamloops Airport , crashed and was destroyed due to a local forest fire on the British Columbia Ministry of Forests land near Siwash Road , some 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) south of Lytton , British Columbia , a town in the Thompson region , along with Kamloops . Both crew members were killed in the accident .
= Fair catch kick =
The fair catch kick is a rule at the professional and high school levels of American football that allows a team that has just made a fair catch to attempt a free kick from the spot of the catch . The kick must be either a place kick or a drop kick , and if it passes over the crossbar and between the goalposts of the defensive team 's goal , a field goal , worth three points , is scored to the offensive team .
The fair catch kick has its origins in rugby football . The rule is considered to be obscure and unusual , as most fair catches are made well out of field goal range , and in most cases a team that has a fair catch within theoretical range will attempt a normal drive to score a touchdown . The fair catch kick is generally used when a team has fair caught a ball within field goal range and there is insufficient time to score a touchdown . At the professional level , the last successful fair catch kick was made in 1976 .
= = Rule = =
The fair catch kick rule states that , after a player has successfully made a fair catch or has been awarded a fair catch ( as the result of a penalty such as kick catch interference ) , their team can attempt a kick from the spot of the catch ; the NFHS also allows a kick to be made if the down following the fair catch or awarded fair catch has to be replayed . Prior to the kick , the opposing team must be lined up at least ten yards beyond the spot of the ball . The kick itself can be either a place kick or drop kick ; a kicking tee cannot be used at the professional level , but use of a tee up to two inches in height is permitted at the high school level . Like other field goal attempts , the kicking team is awarded three points if the kick goes above the crossbar and between the goalposts of the opposing team 's goal and did not touch a player of the offensive team after the kick . If the attempt fails , the opposing team is awarded control of the ball from the spot of the kick . The opposing team can also return the kick if it does not go out of bounds .
In the National Federation of State High School Associations ( NFHS ) rulebook , the fair catch kick is specifically defined as a free kick . The National Football League ( NFL ) rulebook specifically states that the fair catch kick is not a free kick , instead considering the fair catch kick to be a distinct type of kick . Despite this , reporters at both levels describe the fair catch kick as a free kick .
= = History = =
The fair catch kick found in American football originated in rugby football . A similar rule in rugby , the goal from mark , allowed a player who had fair caught a ball to attempt an uncontested free kick from the spot of the fair catch . Both major codes of rugby have eliminated the rule ; rugby league abolished the goal from mark in 1922 , and rugby union removed it in 1977 . Australian rules football has retained the rule , and it is a vital part of the Australian game ; a " fair catch " of a ball kicked more than 15 metres in the air is called a " mark " , and the player making the mark is then awarded a free kick . The fair catch kick has been present in the National Football League ( NFL ) rulebook since the league 's inception , and also remains in the National Federation of State High School Associations ( NFHS ) rulebook . The fair catch kick is not legal in National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) football ; the NCAA abolished the fair catch in 1950 , but re @-@ added it a year later . When the fair catch returned to the rulebook , however , the option to attempt a kick after the fair catch was removed .
= = Usage = =
The fair catch kick rule is very rarely invoked , and is one of the rarest plays in football . The rule has been regarded as " obscure " , " bizarre " , and " quirky " . A unique set of circumstances is required for a fair catch kick to be a viable option . For one , the fair catch would need to be made at a point on the field where a field goal attempt has a reasonable chance of being successful ; most fair catches are made well outside of field goal range ( even more so since 1974 , when the goal posts were moved back to the end line , adding 10 yards to such attempts ) . Furthermore , for a fair catch kick to be a viable option near the end of the fourth quarter , the team attempting the kick needs to be either tied or behind by three points or less . In exceptional circumstances a team might try the kick at the end of the first half if only a few seconds remained , but Art McNally , who led the officiating department of the National Football League from 1968 to 1990 , notes that , even in the event a fair catch is made within field goal range , most teams would attempt to score a touchdown unless there is not enough time left to score one . Accordingly , most fair catch kick attempts occur when a team has fair caught a ball from a punt from deep in their opponent 's territory , and there is not enough time left in the half to go for a touchdown .
Despite its drawbacks , there are several advantages to using the fair catch kick . Because the defense is required to be ten yards beyond the spot of the kick , the kicker can take a running start before kicking as opposed to the typical two steps taken on regular field goal attempts . Similarly , the kicker does not have to worry about a low snap because the ball is not snapped . The defense is not able to block the kick , allowing the kicker to give the ball a lower trajectory than usual . The fair catch kick would also be of a shorter distance than a normal field goal attempt from the same spot , because the fair catch kick is taken from the spot of the catch , while a typical field goal is taken seven yards back from the line of scrimmage .
= = Known attempts in the NFL = =
The following tables contain all confirmed fair catch kick attempts in the NFL ; the NFL does not keep a record of fair catch kick attempts , so the true number of attempts is unknown . Out of the twenty @-@ four recorded fair catch kick attempts in non @-@ exhibition games , only six were successful ; all five known attempts in exhibition games were unsuccessful . With the exception of the second recorded attempt , which was made in the 3rd quarter , all fair catch kick attempts were made within the last thirty seconds of either the 2nd or 4th quarter . The last successful attempt was made in 1976 by Ray Wersching of the San Diego Chargers ( 45 yards ) , and the longest successful attempt was made in 1964 by Paul Hornung of the Green Bay Packers ( 52 yards ) . The most recent fair catch kick attempt was by San Francisco 49ers kicker Phil Dawson , who missed a 71 @-@ yard fair catch kick on September 26 , 2013 .
= = = Regular season and post @-@ season games = = =
= = = Exhibition games = = =
= Ketuanan Melayu =
Ketuanan Melayu ( Jawi script : كتوانان ملايو ; literally " Malay dominance " ) is a political concept emphasising Malay preeminence in present @-@ day Malaysia . The Malays of Malaysia claimed a special position and special rights owing to their long domicile and the fact that the present Malaysian state itself evolved from a Malay polity . The oldest political institution in Malaysia is the system of Malay rulers of the nine Malay states . British colonial government transformed the system and turned it first into a system of indirect rule , then in 1948 , using this culturally based institution , they incorporated the Malay monarchy into the blueprints for the independent Persekutuan Tanah Melayu .
The term Tanah Melayu in its name which literally means " Malay homeland " , assumes proprietorship of the Malay states . In this way Britain strengthened Malay ethno @-@ nationalism , Malay ethnicity and culture and Malay sovereignty in the new nation @-@ state . Though other cultures would continue to flourish , the identity of the emerging political community was to be shaped by the " historic " political culture of its dominant Malay ethnic group . The Chinese and Indian immigrants who form a significant minority in Malaysia , are considered beholden to the Malays for granting them citizenship in return for special privileges as set out in Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia . This quid pro quo arrangement is usually referred to as the Malaysian social contract . The concept of ketuanan Melayu is usually cited by politicians , particularly those from the United Malays National Organisation ( UMNO ) , the most influential political party in Malaysia .
Although the idea itself predates Malaysian independence , the phrase ketuanan Melayu did not come into vogue until the early 2000s decade . Historically , the most vocal political opposition towards the concept has come from non @-@ Malay @-@ based parties , such as the Malaysian People 's Movement Party ( Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia ) and Democratic Action Party ( DAP ) ; in the 2000s decade , the multiracial People 's Justice Party ( Parti Keadilan Rakyat , or PKR ) also positioned itself against ketuanan Melayu , advocating instead ketuanan rakyat ( supremacy of the people ) . The idea of Malay supremacy gained attention in the 1940s , when the Malays organised themselves to protest the Malayan Union 's establishment , and later fought for independence . During the 1960s , there was a substantial effort challenging ketuanan Melayu led by the People 's Action Party ( PAP ) of Singapore — which was a state in Malaysia from 1963 to 1965 — and the DAP after Singapore 's secession . However , the portions of the Constitution related to ketuanan Melayu were " entrenched " after the race riots of 13 May 1969 , which followed an election campaign focused on the issue of non @-@ Malay rights and ketuanan Melayu . This period also saw the rise of " ultras " who advocated a one @-@ party government led by UMNO , and an increased emphasis on the Malays being the " definitive people " of Malaysia — i.e. only a Malay could be a true Malaysian .
The riots caused a major change in the government 's approach to racial issues , and led to the introduction of an aggressive affirmative action policy strongly favouring the Malays , the New Economic Policy ( NEP ) . The National Culture Policy , also introduced in 1970 , emphasised an assimilation of the non @-@ Malays into the Malay ethnic group . However , during the 1990s Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad rejected this approach , with his Bangsa Malaysia policy emphasising a Malaysian instead of Malay identity for the state . During the 2000s decade politicians began stressing ketuanan Melayu again , and publicly chastised government ministers who questioned the social contract .
= = Malaysian Malay = =
Ethnic Malays which make up the majority population of Malaysia at 50 @.@ 4 % , are an ethnic group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula , including the southernmost parts of Thailand , the east coast of Sumatra , the coast of Borneo , and the smaller islands which lie between these locations . The true origin of ethnic Malays is still the subject of studies among historians , anthropologists and linguists . A popular theory suggested that the people who spoke Austronesian languages first arrived in Maritime Southeast Asia between 2,500BCE and 1,500BCE , as a part of Austronesian expansion from Taiwan to South East Asia .
However , a recent genetic studies carried out by HUGO ( Human Genome Organization ) involving almost 2000 people across Asia , points to another theory of Asian migration pattern . The HUGO findings support the hypothesis that Asia was populated primarily through a single migration event from the south and that the South East Asian region was populated first which contained the most diversity , then continuing slowly North with its diversity being lost .
Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent . The beginning of the first Millennium saw the rise of ancient Malay states in the coastal areas of Malay peninsular , notably the Red Earth Kingdom ( 1st century ) , Gangga Negara ( 2nd century ) , Langkasuka ( 2nd century ) , and Kedah ( 2nd century ) . Between 7th and 13th centuries , many of these small , often prosperous peninsular maritime trading states became part of the Srivijaya empire , a Malay kingdom centred in Palembang and Kadaram .
By 15th century , the Malacca Sultanate , whose hegemony reached over much of the western Malay archipelago , had become the centre of Islamization in the east . The Malaccan tradition was transmitted onwards and fostered a vigorous ethos of Malay identity . Since this era , the Islamic faith became closely identified with Malay society and played a significant role in defining the Malay identity . The close identification of the Malays with Islam continued until the 20th century and was finally entrenched in the Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia as well as in the national philosophy of Brunei known as the Malay Islamic Monarchy .
The present day Malaysian Malays are divided broadly into " Malays proper " or " Peninsular Malays " ( Melayu Anak Jati or Melayu Semenanjung ) and " foreign Malays " ( Melayu Anak Dagang ) . The Malays proper consist of those individuals who adhere to the Malay culture which has developed in the Malay peninsula . Among notable groups are Kedahan Malays , Kelantanese Malays and Terengganuan Malays . The foreign Malays consist of descendants of immigrants from other part of Malay archipelago who became the citizens of the Malay sultanates and were absorbed and assimilated into Malay culture at different times , aided by similarity in lifestyle and common religion ( Islam ) . Among notable groups are the Javanese , Minangkabau and Bugis Malays .
Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia defines a Malay as a Malaysian citizen born to a Malaysian citizen who professes to be a Muslim , habitually speaks the Malay language , adheres to Malay customs , and is domiciled in Malaysia or Singapore . Though this definition is not according to ancestry lineage , it is however correct in the sense of social behaviours . Culture , which controls a great proportion of general mentality and social behaviour , is succeeded through the mother tongue and religion . Article 160 unites Malays from different ethnic groups as the prevailing race and thus embraces them with the political prowess to dominate and rule over other races : Chinese , Indians , Kadazan , Iban , Orang Asli etc . This is also apparent from the name of UMNO ( United Malays National Organisation ) , who are a staunch political proponent of this role .
= = Pre @-@ independence = =
= = = Early Malay nationalism = = =
Malay nationalism as an organised political movement existed since the invasion by foreign powers . However , the ethnic Chinese and Indian immigrants , forming a minority of the population , did not see themselves as Malayans . A report by the British Permanent Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Colonies in the early 1930s found that " the number of non @-@ Malays who have adopted Malaya as their home is only a very small proportion of the whole population " .
Although the British effectively ruled Malaya , de jure the Malays were coerced under fictitious agreements to accept the British administration through a residence system . British High Commissioner Sir Hugh Clifford , demonstrated the British ideology which rationalised colonialism in Malaya when he urged " everyone in this country [ to ] be mindful of the fact that this is a Malay country , and we British came here at the invitation of Their Highnesses the Malay Rulers , and it is our duty to help the Malays to rule their own country . "
Ostensibly the British adopted an open " Pro @-@ Malay " policy so the Malays could , in the words of High Commissioner Sir Laurence Guillemard , be equipped " to take their proper place in the administrative and commercial life of these States . " In reality , the non @-@ elite Malays felt marginalised by the economic and political policies of the colonial government , whereas in fact they were the backbone of British rule , and both educational and occupational policies were segregated according to ethnic lines .
The local @-@ born non @-@ Malay communities soon began the fight for self @-@ rule . In 1936 , the Malayan @-@ born Indian community asked High Commissioner Sir Shenton Thomas to grant them a share of administrative appointments . Thomas rejected the request , referring to the local @-@ born Indians as " foreigners " . Although the British appeared to view the Chinese as a " transient labor force , " with statistics indicating most Chinese migrants eventually returned home , critics contend that the local @-@ born Chinese population was steadily growing . Nevertheless , the British insisted it would be dangerous to consider the Chinese as having " a tendency to permanent settlement " ; the locally born Indian community — comprising 20 % of the Indian population , the rest being manual labourers having migrated for similar reasons as the Chinese at around the same time — was likewise largely ignored .
The British relegated the Malays to their " traditional " peasant lifestyle as far as possible , restricting movement , economic enterprises and education . This policy was maintained in the belief that education of Bengalis in India had led to discontent and rebellion . They involved only the Malay ruling class in government and administrative issues . Despite the exclusion of non @-@ Malays from positions of ostensible authority , much of the civil service rank and file comprised non @-@ Malays , many of them Indians who were specifically brought in for this purpose . A number of historians have described the pro @-@ Malay policies as designed merely to preserve the position of the British , rather than to strengthen that of the Malays ; many characterised the British approach as one of " divide and rule " , keeping " the races at just the right distance from each other to have the disparate elements of Malaya work in remote harmony " .
In the 1920s , the local @-@ born Chinese , who retained significant economic power , began pushing for a greater role in Malayan government . Much of the Chinese community , which now made up 45 % of the Malayan population , still comprised transient labourers . Nevertheless , the Straits Chinese — which comprised the bulk of local @-@ born Chinese — wanted to be given government positions and recognised as Malayans . One Straits Chinese leader asked , " Who said this is a Malay country ? ... When Captain [ Francis ] Light arrived , did he find Malays , or Malay villages ? Our forefathers came here and worked hard as coolies — weren 't ashamed to become coolies — and they didn 't send their money back to China . They married and spent their money here , and in this way the Government was able to open up the country from jungle to civilization . We 've become inseparable from this country . It 's ours , our country ... " Malay intellectuals objected to this reasoning , claiming that such reasoning is totally absurd and proposing an analogy with the Chinese as masons and Malaya as a house . A paid mason , they argued , was not entitled to a share in the ownership rights to a home he built . As such , they opposed any attempt to grant the Chinese citizenship or other political rights .
A number of Indonesian ethnic groups such as the Javanese and Bugis had migrated within the Malay Archipelago throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries , and were most quickly assimilated into the Malay cultural identity . Eventually , the Chinese @-@ Malayan appeals appeared to have some impact on the British . In 1927 , the Governor of the Straits Settlements referred to the Chinese as " indigenous inhabitants of British Malaya " .
Just before World War II , Malay nationalism began emphasising ketuanan Melayu , which had once been taken for granted . It was feared that British policies now seemed geared towards creating a common Malayan nationality inclusive of the Chinese and Indians . Some Malays thus sought to preserve the status quo with the British as a bulwark against the non @-@ Malays . Others began calling for an independent and sovereign Malay nation , such as " Greater Indonesia " .
= = = The Malayan Union ( 1946 – 48 ) = = =
After World War II , the British announced the establishment of the Malayan Union , which would loosen immigration policies , reduce the sovereignty of the Malay rulers , and not recognise Malay supremacy , establishing Malaya as a protectorate of the United Kingdom . As local @-@ born residents , most Chinese and Indians qualified for citizenship under the Union 's principle of jus soli . With equal rights guaranteed to all , the Malays became dissatisfied with that . Even their traditional stronghold , the civil service , would be open to all Malayans . In the first place , the Malays did not consider themselves to be included under the label of " Malayans " .
The Malays became politically conscious , protesting the Union 's formation . At one gathering , placards declared that " Malaya Belongs to the Malays . We do not want the other races to be given the rights and privileges of the Malays . " One Malay organisation told the British that the Union 's citizenship provisions would lead to " the wiping from existence of the Malay race along with their land and Rulers " . A group of Malay royalists and civil servants led by Dato ' Onn Ja 'afar formed the United Malays National Organisation ( UMNO ) to protest the Malayan Union 's formation .
Although the Union was established as planned , the campaign continued ; in 1948 , the British replaced the Malayan Union with the Federation of Malaya . The Federation restored sovereignty to the Malay rulers , tightened immigration and citizenship restrictions , and gave the Malays special privileges . Nevertheless , the avowed goal of the British remained the same as in 1946 : to introduce " a form of common citizenship open to all those , irrespective of race , who regarded Malaya as their real home and as the object of their loyalty . "
Limited opposition to ketuanan Melayu and UMNO during this period came from a coalition between the All @-@ Malaya Council of Joint Action ( AMCJA ) and the Pusat Tenaga Rakyat ( PUTERA ) . Although one of PUTERA 's constituent organisations had insisted on ketuanan Melayu as a " National Birthright " of the Malays , PUTERA joined the AMCJA in championing equal political rights for non @-@ Malays . After the British refused to heed the PUTERA @-@ AMCJA coalition , it pulled out of talks with the British , later launching a major hartal ( general strike ) to protest perceived defects in the new polity . After the Federation was formed over their objections , the coalition disbanded .
Prior to the Federation , non @-@ Malays were generally uninvolved in Malayan politics and nationalism , both essentially Malay in nature ; being more interested in the politics of their respective homelands , non @-@ Malays never significantly backed the Malayan Union openly but their silence was a support to it . The AMCJA , though mostly non @-@ Malay , did not represent a large section of the non @-@ Malay communities in Malaya . The lack of interest in or loyalty to Malaya amongst the non @-@ Malays seemed to justify ketuanan Melayu — Malay self @-@ rule .
Some historians have argued the Union 's failure made the Chinese aware of the need for political representation . The Malayan Chinese Association ( MCA ) — a communal political party campaigning for Chinese political rights — was formed soon after the Federation 's formation . Others claim that the main driving force behind non @-@ Malay involvement in Malayan politics , and their assertion of certain rights , was the increasing number of local @-@ born non @-@ Malays . The same report from the British Permanent Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Colonies cited earlier stated that Malayan @-@ born non @-@ Malays " have never seen the land of their origin and they claim that their children and their children 's children should have fair treatment . " The inaugural President of the MCA was Tan Cheng Lock , a local @-@ born Chinese who had led the AMCJA until its breaking up .
= = = Towards independence = = =
Its initial goals achieved , UMNO established itself as a political party to fight for independence . At the same time , the Malayan Communist Party ( MCP ) launched an armed insurgency to form a communist government in Malaya , culminating in the Malayan Emergency which lasted until after independence . The insurgency was marked by a clear racial divide ; opposition to the insurrection was almost entirely Malay , while Chinese dominated the communist ranks . The British encouraged the establishment of the Communities Liaison Committee ( CLC ) , comprising the top echelon of Malayan politicians from different communities , to address sensitive issues , especially those related to race . Compromises on a number of issues , including citizenship , education , democracy , and Malay supremacy , were agreed on . Eventually , a " bargain " between the Malays and non @-@ Malays was formulated ; in return for giving up ketuanan Melayu , the Malays would be assisted in closing the economic gap between the Malay and non @-@ Malay communities . CLC member E.E.C. Thuraisingham later said , " I and others believed that the backward Malays should be given a better deal . Malays should be assisted to attain parity with non @-@ Malays to forge a united Malayan Nation of equals . "
Problems continued to crop up . Many Chinese Malayan youths drafted into the army to stave off communist attacks fled the country ; most participants were English- and not Chinese @-@ educated . To the Malays , this indicated that the Chinese had no particular loyalty towards Malaya and justified ketuanan Melayu , heightening similar perceptions caused by the apparent racial dichotomy between those in fierce opposition to the communists and those supporting the MCP .
In the early 1950s , Onn Ja 'afar proposed to open UMNO membership to all Malayans , and renaming it the United Malayan National Organisation , which would have diluted its identity as a champion of ketuanan Melayu . Defeated in an internal power struggle , he resigned in 1951 to found the Independence of Malaya Party ( IMP ) . He was succeeded by Tunku Abdul Rahman ( often known as " the Tunku " ) , who insisted on initial Malay sovereignty . Expressing concern over a lack of loyalty to Malaya among non @-@ Malays , he demanded they clarify their allegiance before being accorded citizenship , going on to state : " For those who love and feel they owe undivided loyalty to this country , we will welcome them as Malayans . They must truly be Malayans , and they will have the same rights and privileges as the Malays . " Not long after , in 1952 , however , he appeared to contradict himself , and insisted that Malays safeguard their special position : " Malaya is for the Malays and it should not be governed by a mixture of races . "
During this period , some Straits Chinese began taking interest in local politics , especially in Penang , where there was an active Chinese secessionist movement . Identifying more with the British than the Malays , they were especially angered by references to them as pendatang asing ( foreigners ) . Avoiding both UMNO and the MCA , they believed that while UMNO and Malay extremists were intent on extending Malay privileges and restricting Chinese rights , the MCA was too " selfish " , and could not be relied on . Uncomfortable about the merger of the Straits Settlements with Malaya , they did not feel a sense of belonging in a " Malaya for the Malays " where they were not considered bumiputra ( " sons of the soil " ) . One Straits Chinese leader indignantly declared , " I can claim to be more anak Pulau Pinang [ a son of Penang ] than 99 per cent of the Malays living here today . " With the government 's stout rejection of secession , the movement eventually petered out .
Some suggested that the non @-@ Malays did not feel loyal to Malaya because they did not consider themselves to be of Malayan nationality and adhere strictly to their own ethnic cultural backgrounds . To counter this , in 1952 citizenship was granted to nearly all local @-@ born non @-@ Malays , and dual citizenship prohibited , forcing non @-@ Malays to choose between their ancestral homeland and Malaya . In contrast to the Malay 's hypothesis , a majority of the non @-@ Malays remained , thus proving their allegiance to Malaya . They are the ancestor of modern @-@ day non @-@ Malay Malaysian .
As Malaya moved to self @-@ government , the British initiated the Member System , modelled on the cabinet system ; like the CLC , it drew on members of different communities , and was later described as setting a precedent for the power @-@ sharing multiracial Malayan and Malaysian cabinets post @-@ independence . At the same time , the British also began laying the framework for a national education system that would create " a sense of common citizenship " . The Barnes Report that they commissioned , however , was strongly objected to by the Chinese community for being " saturated with Malay nationalism " and bolstering ketuanan Melayu . The Fenn @-@ Wu Report , favoured by the Chinese , did not meet with Malay approval . In the end , the Barnes Report 's recommendations for English @-@ medium " national schools " were implemented by the 1952 Education Ordinance , over vocal Chinese protests , who were upset by the lack of provision for non @-@ Malay vernacular schools . In 1956 , a committee headed by Tun Abdul Razak re @-@ evaluated the education system . The " Razak Report " recommended that vernacular primary schools be permitted to continue , but share a common syllabus with national schools . Vernacular secondary schools would not be sanctioned ; only national secondary schools would be funded . The Chinese community strenuously objected to the Razak Report as well , launching an organised campaign against it ; the MCA 's refusal to oppose the Report cost it politically in some Chinese constituencies . Nevertheless , the Razak Report 's recommendations were largely successful , and many of them remain in place as of 2006 .
= = = Possible origins of ketuanan Melayu = = =
According to many historians , the root cause of ethnic strife and ketuanan Melayu was a lack of mixing between the Malays and non @-@ Malays . An exception to this were the Straits Chinese , who managed to assimilate reasonably well , despite the assimilation taking 600 years including intermarriage . According to the Ming Shi @-@ lu , the ancestors of the Straits Chinese were " gifts " given to the Sultan of Malacca as a recognition of both bilateral ties between the Ming Dynasty and the sultanate , and of Malay sovereignty . At the time , most were rich merchants during British rule instead of manual labourers and many habitually spoke Malay , dressed in the Malay style , and preferred Malay cuisine .
The British educational policies segregating the different races — providing minimal public education for Malays , and leaving non @-@ Malays to their own devices — did not help matters . The Malays , predominantly rural @-@ dwellers , were not encouraged to socialise with the more urban non @-@ Malays . The economic impoverishment of the Malays which set them apart from the better @-@ off Chinese also fanned racial sentiments .
Another contributing factor to ketuanan Melayu was the World War II Japanese occupation . The war " awakened a keen political awareness among Malayan people by intensifying communalism and racial hatred " . Japanese policies " politicised the Malay peasantry " , intentionally fanning the flames of Malay nationalism . Two Malay historians wrote that " The Japanese hostile acts against the Chinese and their apparently more favourable treatments of the Malays helped to make the Chinese community feel its separate identity more acutely ... " A foreign commentator agreed , stating that " During the occupation period ... Malay national sentiment had become a reality ; it was strongly anti @-@ Chinese , and its rallying cry [ was ] ' Malaya for the Malays ' ... "
= = = The Alliance - 1955 Federal Legislative Council elections = = =
Although UMNO supported ketuanan Melayu , it formed an " Alliance " with the MCA and the Malayan Indian Congress ( MIC ) to contest the 1955 Federal Legislative Council elections . This took many by surprise , as the MCA had strenuously insisted on equal political rights for all citizens . Its President , Tan Cheng Lock , was himself a Straits Chinese , albeit not as extremist as the secessionists . Although initially dismissed as a marriage of convenience , the Alliance won 51 out of 52 seats available . The sole remaining seat went to the Pan @-@ Malayan Islamic Party ( PMIP ; later known as PAS ) , a Malay @-@ based party and strong advocate of ketuanan Melayu . The total defeat of non @-@ communal parties led the Alliance to perceive the political atmosphere as inhospitable for multi @-@ racial parties . A coalition government comprising mono @-@ racial parties in which party leaders privately brokered compromise decisions was thought more stable and better suited to Malayan politics .
Prior to the election , Dato ' Onn Ja 'afar had changed his approach , forming the Parti Negara after IMP suffered crushing losses to the Alliance in local elections . Advocating stronger pro @-@ Malay policies recognising Malay political dominance , the Parti Negara failed to shake the Alliance 's grip on power . However , some believe Parti Negara 's proposals helped sway UMNO politicians towards more radically pro @-@ Malay policies . The British themselves insisted on handing over power only to a multiracial government , and the Alliance was considered to meet this requirement .
= = Independence and Malaysia = =
= = = Independence and the Constitution = = =
The Federation of Malaya became officially independent of the British Empire in 1957 . The new state 's Constitution contained provisions , such as Article 153 , guaranteeing the Malays certain privileges as a form of affirmative action . The Reid Commission , which drafted the Constitution , stated that Article 153 was to be temporary in nature , and should be reviewed by Parliament 15 years after independence . The Constitution itself did not explicitly state this , however , nor did it clarify the purpose of Article 153 . It did declare all Malayans equal under the law , without mention of " Malay sovereignty " or any other ideas related to ketuanan Melayu . Jus soli citizenship — the granting of citizenship to anyone born in the Federation — was also granted , albeit without retrospective effect ; it was a major concession by the Malays , who had vigorously campaigned against jus soli citizenship in the Malayan Union .
On the other hand , Malay and Islam became the national language and official religion , while the Malay rulers remained . This was taken to mean that the Malays were accorded deference as the definitive people of Malaya — i.e. being a Malayan would be the same as being a Malay — and in the eyes of many , gave Malaya a Malay identity . One academic suggested that " The Malays have a deep @-@ rooted feeling that they alone are the bumiputras , the sons of the soil , and as such have certain special rights over the land . " Indeed , the Tunku said in 1964 that " It is understood by all that this country by its very name , its traditions and character , is Malay . ... In any other country where aliens try to dominate economic and other fields , eventually there is bitter opposition from the indigenous people . But not with the Malays . Therefore , in return , they must appreciate the position of the Malays ... " It has been suggested that a Malaysian nationality did not emerge because " all the national symbols in Malaysia were derived from the Malay tradition " .
The Constitutional restraint on the size of rural Parliamentary constituencies was later removed , providing what one commentator called " an indirect buttress " to Malay special rights ; as Malays were concentrated in rural areas , this indirectly enhanced Malay political power . The original Constitution had implicitly followed " one man , one vote " . The change was denounced as " giving one man one vote , another a number of votes : not on the basis of , say , intellectual ability or geographical accident , but in order to ensure the dominance of a particular group . "
The constitutional provisions , which have been referred to as the " Malay Agenda " , evoked little sentiment from non @-@ Malays , despite most of them gaining citizenship and thus becoming theoretically equal to Malay citizens under the Constitution . This could be attributed to acceptance of the social contract , of which one historian wrote : " At the elite level , non @-@ Malays recognized that Malays were politically superior by virtue of their indigenous status and that the Malaysian polity would have a Malay character ... Malays were to be assured of safe majorities in both the state and federal parliament ... Malays would control the highest positions of the government and ... dominate members of the federal cabinet . " A Malay historian wrote that " In return the Chinese gained more than overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia had dreamed of — equal citizenship , political participation and office holding , unimpaired economic opportunity , and tolerance for their language , religion , and cultural institutions . "
Some expressed trepidation at Article 153 ; shortly before independence , the China Press suggested that while special rights " may be excusable at the start of the building of a nation , " if " the period of ' special rights ' is not restricted , or the scope of special rights is not clearly defined , then endless disputes ... will arise later on , " and argued that special rights would eventually divide instead of unite Malayans . Nevertheless , at the time of independence , some historians assert , " there was a genuine sense of common citizenship , common aspirations , a common destiny . " This was about to change .
= = = Merger = = =
In 1961 , when the Malayan government began discussing a possible merger with neighbouring Singapore , Sabah , Sarawak and Brunei , problems of ethnic power relations arose again . The " Malaysia " proposal sans Sabah and Sarawak went back more than a decade ; earlier negotiations had proved fruitless . The Singaporeans themselves were not anxious to be ruled by what they considered a Malay government . By 1961 , however , Singapore had grown receptive to the idea of joining Malaysia , largely because of the prevailing idea at the time that industrial Singapore could not survive without access to Malayan markets .
The Malayan government was not keen on having the Chinese Singaporean population push the Malays into a minority position in the new Malaysia . Many Malays felt that upsetting the Malay @-@ dominated nature of the armed forces and police might place them in a dangerous situation . It was also argued that the inferior economic position of the Malays would be emphasised by the entry of even more rich Chinese , setting the stage for major discontent . The Malayans decided to resolve this by merging with Sabah and Sarawak ; both British colonies had large native populations whom the government considered " Malay " . Under Article 160 of the Constitution , most of them were not Malay ; the natives were mainly animists or Christians instead of Muslims as required . To resolve this issue , the government expanded its informal definition of " Malay " to include these people .
Sabahans and Sarawakians could not see how they would benefit from merger . Many regarded Malaya as being only for the Malays , a group they did not include themselves in . The spectre of " Malaysia " — the inclusion of the phrase " Malay " being considered frightening — with its official religion of Islam and official language of Malay , did nothing to soothe their fears of " Malay domination " . For merger to come about , they insisted the natives of Sabah and Sarawak be awarded the same privileges as Malays . A 20 @-@ point agreement between Sabah and the Malayan government , and a slightly different 18 @-@ point agreement by Sarawak , was later agreed upon . After much negotiation and a show of support from the British for merger , the impasse was resolved . Although natives of Borneo were denied the privileges of Malays , merger was effected on 16 September 1963 .
= = = " Malaysian Malaysia ! " = = =
In the 1963 Singapore state elections , the Alliance challenged the governing People 's Action Party ( PAP ) through the Singapore Alliance Party . UMNO politicians actively campaigned in Singapore for the Singapore Alliance , contending that Singaporean Malays were being treated as second @-@ class citizens under the Chinese @-@ dominated , though ostensibly multiracial , PAP government . However , all of the UMNO @-@ backed Malay candidates lost to the PAP . The PAP politicians , who saw this as a betrayal of an earlier agreement with the Alliance not to contest elections in Malaya and Singapore ( respectively ) , decided to run on the mainland in the 1964 general election . Although the PAP attracted large crowds at its rallies , it won only one seat — that by Devan Nair , who represented the Bangsar constituency . It is thought by some historians that Finance Minister and MCA President Tan Siew Sin 's appeal to the Chinese to avoid challenging the Malay special rights and risk merger with Indonesia helped the MCA retain its status as the " undisputed leader of the Chinese in the Malayan peninsula " . Nevertheless , UMNO leaders were furious with the PAP .
New problems soon cropped up . Lee Kuan Yew , the leader of the Singaporean government and the PAP , declared his open opposition to ketuanan Melayu , calling for a " Malaysian Malaysia " instead of the implied Malay Malaysia . He argued that " Malays began to migrate to Malaysia in noticeable numbers only about 700 years ago . Of the 39 % Malays in Malaysia today , about one @-@ third are comparatively new immigrants like ( Syed Jaafar Albar ) , who came to Malaya from Indonesia just before the war at the age of more than thirty . Therefore it is wrong and illogical for a particular racial group to think that they are more justified to be called Malaysians and that the others can become Malaysian only through their favour . "
Lee later lamented : " Malaysia — to whom does it belong ? To Malaysians . But who are Malaysians ? I hope I am , Mr Speaker , Sir . But sometimes , sitting in this chamber , I doubt whether I am allowed to be a Malaysian . This is the doubt that hangs over many minds , and ... [ once ] emotions are set in motion , and men pitted against men along these unspoken lines , you will have the kind of warfare that will split the nation from top to bottom and undo Malaysia . " At times , however , Lee worsened things by making racial comments of his own . Many of his speeches harped on the ethnic composition of Malaysia , reminding listeners that the non @-@ Malays were now in the majority , with 61 % of the population to the Malays ' 39 % asking at one point , " Why should we go back to old Singapore and once again reduce the non @-@ Malays in Malaya to a minority ? " Lee exacerbated deteriorating PAP @-@ UMNO relations by constantly demanding that the federal government " smack down their ' ultras ' " , whose ranks included prominent UMNO leaders such as Syed Jaafar Albar and Syed Nasir Ismail .
Lee 's statements upset many , especially Alliance politicians . Tan Siew Sin called him the " greatest , disruptive force in the entire history of Malaysia and Malaya . " The Tunku considered Lee too extremist in his views , while other UMNO politicians thought Lee was simply pandering to Malaysian Chinese with his rhetoric . Lee 's statement about allegedly recent Malay migration met with stinging rebuttals ; Albar declared : " To say that the Malays are in the same category as other races is an insult ... " The UMNO newspaper Malaya Merdeka warned : " If the Malays are hard @-@ pressed and their interests are not protected , " they would merge Malaysia with Indonesia . It was this that the Tunku feared the most . To him , the ultras were not the real extremists — it was those who sought a " Greater Indonesia " to " fix " the Chinese that were the real threat .
The strain in race relations led to the Singaporean 1964 Race Riots , which PAP Malay politician Othman Wok later insinuated were planned beforehand by the ultras . In the year following the riots , tension continued growing . Syed Jaafar Albar declared that " Wherever I am , I am a Malay " , drawing harsh return fire from Lee , who stated in Parliament : " If I had been going round and saying what [ he ] has been saying — wherever I am , I am a Chinese — where would we be ? But I keep on reminding the people that I am a Malaysian . I am learning Bahasa Kebangsaan [ Malay , the national language ] and I accept Article 153 of the Constitution . "
Lee insisted that he was not opposed to Malay special rights or Article 153 , saying : " if the immigrant communities ... do not see the problems , if they can 't feel what it is like to be a poor Malay , and don 't feel for him , then I can say very soon he will manifest his disaffection in a very decisive way and the whole country will be thrown into turmoil . " Few from the Alliance took this claim seriously . UMNO politicians insisted that a " Malaysian Malaysia " implied total equality , entailing the removal of Malay privileges . Senu Abdul Rahman , a federal Minister , felt Lee 's advocacy of equality would deny the Malays the possibility of economic participation : " What we want is opportunity , the opportunity to obtain economic wealth for our people . " Condemning Lee for stating he was a Malaysian by his own right , Senu asked : " The right which Lee is enjoying today did not fall from the sky or out of the blue . It was given to him . Doesn 't he have some feeling of gratitude to the natives of this country ? " Lee answered : " No , I am not enjoying anyone 's hospitality . I am here as of right . And 61 per cent of the people of Malaysia have to stand by that or it is lost . Without it they would have no future . " Some , such as Syed Jaafar Albar , took Senu 's stance further and referred to the Malays , as the Bumiputra , as " masters of the house " , whose hospitality was being abused by the bangsa asing ( aliens ) or orang tumpangan ( lodgers ) such as Lee . This provoked a response from Cabinet member Lim Swee Aun insisting " we are co @-@ owners , not lodgers , not guests . "
Some went against the common view held in UMNO . Ismail Abdul Rahman told Parliament that " ... both the Alliance and the PAP subscribe to the concept of a Malaysian Malaysia , " but differed in their methods . Ismail characterised the PAP 's approach as " non @-@ communalism straightaway , " while the Alliance required " two steps . First , inter @-@ racial harmony ; second , and ultimate state of non @-@ communalism . " Such statements were dismissed by Lee as lip service that could not be taken seriously unless the ultras were reined in .
= = = Separation = = =
Lee continued his campaign , forming the Malaysian Solidarity Council ( MSC ) comprising multi @-@ racial parties such as the PAP , the People 's Progressive Party ( PPP ) and the United Democratic Party ( UDP ) in 1965 . At the MSC 's first and only general meeting , several leaders from these parties gave speeches supporting a Malaysian Malaysia . D.R. Seenivasagam of the PPP accused the Alliance of using Article 153 to " bully non @-@ Malays " , while Ong Kee Hui of the Sarawak United People 's Party ( SUPP ) said that " We see an attitude of intolerance and mounting signs of denial of political equality to people who are non @-@ Malays . For the sake of our country and ourselves , this must be stopped and the drift to narrow racialism checked . Political equality should be accorded to all who live here and make this country their home , irrespective of their racial origin . "
Soon after , UMNO backbencher Mahathir bin Mohamad attacked Lee in Parliament : " [ The Singaporean Chinese ] have never known Malay rule and cannot bear the idea that the people they have so long kept under their heels should now be in a position to rule them . " Lee responded with an unscripted speech made entirely in Malay opposing the government 's pro @-@ Malay policies : " Of course there are Chinese millionaires in big cars and big houses . Is it the answer to make a few Malay millionaires with big cars and big houses ? ... If we delude people into believing that they are poor because there are no Malay rights or because opposition members oppose Malay rights , where are we going to end up ? You let people in the villages believe that they are poor because we don 't speak Malay , because the government does not write in Malay , so he expects a miracle to take place [ when Malay becomes the sole national language ] . The moment we all start speaking Malay , he is going to have an uplift in the standard of living , and if doesn 't happen , what happens then ? Meanwhile , whenever there is a failure of economic , social and educational policies , you come back and say , oh , these wicked Chinese , Indian and others opposing Malay rights . They don 't oppose Malay rights . They , the Malay , have the right as Malaysian citizens to go up to the level of training and education that the more competitive societies , the non @-@ Malay society , has produced . That is what must be done , isn 't it ? Not to feed them with this obscurantist doctrine that all they have got to do is to get Malay rights for the few special Malays and their problem has been resolved . "
Eventually , the Tunku — fed up with all the politicking and convinced that any further clashes of rhetoric would only degenerate into violence — asked Singapore to secede . Singapore became an independent nation in 1965 , with Lee as its first Prime Minister . Although Article 152 of the Constitution of Singapore names the Malays as " indigenous people " of Singapore and mandates special safeguarding of their rights and privileges , the article does not specify any policies for such safeguarding .
Some later blamed the formation of Malaysia for strengthening ketuanan Melayu : " A reinforcement of Malay rights — which during the previous five or six years [ prior to the formation of Malaysia ] had been withering away as the Reid Commission might have suspected they would — took place against a background of general unequal treatment " after Malaysia 's formation .
= = 13 May and the New Economic Policy = =
= = = Issues of language = = =
The Constitution specified a ten @-@ year delay after independence in changing the national language from English to Malay . As the scheduled date in 1967 drew near some Chinese began to agitate for a more liberal language policy permitting some instances of Mandarin in public affairs . Extremists from UMNO and PAS lashed out against them , but the Alliance proposed a compromise in the National Language Bill establishing Malay as the official language , but permitting English under certain circumstances and the use of non @-@ Malay languages for non @-@ official purposes . The Tunku described it as " a course guaranteeing peace " , but the Bill was widely derided by many Malays , who formed the National Language Action Front in hope of repealing or amending it . The leadership of the Tunku was also openly questioned .
= = = 13 May = = =
In 1969 , a general election was held . It was the first to be contested on a major scale by non @-@ Malay @-@ based opposition parties , other than the 1964 election where the PAP challenged the Alliance in Peninsular Malaysia . The two main opposition parties on this front in 1969 were the Democratic Action Party ( DAP ) — the Malaysian successor to the PAP , widely seen as Chinese @-@ based — and the Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia ( Gerakan ) , an ostensibly multiracial party led by former MCA stalwart , Lim Chong Eu , and other middle @-@ class intellectuals like Tan Chee Khoon and Syed Hussein Alatas . Both proposed policies on language , education , and Malay rights that were diametrically opposed to those of the government , with the DAP continuing where Lee Kuan Yew had left off with the " Malaysian Malaysia " campaign . Some , mostly from the DAP , called for the elevation of English , Mandarin and Tamil to official language status , along with Malay . Stronger government support for the Chinese education stream was also demanded .
PAS , on the other hand , attempted to garner votes by accusing UMNO of selling out the Malays ' indigenous rights to " pendatang asing " . When the results were released , PAS had made minor inroads , but the DAP and Gerakan managed to topple the Alliance from power in three states , and nearly eradicated the Alliance 's traditional two @-@ thirds majority in Parliament . A large part of these gains came at the expense of the MCA , which soon announced that it would not participate in the new government after the election , as the MCA no longer had a mandate to represent Chinese interests in the government . The jubilant DAP and Gerakan organised victory parades in the national capital of Kuala Lumpur on 11 and 12 May , where participants taunted the Malays while bearing slogans such as " Semua Melayu kasi habis " ( " Finish off all the Malays " ) . An apology was issued soon after the rallies . Nevertheless , the shocked Malays blamed Chinese voters for betraying " the Alliance formula by voting for an opposition that had revived fundamental questions of language and Malay special rights " .
Malay extremists welcomed the MCA 's move , feeling an UMNO- and Malay @-@ dominated government would better serve their purposes . UMNO held its own rally , which soon became a riot , on 13 May . This would later be euphemistically labelled as the " 13 May Incident " . UMNO supporters gathered at Harun 's house on the evening of 13 May , where the rally was due to start , with many brandishing parangs ( machetes ) and other weapons .
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Some leaders condemned the " insults " of the " infidels " at the previous victory parades , calling the counter @-@ rally a means " to teach the Chinese a lesson " for challenging Malay supremacy . Soon , the crowd began attacking passing Chinese motorists , and launched arson attacks on Chinese homes and shops . The rioting spread , and , despite the military being called in , continued for another two days .
As a result of the riots , Parliament was suspended , and a state of national emergency was declared . A National Operations Council ( NOC ) was formed to oversee the administration of the country under emergency rule . Although the rioting had died down , tensions continued to simmer . A non @-@ Malay boycott of Malay goods and services received " near total " support , while many Malays , such as Mahathir Mohamad and Raja Muktaruddin Daim began calling for an autocracy led by UMNO alone , and the removal of the Tunku . According to some sources , one group of " ultras " , comprising Syed Nasir Ismail , Musa Hitam , and Tengku Razaleigh , felt that the power @-@ sharing Constitution had failed , and agreed that the country had to be " returned " to the Malays . They allegedly agreed to summon Mahathir to Kuala Lumpur , where he led his anti @-@ Tunku campaign .
Mahathir wrote an open letter to the Tunku , accusing him of " giving the Chinese what they demand ... you have given them too much face . " Soon , students at higher educational institutions across the country began to hold mass demonstrations , calling for the Tunku to step down in favour of a leader who would restore " Malay sovereignty " . Sporadic rioting , believed to have been instigated by the Tunku 's opponents , broke out .
Instead of bowing to their demands , the Tunku had Mahathir and Musa Hitam expelled from UMNO . The Minister of Home Affairs , Ismail Abdul Rahman , alleged that " These ultras believe in the wild and fantastic theory of absolute dominion by one race over the other communities , regardless of the Constitution . ... Polarisation has taken place in Malaysian politics and the extreme racialists among the ruling party are making a desperate bid to topple the present leadership . "
= = = The Malay Dilemma and New Economic Policy = = =
Mahathir spent his political exile writing The Malay Dilemma , where he contended " that the Malays are the original or indigenous people of Malaya and the only people who can claim Malaya as their one and only country . In accordance with practice all over the world , this confers on the Malays certain inalienable rights over the forms and obligations of citizenship which can be imposed on citizens of non @-@ indigenous origin . " ( Referring to the social contract . )
Mahathir expressed discomfort with " far too many non @-@ Malay citizens who can swamp the Malays " when " ... suddenly it has dawned upon the Malay that he cannot even call Malaya his land . There is no more Tanah Melayu — land of the Malays . He is now a different person , a Malaysian , but a Malay Malaysian whose authority in Malaya — his land — is now not only shared with others , but shared unequally . And as if this is not enough , he is being asked to give up more and more of his share of influence . " Mahathir 's defence of Malay rights focused both on the " definitive people " line of reasoning and the argument in favour of affirmative action , which the Reid Commission had chosen : " It is not ... for reasons of Malay superiority that preferential treatment for Malays in scholarship awards was insisted upon . ... They are a means of breaking down the superior position of the non @-@ Malays in the field of education . The Malays are not proud of this treatment . " Shortly after becoming Prime Minister , Mahathir denied he had altered any of his views since he wrote the book .
Mahathir and Musa Hitam later rejoined UMNO and the government under Tun Abdul Razak , the second Prime Minister , whose New Economic Policy ( NEP ) , was based on some of the reforms Mahathir 's book had advocated . The NEP 's stated goal was elimination of " the identification of race with economic function " . To achieve this , it targeted a 30 % share of the economy for the " Bumiputra " — " sons of the soil , " a term referring to Malays and other indigenous peoples — by 1990 . This became known as the " 30 per cent solution " setting the " Bumiputra quota " for many items , including new public share listings and new private housing schemes . Certain commentators alleged that this fostered " a close to ' zero @-@ sum ' attitude chiefly between the Malays and Chinese " . The NEP 's stated aim , however , was not to directly redistribute wealth but to enlarge the economic pie while providing a larger share of the gains for Malays , thus increasing participation in the economy for all .
The main rationale for the NEP as set out in the Second Malaysia Plan was to address the " economic imbalance " between the Chinese and Malays . In 1969 , the Malay share of equity reportedly stood at 1 @.@ 5 % while the Chinese held 22 @.@ 8 % ; the rest was largely in foreign hands . Some detractors argued that while the Chinese share of the economy had increased at the Malays ' expense , more significant growth in inequality had occurred between the richest and poorest Malays — between 1957 and 1970 , the wealthiest 20 % of Malays ' share in the Malay portion of the economy reportedly increased from 42 @.@ 5 % to 52 @.@ 5 % while the poorest 40 % saw a decrease from 19 @.@ 5 % to 12 @.@ 7 % .
The NOC issued a report of its own analysing the root causes of the 13 May violence , suggesting that even in the civil service , a traditional Malay employer , non @-@ Malays outnumbered the Malays in many areas , with substantial Malay majorities only in the Police and Armed Forces . The report concluded : " Allegations that the non @-@ Malays are excluded are regarded by the Malays as deliberate distortion . The Malays who already felt excluded in the country 's economic life , now began to feel a threat to their place in the public services . No mention was ever made by non @-@ Malay politicians of the almost closed @-@ door attitude to the Malays by non @-@ Malays in large sections of the private sector in this country . "
According to the Second Malaysia Plan , the NEP aimed to " create a Malay commercial and industrial community " through " wholly owned enterprises and joint ventures " . Prior to this , the government had , in the words of a local economist , played " administrative , supportive , and regulatory " roles in attempting to address the economic imbalance , but avoided " represent [ ing ] direct and active efforts in promoting " Malay interests . Now , the government would not only " [ limit ] access of the Chinese and Indian population to universities , public jobs and public money , " but also actively intervene in the economy to give " [ the Bumiputra ] a bigger piece of the business action " . One criticism of this increased intervention was that UMNO supposedly " became a major beneficiary of the expanded role of the state " .
There had been limited affirmative action programmes before . However , these mostly focused on the civil service , as Article 153 of the Constitution did . Admission to higher education was largely merit @-@ based . The Tunku government preferred laissez @-@ faire policies , minimising economic intervention . Although some agencies , such as the Rural Industrial Development Agency ( RIDA ) , which attempted to aid Malay entrepreneurs , existed , their programs were criticised as being based on handouts and favouring the politically connected . RIDA was renamed as the Majlis Amanah Rakyat ( The Indigenous People 's Trust Council ) or MARA in 1965 , and came to symbolise the development of Malay entrepreneurship .
Although the NEP was aimed at addressing economic imbalances , it soon became associated with ketuanan Melayu . While the two were rarely directly equated , they were often mentioned together , with the implication that the NEP was derived from ketuanan Melayu . The NEP 's greater intervention in the economy led some to " equate UMNO 's monolithic image as the undisputed champion of Malay supremacy with the party 's ability to shore up lucrative business deals . "
= = = Constitutional amendments and other policy changes = = =
Parliament finally reconvened again in 1971 . Although the NEP was passed without its approval , Parliament 's consent was required to amend the Constitution . The government @-@ tabled Constitution ( Amendment ) Act 1971 , in conjunction with some amendments to the Sedition Act , limited freedom of speech on " sensitive issues " such as the national language , Malay special rights , the Malay rulers , and the provisions for citizenship . These restrictions also applied to Members of Parliament , over @-@ ruling their previous Parliamentary immunity . The amendments also clarified Article 152 's meaning , and included the " natives of any of the States of Sabah and Sarawak " under Article 153 , extending the formerly Malay @-@ only rights to all Bumiputra . In addition , the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong ( King ) could now direct any university or college to implement a proportion @-@ based quota system favouring the Bumiputra . All higher educational institutions immediately enacted quota systems on the orders of the Education Ministry ; some later questioned the move 's constitutionality on the grounds that the King himself had not issued any directive .
To cap all this , the amendment of articles touching on the " sensitive issues " mentioned , as well as the clause governing this rule on amendments , was forbidden without the consent of the Conference of Rulers . Effectively entrenching the " sensitive " Articles , this was heavily criticised by opposition MPs . It was claimed that if Parliament could be prevented from discussing particular issue , Parliamentary sovereignty was undermined . It was also unclear if the ban from speaking on " sensitive issues " applied to the ban itself . Nevertheless , the provisions were passed . The Internal Security Act ( ISA ) , which effectively allows the government to detain anyone it deems a threat to national security for an indefinite period without judicial review , was also amended in 1971 to stress the " preservation of intercommunal harmony " .
Many of these changes saw fierce opposition in Parliament and abroad . When the proposed changes were first announced , the British press charged they would " preserve as immutable the feudal system dominating Malay society " by " giving this archaic body of petty constitutional monarchs incredible blocking power " . The censorship of sensitive issues was labelled as paradoxical when contrasted with Tun Abdul Razak 's speaking of " the full realization that important matters must no longer be swept under the carpet ... " Other critics argued that Article 153 was nothing more than a " paper rice bowl " , and in any case , did not even include the orang asli ( literally Malay for " native people " ) or aborigines within the scope of its privileges , rendering its rationale somewhat suspect .
Another important policy change came in the field of education . In 1970 , the government made Malay the medium of instruction for primary , secondary , and tertiary education , replacing English . Although government funding for the Chinese and Tamil education streams continued , many non @-@ Malays considered this new policy to be " the most discriminatory " thus far . The government 's rationale was that this would provide better educational opportunities for the Malays , especially those who formerly had to make the transition from Malay @-@ medium primary and secondary schools to English @-@ medium universities . It was also argued that uniting students under one language would provide for greater racial harmony , while indirectly underscoring the " Malay nature of the state " .
The same year that the medium of instruction was changed to Malay , the National Culture Policy ( NCP ) was announced . Syed Nasir Ismail described the government 's policies as aimed at creating a " Bumiputra Muslim identity " ( identiti Islam Kebumiputraan ) for Malaysians . In essence , the NCP 's goal was to eventually assimilate the non @-@ indigenous peoples into an indigenous Malaysian identity . Despite stiff opposition from Chinese pressure groups , the government refused to withdraw the NCP . To foster national unity , the Rukunegara , or national ideology , was also introduced . Although the Rukunegara itself contains no references to ketuanan Melayu or the social contract , a government commentary mentioned the " position of Malays and other Natives , the legitimate interests of the other communities , and the conferment of citizenship " as key aspects of the Constitution while insisting : " No citizen should question the loyalty of another citizen on the ground that he belongs to a particular community . " One political pundit described it as a formal declaration of the social contract or " Racial Bargain " .
= = = Politics and " Malay dominance " = = =
The old Alliance model , where each race was represented by one party , was repudiated with the formation of the Barisan Nasional ( BN , or the National Front ) in 1974 . Several former opposition parties , including Gerakan , the PPP and PAS , joined the UMNO @-@ led BN . Although the MCA and MIC were included , their influence was diluted by other non @-@ Malay parties in the coalition . In 1977 , PAS ' expulsion left UMNO as the sole Malay representative in BN , although some ostensibly multiracial parties provided token Malay representation . After its departure , PAS took a different approach to Malay privileges , denouncing the NEP as racial discrimination and " unIslamic " .
In 1974 , Mahathir was appointed as a Minister in Tun Razak 's Cabinet . He became the Deputy Prime Minister just two years later , under Tun Hussein Onn , who had succeeded Tun Razak upon the latter 's sudden death .
During the 1970s — the heyday of the NEP — " Malay dominance " was a largely accepted fact of life for Malaysians . Whereas the 1957 to 1969 period was viewed as a time when " Malay dominance " was at least tempered by a form of " inter @-@ ethnic bargaining " within the Alliance government , from the 13 May Incident onwards , political pundits argued that the political environment was now under marked " hegemonic control " from the Malays and UMNO ; in 1970 , one Cabinet member pronounced that Malay special rights would remain for " hundreds of years to come " . The Tunku observed in 1977 that " it appears in the minds of the non @-@ Bumiputras that they are being turned into second @-@ class citizens in the country . " The government 's ethnic policies continued to be based on and justified by the two basic arguments Mahathir had applied in his Dilemma ; the " historical " status of Malay primacy over Malaya , and the " special needs " of the Malays . As public discussion or questioning of these issues had been criminalised , there were few locally published works critically discussing Malay supremacy , complicating attempts to evaluate it or establish further grounds for government policy beyond the main two traditionally put forth .
The ultras who had allegedly plotted to exploit the post @-@ 13 May chaos were now in control of the country . Razaleigh , the Finance Minister , was hailed as the " Father of the Bumiputra Economy " . Musa Hitam and Mahathir , both rising stars on the political scene , maintained their image as " ultras " , although it is unclear if this was their intention . Journalist K. Das once claimed Musa had told him " that a young Malaysian politician has to play the race card to the hilt even if there was not a single chauvinistic bone in his body . " After retiring , Musa said that " the national leaders tend to look for a scapegoat when faced with a desperate crisis situation " and use racial tactics to fill their " empty stomach " .
UMNO Youth in particular maintained its " ultra " image from the 1960s . One of its Vice @-@ Presidents said in response to discussion of opening different teams in UMNO based on political ideology that " The original cause of UMNO is to fight for the interests of the Malay race and this must continue . We do not want factions in UMNO . " In 1980 , Tun Hussein Onn announced that he would be handing power over to Mahathir due to poor health . Mahathir took office in 1981 , with Musa Hitam as his deputy .
= = Mahathir administration = =
= = = Affirmative action and Chinese protests = = =
The affirmative action policies of the NEP continued under Mahathir . Political pundits considered this administration , in its early period , to be a continuation of the " hegemonic control " of Malaysian politics by the Malays , and by UMNO in particular . During this time , Mahathir focused on consolidating his power within UMNO and the government . As a result , there was little active confrontation between the Malays and the non @-@ Malays on the issue of ketuanan Melayu at the time .
In 1981 , the MCA assessed the NEP and other government policies from a Chinese point of view . Its findings expressed concern over a number of problems , including alleged disrespect of the citizenship of the Malaysian Chinese and the Malay @-@ dominated civil service , claiming the NEP 's goal of eradicating identification of race with economic function had been abrogated . In addition , it was argued that non @-@ Malays were under @-@ represented in Parliament and the Cabinet because of gerrymandering ; mostly Malay rural Parliamentary constituencies outnumbered heterogeneous urban constituencies , despite the total population of urban constituencies exceeding that of rural ones . However , UMNO avoided directly confronting the MCA over the issue .
Tensions rose after the 1986 general election when it appeared that UMNO on its own commanded a working Parliamentary majority , allowing it to govern without the support of other parties . Several UMNO leaders seriously discussed the possibility of governing alone ; one , Abdullah Ahmad , publicly espoused permanent Malay supremacy and relegating non @-@ Malays to second @-@ class citizenship . Such calls for unilateralism were eventually disregarded , and the Barisan Nasional government continued . However , some UMNO officials warned non @-@ Malay parties to avoid " playing with fire " by questioning the Malays ' special rights and privileges or Hak Keistimewaan Orang Melayu . At the UMNO General Assembly that year , Mahathir stated : " We do not wish to rob other people of their rights . But let no one try to rob us of our rights . " When Parliament reconvened , the DAP began raising objections to what they alleged was the division of Malaysians into " first and second class citizens " . In response , some UMNO MPs began referring to the non @-@ Malays as pendatang asing ( foreign immigrants , or aliens ) in Parliament . When the DAP attempted to enquire about the distribution of economic equity among the races to evaluate the NEP 's progress , the Standing Orders of Parliament were amended to forbid such inquiries . This led the DAP to allege that the NEP 's aims had been met , and that it could be allowed to expire in 1990 .
Some , such as Petaling Jaya city councillor Richard Yeoh , believe that Abdullah Ahmad , an aide of Mahathir 's , was the first to use the term " ketuanan Melayu " . Yeoh described the context in which Ahmad used it as " a fairly benign speech and most of us might have had no problem with it , but it has been taken to mean Malay supremacy by some Umno leaders who don 't necessarily know what it means . "
Ethnic tension continued to grow shortly after Mahathir narrowly defeated Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah for the UMNO Presidency in 1987 . Around this time , several deposit @-@ taking co @-@ operatives ( DTCs ) , some associated with the MCA , collapsed . To save Chinese investors , the MCA asked the government to bail out the DTCs , citing a previous bailout of Bumiputra financial institutions . UMNO 's reluctance to acquiesce led MCA Deputy President Lee Kim Sai to warn that the MCA might quit the government . Later that year , the government posted several non @-@ Chinese @-@ educated staff to senior positions in Chinese vernacular schools . Anwar Ibrahim , then Education Minister , refused to yield to protests from the MCA , and stated that the decision was final , despite a previous informal agreement on the issue between the Malay and Chinese communities .
The Gerakan , MCA and DAP held rallies and boycotted classes in Chinese primary schools to protest the move ; UMNO Youth held its own rallies to assert ketuanan Melayu , hosting banners with slogans such as " revoke the citizenship of those who opposed the Malay rulers " , " 13 May has begun " , and " soak it [ the keris , a Malay dagger ] with Chinese blood " . Future Deputy Prime Minister and then UMNO Youth Chief Najib Razak ( the son of Tun Razak ) threatened to bathe a keris with Chinese blood . The flames were fanned further when in an unrelated incident , a Malay soldier ran amok in a predominantly Chinese area , killing one and injuring another two .
The government then launched Operation Lalang ( Weeding Operation ) , detaining 55 people under the ISA . More were arrested over the next few months . Although most were opposition politicians — including Parliamentary Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang — a few from BN were included . All BN politicians were released from detention after two months , while those from the opposition remained in custody for much longer . The government later justified these detentions on grounds of security , stating that the detainees had played up the issue of Chinese education to incite racial sentiment . Some of Mahathir 's supporters saw this as a vindication of his rejection of the Tunku 's " compromise " with the non @-@ Malays , teaching the non @-@ Malays not to criticise the government and its pro @-@ Malay policies .
Many critics did not take this explanation seriously . UMNO was in crisis at the time , with Mahathir 's faction narrowly defeating Razaleigh 's in the party elections . Razaleigh 's supporters filed a lawsuit alleging irregularities in the election process which appeared likely to succeed , triggering new party elections . In this context , one MCA politician charged that the government had pursued a " hidden agenda , " deflecting public attention from UMNO 's crisis with a " deviation in the implementation of the Chinese education policy . " The Tunku himself claimed that Mahathir used the issue to mobilise the Malays " as a united force to a common enemy — and the imaginary enemy in this case was the Chinese community . "
In the end , Mahathir 's camp " won " the court case when it was held that as the party was an illegal organisation under the Societies Act due to some of its branches not being formally registered , the plaintiffs ' case was invalid ; an illegal society could not hold new elections for its leaders . Mahathir immediately set up " UMNO ( Baru ) " ( New UMNO ) , transferring all of old UMNO 's assets to the new party . Most of his supporters also joined UMNO ( Baru ) , and eventually the " ( Baru ) " was dropped , making it , for all intents and purposes , the same as the old UMNO . When the Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal on the case , the government suspended and later sacked Lord President Salleh Abas and five other Supreme Court judges , triggering the 1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis . The new Supreme Court later dismissed the case .
Razaleigh then formed the Semangat 46 ( Spirit of ' 46 ) party to challenge the government . In the 1990 general election , ketuanan Melayu was used as an issue , with UMNO accusing Semangat 46 , PAS , the DAP and other opposition parties of conspiring to end Malay supremacy . The government also repeatedly warned that the 13 May riots would be repeated if it did not maintain its two @-@ thirds majority in Parliament . Full @-@ page advertisements depicting bloodshed and carnage were published in major national newspapers . Tensions rose further when the Tunku called on voters to support Semangat 46 instead of the new UMNO , with several UMNO politicians demanding that his title of " Bapa Kemerdekaan " ( Father of Independence ) be withdrawn , and his statue removed from Parliament House . Despite this , the government retained its two @-@ thirds Parliamentary majority , with Semangat 46 winning only eight seats .
= = = Reviewing and reworking economic policies = = =
Prior to the expiration of the NEP in 1990 , there was much debate over whether the policy should be renewed , replaced , or scrapped altogether . The government organised an official review of the NEP in the years leading up to its expiration . The NEP had been faced with a number of criticisms throughout its lifetime , most of them related to political corruption and other inefficiencies .
One point of dispute was the calculation of Malay equity . Although officially , as of 1992 , the Malays controlled 18 % of the economy , some dismissed this figure as misleading . It was argued that as in reality , much of this amount comprised equity held by government agencies , therefore it belonged to Malaysians as a whole . The practice of awarding public works contracts mainly to Bumiputras was argued to be stifling Malay competency by providing little incentive to improve . Many Bumiputra contractors in turn subcontracted their jobs to others , who were in some cases Chinese ; " Ali Baba " arrangements with " the Malay [ Ali ] using his privileges to acquire licences and permits denied the non @-@ Malay , then accepting a fee to be the front @-@ man while the non @-@ Malay [ Baba ] ran the business , " were prevalent . Some suggested that the NEP " might have worked , if the Malay had actually wanted to learn the ropes . But more often than not , he just wanted to be rich . "
Some said the disbursement of shares favoured the politically connected , many of whom immediately sold the shares at market price , reaping the arbitrage instead of holding on and increasing the Malay share of equity , which the policy was intended to do . Although the NEP managed to create a class of Malay millionaires , it was charged that this was mainly due to cronyism , benefiting only the politically connected . Some agreed , but argued against taking action ; one PAS politician stated : " The Malays do not want justice to affect their interests . " Other commentators have suggested that although most of the benefits under the NEP accrued to the politically connected , the government intended for them to " trickle down to the Malay masses " , and also for the Malay nouveau riche to provide " entrepreneurial role models " for other Malays .
During the 1980s , concern continued to grow about discrimination in higher education . At this point , the Education Minister told Parliament of " dissatisfaction " and " disappointment " among non @-@ Malays concerning " lessening opportunities " for higher education . Later in 1997 , then Education Minister Najib Tun Razak defended the quotas as necessary , claiming that only 5 % of all local undergraduates would be Malays if quotas were abolished .
Another criticism was that the NEP and other affirmative action had actually reduced the Malays ' self @-@ confidence , despite Mahathir 's intention of building a Malay business class to serve as role models for impoverished Malays . One Malay journalist opined : " [ U ] nder this New Economic Policy , no Bumiputra could ever be sure that such ' victories ' as came his way were fully deserved . " The NEP was also criticised for seeking to improve the Malays ' overall share of the economy , even if this share were to be held by a small number of Malays . Some quarters accused the NEP of being too heavy @-@ handed in its approach towards affirmative action , maintaining it had " deprived qualified non @-@ Malays of opportunities for higher education and job promotions " and forcing many non @-@ Malays to emigrate instead . This , combined with the impressions of the NEP as corrupt and associated with ketuanan Melayu , led to " deep resentment " , particularly among the Chinese . The NEP was criticised as " set [ ting ] those Malaysians so honoured with it above the rest , granting them the preferential treatment of the NEP , " while " divid [ ing ] Malaysians into first- and second @-@ class citizens " .
In 1990 , the NEP was replaced by the National Development Policy ( NDP ) , which continued most of the NEP @-@ era policies . The Malay share of the economy , though substantially larger , was not near the 30 % target according to government figures . In its review of the NEP , the government found that although income inequality had been reduced , some important targets related to overall Malay corporate ownership had not been met . Both Mahathir and the Tunku had expressed concern that the Malays remained too reliant on the Chinese economically .
Claims that the NEP had retarded economic growth were dismissed ; it was posited that the NEP had managed to avert further racial rioting , which would have hurt economic growth more than the NEP . The NEP was also defended as having created a Malay middle class and improving standards of living without compromising the non @-@ Bumiputra share of the economy in absolute terms ; statistics indicated that the Chinese and Indian middle classes also grew under the NEP , albeit not as much as the Malays ' . The overall Malaysian poverty rate had shrunk from 50 % at independence to 7 % . It was also argued that ethnic stereotypes had been largely stamped out due to the NEP 's success in creating a Malay upper class . Although many of the NEP 's goals were restated by the NDP , the new policy appeared to be geared more towards wealth retention and creation , as opposed to simple redistribution . Nevertheless , many of the policies from the NEP era were retained under the NDP , which was set to expire in 2020 .
= = = Bangsa Malaysia and political liberalisation = = =
During the 1990s , Mahathir and UMNO made a public about @-@ face on the government 's cultural policies , with the formation of the Wawasan 2020 ( Vision 2020 ) and Bangsa Malaysia ( Malaysian Race ) plans . Mahathir named one obstacle to establishing Malaysia as a developed nation by the year 2020 as : " the challenge of establishing a matured , liberal and tolerant society in which Malaysians of all colours and creeds are free to practice and profess their customs , cultures and religious beliefs and yet feeling that they belong to one nation . " Mahathir proposed the establishment of " one Bangsa Malaysia with political loyalty and dedication to the nation " . After the government 's 1995 general election victory , Mahathir elaborated : " Bangsa Malaysia means people who are able to identify themselves with the country , speak Bahasa Malaysia ( the Malaysian or Malay language ) and accept the Constitution . "
Mahathir later explained that " The idea before was that people should become 100 per cent Malay in order to be Malaysian . We now accept that this is a multi @-@ racial country . We should build bridges instead of trying to remove completely the barriers separating us . " Such a dramatic change was perceived by the non @-@ Malay communities as a " complete retraction " of earlier policies emphasising assimilation of non @-@ Malays . The government took measures to stress this change , decreasing emphasis on Malay as the one and only national language by permitting local universities to use English as the medium of instruction for certain subjects . Diplomas from the MCA @-@ sponsored and Chinese @-@ majority Tunku Abdul Rahman College ( TARC ) were officially recognised by the government for employment in the civil service . For the first time , religions other than Islam were given airtime on state radio and television , although they were not allowed to proselytise . Lion dances — a traditional Chinese performance which had been banned for decades — were not only permitted but even attended by Mahathir and other top government officials .
Although the early 1990s saw marked economic growth , commentators suggested that Mahathir 's liberal policies had played the key role in his popularity and the Barisan Nasional 's landslide 1995 election victory . One pundit wrote that " Most Malaysians could not remember a time of greater prosperity or lesser inter @-@ ethnic recrimination . ... Economic indicators alone would not have captured the pride that Malaysians had discovered , perhaps for [ the ] first time , in being Malaysian . "
Lim Kit Siang attributed the opposition 's defeat to Mahathir 's liberalism and the government 's adoption of the DAP 's stance on issues like " language , culture and education " . Some , however , doubted Mahathir 's sincerity . One UMNO Youth official suggested that " The Barisan government 's flexible move ... only shows that we are enjoying the highest level of tolerance purely based on the level of confidence in terms of political and economic position of the Malays . We share the political power with the Chinese . When they need to increase their political support from their community it is very important for them to serve the main concerns of the Chinese . So , why shouldn 't we allow that ? We can ... achieve a win @-@ win situation . This is a purely political move . ... Similarly we UMNO Youth have to be often seen as a very racialist political group fighting for the Malay interests . ... However , those finished agendas that we have done , such as Islam , Bahasa Melayu [ the Malay language ] and the special status of the Malays , should not be questioned in any circumstance because these are very sensitive issues . "
In the latter part of the 1990s , government policies were loosened to combat the Asian economic crisis by encouraging foreign investment . In 1999 , a new opposition party supported by Mahathir 's former deputy , Anwar Ibrahim ( who had been jailed for sodomy after his controversial sacking ) led to a revival of the " 13 May " warnings . However , the government maintained its Parliamentary majority . In 2003 , Mahathir officially resigned as Prime Minister , and was succeeded by his deputy , Abdullah Ahmad Badawi .
= = Abdullah Ahmad Badawi , meritocracy , and ketuanan Melayu = =
= = = A new Prime Minister = = =
Prior to Abdullah 's ascension in 2003 , although ketuanan Melayu had been enunciated by several prominent Malay leaders , it had not been given a proper name . Around this time , the term " ketuanan Melayu " — " tuan " being the Malay word for " lord " or " master " — came into common usage , even entering the government @-@ approved secondary school curriculum . Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia professor of sociology Norani Othman has said that the term is evocative of " notions of enslavement , " since " In Malay classical terms , the word ' ketuanan ' implies lordship over captives , which is a pre @-@ feudal concept that is out of sync in 1957 , 1963 and today . "
A government @-@ approved secondary school history textbook published in 2004 by Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka , the government @-@ owned publishing company , defined ketuanan Melayu as :
Semangat cinta akan apa saja yang berkaitan dengan bangsa Melayu seperti hak politik , bahasa , kebudayaan , warisan , adat istiadat dan tanah air . Semenanjung Tanah Melayu dianggap sebagai tanah pusaka orang Melayu .
Its English translation is as follows :
A passion for all that is related to the Malay race , such as political rights , language , culture , heritage , tradition and the homeland . The Malay peninsula is regarded as the Malays ' land by birthright .
In 2003 , the United Malays National Organisation ( UMNO ) political party Youth Information Chief Azimi Daim stated : " In Malaysia , everybody knows that Malays are the masters of this land . We rule this country as provided for in the federal constitution . Any one who touches upon Malay affairs or criticizes Malays is [ offending ] our sensitivities . "
Although its proponents claimed that ketuanan Melayu was directly derived from Article 153 of the Constitution , the Reid Commission which drafted the framework for the Constitution had stated that the provisions for Malay privileges were to be temporary in nature , and eventually abolished , citing the only reason for their existence as tradition and economic necessity as a form of affirmative action for the Malays . Despite this , those who challenge ketuanan Melayu or " Malay rights " were still often berated , especially by politicians from UMNO . Many UMNO politicians continued referring to non @-@ Malays as " orang pendatang " or " pendatang asing " ( foreign immigrants ) .
= = = Meritocracy = = =
Before leaving office , Mahathir had condemned Malays who relied on their privileges . Abdullah continued this , warning Malays to learn to live without crutches or end up in wheelchairs . His administration began the practice of meritocracy , which Mahathir had tentatively proposed , and university admissions quotas were eliminated . However , some charged that this did not eliminate discrimination in education . The pre @-@ university stream was divided into two ; one course prepared students for the Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia ( STPM ) standardised examination , lasting two years , while the other comprised various matriculation courses graded by individual lecturers , typically lasting a year .
Critics dismissed meritocracy as a sham , arguing that it was unfair to consider the two streams equivalent for admissions purposes . Though ostensibly open to non @-@ Bumiputra , critics alleged that most who took matriculation were Malays .
Previously , the constitutionality of Malay- or Bumiputra @-@ only matriculation courses had been questioned , as the amended Article 153 prohibited refusal of admission to students on grounds of race alone . As a result , matriculation courses were opened to non @-@ Bumiputra . However , some in UMNO considered meritocracy too harsh on rural Malay students , disadvantaging them compared to their urban counterparts , and called for the restoration of quotas to avoid an " uneven playing field " .
At the 2004 UMNO General Assembly , Deputy Permanent Chairman Badruddin Amiruldin waved a book on 13 May Incident , warning : " Fifty @-@ eight years ago we had an agreement with the other races , in which we permitted them to menumpang [ reside temporarily ] on this land . ... Let no one from the other races ever question the rights of Malays on this land . Don 't question the religion , because this is my right on this land . " Then Higher Education Minister Shafie Salleh also declared at the assembly that non @-@ Bumiputras would never be permitted to enter the Universiti Teknologi MARA ( UiTM ) , which is Bumiputra @-@ only : " I will not compromise on this matter . "
Then at the following year 's General Assembly , Education Minister and UMNO Youth head Hishammuddin Hussein — the son of Tun Hussein Onn — brandished the keris while calling for the restoration of the NEP as part of the National Development Policy ( NDP ) that Mahathir had initiated . According to Hishammuddin , the keris symbolised the role of UMNO Youth in championing the Malay race . Meanwhile , his deputy , Khairy Jamaluddin — Abdullah Badawi 's son @-@ in @-@ law — discussed the revival of the NEP in the form of a separate entity titled as the New National Agenda ( NNA ) . Hishammuddin would later describe the keris as a " unifying symbol " , stating that " The young people today no longer see it as a symbol to uphold ketuanan Melayu . "
= = = " Racial politics " = = =
Chinese politicians within the government raised issues with the Constitution in late 2005 . Lim Keng Yaik of Gerakan asked for a re @-@ examination of the social contract to ascertain whether Bangsa Malaysia could be achieved . Lim was severely criticised by many prominent Malay politicians , including Khairy Jamaluddin and Ahmad Shabery Cheek . The Malay press , mostly owned by UMNO , also ran articles condemning the questioning of the social contract . Lim responded : " How do you expect non @-@ Malays to pour their hearts and souls into the country , and to one day die for it if you keep harping on this ? Flag @-@ waving and singing the ' Negaraku ' ( national anthem ) are rituals , while true love for the nation lies in the heart . "
A year earlier , Abdullah had mentioned the most " significant aspect " of the social contract as " the agreement by the indigenous peoples to grant citizenship to the immigrant Chinese and Indians " . Although Abdullah went on to state that the character of the nation changed to " one that Chinese and Indian citizens could also call their own , " the speech went largely unremarked . Finally , Lim stated that the Malay press had blown his comments out of proportion and misquoted him . The issue ended with UMNO Youth chief Hishammuddin Hussein warning people not to " bring up the issue again as it has been agreed upon , appreciated , understood and endorsed by the Constitution . "
In January 2006 , the government announced a Rukunegara awareness campaign . The government press agency , BERNAMA , quoted the Tunku as saying in 1986 that " The Malays are not only the natives but also the lords of this country and nobody can dispute this fact " . The articles of the Constitution touching on the official religion of Islam , the monarchy , the status of Malay as the national language , and Malay special rights were described as " clearly spell [ ing ] out the acknowledgment and recognition that the Malays are the indigenous ' pribumi ' [ natives ] of this land . " It was then stated that the new emphasis on the Rukunegara was to prevent further questioning of the social contract , which " decides on the political polarity and socio @-@ economic standing of Malaysians " .
Later , a survey of Malaysians found that 55 % of respondents agreed politicians should be " blamed for segregating the people by playing racial politics " . Mukhriz Mahathir — Mahathir 's son and an UMNO Youth leader — defended UMNO 's actions because of economic disparities , insisting that " As long as that remains , there will always be people to champion each race to equalise things . " Shahrir Abdul Samad , the chairman of the BN Backbenchers ' Club , argued that politicians were simply responding to " a country ... divided into different races , " asking , " if you talk about Malay issues to the Malay community , is that playing racial politics ? " M. Kayveas , the President of the PPP , disagreed : " Every 12 months , the parties go back to one race championing their own causes and , at the end of the day , when the general election comes , we talk about ' Bangsa Malaysia ' . "
Reflecting the mutual climate of distrust and racialist policies in both Singapore and Malaysia ( in Singapore , the policies allegedly being pro @-@ Chinese ) , Lee Kuan Yew sparked another debate in September on the role of Malay primacy in Malaysian politics , stating that the Chinese had been " systematically marginalised " in both Malaysia and Indonesia . The resulting diplomatic incident , with ensuing denials of marginalisation from Malaysian government politicians , led to Lee issuing an apology for his remarks which also attempted to justify them . Abdullah indicated he was not satisfied with what he referred to as a " qualified apology " , but the Malaysian government accepted it nevertheless .
The following month , a controversy arose after the Asian Strategic and Leadership Institute ( ASLI ) issued a report calculating Bumiputra @-@ held equity at 45 % — a stark difference from the official figure of 18 @.@ 9 % , used by politicians to justify the retention or revival of the NEP . One local analyst suggested that " If Bumiputra equity is 45 per cent , then surely the next question is , why the need for Bumiputera rights ? It has implications for government policy and it ( removing indigenous rights ) is one thing UMNO will never accept at present . " The report 's methodology was criticised for using market value instead of par value for its calculations of equity , and limiting its scope to a thousand publicly listed companies . It also included government @-@ linked companies ( GLCs ) as Bumiputra @-@ owned companies . Some , however , criticised the government , alleging that par value did not accurately reflect the value of the enterprises studied , and claimed that a portion of GLC equity should be considered Bumiputra @-@ held . The report was later withdrawn , but the controversy continued after an independent media outlet cited a study following the government methodology that indicated Bumiputra equity had passed the 30 % mark in 1997 .
At the Johor UMNO convention that same month , Johor Menteri Besar ( Chief Minister ) , Abdul Ghani Othman , criticised the Bangsa Malaysia and " meritocracy " policies . Ghani described Bangsa Malaysia as a threat to the Malays and their Constitutional position , suggesting it could " threaten national stability " as well . Ghani insisted that the policy " be applied in the context ... with the Malays as the pivotal race " , and described meritocracy as a " form of discrimination and oppression " because rural Malay students could not compete with their urban counterparts . In the resulting controversy about his remarks , several federal ministers criticised Ghani , with one saying that Bangsa Malaysia " has nothing to do with one race given a pivotal role over others " , and another arguing that " It does not impinge on the rights of Bumiputeras or other communities . " Ghani stood by his comments , declaring that the proponents of Bangsa Malaysia were also advocating a " Malaysian Malaysia " , as Lee Kuan Yew had , even though " the government has rejected it from the start . " Najib , the Deputy Prime Minister , suggested that any effort to define Bangsa Malaysia politically would be fruitless , and as such the debate was unnecessary ; he also insisted that " It does not question the special rights of the Malays , our quota or anything of that sort . " The UMNO Annual General Assembly that year was the first to be televised in full ; it became a subject of controversy when delegates such as Hashim Suboh made speeches utilising heavy racial rhetoric ; Hishammuddin , who had brandished the kris again , was asked by Hashim when he would " use it " . After the assembly , Hishammuddin insisted that the kris was not a symbol of Malay supremacy .
In October 2007 , Lee provoked more debate after suggesting that " If they ( Malaysia ) would just educate the Chinese and Indians , use them and treat them as their citizens , they can equal us ( Singapore ) and even do better than us and we would be happy to rejoin them . " UMNO Information Chief Muhammad Muhammad Taib responded , telling the press that Malaysia implemented policies to assist economically disadvantaged Malays , instead of neglecting them as Singapore did , stating also that at one point the Malays would have to compete on a level playing field with other Malaysians .
= = = Political watershed = = =
In the 2008 general election , BN was returned to power for the first time without its customary 2 / 3 supermajority in the Dewan Rakyat , meaning it could no longer pass constitutional amendments without the support of opposition parties . The election results were widely seen as reflecting discontent about the state of the country 's economy and increasing ethnic tensions within the country ; the three main opposition parties had campaigned on a platform condemning the NEP and the government 's response to widening economic disparities . The month after , the Crown Prince of Kelantan Tengku Faris Petra said during an assembly organised by the newly formed Malay Unity Action Front that since the Malays had given in to granting the non @-@ Malays citizenship , the latter should not seek equality or special treatment . In his speech , the prince also called for Malay unity to ensure that Malay sovereignty and supremacy was preserved .
Anwar Ibrahim , former UMNO deputy President and former Deputy Prime Minister , whose Parti Keadilan Rakyat became the second @-@ largest party in Parliament after the elections , and the de facto leader of the opposition Pakatan Rakyat coalition , chose to instead reject ketuanan Melayu in favour of " ketuanan rakyat " ( people 's supremacy ) . Celebrating the end of his five @-@ year ban from political activity on 15 April 2008 , he told reporters : " We are here to counter the massive propaganda campaign by Umno leaders , who are talking on Malay supremacy . And giving clear definitive answer in reply of this , to say that what we want , what we desire for is a new Malaysia , is supremacy for all Malaysians . " A week later , his wife Wan Aziz
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early 1946 and subsequently broken up .
= = Design and description = =
The C @-@ class cruisers were intended to escort the fleet and defend it against enemy destroyers attempting to close within torpedo range . The Ceres sub @-@ class was a slightly larger and improved version of the preceding Caledon sub @-@ class . The ships were 450 feet 3 inches ( 137 @.@ 2 m ) long overall , with a beam of 43 feet 5 inches ( 13 @.@ 2 m ) and a mean draught of 14 feet 8 inches ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) . Displacement was 4 @,@ 190 long tons ( 4 @,@ 260 t ) at normal and 5 @,@ 020 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) at deep load . Cardiff was powered by two geared Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , which produced a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) . The turbines used steam generated by six Yarrow boilers which gave her a speed of about 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . She carried 935 long tons ( 950 t ) tons of fuel oil . The ship had a crew of about 460 officers and other ranks .
The main armament of the Ceres @-@ class ships consisted of five BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk XII guns that were mounted on the centreline . While identical in number to the Caledons , the layout was considerably improved by moving the gun formerly between the bridge and fore funnel to a superfiring position over the forward gun with wider firing arc than in its old position , one was aft of the rear funnel , and the last two were in the stern , with one gun superfiring over the rearmost gun . The two QF 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 20 @-@ cwt anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were positioned abreast the fore funnel . The torpedo armament of the Ceres 's was identical to that of the Caledons , with eight 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes in four twin mounts , two on each broadside . The Ceres class was protected by a waterline belt : 1 @.@ 5 – 3 in ( 38 – 76 mm ) thick and had a protective deck that was 1 in ( 25 mm ) thick over the steering gear . The walls of the conning tower had a thickness of 3 inches .
= = Construction and career = =
Cardiff , the second ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was ordered in March – April 1916 as part of the Repeat War Programme . The ship was laid down by Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company at their Govan shipyard on 22 July 1916 . She was launched on 12 April 1917 and completed on 25 June 1917 . She became flagship of the 6th Light Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet the following month . Cardiff participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight on 17 November 1917 . This was a successful attempt by the British to intercept German minesweeping forces that were clearing British minefields in the North Sea . The 6th LCS screened the two light Courageous @-@ class battlecruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron during the battle together with the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron . The British lost the German minesweepers in the smoke screen laid by the four German light cruisers and pursued the latter ships for most of the battle , although they inflicted little damage in the poor visibility caused by the German smoke . Cardiff fired the most of any ship in her squadron , but did not hit any German ships . She was , however , hit four or five times herself , killing seven crewmen and wounding thirteen , but was only lightly damaged . Based at Scapa Flow and Rosyth during 1918 , the ship spent the remainder of the war escorting convoys and training in the northern portion of the North Sea . By 21 November 1918 the war was over , and Cardiff had the honour of leading the German High Seas Fleet to the Firth of Forth to be interned .
A few days later , the 6th LCS , under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Edwyn Alexander @-@ Sinclair , was ordered to the Baltic Sea to support the Baltic States as they attempted to secure their independence from Russia . Together with her half @-@ sister Caradoc and five destroyers , the ship bombarded Bolshevik positions east of Reval ( Tallinn ) , Estonia , on 14 December and brought the Russian offensive to a halt after they destroyed the one bridge connecting them with Petrograd ( Saint Petersburg ) , Russia . The next day , her starboard AA gun was dismounted and given to the Estonians . The 6th LCS was recalled in early January 1919 and arrived back in Rosyth on 10 January .
Cardiff arrived at Portsmouth on 11 January to begin a refit that lasted until 27 February . Her conning tower may have been removed at this time and the bridge enlarged . On 10 March , she sailed for Malta to join her squadron , which had been renumbered as the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron ( 3rd LCS ) and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet while the ship was refitting , where she arrived on six days later . The squadron was assigned peacekeeping duties in the Adriatic for most of 1919 and Cardiff spent the time visiting various Adriatic ports or in Malta . She became the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral George Hope on 1 September .
By 30 January 1920 , the ship was in Constantinople and Cardiff arrived at Odessa on 4 February and Admiral Hope concurred in the decision to evacuate the city in the face of the advancing Bolsheviks . The ship departed the city the next day , but returned on 11 February and Hope assumed command of all British forces in the city . By late March , the ship was stationed in the Crimea until the Whites were forced to evacuate in November . On 6 November , Cardiff picked up Charles I of Austria , the last Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary , and his wife , Zita at Sulina , Romania , and conveyed them to their exile in the Portuguese island of Madeira , where they arrived on 19 November . The ship was present during the Great Fire of Smyrna almost a year later in mid @-@ September 1922 , close to the end of the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1919 – 22 . She remained in the Mediterranean until 1929 when she went home for a lengthy refit . During Cardiff 's time in the Mediterranean , she was fitted with a pair of 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) Mk II " pom @-@ pom " AA guns in 1923 – 24 and her original 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders was exchanged for 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) models during the mid @-@ 1920s . From 1931 to May 1933 , she was assigned to the Africa Station as the flagship of the 6th Cruiser Squadron . The ship returned home that month and replaced her half @-@ sister Cambrian as flagship of the Nore Reserve in July . The following year , she was transferred to the Chatham Reserve as their flagship and participated in the Silver Jubilee Fleet review for King George V on 16 July 1935 . Cardiff was also present for the Coronation Fleet Review for King George VI on 20 May 1937 . The ship was considered for conversion into an anti @-@ aircraft cruiser in June 1938 , but programme delays caused the conversion to be pushed back . A month later , Cardiff was recommissioned for service with the 5th Cruiser Squadron on the China Station . The ship departed Hong Kong on 29 April 1939 for the UK where she was again placed in reserve .
= = = Second World War = = =
On the first day of the war on 3 September 1939 , Cardiff was assigned to the 12th Cruiser Squadron which was fruitlessly searching for returning German merchant ships in the North and Norwegian Seas . Several days later , she was assigned to patrol the gaps between the Shetland and Faeroe Islands and between the Faeroes and Iceland as part of the Northern Patrol . In late November , she fruitlessly searched for the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst after they sank the armed merchant cruiser , Rawalpindi , on the 23rd . On 12 June , Cardiff was tasked to suppress the German artillery batteries overlooking Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux to prevent them from firing on British ships as they evacuated the troops there , but they were no longer visible from the sea when the ship arrived . The cruiser received six wounded men from the coaster Cameo and returned to Portsmouth . Cardiff was converted for use as a gunnery training ship in October and served in that capacity for the rest of the war . The ship was fitted with six 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon light AA guns and a Type 290 surface @-@ search radar by April 1942 . By late 1943 a Type 273 long @-@ range search radar had also been fitted . Cardiff was paid off on 3 September 1945 and sold for scrap to Arnott Young on 23 January 1946 . The ship was broken up in Dalmuir , Scotland , after she arrived there on 18 March .
= Stargate : Continuum =
Stargate : Continuum is a 2008 Canadian @-@ American military science fiction direct @-@ to @-@ video film in the Stargate franchise . It is the second sequel to television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 following The Ark of Truth . It is directed by Martin Wood , director and producer of many episodes of Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Atlantis , written by SG @-@ 1 and Atlantis creator Brad Wright , and produced by Wright and Ark of Truth director Robert C. Cooper .
The film is a time @-@ travel adventure in which Ba 'al travels back to 1939 to create an alternate timeline in which Earth never establishes their Stargate program , and to take control of the Goa 'uld Empire . The only people to remember the truth , the SG @-@ 1 team attempts to reinstate the original timeline . The film stars the main cast of the show 's last season , with the return of Richard Dean Anderson as Jack O 'Neill .
Continuum has garnered generally positive reviews from critics , earning both praise and criticism for its atmosphere , story , characters and graphic content . The production budget was $ 7 million and the film grossed over $ 8 million USD , less than the previous film that grossed over $ 13 million . The film was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc in the US on July 29 , 2008 and elsewhere in August 2008 , followed by a TV premiere on Sci @-@ Fi channel on April 3 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
SG @-@ 1 and Jack O 'Neill attend a Tok 'ra extraction ceremony for Ba 'al , the last of the Goa 'uld System Lords . Ba 'al claims , however , that he is merely the last clone and that the real Ba 'al has a fail @-@ safe plan . The real Ba 'al travels back in time to 1939 Earth and massacres the crew of the Achilles , the ship carrying the Stargate to the United States ; the captain lives long enough to drop the bomb Ba 'al left overboard and keep the ship from being destroyed . In the present , people and objects start disappearing , including Vala Mal Doran and Teal 'c . Jack is killed by the clone , but Samantha Carter , Daniel Jackson and Cameron Mitchell reach the Stargate . They are surprised to emerge inside the derelict Achilles , which has drifted to the Arctic — Ba 'al 's actions have created a timeline in which the Stargate Program never happened . After escaping from the sinking Achilles , they are rescued by a team led by Colonel Jack O 'Neill . Although General Landry believes their story ( after intensive interrogation ) , they are denied permission to change the timeline . In the alternate timeline , Daniel is still trying to convince people about his theories of the pyramids , Carter died in a space shuttle accident and Mitchell does not exist at all because his grandfather was the Achilles captain . The three are separated and given new lives to lead .
A year passes , and SG @-@ 1 is called back into action when Goa 'uld scoutships appear . Ba 'al has brought the other System Lords under his control and now stands ready to conquer Earth , with Qetesh , still residing in Vala 's body , as his queen and Teal 'c as his First Prime . SG @-@ 1 is brought to President Henry Hayes and General George Hammond , who inform them that , based on SG @-@ 1 's accounts , they have recovered the Antarctic Stargate and are excavating the Antarctic Ancient outpost to reach the weapon that saved Earth in the original timeline . SG @-@ 1 is sent in F @-@ 15s to McMurdo Station to gate to Proclarush Taonas , another Ancient outpost , to retrieve a Zero Point Module to power the Antarctic outpost .
Above Earth , Ba 'al 's armada arrives . To the displeasure of his subordinates , the other System Lords , Ba 'al announces that he will treat the Tau 'ri leniently . Suspicious about Ba 'al 's thorough knowledge of Earth , Qetesh betrays him and forces him to tell her everything . She orders the destruction of McMurdo and the Ancient outpost in Ba 'al 's name , but she kills Ba 'al when Teal 'c discovers what she is doing . As Teal 'c escapes to an Al 'kesh , Qetesh orders the fleet to bombard Earth , while she goes to secure Ba 'al 's time machine .
Amidst the massive Goa 'uld attack , SG @-@ 1 is rerouted to Russia , as the Russians had retrieved the Achilles ' Stargate from the ocean floor . Teal 'c arrives at the facility as well , seeking to use the Stargate to reach the time machine before Qetesh . The two sides agree to a truce and arrive together at Ba 'al 's time machine : a vast underground supercomputer connected to hundreds of satellites that monitor solar flares that could intersect the wormhole formed by the Stargate ; the flares are necessary for time travel . SG @-@ 1 must wait for the right flare with which to journey to the past , but when Qetesh 's troops attack , they are forced to dial the Stargate to the year 1929 - ten years before their target date . Sam and Daniel are killed in the firefight , and only Mitchell reaches the Stargate before Teal 'c , mortally wounded , blows himself and Qetesh up . After a decade of waiting , an older Mitchell stows away on the Achilles and kills Ba 'al and his troops when they come through the Stargate . In the now @-@ restored timeline , SG @-@ 1 , completely unaware of the previous events , watch the extraction proceed without incident . On Earth , Daniel wonders what Ba 'al meant by his fail @-@ safe .
= = Cast = =
Ben Browder as Colonel Cameron " Cam " Mitchell and Mitchell 's grandfather , the captain of the Achilles
Amanda Tapping as Colonel Samantha " Sam " Carter
Christopher Judge as Teal 'c
Michael Shanks as Dr. Daniel Jackson
Claudia Black as Vala Mal Doran and Qetesh
Beau Bridges as Major General Henry " Hank " Landry
Richard Dean Anderson as Major General ( & Colonel ) Jonathan " Jack " O 'Neill
Cliff Simon as Ba 'al
Don S. Davis as Lieutenant General George Hammond
William Devane as President Henry Hayes
= = Production = =
Stargate : Continuum was written by Brad Wright and directed by Martin Wood . Some scenes for this film were already shot at the end of March 2007 , but the original start date was set for May 22 , 2007 at Vancouver 's Bridge Studios . The production budget was US $ 7 million . Due to the postponement of this film until the 5th season of Stargate Atlantis was airing , there is a continuity error with Carter and Mitchell 's rank . In the ending credits they are listed as lieutenant colonels . However , when they fly the F @-@ 15s they are each wearing the rank of colonel . This is due to the fact that during filming producers realized that the film would probably be released after Carter character had been promoted on Atlantis . In the season 5 premiere of that show , Sam , already a colonel , leaves Atlantis to attend the extraction , thus setting this film about a year after The Ark of Truth .
The original draft for the film started with a view of the Tok 'ra city , but Brad Wright eventually decided that the film should start in Stargate Command ( SGC ) to show what SG @-@ 1 represented . When writing lines for the character Jack O 'Neill , Wright tried to write lines that felt " natural " and not " forced , " saying it was of major importance . The inclusion of many recurring characters from the series Stargate SG @-@ 1 was decided on to make old fans feel more " welcome " to the new film . The unnamed Captain of the Achilles ' dead body was originally supposed to be revealed when SG @-@ 1 traveled back to Earth ; Wright commented on the case , calling it " gross " . Richard Dean Anderson was not supposed to appear at the start of the film , where he was killed . According to Wright , he was only set to appear in the alternate timeline in Antarctica because that 's what Wright " asked him to do . "
Due to a scheduling conflict , actor Michael Shanks was unavailable to shoot the scenes in the Arctic . However , Jackson was on the boat with Cameron Mitchell and Samantha Carter in the preceding scenes . In order to make his disappearance plausible , Wright decided that Jackson would develop frostbite after stepping in water and be unable to continue with the others . When commenting on the dialogue scenes , Wright commented that scenes like that would be " cut off " because of the time constraints in the Stargate SG @-@ 1 and Atlantis episodes , and further commented that they could keep these scenes since the film is " longer " than the episodes .
The film includes scenes filmed at the U.S. Navy 's Applied Physics Laboratory Ice Station in the Arctic , 200 nautical miles ( 230 mi ; 370 km ) north of Prudhoe Bay , Alaska . These scenes feature Richard Dean Anderson , Amanda Tapping and Ben Browder . They were filmed from March 23 to 29 , 2007 . The film also features the USS Alexandria ( SSN @-@ 757 ) . The Arctic filming included scenes shot on the ice , scenes shot with the Alexandria as a backdrop , scenes shot on board the Alexandria , and shots of the Alexandria surfacing and submerging . Because of the minimal facilities , the Arctic scenes were filmed with only the three actors and a four @-@ man crew . Director Martin Wood worked as an extra in one scene ( as " Major Wood " ) , as did another member of the film crew . The captain of the Alexandria , Cmdr. Mike Bernacchi , and members of her crew played themselves . Barry L. Campbell , head of operations at the San Diego @-@ based U.S. Navy Arctic Submarine Laboratory , who had arranged the opportunity to film in Arctic , also appeared as a seaman . Writer Brad Wright also had a cameo appearance , as an F @-@ 15 pilot .
The film is dedicated to the memory of Paul McCann and Anthony Huntrod , who lost their lives during an accident under the ice cap on the submarine HMS Tireless ( S88 ) at the time of filming . The film took 19 days to shoot , plus five days of shooting in the Arctic ( they were there for seven days ) . The film , Continuum was placed in Guinness World Records in the category for farthest north film shoot .
= = Release and reception = =
The film premiered at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 25 , 2008 , attended by the cast . The film was released on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on July 29 , 2008 . The film was also released on August 6 , 2008 in Australia and was released in the United Kingdom on August 18 , 2008 after being broadcast on the British TV channel , Sky1 on August 12 . On its debut in the United Kingdom and Ireland Stargate : Continuum received 543 @,@ 000 viewers , placing the film first in the top ten broadcasts for Sky One . The film would go on to gross over US $ 8 million in the United States . The film premiered on Sci @-@ Fi Channel in the US on April 3 , 2009 .
A reviewer for Sky1 called the film a " thoroughly enjoyable romp . " Nix from Sci Fi Cool said in his review , " it ends exactly the same way that most , if not all , SG1 episodes usually end : It leaves you satisfied , and wanting more . " Reviewer Christopher Monfette of IGN gave the film 7 out of 10 and said it was a decent film , but ultimately did not meet the " level of great science fiction " . Don Houston from DVD Talk commented that the " budget was too low " for the writers to " support the ideas at hand " . Mark Wilson from About.com said the film was just another way for the producers to return to some of their favorite characters , but concluded that it was a " solid " film . Darren Sumner and David Read from GateWorld called it a " great movie " , and said it was even better than Stargate : The Ark of Truth . Dean Winkelspecht said it was " one of the better direct @-@ to @-@ video " releases that year .
Stargate : Continuum won the High @-@ Def Disc Awards 2008 category for Best Nontheatrical Blu @-@ ray . The film was nominated for 6 Constellation Awards in 2008 , the results were announced on July 11 , 2009 . The film won one award out of six nominations . Claudia Black received the award for " Best Female Performance in a 2008 Science Fiction Film , TV Movie , or Mini @-@ Series " for her portrayal of Vala Mal Doran . The film was also nominated for a total of 11 Leo Awards in 2009 . The results were announced on May 8 and 9 , 2009 , the film won three awards : Brad Wright won in the category " Best Screenwriting in a Feature Length Drama " , Michael Shanks won " Lead Performance by a Male in a Feature Length Drama " for his portrayal of Daniel Jackson and the three production crew members Paul Sharpe , Iain Pattison and Graeme Hughes won " Best Overall Sound in a Feature Length Drama " .
The two Stargate direct @-@ to @-@ DVD movies to date , Stargate : Continuum and Stargate : The Ark of Truth , were re @-@ released in the United States as a Double @-@ Pack DVD on March 3 , 2009 ; the Double @-@ Pack is also available on Blu @-@ ray . A third Stargate SG @-@ 1 film to follow Continuum has been permanently shelved . If made , it would have reportedly centered on the character of Jack O 'Neill and would be titled Stargate : Revolution .
= = Awards = =
In 2009 , Stargate : Continuum was nominated for 11 Leo awards and won three of them .
= Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company =
The Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company ( 1852 – 1952 ) , also known as TCI and the Tennessee Company , was a major American steel manufacturer with interests in coal and iron ore mining and railroad operations . Originally based entirely within Tennessee , it relocated most of its business to Alabama in the late nineteenth century . With a sizable real estate portfolio , the company owned several Birmingham satellite towns , including Ensley , Fairfield , Docena , Edgewater and Bayview .
At one time the second largest steel producer in the USA , TCI was listed on the first Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1896 . However , in 1907 , the company was merged with its principal rival , the United States Steel Corporation . The Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company was subsequently operated as a subsidiary of U. S. Steel for 45 years until it became a division of its parent company in 1952 .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company was founded as the Sewanee Furnace Company , a small mining concern established in 1852 by Nashville entrepreneurs seeking to exploit Tennessee 's rich coal reserves and the 19th century railroad boom . After losing money , the business was sold to New York investors in 1859 and reorganized as the Tennessee Coal and Rail Company , but the outbreak of the Civil War the following year saw the fleeting company repossessed by local creditors . It became Tennessee 's leading coal extractor over the next decade , mining and transporting coal around the towns of Cowan and Tracy City in the Cumberland Mountains , and soon branched out into coke manufacture . This practice of both extracting and moving coal to market by building private rail tracks was not unusual at the time , as by owning the tracks that served their mines , businesses could undercut rivals at market by saving money on transportation . A Thomas O 'Connor purchased the company in 1876 and expanded the business into iron manufacture in order to stimulate coke sales , building a blast furnace near Cowan . The business was subsequently renamed the Tennessee Coal , Iron , and Railroad Company . TCI never again changed its name , despite a later expansion into Alabama following the 1886 purchase of the Birmingham @-@ based Pratt Coal and Iron Company . Such was the industrial importance of Alabama to TCI that in 1895 , the company relocated its offices to Birmingham , relegating its native state to relative unimportance .
Canny investments and the purchase of major competitors in 1888 and 1892 under the direction of financier Hiram Bond , TCI Corporate General Superintendent , saw the firm grow rapidly . The corporation was for several decades one of the few major heavy industries based in the largely agricultural Southern United States , by a wide margin the largest blast furnace operator in the South and at one time the second largest steel producer on the continent . Its 1900 asset sheet listed 17 blast furnaces , 3256 beehive coke ovens , 120 Solvay coke ovens , 15 red ore mines , as well an extensive network of railroads , although following the panic of 1893 the company shifted its primary interests from railroads to steel . TCI 's largest industrial plant was located in Ensley , a company town founded in 1886 on the outskirts of Birmingham , Alabama , by company president Enoch Ensley . Ensley ( map of ) was served by the sizable Birmingham Southern Railroad , one of TCI 's early acquisitions , and from 1899 contained four 200 @-@ ton blast furnaces . In 1906 two more furnaces were constructed , and 40 @,@ 000 tonnes of steel were produced that year , feeding Ensley 's integrated rail , wire and plate mills . The company was fiercely competitive with the larger Pittsburgh steel businesses to the north , owing to the remarkable fact that all the natural resources required to produce steel were located in abundance within a relatively small radius of the Birmingham mills .
= = = From forced labor to paternalism = = =
The Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company was one of the largest users of prison laborers , mostly Blacks convicted of petty crimes , as a method for paying fines . This practice was common for obtaining coal mining labor in Alabama at the close of the Reconstruction era . The number of convicts employed increased after U.S. Steel acquired TCI in 1907 , as did the brutality of the conditions in which they labored . In 1908 , the first full year of U. S. Steel 's ownership of TCI , almost 60 prison workers died from workplace @-@ related accidents .
In the 1910s , TCI undertook a comprehensive program to stabilize its labor force , excluding prison laborers , by developing rigorously @-@ planned " model villages " , thereby improving worker health , welfare and loyalty . This paternalistic approach carried with it obvious benefits for workers and their families , but also drew criticism for limiting the free movement and organization of labor .
= = = Listing on the Dow Jones Index and merger with U. S. Steel = = =
The Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company 's status was bolstered when it became one of the first 12 companies to be listed on the inaugural Dow Jones Industrial Average , compiled in May 1896 . However , it was not long before TCI was eclipsed by its principal competitor , the United States Steel Corporation , a huge conglomerate formed in 1901 out of the enormous Carnegie and Federal steel empires . By the time of the Panic of 1907 , U. S. Steel felt confident enough to launch a takeover bid of its Southern rival . On the morning of Saturday November 2 , banker and tycoon J. P. Morgan , one of the founders of U. S. Steel , convened a meeting in his library and there suggested that U. S. Steel purchase the stock of an insolvent Wall Street brokerage firm , Moore and Schley , which had secured huge loans against 6 million TCI shares . This was not an entirely selfish gesture , as Morgan recognised that the failure of Moore and Schley would send investor confidence in the markets into a nose @-@ dive . E. H. Gary , president of U. S. Steel , agreed in principle to this transaction , yet argued that without careful political maneuvering the deal would be seen by Congress as an effort to create a monopoly and thereby encounter troublesome federal anti @-@ trust litigation . Morgan himself had been burnt by crusading Washington trust @-@ busters in 1902 when his Northern Securities Company had been forcibly broken up by the government in a landmark test case .
In response to his concerns , Morgan sent Gary on an urgent mission to Washington that Sunday so that the deal might be vetted by President Theodore Roosevelt himself before the stock exchange opened the next day . Convinced by Gary that U. S. Steel only wished to purchase Moore and Schley 's stock in order to inject liquidity into the firm and thereby shore up investor confidence in the wider economy , Roosevelt granted the transaction antitrust immunity in November 1907 , a decision for which he was later derided by critics as a hypocrite . Indeed , in 1911 the federal government sought to undo what it perceived to be Roosevelt 's mistake and ( without success ) sued U. S. Steel . In the meantime , Moore and Schley was saved from collapse , the panic soon subsided and U. S. Steel was rewarded with a valuable prize - a controlling stake in TCI . U. S. Steel immediately replaced the Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company on the Dow Jones Index , where it remained until 1991 .
= = = U. S. Steel = = =
TCI was not fully incorporated into U. S. Steel , and continued to operate as an extremely profitable subsidiary of its parent company well into the 20th century . Immediately following the merger , a venture was launched to create a new , larger TCI plant to the west of Ensley and at the center of a new company town , and so in 1910 work on the planned community of Corey , Alabama , began . Named after an executive who later committed suicide , Corey was soon renamed Fairfield , and the steel works there opened in 1917 . With the discovery of new coking coal and ore deposits in the region , and with the aid of U. S. Steel 's enormous capital , the Fairfield works were quickly expanded with the construction of new steel mills and rail links . Several rolling mills were completed in 1917 , which produced ship materials for the nearby shipbuilding plants in Chickasaw , Alabama , in support of America 's sudden entry into World War I. In 1920 a direct rail line between Fairfield and Birmingport , the new port of Birmingham on the Warrior River was opened . This was followed by the completion of the ' High Ore Line Railroad ' , which connected the Red Mountain and the Fairfield works ; trains literally rolled down the hill from mine to mill . In 1923 a merchant steel mill was completed , followed by the opening of a sheet products mill in 1926 .
TCI proved to be so efficient at making cheap steel that a post @-@ merger internal tariff ( the ' Pittsburgh Tariff ' ) was levied by U. S. Steel from 1909 on all steel coming out of the Birmingham region . This was an effort to negate the competitive edge of Birmingham steel over U.S. Steel 's own Pittsburgh product .
TCI 's independence as a separate legal entity from its parent corporation ended in 1952 , a century after the founding of the Sewanee Furnace Company , when the it became the Tennessee Coal & Iron Division of U. S. Steel . The memory of the historic importance of TCI was not lost when a short book to celebrate the Tennessee Company 's centenary was published by U. S. Steel in 1960 : Biography of a Business . Stagnation and decline began in 1962 when a majority of the mines in the Birmingham region were closed as domestic ores and coal were superseded by cheaper foreign products , especially from Venezuela . The 1970s and 80s brought about a downsizing and eventual consolidation of the Fairfield and Ensley works , mirroring the general decline of heavy industry in the USA throughout those decades .
= = Current operations = =
The last relic of the Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company , the Fairfield Plant , continues to be operated by U. S. Steel as one of its five integrated steel mills in the USA . It is the largest steel @-@ making plant in Alabama , employing 2 @,@ 000 workers as of September 2006 , down from a peak of 45 @,@ 000 during World War II . With a single blast furnace and three basic oxygen process furnaces , amongst other various mills and production facilities , the plant produces 2 @.@ 4 million tons of raw steel per annum and 640 @,@ 000 tons of seamless tubular and sheet products , mainly for purchase by the booming oil industry .
August 17 , 2015 , U. S. Steel President and CEO Mario Longhi announced , " We have determined that the permanent shut @-@ down of the Fairfield Works blast furnace , steelmaking and most of the finishing operations is necessary . " The decision does not impact Fairfield Tubular Operations or the electric arc furnace ( EAF ) construction project . 1 @,@ 600 workers will be laid off by November 17 , 2015 .
= A Fish Called Selma =
" A Fish Called Selma " is the nineteenth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 24 , 1996 . The episode features Troy McClure , who attempts to resurrect his acting career by marrying Selma Bouvier . Show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were fans of Phil Hartman and wished to produce an episode that focused on his character McClure . Freelance writer Jack Barth wrote the episode , and Mark Kirkland directed it .
Barth 's script underwent a substantial rewrite in the show 's writing room , including the expansion of the Planet of the Apes musical and addition of the song " Dr. Zaius " . The episode ran too long because of the slow pace of Troy and Selma 's speech . Consequently , guest star Jeff Goldblum rerecorded his dialogue as MacArthur Parker at a faster speed . The episode received generally positive reviews , with particular praise given to Hartman and the musical . Entertainment Weekly placed the episode eighth on their list of the top 25 The Simpsons episodes .
= = Plot = =
Chief Wiggum pulls Troy McClure over for dangerous driving . Not wishing to be required to wear his glasses while driving , Troy goes to the DMV to get his license changed to remove the requirement . He offers to take DMV employee Selma Bouvier to dinner if she lets him pass the eye test , to which she agrees . After dinner , photographers notice Troy leaving with a human woman ( rumors about a sexual abnormality concerning fish had essentially destroyed Troy 's career ) and the story hits the news . The next day , Troy 's agent , MacArthur Parker , calls and says that he can get work again if he continues seeing Selma . Troy continues to date her and his career begins to recover . On his agent 's advice , Troy asks Selma to marry him ; overjoyed , she agrees .
The night before the wedding , a drunk Troy tells Homer the reason for his marriage : he doesn 't really love Selma , and he just plans to use her as a sham wife to help further his career . Although Homer fails to act , Marge and Patty try to explain it to Selma , who accuses them of just being envious . She confronts Troy , who shamelessly admits that their marriage is a sham . Troy explains to Selma that even though their marriage is a sham , she has everything she could want and will be " the envy of every other sham wife in town " . Selma has doubts , but accepts the situation because she fears being alone . Parker thinks he can get Troy the part of McBain 's sidekick in McBain IV : Fatal Discharge , but concludes he will have a better chance if he has a family . Troy and Selma try to conceive a child , but neither feels comfortable with their situation , and Selma finally leaves after deciding that bringing a child into a loveless family is wrong . Troy turns down the role of McBain 's sidekick to direct and star in his own film , The Contrabulous Fabtraption of Professor Horatio Hufnagel .
= = Production = =
Show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were fans of actor Phil Hartman , who had been a recurring guest star since the second season . They decided to produce an episode entirely about his character Troy McClure to give Hartman as much to do as possible . Oakley wanted to explore Troy 's character because he had never interacted with the show 's other characters before , only appearing on television . The writers chose the plot idea of Troy 's marriage to Selma Bouvier because she was " always marrying people " . The episode 's first draft was written by freelance writer Jack Barth , although the rest of the writing staff rewrote it . One aspect of the rewrite was the song " Dr. Zaius " from the Planet of the Apes musical , which the staff consider to be one of the greatest musical numbers ever written for The Simpsons . Weinstein pitched it in the writer 's room as " Rock Me Dr. Zaius " , in parody of the 1985 song " Rock Me Amadeus " by Falco . It expanded into a full song primarily concocted by George Meyer , who included " corny " aspects of vaudeville . The line " From chimpan @-@ A to chimpan @-@ Z " in the final song of the musical was written by David Cohen . Oakley commented that he has heard the line " all over the world " . Director Mark Kirkland was pleased that Troy was the star of the episode ; he enjoyed interpreting Hartman 's voice performance because it allowed him and the other animators to " open [ McClure ] up visually as a character " . Due to the slow talking speed of Troy and Selma , the episode 's audio track was 28 minutes long which meant that multiple scenes had to be cut , including Troy 's bachelor party . After the cast had completed their original recording , guest star Jeff Goldblum rerecorded his dialogue as MacArthur Parker at a faster speed to further shorten it . His character 's design was loosely modeled on him , as well as a real @-@ life " sleazy Hollywood agent " . The animators watched several of Goldblum 's films , including The Tall Guy , in order to get a better representation of his performance .
Throughout " A Fish Called Selma " it is hinted that Troy engages in strange sexual activity . The writers initially did not know what the " unsavory " sexual preference would be , but eventually decided on a fish fetish , a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks , since it was " so perverted and strange , that it was over the top " . At the episode 's table reading , a female staff member demanded the line , " From now on she 's smoking for two " , be removed from the script ; however , her request was denied . On the walls of the Pimento Grove restaurant , the animators placed caricatures of every single guest star who had appeared on the show up to that point , as well as pictures of the fictional celebrities of the show .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is a reference to the film A Fish Called Wanda , while the opening scene features a parody of The Muppets . McClure appears in a musical version of Planet of the Apes ; the song " Dr. Zaius " is a parody of " Rock Me Amadeus " by Falco . The scene with Selma and Troy smoking is similar to Now , Voyager . The house that McClure lives in is based on the Chemosphere in California and his car is a DeLorean DMC @-@ 12 . The showbiz news anchors , voiced by Hank Azaria and Pamela Hayden , are based on Entertainment Tonight hosts John Tesh and Mary Hart , respectively . McClure describes Jub @-@ Jub the iguana as " Everywhere You Want to Be " in reference to a Visa commercial . Ken Keeler pitched the name MacArthur Parker , in reference to the song " MacArthur Park " , written by Jimmy Webb and first recorded by Richard Harris . Selma 's costumes are modeled on the clothes of Marilyn Monroe . At the wedding , Homer sings " Rock and Roll Part 2 " by Gary Glitter in his head .
The rumours of Troy McClure having a bizarre fetish for marine life mirror sex rumours about Richard Gere and a hamster .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " A Fish Called Selma " finished tied for 66th place in the weekly ratings for the week of March 18 – March 24 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 8 . It was the sixth @-@ highest rated show on the Fox Network that week . Entertainment Weekly placed the episode eighth on their list of the top 25 The Simpsons episodes . IGN named the episode the best of the seventh season , stating that it seemed the " obvious pick " . They called the musical the best moment of the episode and " maybe even the whole show " . In a later review , IGN 's Robert Canning praised Phil Hartman 's performance as " simply the best of any guest appearance on The Simpsons " . He concluded by saying : " Sure , [ the episode 's ] writing is smart and the jokes are funny , but without Phil Hartman as Troy McClure , ' A Fish Called Selma ' would only be good . With Hartman , it 's fantastic ! " Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the best in the show 's history . In 2012 , Johnny Dee of The Guardian listed it as one of his five favorite episodes in the history of The Simpsons , noting that " Key to The Simpsons longevity is the minor characters who only crop up every season or so . And none more so than Troy McClure " .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , were pleased that " Troy McClure gets a starring role at last " . Empire called the episode the " high point " of the show 's " long @-@ standing love affair with The Planet of the Apes " , and cited it as McClure 's " finest hour " . Kimberly Potts of AOL Television named the episode the 14th best episode of the show . Dave Foster of DVD Times praised the episode , as well as Jeff Goldblum 's participation on the audio commentary . He stated : " for those yet to witness Troy McClure 's musical take on Planet of the Apes , well , you might say you haven 't lived ! Musical parody at its very best , the visuals and aural delights in this one brief sequence guarantee this season a recommendation being one of the most inspired moments of The Simpsons many seasons . "
= Spark the Fire =
" Spark the Fire " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani . The song was released on December 1 , 2014 . It was originally intended to be featured on Stefani 's third studio album This Is What the Truth Feels Like , but it was scrapped in favor of new material . Stefani wrote " Spark the Fire " in collaboration with the song 's producer Pharrell Williams . It is a dance @-@ pop and hip hop track that incorporates funk . Along with the previous single , " Baby Don 't Lie " , the track was marketed as Stefani 's musical comeback as a solo artist .
Critical responses to " Spark the Fire " were mixed with critics negatively comparing it to Stefani and Williams ' previous collaboration " Hollaback Girl " , while others favored it compared to " Baby Don 't Lie " . Lyrically , the song serves as a " comeback " , discussing topics such as partying , having a good time , and feminism . " Spark the Fire " charted on Russia 's music chart at number 326 , failing to impact any other country 's main chart , managing only to peak on the lower ends of the US Dance Club and Pop Digital Songs charts . Stefani performed the song live during various public appearances , including The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon where she performed it alongside a medley mix of her previous singles .
= = Background = =
After releasing two solo albums , Love . Angel . Music . Baby ( 2004 ) and The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) , Stefani returned to work with her band No Doubt , and in 2012 they released their sixth studio album , Push and Shove . During that time , she claimed , " I never need to do that or want to do it again . I 'm happy being in No Doubt . " However , after an appearance during Pharrell Williams ' performance at the 2014 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , Pharrell teased that the rare live appearance from Stefani was the start of a comeback effort for the singer . Shortly after her Coachella performance , Stefani performed " Hollaback Girl " live on The Voice to further promote her upcoming role on the show .
During an interview for MTV News during New York Fashion Week , Stefani confirmed that she was working on new material for a solo album and a No Doubt album ; she also stated , " I 'm going into the studio tonight with Pharrell [ Williams ] , I 'm going to be writing and also just seeing what comes along my way . I 've been recording a few things . " Williams completed , " When I tell you she 's killing it , it 's another level . " In an interview with the Windy City Media Group , Stefani said " [ the song ] was so perfect for my story @-@ for what I was feeling in my own personal life @-@ that I didn 't even get it as a feminist anthem . I thought it was just about me ! I was just feeling me . " After the release of " Baby Don 't Lie " a month prior , " Spark the Fire " was released on December 1 , 2014 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Spark the Fire " was written by Stefani and Pharrell Williams ; Williams serves as the track 's sole producer . The song is a dance @-@ pop and hip hop track , with inclusions of funk music and heavy percussion . August Brown of the Los Angeles Times described the song as " full of vintage Pharrell moves : pep @-@ band drum lines , percussive blips and a lot of open space for Stefani 's gum @-@ smacking shouts " . Lyrically , the song discusses several different themes ; Feminism and " girl power " is made clear in the lyric " It is time for the girl species to grow / I am a Libra / Let 's balance the scales " , while partying and clubbing is made clear in the lyric " Who got the lighter ? / Let 's spark the fire " . In a 2014 interview with Scott T. Sterling , Williams stated that the " coolest part " of the song was " the sound and direction " , particularly the song 's lyrics dicscussing " feminism and women standing up for themselves , and standing together " . He described the song as inspired by his feeling that " the female species has been suppressed long enough " , calling the lyric " Enough 's enough . Who 's got the lighter ? / Let 's spark the fire " Stefani 's way of demanding more respect for women . In an interview with PopSugar 's Lindsay Miller , Stefani identified the song as being " a very personal song " and " my journey " instead of a feminist anthem , but supported Williams ' interpretation , saying " I love when people discover their own opinions about a song " . Miller described Stefani 's hesitation with the word feminism as " com [ ing ] more from a place of humility than an attempt to avoid controversy " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Spark the Fire " received mixed reviews from critics . August Brown , writing for the Los Angeles Times , praised the single for being " a welcome return to the studio styles " of both Stefani and Williams . Hayden Manders of Refinery29 gave the single a positive review , calling it " a throwback for the modern age " and " a song of unity " . BreatheHeavy 's Jordan Miller praised the song for having " that typical Gwen sass combined with Pharrell ’ s signature quirky beats and rhythm " . Miller chose the lyrics " get off my cloud " as an exampe of Stefani 's vocal delivery being " rap @-@ sing @-@ talking business " . However , he later criticized both " Spark the Fire " and " Baby Don 't Lie " for being " bland " .
With a more divided opinion , Slant Magazine 's Alexa Camp called the song " an attempt to repeat those past hits than update the singer 's sound for ' 2015 ' " , but described it as an improvement over the previous single " Baby Don 't Lie " , while Eliza Berman of Time said that " though it 's more repetitive and packs less oozing attitude than " Hollaback Girl " , it should serve the club nearly as well . " In a negative review , Lucas Villas of AXS described the song as " a dud " and viewed it as " a whole lot of hot air " that failed in its attempt of " rekindling [ the ] past magic " behind Stefani and Williams ' 2005 collaboration " Hollaback Girl " . Marc Hogan of Wondering Sound was critical of the song 's lyrics , saying " a look at Stefani ’ s prior discography might suggest there ’ s not much fuel left for this particular theme " , and compared them to her previous work with No Doubt on the song " Start the Fire " from the 2001 album Rock Steady .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video was released on December 1 , 2014 on Stefani 's official YouTube account . The video was produced by Stefani 's long @-@ time collaborator , Sophie Muller . At the beginning of the video , Stefani is shown floating on a cloud over an animated cityscape . For the video 's remainder , Stefani parties in an underground nightclub with friends while groups of animated emoticons and animated figures flash on the screen . During the song 's bridge before the last chorus , Stefani visually acts out the song 's lyrics with the help of several emoticons . Scott Lapatine of Stereogum described the video 's storyline as " a cartoon universe and an underground club with pop @-@ up video @-@ style graphics flying by " ; Lapatine further stated that the video also includes glimpses of " a conspicuous workstation that prints pizza and a Chrysler Fiat 500L " .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received predominantly positive reviews from critics . Eliza Berman of Time magazine gave the video a positive review , saying " it comes to life in the colorful blend of animation and reality " . Berman described the video 's feminist message as " consist [ ed ] of bringing together a bunch of attractive dancers dressed in L.A.M.B. , burning down the club with confidence " . Erin Strecker from Billboard compared the music video to the video for " Baby Don 't Lie " , stating " Stefani dons black and white in an animated , colorful world " .
= = Live performances = =
Stefani and Williams performed the song live on the December 1 , 2014 episode of The Voice . The performance opened with Stefani floating down to the stage on a huge , animated cloud head and dressed in a powder @-@ blue , cloud @-@ decorated jumpsuit . Williams also joined her on the stage , wearing a dark blue Adidas tracksuit . Stefani then performed " Spark the Fire " on New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly on December 31 , 2014 . On February 2 , 2015 , Stefani performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon , along with a medley of her previous singles " Rich Girl " , " What You Waiting For ? " , and " The Sweet Escape " .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Joseph Smith =
Joseph Smith , Jr . ( December 23 , 1805 – June 27 , 1844 ) was an American religious leader and founder of Mormonism and the Latter Day Saint movement . When he was twenty @-@ four , Smith published the Book of Mormon . By the time of his death fourteen years later , he had attracted tens of thousands of followers and founded a religious culture that continues to the present .
Smith was born in Sharon , Vermont , but by 1817 , he had moved with his family to the burned @-@ over district of western New York , a site of intense religious revivalism during the Second Great Awakening . According to Smith , he experienced a series of visions , including one in which he saw " two personages " ( presumably God the Father and Jesus Christ ) and others in which an angel named Moroni directed him to a buried book of golden plates inscribed with a Judeo @-@ Christian history of an ancient American civilization of Israelites who traveled to the Americas from Jerasalem six centuries before the birth of Christ . In 1830 , Smith published what he said was an English translation of these plates , the Book of Mormon . The same year he organized the Church of Christ , calling it a restoration of the early Christian church . Members of the church were later called " Latter Day Saints " , or " Mormons " , and in 1838 , Smith announced a revelation that renamed the church as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints .
In 1831 , Smith and his followers moved west , planning to build a communalistic American Zion . They first gathered in Kirtland , Ohio , and established an outpost in Independence , Missouri , which was intended to be Zion 's " center place " . During the 1830s , Smith sent out missionaries , published revelations , and supervised construction of the expensive Kirtland Temple . Nevertheless , the collapse of the church @-@ sponsored Kirtland Safety Society and violent skirmishes with non @-@ Mormon Missourians caused Smith and his followers to establish a new settlement at Nauvoo , Illinois , where he became a spiritual and political leader . In 1844 , Smith and the Nauvoo city council angered non @-@ Mormons by destroying a newspaper that had criticized Smith 's power and practice of polygamy . After Smith was imprisoned in Carthage , Illinois , he was killed when a mob stormed the jailhouse .
Smith published many revelations and other texts that his followers regard as scripture . His teachings include unique views about the nature of God , cosmology , family structures , political organization , and religious collectivism . His followers regard him as a prophet comparable to Moses and Elijah , and several religious denominations consider themselves the continuation of the church he organized , including The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and the Community of Christ .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years ( 1805 – 27 ) = = =
Joseph Smith , Jr. was born on December 23 , 1805 , in Sharon , Vermont , to Lucy Mack Smith and her husband Joseph Sr. , a merchant and farmer . After suffering a crippling bone infection when he was seven , the younger Smith hobbled around on crutches for three years . In 1816 – 17 , after an ill @-@ fated business venture and three years of crop failures , the Smith family moved to the western New York village of Palmyra , and eventually took a mortgage on a 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) farm in the nearby town of Manchester .
During the Second Great Awakening , the region was a hotbed of religious enthusiasm ; and between 1817 and 1825 , there were several camp meetings and revivals in the Palmyra area . Although Smith 's parents disagreed about religion , the family was caught up in this excitement . Smith later said he became interested in religion at about the age of twelve ; without doubt , he participated in church classes and read the Bible . As a teenager , he may have been sympathetic to Methodism . With other family members , Smith also engaged in religious folk magic , not an uncommon practice at the time . Both his parents and his maternal grandfather reportedly had visions or dreams that they believed communicated messages from God . Smith said that although he had become concerned about the welfare of his soul , he was confused by the claims of competing religious denominations .
Years later Smith said that in 1820 he had received a vision that resolved his religious confusion . While praying in a wooded area near his home , he said that God , in a vision , had told him his sins were forgiven and that all contemporary churches had " turned aside from the gospel . " Smith said he told the experience to a preacher , who dismissed the story with contempt ; but the experience was largely unknown , even to most Mormons , until the 1840s . Although Smith may have understood the event as a personal conversion , this " First Vision " later grew in importance among Mormons , who today see it as the first event in the " restoration of the Gospel " .
Smith said that in 1823 while praying one night for forgiveness from his sins , he was visited by an angel named Moroni , who revealed the location of a buried book made of golden plates , as well as other artifacts , including a breastplate and a set of interpreters composed of two seer stones set in a frame , which had been hidden in a hill in Manchester near his home . Smith said he attempted to remove the plates the next morning but was unsuccessful because the angel prevented him . Smith reported that during the next four years , he made annual visits to the hill but each time returned without the plates .
Meanwhile , the Smith family faced financial hardship due in part to the November 1823 death of Smith 's oldest brother Alvin , who had assumed a leadership role in the family . Family members supplemented their meager farm income by hiring out for odd jobs and working as treasure seekers , a type of magical supernaturalism common during the period . Smith was said to have an ability to locate lost items by looking into a seer stone , which he also used in treasure hunting , including several unsuccessful attempts to find buried treasure sponsored by a wealthy farmer in Chenango County , New York . In 1826 , Smith was brought before a Chenango County court for " glass @-@ looking " , or pretending to find lost treasure . The result of the proceeding remains unclear as primary sources report various conflicting outcomes .
While boarding at the Hale house in Harmony , Pennsylvania , Smith began courting Emma Hale . When Smith proposed marriage , Emma 's father Isaac Hale objected because Smith was " a stranger " who had no means of supporting his daughter other than money digging , of which he disapproved . Smith and Emma eloped and were married on January 18 , 1827 , after which the couple began boarding with Smith 's parents in Manchester . Later that year , when Smith promised to abandon treasure seeking , Hale offered to let the couple live on his property in Harmony and help Smith get started in business .
Smith said that he made his last annual visit to the hill on September 22 , 1827 , taking Emma with him . This time , he said he retrieved the plates and put them in a locked chest . He said the angel commanded him not to show the plates to anyone else but to publish their translation , reputed to be the religious record of early indigenous Americans who were Israelites who had come to the Americas from Jerusalem . Smith said that the plates were engraved in an unknown language , reformed Egyptian , and he told associates that he was capable of reading and translating them.No archaeological , linguistic , or other evidence of the use of Egyptian writing in ancient America has been discovered . Although Smith had left his treasure hunting company , his former associates believed he had double @-@ crossed them by taking for himself what they considered joint property . After they ransacked places where a competing treasure @-@ seer said the plates were hidden , Smith decided to leave Palmyra .
= = = Founding a church ( 1827 – 30 ) = = =
In October 1827 , Smith and his pregnant wife moved from Palmyra to Harmony ( now Oakland ) , Pennsylvania , aided by money from a relatively prosperous neighbor , Martin Harris . Living near his in @-@ laws , Smith transcribed some characters that he said were engraved on the plates , and then dictated a translation to his wife .
In February 1828 , Martin Harris arrived to assist Smith by transcribing his dictation . Harris also took a sample of the characters to a few prominent scholars , including Charles Anthon , who Harris said initially authenticated the characters and their translation but then retracted his opinion after learning that Smith was supposed to have received the plates from an angel . Anthon denied Harris 's account of the meeting , claiming instead that he had tried to convince Harris that he had been the victim of a fraud . Nevertheless , Harris returned to Harmony in April 1828 , encouraged to continue as Smith 's scribe .
Smith continued to dictate to Harris until mid @-@ June 1828 , when Harris began having doubts about the project , fueled in part by his wife 's skepticism . Harris convinced Smith to let him take the existing 116 pages of manuscript to Palmyra to show a few family members , including his wife . Harris lost the manuscript — of which there was no other copy — at about the same time Smith 's wife , Emma , gave birth to a son , Alvin , who died the same day . Smith said that as punishment for losing the manuscript the angel took away the plates and revoked his ability to translate . During this dark period Smith briefly attended Methodist meetings with his wife until a cousin of hers objected to inclusion of a " practicing necromancer " on the Methodist class roll .
Smith said that the angel returned the plates to him on September 22 , 1828 , and he resumed dictation in April 1829 , after he met Oliver Cowdery , who replaced Harris as his scribe . They worked full time on the manuscript between April and early June 1829 , and then moved to Fayette , New York , where they continued to work at the home of Cowdery 's friend Peter Whitmer . When the narrative described an institutional church and a requirement for baptism , Smith and Cowdery baptized each other . Dictation was completed around July 1 , 1829 .
Although Smith had previously refused to show the plates to anyone , he told Martin Harris , Oliver Cowdery , and David Whitmer that they would be allowed to see them . These men , known collectively as the Three Witnesses — along with a later group of Eight Witnesses composed of male members of the Whitmer and Smith families — signed statements testifying that they had seen the golden plates ; the eight witnesses also said they had actually handled the plates . According to Smith , the angel Moroni took back the plates once Smith finished using them .
The completed work , the Book of Mormon , was published in Palmyra on March 26 , 1830 , by printer E. B. Grandin , Martin Harris having mortgaged his farm to finance it . Soon after , on April 6 , 1830 , Smith and his followers formally organized the Church of Christ , and small branches were established in Palmyra , Fayette , and Colesville , New York . The Book of Mormon brought Smith regional notoriety and opposition from those who remembered his money @-@ digging and the 1826 Chenango County trial . After Cowdery baptized several new members , the Mormons received threats of mob violence ; and before Smith could confirm the newly baptized members , he was arrested and brought to trial as a disorderly person . He was acquitted , but both he and Cowdery had to flee Colesville to escape a gathering mob . In probable reference to this period of flight , Smith said that Peter , James , and John had appeared to him and had ordained him and Cowdery to a higher priesthood .
Smith 's authority was undermined when Oliver Cowdery , Hiram Page , and other church members also claimed to receive revelations . In response , Smith dictated a revelation which clarified his office as a prophet and an apostle and which declared that only he held " the keys of the mysteries , and the revelations " with the ability to inscribe scripture for the church . Shortly after the conference , Smith dispatched Cowdery , Peter Whitmer , and others on a mission to proselytize Native Americans . Cowdery was also assigned the task of locating the site of the New Jerusalem .
On their way to Missouri , Cowdery 's party passed through northeastern Ohio , where Sidney Rigdon and over a hundred followers of his variety of Campbellite Restorationism converted to Mormonism , more than doubling the size of the church . Rigdon soon visited New York and quickly became Smith 's primary assistant . With growing opposition in New York , Smith gave forth as revelation that Kirtland was the eastern boundary of the New Jerusalem and that his followers must gather there .
= = = Life in Ohio ( 1831 – 38 ) = = =
When Smith moved to Kirtland , Ohio , in January 1831 , he encountered a religious culture that included enthusiastic demonstrations of spiritual gifts , including fits and trances , rolling on the ground , and speaking in tongues . Smith tamed these outbursts by producing two revelations that brought the Kirtland congregation under his own authority . Rigdon 's followers had also been practicing a form of communalism , and this Smith adopted , calling it the United Order . Smith had promised church elders that in Kirtland they would receive an endowment of heavenly power , and at the June 1831 general conference , he introduced the greater authority of a High ( " Melchizedek " ) Priesthood to the church hierarchy .
Converts poured into Kirtland . By the summer of 1835 , there were fifteen hundred to two thousand Mormons in the vicinity , many expecting Smith to lead them shortly to the Millennial kingdom . Though the mission to the Indians had been a failure , the missionaries sent on their way by a government Indian agent , Cowdery reported that he had found the site of the New Jerusalem in Jackson County , Missouri . After Smith visited in July 1831 , he agreed , pronouncing the frontier hamlet of Independence the " center place " of Zion . Nevertheless , Rigdon disapproved , and for most of the 1830s the church remained divided between Ohio and Missouri . Smith continued to live in Ohio , but visited Missouri again in early 1832 in order to prevent a rebellion of prominent church members , including Cowdery , who believed the church in Missouri was being neglected . Smith 's trip was hastened by a mob of Ohio residents who were incensed over the United Order and Smith 's political power ; the mob beat Smith and Rigdon unconscious , tarred and feathered them , and left them for dead .
In Jackson County , Missouri residents resented the Mormon newcomers for both political and religious reasons . Tension increased until July 1833 , when non @-@ Mormons forcibly evicted the Mormons and destroyed their property . Smith advised them to bear the violence patiently until they were attacked a fourth time , after which they could fight back . After armed bands exchanged fire and one Mormon and two non @-@ Mormons were killed , the old settlers brutally expelled the Mormons from the county .
Smith ended the communitarian experiment and changed the name of the church to the " Church of Latter Day Saints " before leading a small paramilitary expedition , later called Zion 's Camp , to aid the Missouri Mormons . As a military endeavor , the expedition was a failure ; the men were outnumbered and suffered from dissension and a cholera outbreak . Nevertheless , Zion 's Camp transformed Mormon leadership , and many future church leaders came from among the participants . After the Camp returned , Smith drew heavily from its participants to establish five governing bodies in the church , all originally of equal authority to check one another ; among these five groups was a quorum of twelve apostles . Smith gave a revelation saying that to redeem Zion , his followers would have to receive an endowment in the Kirtland Temple , and in March 1836 , at the temple 's dedication , many participants in the promised endowment saw visions of angels , spoke in tongues , and prophesied .
In late 1837 , a series of internal disputes led to the collapse of the Kirtland Mormon community . Smith was blamed for having promoted a church @-@ sponsored bank that failed and accused of engaging in a sexual relationship with his serving girl , Fanny Alger . Building the temple had left the church deeply
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influence in Weber 's life was the writings of Karl Marx and the workings of socialist thought in academia and active politics . While Weber shares some of Marx 's consternation with bureaucratic systems and maligns them as being capable of advancing their own logic to the detriment of human freedom and autonomy , Weber views conflict as perpetual and inevitable and does not host the spirit of a materially available utopia . Though the influence of his mother 's Calvinist religiosity is evident throughout Weber 's life and work , and though he maintained a deep , lifelong interest in the study of religions , Weber was open about the fact that he was personally irreligious .
As a political economist and economic historian , Weber belonged to the " youngest " German historical school of economics , represented by academics such as Gustav von Schmoller and his student Werner Sombart . But , even though Weber 's research interests were very much in line with that school , his views on methodology and the theory of value diverged significantly from those of other German historicists and were closer , in fact , to those of Carl Menger and the Austrian School , the traditional rivals of the historical school . ( See section on Economics . )
= = = Methodology = = =
Unlike some other classical figures ( Comte , Durkheim ) Weber did not attempt , consciously , to create any specific set of rules governing social sciences in general , or sociology in particular . In comparison with Durkheim and Marx , Weber was more focused on individuals and culture and this is clear in his methodology . Whereas Durkheim focused on the society , Weber concentrated on the individuals and their actions ( see structure and action discussion ) and whereas Marx argued for the primacy of the material world over the world of ideas , Weber valued ideas as motivating actions of individuals , at least in the big picture .
Sociology , for Max Weber , is :
... a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects .
Weber was concerned with the question of objectivity and subjectivity . Weber distinguished social action from social behavior , noting that social action must be understood through how individuals subjectively relate to one another . Study of social action through interpretive means ( Verstehen ) must be based upon understanding the subjective meaning and purpose that individuals attach to their actions . Social actions may have easily identifiable and objective means , but much more subjective ends and the understanding of those ends by a scientist is subject to yet another layer of subjective understanding ( that of the scientist ) . Weber noted that the importance of subjectivity in social sciences makes creation of fool @-@ proof , universal laws much more difficult than in natural sciences and that the amount of objective knowledge that social sciences may achieve is precariously limited . Overall , Weber supported the goal of objective science , but he noted that it is an unreachable goal – although one definitely worth striving for .
There is no absolutely " objective " scientific analysis of culture .... All knowledge of cultural reality ... is always knowledge from particular points of view .... an " objective " analysis of cultural events , which proceeds according to the thesis that the ideal of science is the reduction of empirical reality to " laws " , is meaningless ... [ because ] ... the knowledge of social laws is not knowledge of social reality but is rather one of the various aids used by our minds for attaining this end .
The principle of " methodological individualism " , which holds that social scientists should seek to understand collectivities ( such as nations , cultures , governments , churches , corporations , etc . ) solely as the result and the context of the actions of individual persons , can be traced to Weber , particularly to the first chapter of Economy and Society , in which he argues that only individuals " can be treated as agents in a course of subjectively understandable action " . In other words , Weber argued that social phenomena can be understood scientifically only to the extent that they are captured by models of the behaviour of purposeful individuals , models that Weber called " ideal types " , from which actual historical events will necessarily deviate due to accidental and irrational factors . The analytical constructs of an ideal type never exist in reality , but provide objective benchmarks against which real @-@ life constructs can be measured .
We know of no scientifically ascertainable ideals . To be sure , that makes our efforts more arduous than in the past , since we are expected to create our ideals from within our breast in the very age of subjectivist culture .
Weber 's methodology was developed in the context of a wider debate about methodology of social sciences , the Methodenstreit . Weber 's position was close to historicism , as he understood social actions as being heavily tied to particular historical contexts and its analysis required the understanding of subjective motivations of individuals ( social actors ) . Thus Weber 's methodology emphasises the use of comparative historical analysis . Therefore , Weber was more interested in explaining how a certain outcome was the result of various historical processes rather than predicting an outcome of those processes in the future .
= = = Rationalisation = = =
Many scholars have described rationalisation and the question of individual freedom in an increasingly rational society , as the main theme of Weber 's work . This theme was situated in the larger context of the relationship between psychological motivations , cultural values and beliefs ( primarily , religion ) and the structure of the society ( usually determined by the economy ) .
By rationalisation , Weber understood first , the individual cost @-@ benefit calculation , second , the wider , bureaucratic organisation of the organisations and finally , in the more general sense as the opposite of understanding the reality through mystery and magic ( disenchantment ) .
The fate of our times is characterised by rationalisation and intellectualisation and , above all , by the " disenchantment of the world "
Weber began his studies of the subject in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , in which he argued that the redefinition of the connection between work and piety in Protestantism and especially in ascetic Protestant denominations , particularly Calvinism , shifted human effort towards rational efforts aimed at achieving economic gain . In Protestant religion , Christian piety towards God was expressed through one 's secular vocation ( secularisation of calling ) . The rational roots of this doctrine , he argued , soon grew incompatible with and larger than the religious and so the latter were eventually discarded .
Weber continued his investigation into this matter in later works , notably in his studies on bureaucracy and on the classification of legitimate authority into three types – Rational @-@ legal , traditional and charismatic – of which the rational @-@ legal ( through bureaucracy ) is the dominant one in the modern world . In these works Weber described what he saw as society 's movement towards rationalisation . Similarly , rationalisation could be seen in the economy , with the development of highly rational and calculating capitalism . Weber also saw rationalisation as one of the main factors setting the European West apart from the rest of the world . Rationalisation relied on deep changes in ethics , religion , psychology and culture ; changes that first took place in the Western civilisation .
What Weber depicted was not only the secularisation of Western culture , but also and especially the development of modern societies from the viewpoint of rationalisation . The new structures of society were marked by the differentiation of the two functionally intermeshing systems that had taken shape around the organisational cores of the capitalist enterprise and the bureaucratic state apparatus . Weber understood this process as the institutionalisation of purposive @-@ rational economic and administrative action . To the degree that everyday life was affected by this cultural and societal rationalisation , traditional forms of life – which in the early modern period were differentiated primarily according to one 's trade – were dissolved .
Features of rationalisation include increasing knowledge , growing impersonality and enhanced control of social and material life . Weber was ambivalent towards rationalisation ; while admitting it was responsible for many advances , in particular , freeing humans from traditional , restrictive and illogical social guidelines , he also criticised it for dehumanising individuals as " cogs in the machine " and curtailing their freedom , trapping them in the bureaucratic iron cage of rationality and bureaucracy . Related to rationalisation is the process of disenchantment , in which the world is becoming more explained and less mystical , moving from polytheistic religions to monotheistic ones and finally to the Godless science of modernity . Those processes affect all of society , removing " sublime values ... from public life " and making art less creative .
In a dystopian critique of rationalisation , Weber notes that modern society is a product of an individualistic drive of the Reformation , yet at the same time , the society created in this process is less and less welcoming of individualism .
How is it at all possible to salvage any remnants of " individual " freedom of movement in any sense given this all @-@ powerful trend ?
= = = Sociology of religion = = =
Weber 's work in the field of sociology of religion started with the essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and continued with the analysis of The Religion of China : Confucianism and Taoism , The Religion of India : The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism and Ancient Judaism . His work on other religions was interrupted by his sudden death in 1920 , which prevented him from following Ancient Judaism with studies of early Christianity and Islam . His three main themes in the essays were the effect of religious ideas on economic activities , the relation between social stratification and religious ideas and the distinguishable characteristics of Western civilisation .
Weber saw religion as one of the core forces in society . His goal was to find reasons for the different development paths of the cultures of the Occident and the Orient , although without judging or valuing them , like some of the contemporary thinkers who followed the social Darwinist paradigm ; Weber wanted primarily to explain the distinctive elements of the Western civilisation . In the analysis of his findings , Weber maintained that Calvinist ( and more widely , Protestant ) religious ideas had had a major impact on the social innovation and development of the economic system of the West , but noted that they were not the only factors in this development . Other notable factors mentioned by Weber included the rationalism of scientific pursuit , merging observation with mathematics , science of scholarship and jurisprudence , rational systematisation and bureaucratisation of government administration and economic enterprise . In the end , the study of the sociology of religion , according to Weber , focused on one distinguishing part of the Western culture , the decline of beliefs in magic , or what he referred to as " disenchantment of the world " .
Weber also proposed a socioevolutionary model of religious change , showing that in general , societies have moved from magic to polytheism , then to pantheism , monotheism and finally , ethical monotheism . According to Weber , this evolution occurred as the growing economic stability allowed professionalisation and the evolution of ever more sophisticated priesthood . As societies grew more complex and encompassed different groups , a hierarchy of gods developed and as power in the society became more centralised , the concept of a single , universal God became more popular and desirable .
= = = = The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism = = = =
Weber 's essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is his most famous work . It is argued that this work should not be viewed as a detailed study of Protestantism , but rather as an introduction into Weber 's later works , especially his studies of interaction between various religious ideas and economic behaviour as part of the rationalisation of the economic system . In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , Weber put forward the thesis that Calvinist ethic and ideas influenced the development of capitalism . He noted the post @-@ Reformation shift of Europe 's economic centre away from Catholic countries such as France , Spain and Italy , and toward Protestant countries such as the Netherlands , England , Scotland and Germany . Weber also noted that societies having more Protestants were those with a more highly developed capitalist economy . Similarly , in societies with different religions , most successful business leaders were Protestant . Weber thus argued that Roman Catholicism impeded the development of the capitalist economy in the West , as did other religions such as Confucianism and Buddhism elsewhere in the world .
The development of the concept of the calling quickly gave to the modern entrepreneur a fabulously clear conscience – and also industrious workers ; he gave to his employees as the wages of their ascetic devotion to the calling and of co @-@ operation in his ruthless exploitation of them through capitalism the prospect of eternal salvation .
Christian religious devotion had historically been accompanied by rejection of mundane affairs , including economic pursuit . Weber showed that certain types of Protestantism – notably Calvinism – were supportive of rational pursuit of economic gain and worldly activities dedicated to it , seeing them as endowed with moral and spiritual significance . Weber argued that there were many reasons to look for the origins of modern capitalism in the religious ideas of the Reformation . In particular , the Protestant ethic ( or more specifically , Calvinist ethic ) motivated the believers to work hard , be successful in business and reinvest their profits in further development rather than frivolous pleasures . The notion of calling meant that each individual had to take action as an indication of their salvation ; just being a member of the Church was not enough . Predestination also reduced agonising over economic inequality and further , it meant that a material wealth could be taken as a sign of salvation in the afterlife . The believers thus justified pursuit of profit with religion , as instead of being fuelled by morally suspect greed or ambition , their actions were motivated by a highly moral and respected philosophy . This Weber called the " spirit of capitalism " : it was the Protestant religious ideology that was behind – and inevitably led to – the capitalist economic system . This theory is often viewed as a reversal of Marx 's thesis that the economic " base " of society determines all other aspects of it .
Weber abandoned research into Protestantism because his colleague Ernst Troeltsch , a professional theologian , had begun work on the book The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches and Sects . Another reason for Weber 's decision was that Troeltsch 's work already achieved what he desired in that area : laying the groundwork for a comparative analysis of religion and society .
The phrase " work ethic " used in modern commentary is a derivative of the " Protestant ethic " discussed by Weber . It was adopted when the idea of the Protestant ethic was generalised to apply to the Japanese people , Jews and other non @-@ Christians and thus lost its religious connotations .
= = = = The Religion of China : Confucianism and Taoism = = = =
The Religion of China : Confucianism and Taoism was Weber 's second major work on the sociology of religion . Hans H. Gerth edited and translated this text into English , with an introduction by C. K. Wang . Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe , especially those aspects that contrasted with Puritanism . His work also questioned why capitalism did not develop in China . He focused on the issues of Chinese urban development , Chinese patrimonialism and officialdom and Chinese religion and philosophy ( primarily , Confucianism and Taoism ) , as the areas in which Chinese development differed most distinctively from the European route .
According to Weber , Confucianism and Puritanism are mutually exclusive types of rational thought , each attempting to prescribe a way of life based on religious dogma . Notably , they both valued self @-@ control and restraint and did not oppose accumulation of wealth . However , to both those qualities were just means to the final goal and here they were divided by a key difference . Confucianism 's goal was " a cultured status position " , while Puritanism 's goal was to create individuals who are " tools of God " . The intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were rare in Confucianism , but common in Protestantism . Actively working for wealth was unbecoming a proper Confucian . Therefore , Weber states that it was this difference in social attitudes and mentality , shaped by the respective , dominant religions , that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China .
= = = = The Religion of India : The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism = = = =
The Religion of India : The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism was Weber 's third major work on the sociology of religion . In this work he deals with the structure of Indian society , with the orthodox doctrines of Hinduism and the heterodox doctrines of Buddhism , with modifications brought by the influence of popular religiosity and finally with the impact of religious beliefs on the secular ethic of Indian society . In Weber 's view , Hinduism in India , like Confucianism in China , was a barrier for capitalism . The Indian caste system made it very difficult for individuals to advance in the society beyond their caste . Activity , including economic activity , was seen as unimportant in the context of the advancement of the soul .
Weber ended his research of society and religion in India by bringing in insights from his previous work on China to discuss similarities of the Asian belief systems . He notes that the beliefs saw the meaning of life as otherworldly mystical experience . The social world is fundamentally divided between the educated elite , following the guidance of a prophet or wise man and the uneducated masses whose beliefs are centered on magic . In Asia , there was no Messianic prophecy to give plan and meaning to the everyday life of educated and uneducated alike . Weber juxtaposed such Messianic prophecies ( also called ethical prophecies ) , notably from the Near East region to the exemplary prophecies found on the Asiatic mainland , focused more on reaching to the educated elites and enlightening them on the proper ways to live one 's life , usually with little emphasis on hard work and the material world . It was those differences that prevented the countries of the Occident from following the paths of the earlier Chinese and Indian civilisations . His next work , Ancient Judaism was an attempt to prove this theory .
= = = = Ancient Judaism = = = =
In Ancient Judaism , his fourth major work on the sociology of religion , Weber attempted to explain the factors that resulted in the early differences between Oriental and Occidental religiosity . He contrasted the innerworldly asceticism developed by Western Christianity with mystical contemplation of the kind developed in India . Weber noted that some aspects of Christianity sought to conquer and change the world , rather than withdraw from its imperfections . This fundamental characteristic of Christianity ( when compared to Far Eastern religions ) stems originally from ancient Jewish prophecy .
Weber claimed that Judaism not only fathered Christianity and Islam , but was crucial to the rise of the modern Occidental state ; Judaism 's influence was as important as Hellenistic and Roman cultures .
Weber 's premature death in 1920 prevented him from following his planned analysis of Psalms , the Book of Job , Talmudic Jewry , early Christianity and Islam .
= = = = Economy and Society = = = =
Weber 's magnum opus Economy and Society is a collection of his essays which he was working on at the time of his death in 1920 . After his death , the final organization and editing of the book fell to his widow Marianne Weber . The final German form published in 1921 reflected very much Marianne Weber 's work and intellectual commitment . Beginning in 1956 , the German jurist Johannes Wincklemann began editing and organizing the German edition of Economy and Society based on his study of the papers that Weber left at his death .
English versions of Economy and Society were published as a collected volume in 1968 as edited by Gunther Roth and Claus Wittich . As a result of the various editions in German and English , there are differences between the organization of the different volumes .
Economy and Society includes a wide range of essays dealing with Weber 's views regarding Sociology , Social Philosophy , Politics , Social Stratification , World Religion , Diplomacy , and other subjects . The book is typically published in a two volume set in both German and English , and is more than 1000 pages long .
= = = = Theodicy of Fortune and Misfortune = = = =
The Theodicy of fortune and misfortune within sociology is the theory , as Weber suggested , of how " members of different social classes adopt different belief systems , or theodices , to explain their social situation " .
The concept of theodicy was expanded mainly with the thought of Weber and his addition of ethical considerations to the subject of religion . There is this ethical part of religion , including " ( 1 ) soteriology and ( 2 ) theodicy . These mean , respectively , how people understand themselves to be able to be in a correct relationship with supernatural powers , and how to explain evil – or why bad things seem to happen to those who seem to be good people " . There is a separation of different theodicies with regard to class . " Theodicies of misfortune tend to the belief that wealth and other manifestations of privilege are indications or signs of evil .... In contrast , theodicies of fortune emphasise the notion that privileges are a blessing and are deserved . " Weber also writes that " the affluent embrace good fortune theodicies , which emphasise that prosperity is a blessing of God ... [ while ] theodices of misfortune emphasise that affluence is a sign of evil and that suffering in this world will be rewarded in the next . " Thus these two distinctions can be applied not only to class structure within society but denomination and racial segregation within religion .
Weber defines the importance of societal class within religion by examining the difference between the two theodicies and to what class structures they apply . The concept of " work ethic " is attached to the theodicy of fortune ; thus , because of the Protestant " work ethic " , there was a contribution of higher class outcomes and more education among Protestants . Those without the work ethic clung to the theodicy of misfortune , believing wealth and happiness were granted in the afterlife . Another example of how this belief of religious theodicy influences class , is that those of lower status , the poor , cling to deep religiousness and faith as a way to comfort themselves and provide hope for a more prosperous future , while those of higher status cling to the sacraments or actions that prove their right of possessing greater wealth .
These two theodicies can be found in the denominational segregation within the religious community . The main division can be seen between the mainline Protestant and evangelical denominations and their relation to the class into which their particular theodicy pertains . For example , mainline churches , with their upper class congregations , " promote [ d ] order , stability , and conservatism , and in so doing proved to be a powerful source of legitimation of the status quo and of existing disparities in the distribution of wealth and power " because much of the wealth of the church comes from the congregation . In contrast , Pentecostal churches adopted the theodicy of misfortune . They instead " advocated change intended to advance the cause of justice and fairness " . Thus the learned and upper class religious churches who preach the theodicy of fortune , ultimately support capitalism and corporation , while the churches who adopted the theodicy of misfortune , instead preached equality and fairness .
= = = Politics and government = = =
In political sociology , one of Weber 's most influential contributions is his " Politics as a Vocation " ( Politik als Beruf ) essay . Therein , Weber unveils the definition of the state as that entity that possesses a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force . , Weber wrote that politics is the sharing of state 's power between various groups , and political leaders are those who wield this power . A politician must not be a man of the " true Christian ethic " , understood by Weber as being the ethic of the Sermon on the Mount , that is to say , the injunction to turn the other cheek . An adherent of such an ethic ought rather to be understood to be a saint , for it is only saints , according to Weber , that can appropriately follow it . The political realm is no realm for saints ; a politician ought to marry the ethic of attitude and the ethic of responsibility ( " Verantwortungsethik vs Gesinnungsethik " ) and must possess both a passion for his vocation and the capacity to distance himself from the subject of his exertions ( the governed ) .
Weber distinguished three ideal types of political leadership ( alternatively referred to as three types of domination , legitimisation or authority ) :
charismatic domination ( familial and religious ) ,
traditional domination ( patriarchs , patrimonialism , feudalism ) and
legal domination ( modern law and state , bureaucracy ) .
In his view , every historical relation between rulers and ruled contained such elements and they can be analysed on the basis of this tripartite distinction . He notes that the instability of charismatic authority forces it to " routinise " into a more structured form of authority . In a pure type of traditional rule , sufficient resistance to a ruler can lead to a " traditional revolution " . The move towards a rational @-@ legal structure of authority , utilising a bureaucratic structure , is inevitable in the end . Thus this theory can be sometimes viewed as part of the social evolutionism theory . This ties to his broader concept of rationalisation by suggesting the inevitability of a move in this direction .
Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination through knowledge .
Weber described many ideal types of public administration and government in his masterpiece Economy and Society ( 1922 ) . His critical study of the bureaucratisation of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work . It was Weber who began the studies of bureaucracy and whose works led to the popularisation of this term . Many aspects of modern public administration go back to him and a classic , hierarchically organised civil service of the Continental type is called " Weberian civil service " . As the most efficient and rational way of organising , bureaucratisation for Weber was the key part of the rational @-@ legal authority and furthermore , he saw it as the key process in the ongoing rationalisation of the Western society .
Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of the bureaucracy : The growth in space and population being administered , the growth in complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out and the existence of a monetary economy – these resulted in a need for a more efficient administrative system . Development of communication and transportation technologies made more efficient administration possible ( and popularly requested ) and democratisation and rationalisation of culture resulted in demands that the new system treat everybody equally .
Weber 's ideal bureaucracy is characterised by hierarchical organisation , by delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity , by action taken ( and recorded ) on the basis of written rules , by bureaucratic officials needing expert training , by rules being implemented neutrally and by career advancement depending on technical qualifications judged by organisations , not by individuals .
The decisive reason for the advance of the bureaucratic organisation has always been its purely technical superiority over any other form of organisation .
While recognising bureaucracy as the most efficient form of organisation and even indispensable for the modern state , Weber also saw it as a threat to individual freedoms and the ongoing bureaucratisation as leading to a " polar night of icy darkness " , in which increasing rationalisation of human life traps individuals in the aforementioned " iron cage " of bureaucratic , rule @-@ based , rational control . In order to counteract bureaucrats , the system needs entrepreneurs and politicians .
= = = = Social stratification = = = =
Weber also formulated a three @-@ component theory of stratification , with social class , social status and political party as conceptually distinct elements . The three @-@ component theory of stratification is in contrast to Karl Marx simpler theory of social class which ties all social stratification to what people own . In Weber 's theory , issues of honor and prestige are important . This distinction is most clearly described in Weber 's essay " Classes , Staende , Parties " which was first published in his book Economy and Society . The three components of Weber 's theory are :
Social Class which is based on economically determined relationship to the market ( owner , renter , employee etc . ) .
Status ( or in German Stand ) which is based on non @-@ economic qualities like honour , prestige and religion .
Party which refers to affiliations in the political domain .
All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called " life chances " ( opportunities to improve one 's life ) .
Weber scholars recognize that it is important to maintain a sharp distinction between the terms " status " and " class , " even though they tend to be used interchangeably in popular usage .
= = = Study of the city = = =
As part of his overarching effort to understand the unique development of the Western world , Weber produced a detailed general study of the city as the characteristic locus of the social and economic relations , political arrangements , and ideas that eventually came to define the West . This resulted in a monograph titled The City , which was probably compiled from research conducted in 1911 – 1913 , and which was published posthumously in 1921 . In 1924 it was incorporated into the second part of his Economy and Society , as chapter XVI , " The City ( Non @-@ legitimate Domination ) " .
According to Weber , the city as a politically autonomous organisation of people living in close proximity , employed in a variety of specialised trades , and physically separated from the surrounding countryside , only fully developed in the West and to a great extent shaped its cultural evolution :
The origin of a rational and inner @-@ worldly ethic is associated in the Occident with the appearance of thinkers and prophets [ ... ] who developed in a social context that was alien to the Asiatic cultures . This context consisted of the political problems engendered by the bourgeois status @-@ group of the city , without which neither Judaism , nor Christianity , nor the development of Hellenistic thinking are conceivable .
Weber argued that Judaism , early Christianity , theology , and later the political party and modern science , were only possible in the urban context that reached a full development in the West alone . He also saw in the history of medieval European cities the rise of a unique form of " non @-@ legitimate domination " that successfully challenged the existing forms of legitimate domination ( traditional , charismatic , and rational @-@ legal ) that had prevailed until then in the Medieval world . This new domination was based on the great economic and military power wielded by the organised community of city @-@ dwellers ( " citizens " ) .
= = = Economics = = =
Weber regarded himself primarily as a " political economist " , and all of his professorial appointments were in economics , though today his contributions in that field are largely overshadowed by his role as a founder of modern sociology . As an economist , Weber belonged to the " youngest " German historical school of economics . The great differences between that school 's interests and methods on the one hand and those of the neoclassical school ( from which modern mainstream economics largely derives ) on the other , explain why Weber 's influence on economics today is hard to discern .
Max Weber was a pioneer in delineating a connection between capitalism and exceptionalism . In earlier texts , Maximiliano Korstanje explores the American exceptionalism and its effects on the current means of productions . This contribution to the existent literature is of paramount importance because of two main reasons . The first and most important , he relates capitalism to Protestantism . This is of course nothing new , since Max Weber did it in the past . However , Korstanje adds , though Weber was in the correct side by confirming the connection of Reform and Capitalism , the key role played by Norse Mythology was left behind . In effect , the concept of predestination as it has been discussed by Weber did not come from Luther alone . It was rather enrooted in the core of Norse Culture . Secondly , this impossibility to understand the future led to English speaking societies to construct a risk @-@ prone culture , which resulted in what Ulrich Beck dubbed the “ Risk Society ” . The criticism exerted in the uneven distribution of Capitalism should be explained by the “ economy of salved peoples ” formulated by Weber .
= = = = Methodological individualism = = = =
Though his research interests were always in line with those of the German historicists , with a strong emphasis on interpreting economic history , Weber 's defence of " methodological individualism " in the social sciences represented an important break with that school and an embracing of many of the arguments that had been made against the historicists by Carl Menger , the founder of the Austrian School of economics , in the context of the academic Methodenstreit ( " debate over methods " ) of the late 19th century . The phrase " methodological individualism " , which has come into common usage in modern debates about the connection between microeconomics and macroeconomics , was coined by the Austrian @-@ American economist Joseph Schumpeter in 1908 as a way of referring to the views of Weber . According to Weber 's theses , social research cannot be fully inductive or descriptive , because understanding some phenomenon implies that the researcher must go beyond mere description and interpret it ; interpretation requires classification according to abstract " ideal ( pure ) types " . This , together with his antipositivistic argumentation ( see Verstehen ) , can be taken as a methodological justification for the model of the " rational economic man " ( homo economicus ) , which is at the heart of modern mainstream economics .
= = = = Marginalism and psychophysics = = = =
Unlike other historicists , Weber also accepted the marginal theory of value ( also called " marginalism " ) and taught it to his students . In 1908 , Weber published an article in which he drew a sharp methodological distinction between psychology and economics and attacked the claims that the marginal theory of value in economics reflected the form of the psychological response to stimuli as described by the Weber @-@ Fechner law . Max Weber 's article has been cited as a definitive refutation of the dependence of the economic theory of value on the laws of psychophysics by Lionel Robbins , George Stigler , and Friedrich Hayek , though the broader issue of the relation between economics and psychology has come back into the academic debate with the development of " behavioral economics " .
= = = = Economic history = = = =
Weber 's best known work in economics concerned the preconditions for capitalist development , particularly the relations between religion and capitalism , which he explored in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism as well as in his other works on the sociology of religion . He argued that bureaucratic political and economic systems emerging in the Middle Ages were essential in the rise of modern capitalism ( including rational book @-@ keeping and organisation of formally free labour ) , while they were a hindrance in the case of ancient capitalism , which had a different social and political structure based on conquest , slavery , and the coastal city @-@ state . Other contributions include his early work on the economic history of Roman agrarian society ( 1891 ) and on the labour relations in Eastern Germany ( 1892 ) , his analysis of the history of commercial partnerships in the Middle Ages ( 1889 ) , his critique of Marxism , the discussion of the roles of idealism and materialism in the history of capitalism in his Economy and Society ( 1922 ) and his General Economic History ( 1923 ) , a notable example of the kind of empirical work associated with the German Historical School .
Although today Weber is primarily read by sociologists and social philosophers , Weber 's work did have a significant influence on Frank Knight , one of the founders of the neoclassical Chicago school of economics , who translated Weber 's General Economic History into English in 1927 . Knight also wrote in 1956 that Max Weber was the only economist who dealt with the problem of understanding the emergence of modern capitalism " from the angle which alone can yield an answer to such questions , that is , the angle of comparative history in the broad sense " .
= = = = Economic calculation = = = =
Weber , like his colleague Werner Sombart , regarded economic calculation and especially the double @-@ entry bookkeeping method of business accounting , as one of the most important forms of rationalisation associated with the development of modern capitalism . Weber 's preoccupation with the importance of economic calculation led him to develop a critique of socialism as a system that lacked a mechanism for allocating resources efficiently in order to satisfy human needs . Socialist intellectuals like Otto Neurath had realised that in a completely socialised economy , prices would not exist and central planners would have to resort to in @-@ kind ( rather than monetary ) economic calculation . According to Weber , this type of coordination would be inefficient , especially because it would be incapable of solving the problem of imputation ( i.e. of accurately determining the relative values of capital goods ) . Weber wrote that , under full socialism ,
In order to make possible a rational utilisation of the means of production , a system of in @-@ kind accounting would have to determine " value " – indicators of some kind for the individual capital goods which could take over the role of the " prices " used in book valuation in modern business accounting . But it is not at all clear how such indicators could be established and in particular , verified ; whether , for instance , they should vary from one production unit to the next ( on the basis of economic location ) , or whether they should be uniform for the entire economy , on the basis of " social utility " , that is , of ( present and future ) consumption requirements [ ... ] Nothing is gained by assuming that , if only the problem of a non @-@ monetary economy were seriously enough attacked , a suitable accounting method would be discovered or invented . The problem is fundamental to any kind of complete socialisation . We cannot speak of a rational " planned economy " so long as in this decisive respect we have no instrument for elaborating a rational " plan " .
This argument against socialism was made independently , at about the same time , by Ludwig von Mises . Weber himself had a significant influence on Mises , whom he had befriended when they were both at the University of Vienna in the spring of 1918 , and , through Mises , on several other economists associated with the Austrian School in the 20th century . Friedrich Hayek in particular elaborated the arguments of Weber and Mises about economic calculation into a central part of free market economics 's intellectual assault on socialism , as well as into a model for the spontaneous coordination of " dispersed knowledge " in markets .
= = Legacy = =
The prestige of Max Weber among European social scientists would be difficult to over @-@ estimate . He is widely considered the greatest of German sociologists and ... has become a leading influence in European and American thought .
Weber 's most influential work was on economic sociology , political sociology , and the sociology of religion . Along with Karl Marx and Émile Durkheim , he is commonly regarded as one of the founders of modern sociology . But whereas Durkheim , following Comte , worked in the positivist tradition , Weber was instrumental in developing an antipositivist , hermeneutic , tradition in the social sciences . In this regard he belongs to a similar tradition as his German colleagues Werner Sombart , Georg Simmel , and Wilhelm Dilthey , who stressed the differences between the methodologies appropriate to the social and the natural sciences .
Weber presented sociology as the science of human social action ; action that he separated into traditional , affectional , value @-@ rational and instrumental .
[ Sociology is ] the science whose object is to interpret the meaning of social action and thereby give a causal explanation of the way in which the action proceeds and the effects which it produces . By " action " in this definition is meant the human behaviour when and to the extent that the agent or agents see it as subjectively meaningful [ ... ] the meaning to which we refer may be either ( a ) the meaning actually intended either by an individual agent on a particular historical occasion or by a number of agents on an approximate average in a given set of cases , or ( b ) the meaning attributed to the agent or agents , as types , in a pure type constructed in the abstract . In neither case is the " meaning " to be thought of as somehow objectively " correct " or " true " by some metaphysical criterion . This is the difference between the empirical sciences of action , such as sociology and history and any kind of a priori discipline , such as jurisprudence , logic , ethics , or aesthetics whose aim is to extract from their subject @-@ matter " correct " or " valid " meaning .
In his own time , however , Weber was viewed primarily as a historian and an economist . The breadth of Weber 's topical interests is apparent in the depth of his social theory :
The affinity between capitalism and Protestantism , the religious origins of the Western world , the force of charisma in religion as well as in politics , the all @-@ embracing process of rationalisation and the bureaucratic price of progress , the role of legitimacy and of violence as the offspring of leadership , the " disenchantment " of the modern world together with the never @-@ ending power of religion , the antagonistic relation between intellectualism and eroticism : all these are key concepts which attest to the enduring fascination of Weber 's thinking .
Many of Weber 's works famous today were collected , revised and published posthumously . Significant interpretations of his writings were produced by such sociological luminaries as Talcott Parsons and C. Wright Mills . Parsons in particular imparted to Weber 's works a functionalist , teleological perspective ; this personal interpretation has been criticised for a latent conservatism .
Weber has influenced many later social theorists , such as Theodor Adorno , Max Horkheimer , György Lukács and Jürgen Habermas . Different elements of his thought were emphasised by Carl Schmitt , Joseph Schumpeter , Ludwig Lachmann , Leo Strauss , Hans Morgenthau , and Raymond Aron . According to Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises , who had met Weber during his time at the University of Vienna ,
The early death of this genius was a great disaster for Germany . Had Weber lived longer , the German people of today would be able to look to this example of an " Aryan " who would not be broken by National Socialism .
Weber 's friend , the psychiatrist and existentialist philosopher Karl Jaspers , described him as " the greatest German of our era " . Weber 's untimely death felt to Jaspers " as if the German world had lost its heart " .
= = Critical responses to Weber = =
Weber 's explanations are highly specific to the historical periods he analysed . Others though disagree , pointing out that despite the fact that Weber did write in the early twentieth century , his ideas remain alive and relevant for understanding issues like politics , bureaucracy , and social stratification today .
Many scholars , however , have disagreed with specific claims Weber makes in his historical analysis . For example , the economist Joseph Schumpeter argued that capitalism did not begin with the Industrial Revolution but in 14th century Italy . In Milan , Venice and Florence the small city @-@ state governments led to the development of the earliest forms of capitalism . In the 16th century Antwerp was a commercial centre of Europe . Also , the predominantly Calvinist country of Scotland did not enjoy the same economic growth as the Netherlands , England and New England . It has been pointed out that the Netherlands , which had a Calvinist majority , industrialised much later in the 19th century than predominantly Catholic Belgium , which was one of the centres of the Industrial Revolution on the European mainland . Emil Kauder expanded Schumpeter 's argument by arguing the hypothesis that Calvinism hurt the development of capitalism by leading to the development of the labour theory of value .
= Russian monitor Edinorog =
Edinorog ( Russian : Единорог ) was an Uragan @-@ class monitor built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . The design was based on the American Passaic @-@ class monitor , but was modified to suit Russian engines , guns and construction techniques . Spending her entire career with the Baltic Fleet , the ship was only active when the Gulf of Finland was not frozen , but very little is known about her service . She was struck from the Navy List in 1900 , converted into a storage hulk for mines in 1912 and renamed Blokshiv No. 4 . The ship survived World War II and was stricken in 1957 , although her ultimate fate is unknown .
= = Description = =
Edinorog was 201 feet ( 61 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 46 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 10 @.@ 16 – 10 @.@ 84 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 t ) , and her crew numbered eight officers and 88 enlisted men in 1865 . They numbered 10 officers and 100 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship was fitted with a two @-@ cylinder , horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine built by the Baird Works of Saint Petersburg . It drove a single propeller using steam that was provided by two rectangular boilers . Specific information on the output of the ship 's engine has not survived , but it ranged between 340 – 500 indicated horsepower ( 254 – 373 kW ) for all the ships of this class . During Edinorog 's sea trials on 19 June 1865 , she reached a maximum speed of 5 @.@ 75 knots ( 10 @.@ 65 km / h ; 6 @.@ 62 mph ) , the second slowest ship in the class . The ship carried a maximum of 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of coal , which gave her a theoretical endurance of 1 @,@ 440 nmi ( 2 @,@ 670 km ; 1 @,@ 660 mi ) at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
Edinorog was designed to be armed with a pair of 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns purchased from Krupp of Germany and rifled in Russia , but the rifling project was seriously delayed and the ship was completed with nine @-@ inch smoothbores . These lacked the penetration power necessary to deal with ironclads and they were replaced by license @-@ built 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in 1867 – 68 . The Rodman guns were replaced around 1876 with the originally intended nine @-@ inch rifled guns .
All of the wrought @-@ iron armor that was used in the Uragan @-@ class monitors was in 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates , just as in the Passaic @-@ class ships . The side of the ship was entirely covered with three to five layers of armor plates , of which the three innermost plates extended 42 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) below the waterline . This armor was backed by a wooden beam that had a maximum thickness of 36 inches ( 914 mm ) . The gun turret was protected by eleven layers of armor and the pilothouse above it had eight layers of armor . Curved plates six layers thick protected the base of the funnel up to a height of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above the deck . Unlike their predecessors , the Uragans were built without deck armor to save weight , but Edinorog was modified for the addition of 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) armor plates after completion , but it is unknown if they were ever fitted . They were , however , manufactured and then placed in storage .
= = Construction and career = =
Construction of the ship began on 13 June 1863 by S. G. Kudriavtsev at the state @-@ owned Galeryni Island Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Edinorog was laid down on 1 December 1863 and she was launched on 2 June 1864 . She entered service on 27 July 1865 and cost a total of 1 @,@ 141 @,@ 800 rubles , almost double her contract cost of 600 @,@ 000 rubles . The ship was assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and she , and all of her sister ships except Latnik , made a port visit to Stockholm , Sweden in July – August 1865 while under the command of General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich .
Sometime after Edinorog was completed , an armored ring , 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick and 15 inches ( 381 mm ) tall , was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent splinters from jamming it . Later , an armored , outward @-@ curving bulwark was fitted around the top of the turret to protect any crewmen there . Three sponsons were later added , probably during the 1870s , to the upper portion of the turret . Each sponson , one above the gun ports and one on each side of the turret , mounted a light gun , probably a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) Engstrem gun , for defense against torpedo boats . A fourth gun was mounted on a platform aft of the funnel when a hurricane deck was built between the funnel and the turret , also probably during the 1870s .
Little is known about the ship 's career other than that she was laid up each winter when the Gulf of Finland froze . Edinorog was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 and turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal on 6 July 1900 , although she was not stricken until 17 August . The ship was converted into a mine storage hulk in 1912 and renamed Blokshiv No. 4 on 10 July of that year . She was abandoned by the Soviets in Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) when they were forced to withdraw from Finland in April 1918 according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk , but she was later returned by the Finns . The ship was redesignated as Blokshiv No. 2 on 1 January 1932 and survived World War II to be renamed BSh @-@ 2 on 16 May 1949 . She was stricken on 27 June 1957 and turned over to the Kronstadt Yacht Club . Her ultimate fate is unknown .
= Tyler Ulis =
Tyler Ulis ( born January 5 , 1996 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He played college basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats . At Kentucky in 2015 , he led his team in assists , he made the 2015 SEC All @-@ Freshman Team and led the 2014 – 15 Kentucky team that won its first 38 games before losing to Wisconsin in the final four of the 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . As a sophomore , Ulis was a Consensus first team All @-@ American and earned the Southeastern Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year and the Southeastern Conference Men 's Basketball Defensive Player of the Year recognition .
He played for Marian Catholic High School in Chicago Heights , Illinois . He was selected to play in both the 2014 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game and the 2014 Jordan Brand Classic . As a high school junior , he was a first team All @-@ state selection , but he was overlooked by most top scouts until after his junior year of high school due to his height .
= = Early life = =
Ulis was born in Southfield , Michigan , and lived in Lima , Ohio , with his mother . He ran track as a youth , competing in the 800 meters and 1500 meters . He trained for basketball with his cousin and 2009 Big Ten Conference Defensive Player of the Year Travis Walton . Another of his cousins is Shareese Ulis , point guard for Cincinnati Lady Bearcats , who had been a two @-@ time Toledo Blade Player of the Year .
= = High school career = =
For high school , Ulis moved to Matteson , Illinois , where he lived with his father , James . In Ohio , he had been used to winning a high percentage of his games . When he arrived at Marian Catholic , he started his first game as a freshman against future Illinois Fighting Illini men 's basketball starting guard Tracy Abrams . He did not initially enjoy team success . As a freshman he was 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 60 m ) tall and was being recruited by opposing high schools . He reached 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) by late in his sophomore year and began being recruited by college basketball teams . By the beginning of his junior season , Marian Catholic was regarded as a serious contender thanks to Ulis .
Because of his height , Ulis was overlooked until well into the recruiting process for top basketball schools . He was not highly recruited until his 2013 – 14 senior year of high school . Among schools regarded as high @-@ major programs , only Iowa and DePaul made him offers during his junior year . His other offers were from Dayton , Colorado State , Loyola , Northern Illinois and Oregon State . During his junior season , his stock soared and Marian Catholic started winning . In the March 2013 Illinois High School Association Class 4A sectional round , Marian Catholic vied against Bloom High School and then played Edwardsville High School in the supersectional round . Although Marian lost to a much taller Edwardsville team , it established a school record for wins with a 29 – 4 record and it won its IHSA sectional for the first time . Ulis finished fourth in the Illinois Mr. Basketball balloting behind Jabari Parker , Jahlil Okafor and Malcolm Hill . He was a first team All @-@ state selection by the Chicago Tribune along with Parker , Okafor , Cliff Alexander and Jalen Brunson .
By August 8 , 2013 , when he was ranked as the 38th best prospect in the national class of 2014 and its 8th best point guard by ESPN , he had several offers and named Iowa , Kentucky ( although he did not have an offer from them at the time ) , Michigan State and USC as his finalists ( eliminating DePaul , Florida State , Northwestern and Purdue ) . Walton had played for Michigan State . He received an official offer from Kentucky on August 16 . In early September , Ulis announced that he would not take an official visit to USC and had eliminated them from consideration . On September 13 , Ulis committed to Kentucky . Subsequently , Tyus Jones canceled his September 27 – 29 official visit to Kentucky .
Ulis entered his senior season as one of the five favorites to win Illinois Mr. Basketball ( along with Okafor , Alexander , Brunson and Keita Bates @-@ Diop ) . On December 7 , 2013 at the UIC Pavilion in the Chicago Elite Classic , Ulis and Marion suffered one of their only two regular season losses to USC @-@ bound guard Jordan McLaughlin and Etiwanda High School , which was ranked number 6 nationally by USA Today . Ulis had 30 points , 7 assists and 5 rebounds . The January 25 , 2014 , matchup against junior Brunson and Stevenson High School was widely anticipated in the local press as the matchup of the two best point guards in the state . Stevenson won as Brunson had 32 points on 9 @-@ for @-@ 15 field goal shooting and an 11 @-@ for @-@ 14 free throw performance . Ulis had 23 points and 9 assists , including 18 points and 3 assists in the final eight minutes , but was only 5 @-@ for @-@ 20 from the field for the game . Ulis posted a career @-@ high 42 points on February 22 against Lake Forest High School to go along with 6 steals , 6 rebounds and 5 assists .
During his senior year , Marian was the number 1 seed in the Thornton sectional of the IHSA Class 4A tournament . On March 11 , Ulis had 40 points to lead Marian past Bloom High School 66 – 45 . In the game , which was a rematch from the prior year , he made his first six shots , all three @-@ pointers . On March 18 , Marian lost its supersectional rematch against Edwardsville in overtime , again falling one game short of reaching the final four in Peoria , Illinois and finishing with a 28 – 3 record . In the game , Ulis , who had 23 points and 4 assists , tied the score with 21 seconds in regulation and with 50 seconds left in overtime . In the April 18 Jordan Brand Classic , Ulis posted 9 points and 9 assists .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
He was selected to the 2014 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game on January 29 ( along with fellow Chicagoans Okafor and Alexander as well as along with fellow Kentucky commits Karl @-@ Anthony Towns , Trey Lyles , and Devin Booker ) . On March 10 he was one of 26 players selected for the April 18 , 2014 Jordan Brand Classic again along with fellow Chicagoans Okafor and Alexander as well as along with fellow Kentucky commits Towns , Lyles , and Booker . He was named Associated Press Class 4A 1st team All @-@ state with Alexander , Brunson , Okafor and Sean O 'Mara . Ulis finished third to Okafor and Alexander in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting . He was the runner @-@ up in both the skills competition and the three @-@ point contest at the McDonald 's All @-@ American Game . He was a 2014 USA Today third team All @-@ USA Boys Basketball Team selection .
The decision by Andrew Harrison and Aaron Harrison on whether to enter the 2014 NBA draft would be the determining factor on whether Ulis became an immediate starter or not . Many thought Andrew would be Calipari 's seventh consecutive point guard to declare for the NBA Draft after his freshman season , but that Ulis would likely last much longer at Kentucky . On April 25 , the Harrisons announced that they would be returning to Kentucky .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
Ulis was also named to the 36 @-@ man 2014 – 15 Bob Cousy Award Preseason Watch List and the Wayman Tisdale Award Watch List . Ulis quickly earned a reputation as a difference maker whose contributions may not be obvious in the statistics . On December 10 , he was sidelined with an injury . Ulis posted a career high 14 @-@ points on December 27 against Louisville in the Kentucky – Louisville rivalry game known as the The Battle For The Bluegrass , earning the MVP of the game from the The Bluegrass Sports Commission . On December 29 , his effort was recognized with an SEC Freshman of the Week honor . Ulis did not start in any his 37 games played as a freshman , but averaged 23 @.@ 8 minutes played . Following the season , he was named to the 8 @-@ man 2015 SEC All @-@ Freshman Team . Kentucky went undefeated in its first 38 games before losing to Wisconsin in the Final Four of the 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Ulis led the team in assists per game .
= = = Sophomore year = = =
Ulis was a selection to the 20 @-@ man Bob Cousy Award preseason watchlist , and the 30 @-@ man Lute Olson Award preseason watchlist . He was also a 2015 – 16 Southeastern Conference preseason first team All @-@ conference selection by the media . In preseason top 100 player rankings Ulis was ranked 5 by ESPN and 22 by NBC Sports . During the preseason , Mike Rutherford of SB Nation selected Ulis as one of its 10 most important college basketball players for 2015 @-@ 16 . He made the initial 50 @-@ man John R. Wooden Award watch list on November 17 . On December 2 , Ulis earned recognition on the 50 @-@ man Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist and 33 @-@ man Robertson Trophy watchlists .
Ulis opened the season in the starting lineup against the Albany Great Danes on November 13 . On November 17 , Ulis posted game @-@ high and career @-@ high 18 points as well as game @-@ high 6 assists with no turnovers in 40 minutes of play in a victory over the defending national champion Duke Blue Devils in the Champions Classic . He posted a game @-@ high and career @-@ high 21 points as well as a game @-@ high 5 assists on November 21 against Wright State . As a result , on November 23 , he earned SEC Co @-@ Player of the Week ( along with Kenny Gaines ) . In Kentucky 's 2015 – 16 Southeastern Conference men 's basketball season opener against the Ole Miss Rebels on January 2 , Ulis posted 20 points and 10 assists . The game marked Ulis ' first collegiate double @-@ double and Kentucky 's first 20 @-@ point and 10 @-@ assist performance since John Wall posted one on November 21 , 2009 . On January 5 , Ulis posted his third straight 20 @-@ point performance with a career @-@ high 23 points in a loss against the Ben Simmons @-@ led LSU Tigers . On January 13 , Ulis was among the 25 players included in the John R. Wooden Award Midseason Top 25 Watch List . On January 21 , Ulis went 14 – 15 from the free throw line and 2 – 3 on three @-@ point shots to post 24 against Arkansas . Ulis was named to the January 25 20 @-@ man Oscar Robertson Trophy midseason watch list . On January 30 , Ulis posted a career @-@ high 26 points and 8 assists against # 4 @-@ ranked Kansas , but Kentucky lost in overtime . On February 1 , Ulis was named one of 10 finalists for the Bob Cousy Point Guard of the Year Award . Entering play on February 13 , Kentucky and South Carolina were tied atop of the 2015 – 16 Southeastern Conference standings . In a game between the two , Ulis posted new career highs with 27 points and 12 assists , leading the team to an 89 – 62 victory , after coach Calipari was ejected early . He was named to the 35 @-@ man midseason watchlist for the Naismith Trophy on February 11 . Ulis was included in the Wooden Award Late season Top 20 Watch List on February 12 . On February 15 , Ulis earned SEC Player of the Week honors again . On February 29 , Ulis was among the 11 finalists for the Robertson Trophy . On March 5 , Ulis closed out the regular season with a career @-@ high 14 assists and 14 points against the LSU Tigers .
Following the 2015 – 16 Southeastern Conference men 's basketball season , Ulis was named the SEC Player of the Year by both SEC head coaches and the Associated Press , and was also named by the coaches as SEC Defensive Player of the Year ( the AP does not select this award , or an SEC all @-@ defensive team ) . He placed on both voting bodies ' All @-@ Conference first teams , and was named to the coaches ' All @-@ SEC defensive team . He was the second player ( after Anthony Davis ) to earn both the SEC Player of the Year and SEC Defensive Player of the Year honors in the same season . Ulis earned broad 2016 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ Americans recognition . He was a first team selection by USA Today , ESPN , Sports Illustrated , NBC Sports , Associated Press , CBS Sports , and Sporting News ; He was a second team selection by the USBWA and NABC . Ulis was named one of four finalists for the Naismith Trophy on March 20 . He was named one of 10 finalists for the Wooden Award on March 29 . When naming Ulis to its All @-@ American team , Associated Press described Ulis as the shortest All @-@ American since Johnny O 'Brien in 1953 . Ulis won the Bob Cousy Award .
In the 2016 SEC Men 's Basketball Tournament , Ulis scored 25 points and had 4 assists in the semifinal victory over Georgia on March 12 . In the finals against regular season co @-@ champion Texas A & M on March 13 , Ulis posted a career @-@ high 30 points . He played all 45 minutes of the overtime contest . Ulis was tournament MVP . In the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Kentucky renewed its rivalry with Indiana in the round of 32 on March 20 . Ulis posted 27 points in the 73 – 67 loss to the 2015 – 16 Hoosiers .
= = Professional career = =
At the conclusion of his sophomore season , Ulis announced his intention to forgo his final two seasons of eligibility and enter the 2016 NBA draft . During the 2016 NBA Draft Combine , Ulis was not only the second @-@ shortest player to participate in the event ( behind only Kahlil Felder , who measured at 5 ' 9 @.@ 5 " with shoes on ( 5 ' 8 @.@ 5 " without shoes ) as opposed to an even 5 ' 10 " with shoes on ( 5 @.@ 8 @.@ 75 " without them ) ) , but he was also the lightest recorded player in draft combine history at 149 pounds . Furthermore , about two weeks before the draft began , it was revealed that Ulis had a problem with his hip that may one day require surgery . As a result , his draft stock declined from being an expected mid @-@ first round selection to being either a late @-@ first round or early @-@ second round selection . Ulis downplayed the issue , claiming that his hip was just fine . However , Ulis was selected by the Phoenix Suns in the second round with their 34th selection , being reunited with his best friend and former college teammate Devin Booker in the process . He became the fifth Kentucky player on the Suns ' roster along with fellow guards Eric Bledsoe , Archie Goodwin , Brandon Knight , and Booker . On July 7 , he signed with the Suns and joined the team for the 2016 NBA Summer League . Ulis received the equivalent of a late first @-@ round pick 's contract , starting at around $ 1 million and having the same two guaranteed years with two team option years . Over six games at the Las Vegas Summer League , he averaged 14 @.@ 5 points and 6 @.@ 3 assists per game , subsequently earning All @-@ NBA Summer League Second Team honors .
= Bob Fires the Kids =
" Bob Fires the Kids " is the third episode of the third season of the American animated comedy series Bob 's Burgers . Written by Lizzie and Wendy Molyneux , the episode sees Bob Belcher ( H. Jon Benjamin ) firing his children Tina ( Dan Mintz ) , Gene ( Eugene Mirman ) , and Louise ( Kristen Schaal ) from the family restaurant for the summer , not wanting to deprive them of normal childhood experiences as his own father did . However , when the children grow bored of summer activities , they seek employment at a local farm , which unbeknownst to them grows marijuana .
The episode also sees the return of the bank robber Mickey , voiced by guest actor Bill Hader , who is hired by Bob at the restaurant in his children 's absence . Other guest voice actors include Megan Mullally and Nick Offerman of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation as the hippie farming couple Beverly and Cooper , Doug Benson as an undercover DEA agent , and Kevin Kline as recurring series character Calvin Fischoeder .
After its original scheduled air date was preempted by Fox for a National League Championship Series broadcast , the episode aired on the network on November 4 , 2012 . It was watched by 3 @.@ 92 million viewers and received positive reviews from critics , who praised its combination of subplots involving the Belcher parents and children and the incorporation of the character Mickey ; positive comparisons to The Simpsons were also drawn .
= = Plot = =
Bob receives a package containing his childhood toys , which consist of nothing more than a scouring pad , a rusted spatula , and a dog @-@ shaped soap bar . The toys make Bob recall memories of constantly working at his father 's restaurant , and he realizes that his job deprived him of a normal childhood . Worried that he is doing the same to his own children , he fires Tina , Gene and Louise and encourages them to enjoy their summer vacation . In their place , he hires newly released bank robber Mickey , whom the family had previously befriended , to do various jobs around the restaurant , in exchange for free meals and shelter in the basement .
Meanwhile , the children find outdoor summer activities unsatisfying and soon grow bored . They later wander into a blueberry farm and meet its elderly owners , the hippie couple Beverly and Cooper , who offer to hire Gene and Louise to " pick weeds " and Tina as a blueberry delivery girl . With the promise of a daily $ 10 salary , the children accept and soon become unsuspecting accomplices in a marijuana delivery business . One night Bob discovers Mickey making a hole in the basement , and Mickey reveals his plan to dig his way into the same bank he previously robbed , believing that the double jeopardy defense will clear him of any crime . Bob explains to Mickey that he can , in fact , be jailed again , and promptly fires him .
Bob attempts to rehire his children the next day , explaining that he now realizes that he is a better parent than his distant , alcoholic father , only to discover that they have found other work . A customer of the farm delivery service later walks into the restaurant looking for Tina , leaving behind a box of blueberries . Bob and his wife Linda ( John Roberts ) discover marijuana hidden in the box and set off to find the children , with Mickey leading them to the farm 's location . As they arrive and take back the children , a SWAT team – led by the aforementioned customer , who is actually an undercover DEA agent – shows up and arrests the hippies . The scene cuts to Wagstaff School , where Louise has narrated the episode 's events to her class for her report on how she spent her summer vacation .
= = Production = =
" Bob Fires the Kids " was written by Lizzie and Wendy Molyneux , and directed by Boohwan and Kyounghee Lim . Despite airing as a part of the show 's third season , it was actually produced as the twelfth episode of its second season , hence bearing the production code 2ASA12 . The episode 's title was first revealed in a February 2012 post on the official Bob 's Burgers writers ' blog alongside its accompanying script cover , designed by series storyboard artist Tony Gennaro .
The episode guest stars actor and comedian Bill Hader , reprising his role as the bank robber Mickey from the second season episode " Bob Day Afternoon " . Megan Mullally , who voices the character Aunt Gayle in the series , also makes a guest appearance in the episode with her husband and Parks and Recreation co @-@ star Nick Offerman as the hippie couple Beverly and Cooper . Comedian Doug Benson voices an undercover DEA agent , while Kevin Kline voices recurring series character Calvin Fischoeder in a brief appearance .
During the recording of the episode , Hader ad @-@ libbed calypso scat singing , which series creator Loren Bouchard cited as an " amazing [ example of ] when a person comes in and ad @-@ libs music . " Bouchard further stated : " There 's something so musical about it and he 's clearly so talented , but it 's also silly and in character . It 's nice to have your cake and eat it , too . " Hader 's singing is incorporated into a scene in the episode where Mickey sings while making a hole in Bob 's basement wall , and is later reprised in the episode 's end credits . The same scene sees Mickey attempting to cover up the hole with a Big film poster , which serves as a reference to the 1994 film The Shawshank Redemption .
= = Reception = =
" Bob Fires the Kids " first aired in the United States on November 4 , 2012 on Fox , as a part of the Animation Domination programming block . It had originally been scheduled to air on October 21 , but was preempted for Fox 's broadcast of game six of the 2012 National League Championship Series . The episode was watched by 3 @.@ 92 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 8 / 4 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , becoming the fourth most @-@ watched program of the Animation Domination block for the night . It was surpassed in ratings by Sunday Night Football and The Amazing Race , which aired on NBC and CBS respectively in the same time slot .
Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave " Bob Fires the Kids " a B + rating , calling its premise and structure " reminiscent of classic Simpsons style " and writing that the episode " is effective because it doesn 't just divide the kids and the parents : it sets them against one another . " He added that while the main plot " loses some momentum at the conclusion , [ the episode ] keeps from sinking thanks to a steady stream of great lines going throughout . " Kowan concluded his review by stating that he was " perfectly happy to laugh throughout an episode as a fan , even though as a critic [ he ] might occasionally want just a little bit more . "
Ross Bonaime of Paste wrote : " As great as an episode of Bob 's Burgers can be when the kids and the adults are given their own separate stories ... there 's something much more rewarding about a storyline that combines the two groups in an almost Simpson @-@ ian manner . " He also praised the episode 's guest voice actors , citing in particular Bill Hader 's character Mickey as " very odd , but so much fun " ; Bonaime gave " Bob Fires the Kids " an overall grade of 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 . Jen Johnson , writing for Den of Geek , also cited Mickey as a highlight of the episode , stating : " I would say that I hope this is the end of Mickey and the chaos he brings to the Belcher family ,
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proved decisive , as the battle permanently destroyed the power of Melitene . The Byzantine victory at Lalakaon altered the strategic balance in the region , and heralded the beginning of Byzantium 's century @-@ long offensive in the East .
The importance of these victories did not go unnoticed at the time : the Byzantines hailed them as revenge for the sack of Amorium 25 years earlier , the victorious generals were granted a triumphal entry into Constantinople , and special celebrations and services were held . Petronas was awarded the high court title of magistros , and the kleisoura of Charsianon was raised to a full theme . On the Muslim side , al @-@ Tabari reports that the news of the deaths of Umar and Ali — " strong defenders of Islam , men of great courage who elicited enormous praise among the frontier districts where they served " — provoked great outpouring of grief in Baghdad and other cities , culminating in riots and looting . As Tabari comments , however , while private donations and volunteers for the holy war began to flock to the border , " the central authorities [ were not ] prepared to send a military force against the Byzantines on their own account in those days " due to the ongoing internal turmoil in the Caliphate .
The removal of the eastern threat and the rise of the Byzantines ' confidence also opened up opportunities in the west , where the Bulgarian ruler Boris ( r . 852 – 889 ) had been negotiating with the Pope and Louis the German ( r . 817 – 876 ) for a possible conversion of himself and his pagan people to Christianity . This expansion of Rome 's ecclesiastic influence up to Constantinople 's very doorstep could not be tolerated by the Byzantine government . In 864 , the victorious eastern armies were transferred to Europe and invaded Bulgaria , in a demonstration of military might that convinced Boris to accept Byzantine missionaries instead . Boris was baptized , taking the name Michael in honor of the Byzantine emperor , thus beginning the Christianization of Bulgaria and initiating the nation 's absorption into the Byzantine @-@ influenced , Eastern Orthodox world .
= = Influence on heroic poetry = =
According to the French Byzantinist Henri Grégoire , the Byzantine success against the Arabs that culminated with the Battle of Lalakaon inspired the creation of one of the oldest surviving acritic ( heroic ) poems : the Song of Armouris . Grégoire claimed that the eponymous protagonist , the young Byzantine warrior Armouris , was actually inspired by Emperor Michael III . A battle from the Byzantine heroic cycle around Digenis Akritas also strongly recalls the events of Lalakaon , as the eponymous hero surrounds an Arab army near Malakopeia . Strong influences can be found in episodes in the Arab , and later Turkish , epic cycles around Battal Ghazi , as well as an episode in the One Thousand and One Nights .
= Anonymous ( group ) =
Anonymous is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities . A website nominally associated with the group describes it as " an Internet gathering " with " a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives " . The group became known for a series of well @-@ publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial @-@ of @-@ service ( DDoS ) attacks on government , religious , and corporate websites .
Anonymous originated in 2003 on the imageboard 4chan , representing the concept of many online and offline community users simultaneously existing as an anarchic , digitized global brain . Anonymous members ( known as " Anons " ) can be distinguished in public by the wearing of Guy Fawkes masks in the style portrayed in the graphic novel and film , V for Vendetta .
In its early form , the concept was adopted by a decentralized online community acting anonymously in a coordinated manner , usually toward a loosely self @-@ agreed goal , and primarily focused on entertainment , or " lulz " . Beginning with 2008 's Project Chanology — a series of protests , pranks , and hacks targeting the Church of Scientology — the Anonymous collective became increasingly associated with collaborative hacktivism on a number of issues internationally . Individuals claiming to align themselves with Anonymous undertook protests and other actions ( including direct action ) in retaliation against copyright @-@ focused campaigns by motion picture and recording industry trade associations . Later targets of Anonymous hacktivism included government agencies of the U.S. , Israel , Tunisia , Uganda , and others ; the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ; child pornography sites ; copyright protection agencies ; the Westboro Baptist Church ; and corporations such as PayPal , MasterCard , Visa , and Sony . Anons have publicly supported WikiLeaks and the Occupy movement . Related groups LulzSec and Operation AntiSec carried out cyberattacks on U.S. government agencies , media , video game companies , military contractors , military personnel , and police officers , resulting in the attention of law enforcement to the groups ' activities . Some actions by the group have been described as being anti @-@ Zionist . It has threatened to cyber @-@ attack Israel and engaged in the " # OpIsrael " cyber @-@ attacks of Israeli websites on Yom HaShoah ( Holocaust Remembrance Day ) in 2013 .
Dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks , in countries including the U.S. , UK , Australia , the Netherlands , Spain , and Turkey . Evaluations of the group 's actions and effectiveness vary widely . Supporters have called the group " freedom fighters " and digital Robin Hoods while critics have described them as " a cyber lynch @-@ mob " or " cyber terrorists " . In 2012 , Time called Anonymous one of the " 100 most influential people " in the world .
= = Philosophy = =
Anonymous has no strictly defined philosophy , and internal dissent is a regular feature of the group . A website associated with the group describes it as " an Internet gathering " with " a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives " . Gabriella Coleman writes of the group , " In some ways , it may be impossible to gauge the intent and motive of thousands of participants , many of who don 't even bother to leave a trace of their thoughts , motivations , and reactions . Among those that do , opinions vary considerably . "
Broadly speaking , Anons oppose Internet censorship and control , and the majority of their actions target governments , organizations , and corporations that they accuse of censorship . Anons were early supporters of the global Occupy movement and the Arab Spring . Since 2008 , a frequent subject of disagreement within Anonymous is whether members should focus on pranking and entertainment or more serious ( and , in some cases , political ) activism .
Because Anonymous has no leadership , no action can be attributed to the membership as a whole . Parmy Olson and others have criticized media coverage that presents the group as well @-@ organized or homogeneous ; Olson writes , " There was no single leader pulling the levers , but a few organizational minds that sometimes pooled together to start planning a stunt . " Some members protest using legal means , while others employ illegal measures such as DDoS attacks and hacking . Membership is open to anyone who wishes to state they are a member of the collective ; Carole Cadwalladr of The Observer compared the group 's decentralized structure to that of al @-@ Qaeda , writing , " If you believe in Anonymous , and call yourself Anonymous , you are Anonymous . " Olson , who formerly described Anonymous as a " brand " , stated in 2012 that she now characterized it as a " movement " rather than a group : " anyone can be part of it . It is a crowd of people , a nebulous crowd of people , working together and doing things together for various purposes . "
The group 's few rules include not disclosing one 's identity , not talking about the group , and not attacking media . Members commonly use the tagline " We are Anonymous . We are Legion . We do not forgive . We do not forget . Expect us . " Brian Kelly writes that three of the group 's key characteristics are " ( 1 ) an unrelenting moral stance on issues and rights , regardless of direct provocation ; ( 2 ) a physical presence that accompanies online hacking activity ; and ( 3 ) a distinctive brand . "
Journalists have commented that Anonymous ' secrecy , fabrications , and media awareness pose an unusual challenge for reporting on the group 's actions and motivations . Quinn Norton of Wired writes that " Anons lie when they have no reason to lie . They weave vast fabrications as a form of performance . Then they tell the truth at unexpected and unfortunate times , sometimes destroying themselves in the process . They are unpredictable . " Norton states that the difficulties in reporting on the group cause most writers , including herself , to focus on the " small groups of hackers who stole the limelight from a legion , defied their values , and crashed violently into the law " rather than " Anonymous ’ s sea of voices , all experimenting with new ways of being in the world " .
= = History = =
= = = 4chan raids ( 2003 – 2007 ) = = =
The name Anonymous itself is inspired by the perceived anonymity under which users post images and comments on the Internet . Usage of the term Anonymous in the sense of a shared identity began on imageboards , particularly the / b / board of 4chan , dedicated to random content . A tag of Anonymous is assigned to visitors who leave comments without identifying the originator of the posted content . Users of imageboards sometimes jokingly acted as if Anonymous was a single individual . The concept of the Anonymous entity advanced in 2004 when an administrator on the 4chan image board activated a " Forced _ Anon " protocol that signed all posts as Anonymous . As the popularity of imageboards increased , the idea of Anonymous as a collective of unnamed individuals became an Internet meme .
Users of 4chan 's / b / board would occasionally join into mass pranks or raids . In a raid on July 12 , 2006 , for example , large numbers of 4chan readers invaded the Finnish social networking site Habbo Hotel with identical avatars ; the avatars blocked regular Habbo members from accessing the digital hotel 's pool , stating it was " closed due to fail and AIDS " . Future LulzSec member Topiary became involved with the site at this time , inviting large audiences to listen to his prank phone calls via Skype . Due to the growing traffic on 4chan 's boards , users soon began to plot pranks offline using Internet Relay Chat ( IRC ) . These raids resulted in the first mainstream press story on Anonymous , a report by Fox station KTTV in Los Angeles , California in the U.S. The report called the group " hackers on steroids " , " domestic terrorists " , and an " Internet hate machine " .
= = = Encyclopedia Dramatica ( 2004 – present ) = = =
Encyclopedia Dramatica was founded in 2004 by Sherrod DiGrippo , initially as a means of documenting gossip related to livejournal , but it quickly was adopted as a major platform by Anonymous for satirical and other purposes . The not safe for work site celebrates a subversive " trolling culture " , and documents Internet memes , culture , and events , such as mass pranks , trolling events , " raids " , large @-@ scale failures of Internet security , and criticism of Internet communities that are accused of self @-@ censorship in order to garner prestige or positive coverage from traditional and established media outlets . Journalist Julian Dibbell described Encyclopædia Dramatica as the site " where the vast parallel universe of Anonymous in @-@ jokes , catchphrases , and obsessions is lovingly annotated , and you will discover an elaborate trolling culture : Flamingly racist and misogynist content lurks throughout , all of it calculated to offend . " The site also played a role in the anti @-@ Scientology campaign of Project Chanology .
On April 14 , 2011 , the original URL of the site was redirected to a new website named Oh Internet that bore little resemblance to Encyclopedia Dramatica . Parts of the ED community harshly criticized the changes . In response , Anonymous launched " Operation Save ED " to rescue and restore the site 's content . The Web Ecology Project made a downloadable archive of former Encyclopedia Dramatica content . The site 's reincarnation was initially hosted at encyclopediadramatica.ch on servers owned by Ryan Cleary , who later was arrested in relation to attacks by LulzSec against Sony .
= = = Project Chanology ( 2008 ) = = =
Anonymous first became associated with hacktivism in 2008 following a series of actions against the Church of Scientology known as Project Chanology . On January 15 , 2008 , the gossip blog Gawker posted a video in which celebrity Scientologist Tom Cruise praised the religion ; and the Church responded with a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter for violation of copyright . 4chan users organized a raid against the Church in retaliation , prank @-@ calling its hotline , sending black faxes designed to waste ink cartridges , and launching DDoS attacks against its websites .
The DDoS attacks were at first carried out with the Gigaloader and JMeter applications . Within a few days , these were supplanted by the Low Orbit Ion Cannon ( LOIC ) , a network stress @-@ testing application allowing users to flood a server with TCP or UDP packets . The LOIC soon became a signature weapon in the Anonymous arsenal ; however , it would also lead to a number of arrests of less experienced Anons who failed to conceal their IP addresses . Some operators in Anonymous IRC channels incorrectly told or lied to new volunteers that using the LOIC carried no legal risk .
During the DDoS attacks , a group of Anons uploaded a YouTube video in which a robotic voice speaks on behalf of Anonymous , telling the " leaders of Scientology " that " For the good of your followers , for the good of mankind — for the laughs — we shall expel you from the Internet . " Within ten days , the video had attracted hundreds of thousands of views .
On February 10 , thousands of Anonymous joined simultaneous protests at Church of Scientology facilities around the world . Many protesters wore the stylized Guy Fawkes masks popularized by the graphic novel and movie V for Vendetta , in which an anarchist revolutionary battles a totalitarian government ; the masks soon became a popular symbol for Anonymous . In @-@ person protests against the Church continued throughout the year , including " Operation Party Hard " on March 15 and " Operation Reconnect " on April 12 . However , by mid @-@ year , they were drawing far fewer protesters , and many of the organizers in IRC channels had begun to drift away from the project .
= = = Operation Payback ( 2010 ) = = =
By the start of 2009 , Scientologists had stopped engaging with protesters and had improved online security , and actions against the group had largely ceased . A period of infighting followed between the politically engaged members ( called " moralfags " in the parlance of 4chan ) and those seeking to provoke for entertainment ( trolls ) . By September 2010 , the group had received little publicity for a year and faced a corresponding drop in member interest ; its raids diminished greatly in size and moved largely off of IRC channels , organizing again from the chan boards , particularly / b / .
In September 2010 , however , Anons became aware of Aiplex Software , an Indian software company that contracted with film studios to launch DDoS attacks on websites used by copyright infringers , such as The Pirate Bay . Coordinating through IRC , Anons launched a DDoS attack on September 17 that shut down Aiplex 's website for a day . Primarily using LOIC , the group then targeted the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , successfully bringing down both sites . On September 19 , future LulzSec member Mustafa Al @-@ Bassam ( known as " Tflow " ) and other Anons hacked the website of Copyright Alliance , an anti @-@ infringement group , and posted the name of the operation : " Payback Is A Bitch , " or " Operation Payback " for short . Anons also issued a press release , stating :
Anonymous is tired of corporate interests controlling the internet and silencing the people ’ s rights to spread information , but more importantly , the right to SHARE with one another . The RIAA and the MPAA feign to aid the artists and their cause ; yet they do no such thing . In their eyes is not hope , only dollar signs . Anonymous will not stand this any longer .
As IRC network operators were beginning to shut down networks involved in DDoS attacks , Anons organized a group of servers to host an independent IRC network , titled AnonOps . Operation Payback 's targets rapidly expanded to include the British law firm ACS : Law , the Australian Federation Against Copyright Theft , the British nightclub Ministry of Sound , the Spanish copyright society Sociedad General de Autores y Editores , the U.S. Copyright Office , and the website of Gene Simmons of Kiss . By October 7 , 2010 , total downtime for all websites attacked during Operation Payback was 537 @.@ 55 hours .
In November 2010 , the organization WikiLeaks began releasing hundreds of thousands of leaked U.S. diplomatic cables . In the face of legal threats against the organization by the U.S. government , Amazon.com booted WikiLeaks from its servers , and PayPal , MasterCard , and Visa cut off service to the organization . Operation Payback then expanded to include " Operation Avenge Assange " , and Anons issued a press release declaring PayPal a target . Launching DDoS attacks with the LOIC , Anons quickly brought down the websites of the PayPal blog ; PostFinance , a Swiss financial company denying service to WikiLeaks ; EveryDNS , a web @-@ hosting company that had also denied service ; and the website of U.S. Senator Joe Lieberman , who had supported the push to cut off services .
On December 8 , Anons launched an attack against PayPal 's main site . According to Topiary , who was in the command channel during the attack , the LOIC proved ineffective , and Anons were forced to rely on the botnets of two hackers for the attack , marshaling hijacked computers for a concentrated assault . Security researcher Sean @-@ Paul Correll also reported that the " zombie computers " of involuntary botnets had provided 90 % of the attack . Topiary states that he and other Anons then " lied a bit to the press to give it that sense of abundance " , exaggerating the role of the grassroots membership . However , this account was disputed .
The attacks brought down PayPal.com for an hour on December 8 and another brief period on December 9 . Anonymous also disrupted the sites for Visa and MasterCard on December 8 . Anons had announced an intention to bring down Amazon.com as well , but failed to do so , allegedly because of infighting with the hackers who controlled the botnets . PayPal estimated the damage to have cost the company US $ 5 @.@ 5 million . It later provided the IP addresses of 1 @,@ 000 of its attackers to the FBI , leading to at least 14 arrests . On Thursday , December 5 , 2013 , 13 of the PayPal 14 pleaded guilty to taking part in the attacks .
= = = 2011 – 2012 = = =
In the years following Operation Payback , targets of Anonymous protests , hacks , and DDoS attacks continued to diversify . Beginning in January 2011 , Anons took a number of actions known initially as Operation Tunisia in support of Arab Spring movements . Tflow created a script that Tunisians could use to protect their web browsers from government surveillance , while fellow future LulzSec member Hector Xavier Monsegur ( alias " Sabu " ) and others allegedly hijacked servers from a London web @-@ hosting company to launch a DDoS attack on Tunisian government websites , taking them offline . Sabu also used a Tunisian volunteer 's computer to hack the website of Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi , replacing it with a message from Anonymous . Anons also helped Tunisian dissidents share videos online about the uprising . In Operation Egypt , Anons collaborated with the activist group Telecomix to help dissidents access government @-@ censored websites . Sabu and Topiary went on to participate in attacks on government websites in Bahrain , Egypt , Libya , Jordan , and Zimbabwe .
Tflow , Sabu , Topiary , and Ryan Ackroyd ( known as " Kayla " ) collaborated in February 2011 on a cyber @-@ attack against Aaron Barr , CEO of the computer security firm HBGary Federal , in retaliation for his research on Anonymous and his threat to expose members of the group . Using a SQL injection weakness , the four hacked the HBGary site , used Barr 's captured password to vandalize his Twitter feed with racist messages , and released an enormous cache of HBGary 's e @-@ mails in a torrent file on Pirate Bay . The e @-@ mails stated that Barr and HBGary had proposed to Bank of America a plan to discredit WikiLeaks in retaliation for a planned leak of Bank of America documents , and the leak caused substantial public relations harm to the firm as well as leading one U.S. congressman to call for a congressional investigation . Barr resigned as CEO before the end of the month .
Several attacks by Anons have targeted organizations accused of homophobia . In February 2011 , an open letter was published on AnonNews.org threatening the Westboro Baptist Church , an organization based in Kansas in the U.S. known for picketing funerals with signs reading " God Hates Fags " . During a live radio current affairs program in which Topiary debated church member Shirley Phelps @-@ Roper , Anons hacked one of the organization 's websites . After the church announced its intentions in December 2012 to picket the funerals of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting victims , Anons published the names , phone numbers , and e @-@ mail and home addresses of church members and brought down GodHatesFags.com with a DDoS attack . Hacktivists also circulated petitions to have the church 's tax @-@ exempt status investigated . In August 2012 , Anons hacked the site of Ugandan Prime Minister Amama Mbabazi in retaliation for the Parliament of Uganda 's consideration of an anti @-@ homosexuality law permitting capital punishment .
In April 2011 , Anons launched a series of attacks against Sony in retaliation for trying to stop hacks of the PlayStation 3 game console . More than 100 million Sony accounts were compromised , and the Sony services Qriocity and PlayStation Network were taken down for a month apiece by cyberattacks .
When the Occupy Wall Street protests began in New York City in September 2011 , Anons were early participants and helped spread the movement to other cities such as Boston . In October , some Anons attacked the website of the New York Stock Exchange while other Anons publicly opposed the action via Twitter . Some Anons also helped organize an Occupy protest outside the London Stock Exchange on May 1 , 2012 .
Anons launched Operation Darknet in October 2011 , targeting websites hosting child pornography . Most notably , the group hacked a child pornography site called " Lolita City " hosted by Freedom Hosting , releasing 1 @,@ 589 usernames from the site . Anons also stated that they had disabled forty image @-@ swapping pedophile websites that employed the anonymity network Tor . In 2012 , Anons leaked the names of users of a suspected child pornography site in OpDarknetV2 .
In 2011 , the Koch Industries website was attacked following their attack upon union members , resulting in their website being unable to be accessed for 15 minutes . In 2013 , one member , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old truck driver , pleaded guilty when accused of participating in the attack for a period of one minute , and received a sentence of two years federal probation , and ordered to pay $ 183 @,@ 000 restitution , the amount Koch stated they paid a consultancy organisation , despite this being only a denial of service attack .
On January 19 , 2012 , the U.S. Department of Justice shut down the file @-@ sharing site Megaupload on allegations of copyright infringement . Anons responded with a wave of DDoS attacks on U.S. government and copyright organizations , shutting down the sites for the RIAA , MPAA , Broadcast Music , Inc . , and the FBI .
In 2012 , Anonymous launched Operation Anti @-@ Bully : Operation Hunt Hunter in retaliation to Hunter Moore 's revenge porn site , " Is Anyone Up ? " Anonymous crashed Moore 's servers and publicized much of his personal information online , including his social security number . The organization also published the personal information of Andrew Myers , the proprietor of " Is Anyone Back , " a copycat site of Mr. Moore 's " Is Anyone Up ? "
In response to Operation Pillar of Defense , a November 2012 Israeli military operation in the Gaza Strip , Anons took down hundreds of Israeli websites with DDoS attacks . Anons pledged another " massive cyberassault " against Israel in April 2013 in retaliation for its actions in Gaza , promising to " wipe Israel off the map of the Internet " . However , its DDoS attacks caused only temporary disruptions , leading cyberwarfare experts to suggest that the group had been unable to recruit or hire botnet operators for the attack .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
= = = = Million Mask March = = = =
On 5 November 2013 , Anonymous protesters gathered around the world for the Million Mask March . Demonstrations were held in 400 cities around the world to coincide with Guy Fawkes Night .
= = = = # OpOk = = = =
Operation Oklahoma was a Mutual Aid effort responding to the 2013 flash floods and wind storms in the United States .
= = = = Operation Safe Winter = = = =
Operation Safe Winter was an effort to raise awareness about homelessness through the collection , collation , and redistribution of resources . This program began on 7 November 2013 after an online call to action from Anonymous UK . Three missions using a charity framework were suggested in the original global spawning a variety of direct actions from used clothing drives to pitch in community potlucks feeding events in the UK , U.S. and Turkey .
The # OpSafeWinter call to action quickly spread through the Mutual Aid communities like Occupy Wall Street and its offshoot groups like the open @-@ source @-@ based OccuWeather . With the addition of the long @-@ term mutual aid communities of New York City and online hacktivists in the U.S. , it took on an additional three suggested missions . Encouraging participation from the general public , this Operation has raised questions of privacy and the changing nature of the Anonymous community 's use of monikers . The project to support those living on the streets while causing division in its own online network has been able to partner with many efforts and organizations not traditionally associated with Anonymous or online activists .
= = = = Shooting of Michael Brown = = = =
In the wake of the fatal police shooting of unarmed African @-@ American Michael Brown , " Operation Ferguson " — a hacktivist organization that claimed to be associated with Anonymous — organized cyberprotests against police , setting up a website and a Twitter account to do so . The group promised that if any protesters were harassed or harmed , they would attack the city 's servers and computers , taking them offline . City officials said that e @-@ mail systems were targeted and phones died , while the Internet crashed at the City Hall . Prior to August 15 , members of Anonymous corresponding with Mother Jones said that they were working on confirming the identity of the undisclosed police officer who shot Brown and would release his name as soon as they did . On August 14 , Anonymous posted on its Twitter feed what it claimed was the name of the officer involved in the shooting . However , police said the identity released by Anonymous was incorrect . Twitter subsequently suspended the Anonymous account from its service .
It was reported on 19 November 2014 that Anonymous had declared cyber war on the Ku Klux Klan ( KKK ) the previous week , after the KKK had made death threats following the Ferguson riots . They hacked the KKK 's Twitter account , attacked servers hosting KKK sites , and started to release the personal details of members .
= = = = Shooting of Tamir Rice = = = =
On November 24 , 2014 , Anonymous shut down the Cleveland city website and posted a video after Tamir Rice , a twelve @-@ year @-@ old boy armed only with a BB gun , was shot to death by a police officer in a Cleveland park . Anonymous also used BeenVerified to uncover phone number and address of a policeman involved in the shooting .
= = = = Charlie Hebdo shootings = = = =
In January 2015 , Anonymous released a video and a statement via Twitter condemning the attack on Charlie Hebdo , in which 12 people , including eight journalists , were fatally shot . The video , claiming that it is " a message for al @-@ Qaeda , the Islamic State and other terrorists , " was uploaded to the group 's Belgian account . The announcement stated that " We , Anonymous around the world , have decided to declare war on you , the terrorists " and promises to avenge the killings by " shut [ ting ] down your accounts on all social networks . " On January 12 , they brought down a website that was suspected to belong to one of these groups . Critics of the action warned that taking down extremists ' websites would make them harder to monitor .
= = = = Anti @-@ Islamic " Reclaim Australia " rally = = = =
Anonymous opposed Anti @-@ Islamic Reclaim Australia rallies and described it as " an extreme right @-@ wing group inciting religious hatred . " It also promised to organize counter @-@ rallies on April 4 , 2015 .
= = = = Operation CyberPrivacy = = = =
On June 17 , 2015 , Anonymous claimed responsibility for a Denial of Service attack against Canadian government websites in protest of the passage of bill C @-@ 51 — an anti @-@ terror legislation that grants additional powers to Canadian intelligence agencies . The attack temporarily affected the websites of several federal agencies .
= = = = Operation KKK = = = =
On 28 October 2015 , Anonymous announced that it would reveal the names of up to 1 @,@ 000 members of the Ku Klux Klan and other affiliated groups , stating in a press release , " You are terrorists that hide your identities beneath sheets and infiltrate society on every level . The privacy of the Ku Klux Klan no longer exists in cyberspace . " On November 2 , a list of 57 phone numbers and 23 email addresses ( that allegedly belong to KKK members ) was reportedly published and received media attention . However , a tweet from the " @ Operation _ KKK " Twitter account the same day denied it had released that information : " # ICYMI # OpKKK was in no way involved with today 's release of information that incorrectly outed several politicians . " The group stated it plans to reveal the names on November 5 .
= = = = # OpSaudi = = = =
Since 2013 , Saudi Arabian hacktivists have been targeting government websites protesting the actions of the regime . These actions have seen attacks supported by the possibly Iranian backed Yemen Cyber Army .
= = = = # OpISIS = = = =
In 2015 , an offshoot of Anonymous self @-@ described as Ghost Security or GhostSec started targeting Islamic State @-@ affiliated websites and social media handles .
= = = = # OpParis = = = =
In November 2015 , Anonymous announced a major , sustained operation against ISIS following the November 2015 Paris attacks , declaring , " Anonymous from all over the world will hunt you down . You should know that we will find you and we will not let you go . " ISIS responded on Telegram by calling them " idiots , " and asking " What they gonna to [ sic ] hack ? " By the next day , however , Anonymous claimed to have taken down 3 @,@ 824 pro @-@ ISIS Twitter accounts , and by the third , more than 5 @,@ 000 , and to have doxxed recruiters . A week later , Anonymous increased their claim to 20 @,@ 000 accounts and released a list of the accounts . The list included the Twitter accounts of Barack Obama , Hillary Clinton , the New York Times and BBC News . The BBC reported that most of the accounts on the list appeared to be still active . A spokesman for Twitter told The Daily Dot that the company is not using the lists of accounts being reported by Anonymous , as they have been found to be “ wildly inaccurate ” and include accounts used by academics and journalists .
= = = = # OpNASADrones = = = =
In 2015 , a group that claims affiliation with Anonymous group , calling themselves as AnonSec , claimed to have hacked and gathered almost 276 GB of data from NASA servers including NASA flight and radar logs and videos , and also multiple documents related to ongoing research . AnonSec group also claimed gaining access of a Global Hawk Drone of NASA , and released some video footage purportedly from the drone 's cameras . A part of the data was released by AnonSec on Pastebin service , as an Anon Zine . NASA has denied the hack , asserting that the control of the drones were never compromised , but has acknowledged that the photos released along with the content are real photographs of its employees , but that most of these data are already available in the public domain .
= = = = # BoycottThailand : Thailand Jail Hack = = = =
The Blink Hacker Group , associating themselves with the Anonymous group , claimed to have hacked the Thailand prison websites and servers . The compromised data has been shared online , with the group claiming that they give the data back to Thailand Justice and the citizens of Thailand as well . The hack was done in response to news from Thailand about the mistreatment of prisoners in Thailand .
= = = = Case Donald Trump = = = =
In March 2016 , Anonymous was reported to have declared war on Donald Trump . However , the " Anonymous Official " YouTube channel released a video denouncing # OpTrump as an operation that " goes against everything Anonymous stands for " in reference to censorship and added " we are for everyone letting their voices be heard , even , if the person at hand ... is a monster . "
= = = = South African Corruption = = = =
A group calling themselves Anonymous Africa launched a number of DDS attacks on websites associated with the controversial South African Gupta family in mid @-@ June 2016 . Gupta @-@ owned companies targeted included the websites of Oakbay Investments , The New Age , and ANN7 . The websites of the South African Broadcasting Corporation and a political parties Economic Freedom Fighters and Zimbabwe 's Zanu @-@ PF were also attacked for “ nationalist socialist rhetoric and politicising racism . ”
= = Related groups = =
= = = LulzSec = = =
In May 2011 , the small group of Anons behind the HBGary Federal hack — including Tflow , Topiary , Sabu , and Kayla — formed the hacker group " Lulz Security " , commonly abbreviated " LulzSec " . The group 's first attack was against Fox.com , leaking several passwords , LinkedIn profiles , and the names of 73 @,@ 000 X Factor contestants . In May 2011 , members of Lulz Security gained international attention for hacking into the American Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) website . They stole user data and posted a fake story on the site that claimed that rappers Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls were still alive and living in New Zealand . LulzSec stated that some of its hacks , including its attack on PBS , were motivated by a desire to defend WikiLeaks and its informant Chelsea Manning .
In June 2011 , members of the group claimed responsibility for an attack against Sony Pictures that took data that included " names , passwords , e @-@ mail addresses , home addresses and dates of birth for thousands of people . " In early June , LulzSec hacked into and stole user information from the pornography website www.pron.com. They obtained and published around 26 @,@ 000 e @-@ mail addresses and passwords . On June 14 , 2011 , LulzSec took down four websites by request of fans as part of their " Titanic Take @-@ down Tuesday " . These websites were Minecraft , League of Legends , The Escapist , and IT security company FinFisher . They also attacked the login servers of the multiplayer online game EVE Online , which also disabled the game 's front @-@ facing website , and the League of Legends login servers . Most of the takedowns were performed with DDoS attacks .
LulzSec also hacked a variety of government @-@ affiliated sites , such as chapter sites of InfraGard , a non @-@ profit organization affiliated with the FBI . The group leaked some of InfraGard member e @-@ mails and a database of local users . On June 13 , LulzSec released the e @-@ mails and passwords of a number of users of senate.gov , the website of the U.S. Senate . On June 15 , LulzSec launched an attack on cia.gov , the public website of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency , taking the website offline for several hours with a distributed denial @-@ of @-@ service attack . On December 2 , an offshoot of LulzSec calling itself LulzSec Portugal attacked several sites related to the government of Portugal . The websites for the Bank of Portugal , the Assembly of the Republic , and the Ministry of Economy , Innovation and Development all became unavailable for a few hours .
On June 26 , 2011 , the core LulzSec group announced it had reached the end of its " 50 days of lulz " and was ceasing operations . Sabu , however , had already been secretly arrested on June 7 and then released to work as an FBI informant . His cooperation led to the arrests of Ryan Cleary , James Jeffery , and others . Tflow was arrested on July 19 , 2011 , Topiary was arrested on July 27 , and Kayla was arrested on March 6 , 2012 . Topiary , Kayla , Tflow , and Cleary pleaded guilty in April 2013 and were scheduled to be sentenced in May 2013 . In April 2013 , Australian police arrested Cody Kretsinger , whom they alleged to be self @-@ described LulzSec leader Aush0k .
= = = AntiSec = = =
Beginning in June 2011 , hackers from Anonymous and LulzSec collaborated on a series of cyber attacks known as " Operation AntiSec " . On June 23 , in retaliation for the passage of the immigration enforcement bill Arizona SB 1070 , LulzSec released a cache of documents from the Arizona Department of Public Safety , including the personal information and home addresses of many law enforcement officers . On June 22 , LulzSecBrazil took down the websites of the Government of Brazil and the President of Brazil . Later data dumps included the names , addresses , phone numbers , Internet passwords , and Social Security numbers of police officers in Arizona , Missouri , and Alabama . Antisec members also stole police officer credit card information to make donations to various causes .
On July 18 , LulzSec hacked into and vandalized the website of British newspaper The Sun in response to a phone @-@ hacking scandal . Other targets of AntiSec actions have included FBI contractor ManTech International , computer security firm Vanguard Defense Industries , and defense contractor Booz Allen Hamilton , releasing 90 @,@ 000 military e @-@ mail accounts and their passwords from the latter .
In December 2011 , AntiSec member " sup _ g " ( alleged by the U.S. government to be Jeremy Hammond ) and others hacked Stratfor , a U.S.-based intelligence company , vandalizing its web page and publishing 30 @,@ 000 credit card numbers from its databases . AntiSec later released millions of the group 's e @-@ mails to Wikileaks .
= = Arrests and trials = =
Since 2009 , dozens of people have been arrested for involvement in Anonymous cyberattacks , in countries including the U.S. , UK , Australia , the Netherlands , Spain , and Turkey . Anons generally protest these prosecutions and describe these individuals as martyrs to the movement . The July 2011 arrest of LulzSec member Topiary became a particular rallying point , leading to a widespread " Free Topiary " movement .
The first person to be sent to jail for participation in an Anonymous DDoS attack was Dmitriy Guzner , an American 19 @-@ year @-@ old . He pleaded guilty to " unauthorized impairment of a protected computer " in November 2009 and was sentenced to 366 days in U.S. federal prison .
On June 13 , 2011 , officials in Turkey arrested 32 individuals that were allegedly involved in DDoS attacks on Turkish government websites . These members of Anonymous were captured in different cities of Turkey including Istanbul and Ankara . According to PC Magazine , these individuals were arrested after they attacked these websites as a response to the Turkish government demand to ISPs to implement a system of filters that many have perceived as censorship .
Chris Doyon ( alias " Commander X " ) , a self @-@ described leader of Anonymous , was arrested in September 2011 for a cyberattack on the website of Santa Cruz County , California . He jumped bail in February 2012 and fled across the border into Canada .
On September 2012 , journalist and Anonymous associate Barrett Brown , known for speaking to media on behalf of the group , was arrested hours after posting a video that appeared to threaten FBI agents with physical violence . Brown was subsequently charged with 17 offenses , including publishing personal credit card information from the Stratfor hack .
= = = Operation Avenge Assange = = =
Several law enforcement agencies took action after Anonymous ' Operation Avenge Assange . In January 2011 , the British police arrested five male suspects between the ages of 15 and 26 with suspicion of participating in Anonymous DDoS attacks . During July 19 – 20 , 2011 , as many as 20 or more arrests were made of suspected Anonymous hackers in the US , UK , and Netherlands . According to the statements of U.S. officials , suspects ' homes were raided and suspects were arrested in Alabama , Arizona , California , Colorado , Washington DC , Florida , Massachusetts , Nevada , New Mexico , and Ohio . Additionally , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy was held by the police in south London on suspicion of breaching the Computer Misuse Act 1990 , and four were held in the Netherlands .
AnonOps admin Christopher Weatherhead ( alias " Nerdo " ) , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old who had reportedly been intimately involved in organising DDoS attacks during " Operation Payback " , was convicted by a UK court on one count of conspiracy to impair the operation of computers in December 2012 . He was sentenced to 18 months ' imprisonment . Ashley Rhodes , Peter Gibson , and another male had already pleaded guilty to the same charge for actions between August 2010 and January 2011 .
= = Analysis = =
Evaluations of Anonymous ' actions and effectiveness vary widely . In a widely shared post , blogger Patrick Gray wrote that private security firms " secretly love " the group for the way in which it publicises cyber security threats . Anonymous is sometimes stated to have changed the nature of protesting , and in 2012 , Time called it one of the " 100 most influential people " in the world .
In 2012 , Public Radio International reported that the U.S. National Security Agency considered Anonymous a potential national security threat and had warned the president that it could develop the capability to disable parts of the U.S. power grid . In contrast , CNN reported in the same year that " security industry experts generally don 't consider Anonymous a major player in the world of cybercrime " due the group 's reliance on DDoS attacks that briefly disabled websites rather than the more serious damage possible through hacking . One security consultant compared the group to " a jewelry thief that drives through a window , steal jewels , and rather than keep them , waves them around and tosses them out to a crowd ... They 're very noisy , low @-@ grade crimes . " In its 2013 Threats Predictions report , McAfee wrote that the technical sophistication of Anonymous was in decline and that it was losing supporters due to " too many uncoordinated and unclear operations " .
Graham Cluley , a security expert for Sophos , argued that Anonymous ' actions against child porn websites hosted on a darknet could be counterproductive , commenting that while their intentions appear beneficial , the removal of illegal websites and sharing networks should be performed by the authorities , rather than Internet vigilantes . Some commentators also argued that the DDoS attacks by Anonymous following the January 2012 Stop Online Piracy Act protests had proved counterproductive . Molly Wood of CNET wrote that " [ i ] f the SOPA / PIPA protests were the Web 's moment of inspiring , non @-@ violent , hand @-@ holding civil disobedience , # OpMegaUpload feels like the unsettling wave of car @-@ burning hooligans that sweep in and incite the riot portion of the play . " Dwight Silverman of the Houston Chronicle concurred , stating that " Anonymous ' actions hurt the movement to kill SOPA / PIPA by highlighting online lawlessness . " The Oxford Internet Institute 's Joss Wright wrote that " In one sense the actions of Anonymous are themselves , anonymously and unaccountably , censoring websites in response to positions with which they disagree . "
Gabriella Coleman has compared the group to the trickster archetype and said that " they dramatize the importance of anonymity and privacy in an era when both are rapidly eroding . Given that vast databases track us , given the vast explosion of surveillance , there 's something enchanting , mesmerizing and at a minimum thought @-@ provoking about Anonymous ' interventions " . When asked what good Anonymous had done for the world , Parmy Olson replied :
In some cases , yes , I think it has in terms of some of the stuff they did in the Middle East supporting the pro @-@ democracy demonstrators . But a lot of bad things too , unnecessarily harassing people – I would class that as a bad thing . DDOSing the CIA website , stealing customer data and posting it online just for shits and giggles is not a good thing .
Quinn Norton of Wired wrote of the group in 2011 :
I will confess up front that I love Anonymous , but not because I think they 're the heroes . Like Alan Moore 's character V who inspired Anonymous to adopt the Guy Fawkes mask as an icon and fashion item , you 're never quite sure if Anonymous is the hero or antihero . The trickster is attracted to change and the need for change , and that 's where Anonymous goes . But they are not your personal army – that 's Rule 44 – yes , there are rules . And when they do something , it never goes quite as planned . The internet has no neat endings .
Furthermore , Landers assessed the following in 2008 :
Anonymous is the first internet @-@ based super @-@ consciousness . Anonymous is a group , in the sense that a flock of birds is a group . How do you know they ’ re a group ? Because they ’ re travelling in the same direction . At any given moment , more birds could join , leave , peel off in another direction entirely .
= O. G. S. Crawford =
Osbert Guy Stanhope Crawford ( 28 October 1886 – 28 November 1957 ) , better known as O. G. S. Crawford , was a British archaeologist who specialised in the study of prehistoric Britain and the archaeology of Sudan . Working for most of his career as the archaeological officer of the Ordnance Survey , he wrote a range of books on archaeological subjects and was a keen proponent of aerial archaeology .
Born in Bombay , British India to a wealthy middle @-@ class Scottish family , Crawford moved to England as an infant and was raised by his aunts in London and Hampshire . He studied geography at Keble College , Oxford and worked briefly in that field before devoting himself professionally to archaeology . Employed by the philanthropist Henry Wellcome , Crawford oversaw the excavation of Abu Geili in Sudan before returning to England shortly before the First World War . During the conflict he served in both the London Scottish Regiment and the Royal Flying Corps , where he was involved in both ground and aerial reconnaissance along the Western Front . After an injury forced a period of convalescence in England , he returned to the Front , where he was captured by the German Army in 1918 and held as a prisoner of war until the end of the conflict , when he returned to Britain .
In 1920 he was employed by the Ordnance Survey . In this position he toured Britain to plot the location of archaeological sites in the landscape , in the process identifying a number of previously unknown sites . Increasingly interested in aerial archaeology , he obtained aerial photographs produced by the Royal Air Force and identified the extent of the Stonehenge Avenue , excavating it in 1923 . With the archaeologist Alexander Keiller he conducted an aerial survey of many counties in southern England and raised the finances to secure the land around Stonehenge for The National Trust . In 1927 , he established the scholarly journal Antiquity , which contained contributions from many of Britain 's most prominent archaeologists , and in 1939 he became president of The Prehistoric Society . An internationalist and socialist , he came under the influence of Marxism and for a time became a Soviet sympathiser . During the Second World War he worked with the National Buildings Record , photographically documenting Southampton . After retiring in 1946 , he refocused his attention on Sudanese archaeology and wrote several further books prior to his death .
While friends and colleagues remembered Crawford as a cantankerous and irritable individual , his contributions to British archaeology – namely in the form of Antiquity and his promotion of aerial archaeology – have been widely acclaimed , with some referring to him as one of the great pioneering figures in the field . His photographic archive remained of use to archaeologists into the 21st century . A biography of Crawford by Kitty Hauser was published in 2008 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood : 1886 – 1904 = = =
O. G. S. Crawford was born on 28 October 1886 at Breach Candy , a suburb of Bombay in British India . His father , Charles Edward Gordon Crawford , was a civil servant who had been educated at Marlborough College and Wadham College , Oxford prior to his move to India , where he became a High Court Judge at Thane . The Crawford family hailed from Ayrshire in Scotland , and the child 's great @-@ uncle was the politician Robert Wigram Crawford . Crawford 's mother , Alice Luscombe Mackenzie , was the daughter of a Scottish army doctor and his Devonshire wife . Alice died a few days after her son 's birth , and so when he was three months old , Crawford was sent to England aboard the P & O liner Bokhara . During the journey he was entrusted to the care of his paternal aunt Eleanor , an Anglican nun who was the head of the Poona Convent of the Community of St Mary the Virgin .
After his arrival in Britain , he spent the next seven years with two paternal aunts who lived together near to Portland Place in the Marylebone district of central London . Like his father , they were devout Christians , having been the children of a Scottish clergyman . Under their guardianship Crawford had little contact with other children or with men . Crawford saw his father on the few occasions that the latter visited England , prior to his death in India in 1894 . In 1895 , Crawford and his two aunts moved to a rural house in East Woodhay in Hampshire . Initially educated at Park House School , which he enjoyed , he was subsequently moved to Marlborough College , his father 's alma mater ; he was unhappy there , complaining about bullying and enforced sporting activities , and characterising it as a " detestable house of torture " .
At the school , Crawford was influenced by his housemaster , F. B. Malim , who presided over the archaeological section of the college 's Natural History Society and encouraged the boy 's interest in the subject . It has been suggested that Malim provided something of a father figure for the young Crawford . With the society , Crawford visited such archaeological sites as Stonehenge , West Kennet Long Barrow , Avebury , and Martinsell . It was also through the society that he obtained Ordnance Survey maps of the landscape , allowing him to explore the downs near to his aunts ' home . He began excavation of a barrow near to Bull 's Copse , thus attracting the attention of the antiquarian Harold Peake , who was then involved in compiling the Victoria County History of Berkshire . Peake and his wife lived a Bohemian lifestyle , being vegetarians and social reformers , and their ideas had a strong impact on Crawford . Under the Peakes ' influence , Crawford rejected his religious upbringing in favour of a rationalist world @-@ view based in science . Moreover , from Peake , Crawford gained an appreciation for the understanding of past societies through an examination of the geographical landscape rather than simply through texts or artefacts .
= = = University and early career : 1905 – 1914 = = =
Following his schooling , Crawford won a junior scholarship to study at Keble College , Oxford . There he began reading literae humaniores in 1905 but – after gaining only a third @-@ class score in his second year exams – he switched courses to study geography in 1908 . In 1910 he gained a distinction for his diploma , for which he had conducted a study of the landscape surrounding Andover . Reflecting his interest in the relationship between geography and archaeology , during a walking tour of Ireland he had also written a paper on the geographic distribution of Bronze Age flat bronze axes and beakers in the British Isles . It was presented to the Oxford University Anthropological Society before being published in The Geographical Journal . The archaeologist Grahame Clark later related that the paper " marked a milestone in British Archaeology ; it was the first real attempt to deduce prehistoric events from the geographical distribution of archaeological objects " . Crawford 's fellow archaeologist Mark Bowden stated that while archaeological distribution maps had been previously produced , " archaeological data had never before been married with environmental information " in the way that Crawford did in this article .
After Crawford graduated , Professor A. J. Herbertson offered him a job as a junior demonstrator in the university 's geography department ; Crawford agreed , and served in the position , which largely entailed teaching students , over the following year . Through Herbertson , Crawford was introduced to Patrick Geddes . Crawford however decided that he wanted to focus his attentions on archaeology rather than geography ; attempts to find a professional position in the field were hindered by the fact that very few existed in Britain at the time . Looking elsewhere for archaeological employment , he unsuccessfully applied for a Craven Fellowship and for a post at Bombay Museum .
On the recommendation of Herbertson , on 1913 Crawford joined William Scoresby Routledge and Katherine Routledge 's expedition to Easter Island as an assistant ; the expedition was put on with the intent of learning more about the island 's first inhabitants and its Moai statues . However , after the team departed from Britain aboard the schooner Mana , Crawford quarrelled with the Routledges – informing them that they exhibited an " extraordinary lack of courtesy " and " appalling stinginess " toward him and other crew members – and he then left the ship at Cape Verde and returned to Britain . He subsequently gained employment from the wealthy philanthropist Henry Wellcome , who sent him to gain training in archaeological excavation from G. A. Reisner in Egypt before sending him on to Sudan , where Crawford was given charge of the excavation of the Meroitic site at Abu Geili ; he remained there from January to June 1914 . On his return to England , where he was planning on sorting through the artefacts found in Sudan , he and his friend Earnest Hooton began excavation of a long barrow on Wexcomb Down in Wiltshire .
= = = First World War : 1914 – 1918 = = =
It was while Crawford was engaged in this excavation that the United Kingdom entered the First World War . At Peake 's encouragement , Crawford enlisted to serve in the British Army , joining the London Scottish Regiment which was sent to reinforce the First Battalion in France . The regiment marched to Béthune to relieve the British line , there fighting on the Western Front at Givenchy . Afflicted with influenza and malaria , in February Crawford was invalided back to England , being stationed at Birmingham for his recuperation . After recovery , he applied to join the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) but was deemed too heavy . In July 1915 he was successful in his application to join the Royal Berkshire Regiment as part of the Third Army , being stationed at Beauval and then St. Pol . Utilising his existing skills , he served as the regiment 's maps officer , responsible for mapping the areas around the front line , including the German Army positions . He also took various photographs which were used for British propaganda purposes , and in 1916 he guided the writer H. G. Wells around the trenches on the latter 's visit to the Front .
In January 1917 , Crawford successfully applied to join the RFC as an observer with the 23rd Squadron , as part of which he flew over enemy lines to make observations and draw maps . On his maiden flight , the German Army opened fire on his aircraft , in which his right foot was pierced by bullets and badly injured . To recuperate , he spent time at various hospitals in France and England before eventually being sent to the RFC Auxiliary Hospital at the Heligan estate in Cornwall . During this time in England he spent a weekend at Wells 's home in Dunmow , Essex , embracing the latter 's desire for a united world government and the idea that writing about global history was a contribution to that cause . While at Heligan , Crawford began working on a book , Man and his Past , which examined a broad sweep of human history from an archaeological and geographical perspective .
In September 1917 , Crawford – who had been promoted to the position of squadron intelligence officer – joined the 48th Squadron , during which he again took aerial photographs during flying reconnaissance trips . While on one flight in February 1918 , Crawford 's aircraft was shot at and forced to land in German @-@ held territory ; he and his co @-@ pilot were taken as prisoners of war . He was initially imprisoned at Landshut in Bavaria , from where he tried to escape by swimming down the River Isar ; the river current proved too strong and he was soon recaptured . He was then transferred to Holzminden prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , where he was aware of an escape plan involving tunnelling out of the camp , but did not take part . Instead he spent much of his time reading works by Wells , Carl Jung , and Samuel Butler , and working on Man and his Past . Crawford remained in the camp for seven months , until the declaration of armistice , at which he returned to Britain and was demobilised .
= = Career : 1920 – 1945 = =
= = = Ordnance Survey and Antiquity = = =
Back in England , Crawford finished writing Man and his Past , which was published by Oxford University Press in 1921 . According to the historian of archaeology Adam Stout , the book was " a manifesto , a rallying @-@ cry for a new generation of archaeologists who shared in the idealism and the faith in the potential of Progress " . Bowden suggested that it could be seen as a " manifesto for geoarchaeology , environmental archaeology and economic archaeology . The unifying theme is that all these topics should be approached through the compilation of maps " . The work fitted within the theoretical trend of culture @-@ historical archaeology by discussing geographical methods for delineating cultures although it did not attempt to apply the concept of culture in a systematic fashion . He also returned to field work , carrying out archaeological excavation for the Cambrian Archaeological Association in both Wiltshire and Wales . During the summer of 1920 , he then excavated at Roundwood in Hampshire and on the Isle of Wight for Sir William Portal .
His expertise resulted in his being invited by Charles Close , the Director @-@ General of the Ordnance Survey ( OS ) , to join that organisation as their first archaeological officer . Accepting the position , Crawford moved to Southampton and began work at the project in October 1920 . His arrival at the OS generated some resentment , with co @-@ workers often seeing his post as superfluous and deeming archaeology to be unimportant . His job entailed correcting and updating information on archaeological monuments as the OS maps were revised , and involved him undertaking much fieldwork , travelling across the British landscape , checking the location of previously recorded sites and discovering new ones . He began in Gloucestershire in the autumn and winter of 1920 , visiting 208 sites around the Cotswolds and adding 81 previously unknown barrows to the map . As a result of his research in this region , in 1925 he published his book Long Barrows and the Stone Circles of the Cotswolds and the Welsh Marches .
As part of his job , he travelled around Britain , from Scotland in the north to the Scilly Isles in the south , often conducting his fieldwork by bicycle . On his visits he took photographs of archaeological sites , which were stored in his archive , and he also obtained aerial photographs of archaeological sites taken by the Royal Air Force . In this he was aided by regional antiquarian societies and by his correspondents , whom he called his " ferrets " . In 1921 , the Ordnance Survey published Crawford 's work , " Notes for Beginners " , in which he explained how amateur archaeologists could identify traces of old monuments , roads , and agricultural activity in the landscape . He also began producing " period maps " in which archaeological sites were marked ; the first of these was on Roman Britain , and featured Roman roads and settlements . First published in 1924 , it soon sold out , resulting in a second edition in 1928 . He followed this with a range of further maps in the 1930s : ' England in the Seventeenth Century ' , ' Celtic Earthworks of Salisbury Plain ' , ' Neolithic Wessex ' , and ' Britain in the Dark Ages ' . Although his position had initially been precarious , in 1926 it was made permanent , despite the reluctance of the Treasury , which financed the OS at the time . By 1938 , he had been able to persuade the OS to employ an assistant , W. F. Grimes , to aid him in his work .
Crawford became particularly interested in the new technique of aerial archaeology , claiming that this new process was to archaeology what the telescope was to astronomy . He produced two OS leaflets containing various aerial photographs , printed in 1924 and 1929 respectively . Through these and other works he was keen to promote aerial archaeology , coming to be firmly identified with the technique . His association with it reached the extent that in his 1939 novel The Shape of Things to Come , Wells named a survey aeroplane that discovers an ancient archaeological device " Crawford " .
Using RAF aerial photographs , Crawford determined the length of the Avenue at Stonehenge before embarking on an excavation of the site with A. D. Passmore in the autumn of 1923 . This project attracted press attention , resulting in Crawford being contacted by the marmalade magnate and archaeologist Alexander Keiller . Keiller invited Crawford to join him in an aerial survey , financed by Keiller himself , in which they flew over Berkshire , Dorset , Hampshire , Somerset , and Wiltshire in the spring and summer 1924 , taking photographs of archaeological traces in the landscape . Many of these images were published in Crawford and Keiller 's Wessex from the Air in 1928 . In 1927 Crawford and Keiller helped raise the finances to buy the land around Stonehenge and present it to The National Trust in order to prevent it facing agricultural or urban development . Previously , in 1923 , Crawford had assisted Keiller in campaigning to prevent a radio mast being erected on the archaeologically significant Windmill Hill in Wiltshire , with Keiller later purchasing the hill and the surrounding Avebury area . Despite this working relationship , the two never became friends , perhaps a result of their highly divergent interests and opinions .
In 1927 , Crawford founded Antiquity ; A Quarterly Review of Archaeology , a quarterly journal designed to bring together the work of archaeologists working across the world to supplement the variety of regional antiquarian periodicals that were then available . Although designed to have an international scope , the journal exhibited a clear bias towards the archaeology of Britain , with its release coinciding with the blossoming of British archaeology as a field of study . It contained contributions from a variety of young archaeologists who came to dominate the field of British archaeology , among them V. Gordon Childe , Grahame Clark , Cyril Fox , Christopher Hawkes , T. D. Kendrick , Stuart Piggott
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we couldn 't find a way to make it work , " NBA executive vice president of global merchandising Sal LaRocca said . While the league searched for a new location the store operated temporarily at 590 Fifth Avenue until August 2015 . The store reopened at its new permanent location at 545 Fifth Avenue on December 21 , 2015 .
= = Beijing , China = =
The NBA also sells its products outside the United States , most notably in China . The NBA 's international operations only provide 10 percent of total profit ; however , the NBA has seen a recent increase in possible business opportunities abroad .
Statistics revealed that 300 million out of China 's 1 @.@ 3 billion population played basketball , additionally " 83 percent of males between 15 to 61 years old are interested in the game , " and the NBA was reported to be " the most popular sports league in the country . " In 2006 , it was reported that the NBA was planning to open its first store in Beijing , China ( on Wangfujing Street ) or Shanghai , China . Partly due to Yao Ming ( 1st overall pick in 2002 ) and Yi Jianlian 's ( 6th overall pick in 2007 ) popularity in their home country , the NBA now sells its products in some 30 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 retail locations in China . During the 2006 season the NBA broadcast its games in 215 countries and had 83 foreign players , about a quarter of the total players . In 2008 , it had 75 players from 32 different countries .
On January 14 , 2008 , the NBA announced the formation of NBA China ( " a joint venture of the NBA , broadcaster ESPN and Chinese companies " ) , " that will conduct all of the league ’ s businesses in Greater China " , the new entity will be led by Tim Chen ( former CEO of Microsoft Greater China ) . In preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympics in China , the NBA opened a flagship store in Beijing ; the JuneYao Group was chosen to lead marketing operations for the retail chain @-@ store .
The NBA currently has two stores in China ( both in Beijing ) and according to CEO Chen plans to expand " up to 1 @,@ 000 in the next five years . " The first store was opened on July 15 , 2008 ; it has " 300 square meters of retail space " and sells about 400 different items ; about 1 @,@ 000 people showed up for the opening . According to the International Herald Tribune , merchandise sales in China were expected to increase by 60 percent in 2008 . About one third of the traffic received at nba.com comes from their Chinese area ( china.nba.com ) written in Mandarin built by the Plus Factory , a New York City firm with offices in Beijing .
Reports on NBA jersey sales over the last three years ( 2006 – 2009 ) reveal that Kobe Bryant of the Los Angeles Lakers is the most sold jersey in China ; however , Yao Ming fell from 6th to 10th and then back to 6th while his Houston Rockets teammate Tracy McGrady remained ranked third for two straight seasons then fell to fourth in 2009 .
= = Second Life = =
The MMORPG Second Life , an Internet @-@ based virtual game world , offers its members the option of playing or shopping at a digital replica of the NBA Store . The 3 @-@ D virtual replica was launched on May 1 , 2007 , during the NBA Finals between the San Antonio Spurs and the Cleveland Cavaliers as a way of reaching the global audience and expanding the NBA 's business in the virtual world . The virtual NBA Store is part of the NBA 's virtual headquarters ; other facilities include a T @-@ Mobile arena where player 's avatars can take pictures or watch Finals footage on a JumboTron . At the time of its launch , the NBA was the " first professional sports league to unveil a comprehensive headquarters in a virtual world . " The virtual store 's entrance is modeled after the New York City location , featuring the same double revolving doors and gold NBA lettering .
In 2004 , the NBA Live series for home video game consoles introduced an EA NBA Store feature , where players can purchase digital shoes and jerseys with points earned through the completion of in @-@ game tasks .
= Kenzō Tange =
Kenzō Tange ( 丹下 健三 , Tange Kenzō , 4 September 1913 – 22 March 2005 ) was a Japanese architect , and winner of the 1987 Pritzker Prize for architecture . He was one of the most significant architects of the 20th century , combining traditional Japanese styles with modernism , and designed major buildings on five continents . Tange was also an influential patron of the Metabolist movement . He said : " It was , I believe , around 1959 or at the beginning of the sixties that I began to think about what I was later to call structuralism " , ( cited in Plan 2 / 1982 , Amsterdam ) , a reference to the architectural movement known as Dutch Structuralism .
Influenced from an early age by the Swiss modernist , Le Corbusier , Tange gained international recognition in 1949 when he won the competition for the design of Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park . He was a member of CIAM ( Congres Internationaux d 'Architecture Moderne ) in the 1950s . He did not join the group of younger CIAM architects known as Team X , though his 1960 Tokyo Bay plan was influential for Team 10 in the 1960s , as well as the group that became Metabolism .
His university studies on urbanism put him in an ideal position to handle redevelopment projects after the Second World War . His ideas were explored in designs for Tokyo and Skopje . Tange 's work influenced a generation of architects across the world .
= = Early life = =
Born on 4 September 1913 in Osaka , Japan , Tange spent his early life in the Chinese cities of Hankow and Shanghai ; he and his family returned to Japan after learning of the death of one of his uncles . In contrast to the green lawns and red bricks in their Shanghai abode , the Tange family took up residence in a thatched roof farmhouse in Imabari on the island of Shikoku .
After finishing middle school , Tange moved to Hiroshima in 1930 to attend high school . It was here that he first encountered the works of Swiss modernist , Le Corbusier . His discovery of the drawings of the Palace of the Soviets in a foreign art journal convinced him to become an architect . Although he graduated from high school , Tange 's poor results in mathematics and physics meant that he had to pass entrance exams to qualify for admission to the prestigious universities . He spent two years doing so and during that time , he read extensively about western philosophy . Tange also enrolled in the film division at Nihon University 's art department to dodge Japan 's drafting of young men to its military and seldom attended classes .
In 1935 Tange began the tertiary studies he desired at University of Tokyo 's architecture department . He studied under Hideto Kishida and Shozo Uchida . Although Tange was fascinated by the photographs of Katsura villa that sat on Kishida 's desk , his work was inspired by Le Corbusier . His graduation project was a seventeen @-@ hectare ( 42 @-@ acre ) development set in Tokyo 's Hibiya Park .
= = Early career = =
After graduating from the university , Tange started to work as an architect at the office of Kunio Maekawa . During his employment , he travelled to Manchuria , participating in an architectural design competition for a bank , and toured Japanese @-@ occupied Jehol on his return . When the Second World War started , he left Maekawa to rejoin the University of Tokyo as a postgraduate student . He developed an interest in urban design , and referencing only the resources available in the university library , he embarked on a study of Greek and Roman marketplaces . In 1942 , Tange entered a competition for the design of the Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere Memorial Hall . He was awarded first prize for a design that would have been situated at the base of Mount Fuji ; the hall he conceived was a fusion of Shinto shrine architecture and the plaza on Capitoline Hill in Rome . The design was not realised .
In 1946 , Tange became an assistant professor at the university and opened Tange Laboratory . In 1963 , he was promoted to professor of the Department of Urban Engineering . His students included Sachio Otani , Kisho Kurokawa , Arata Isozaki , Hajime Yatsuka and Fumihiko Maki .
= = Post war reconstruction = =
Tange 's interest in urban studies put him in a good position to handle post war reconstruction . In the summer of 1946 he was invited by the War Damage Rehabilitation Board to put forward a proposal for certain war damaged cities . He submitted plans for Hiroshima and Maebashi . His design for an airport in Kanon , Hiroshima was accepted and built , but a seaside park in Ujina was not .
The Hiroshima authorities took advice about the city 's reconstruction from foreign consultants , and in 1947 Tam Deling , an American park planner , suggested they build a Peace Memorial and preserve buildings situated near ground zero , that point directly below the explosion of the atomic bomb . In 1949 the authorities enacted the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Reconstruction Act , which gave the city access to special grant aid , and in August 1949 , an international competition was announced for the design of the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park .
Tange was awarded first prize for a design that proposed a museum whose axis runs through the park , intersecting Peace Boulevard and the atomic bomb dome . The building is raised on massive columns , which frame the view along the structure 's axis .
= = Projects = =
= = = Peace Centre in Hiroshima = = =
Work on the Peace Centre commenced in 1950 . In addition to the axial nature of the design , the layout is similar to Tange 's early competition arrangement for the Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere Memorial Hall .
In the initial design the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was dominated by adjoining utility buildings , which were linked to it by high @-@ level walkways . Tange refined this concept to place the museum prominently at the centre , separate from the utility buildings ( only one of which was subsequently designed by him ) . In addition to architectural symbolism , he thought it important for the design to centre around the building that houses the information about the atomic explosion .
The museum is constructed from bare reinforced concrete . The primary museum floor is lifted six metres above the ground on huge piloti and is accessible via a free @-@ standing staircase . The rhythmical facade comprises vertical elements that repeat outwards from the centre . Like the exterior , the interior is finished with rough concrete ; the idea was to keep the surfaces plain so that nothing could distract the visitor from the contents of the exhibits .
The Peace Plaza is the backdrop for the museum . The plaza was designed to allow 50 thousand people to gather around the peace monument in the centre . Tange also designed the monument as an arch composed of two hyperbolic paraboloids , said to be based on traditional Japanese ceremonial tombs from the Kofun Period .
= = = The Ise Shrine = = =
In 1953 Tange and the architectural journalist and critic Noboru Kawazoe were invited to attend the reconstruction of the Ise Shrine . The shrine has been reconstructed every 20 years and in 1953 it was the 59th iteration . Normally the reconstruction process was a very closed affair but this time the ceremony was opened to architects and journalists to document the event . The ceremony coincided with the end of the American Occupation and it seemed to symbolise a new start in Japanese architecture . In 1965 when Tange and Kawazoe published the book Ise : Prototype of Japanese Architecture , he likened the building to a modernist structure : an honest expression of materials , a functional design and prefabricated elements .
= = = The Kagawa Prefectural Government Hall = = =
The Kagawa Prefectural Government Hall on the island of Shikoku was completed in 1958 . Its expressive construction could be likened to the Daibutsu style seen at the Todai @-@ ji in Nara . The columns on the elevation bore only vertical loads so Tange was able to design them to be thin , maximising the surfaces for glazing . Although the hall has been called one of his finest projects , it drew criticism at the time of its construction for relying too heavily on tradition .
= = = Tange 's own home = = =
Tange 's own home , designed in 1951 and completed in 1953 , uses a similar skeleton structure raised off the ground as the Hiroshima Peace Museum ; however , it is fused with a more traditional Japanese design that uses timber and paper . The house is based on the traditional Japanese module of the tatami mat , with the largest rooms designed to have flexibility so that they can be separated into three smaller rooms by fusuma sliding doors . The facade is designed with a rhythmic pattern ; it comprises two types of facade designs ( " a " and " b " ) that are ordered laterally in an a @-@ b @-@ a @-@ a @-@ b @-@ a arrangement . The house is topped with a two @-@ tier roof . Kazuo Shinohara 's 1954 house at Kugayama is remarkably similar in its design , although it is built with steel and has a simpler rhythm in its facade .
= = = Town Hall , Kurashiki = = =
The fortress @-@ like town hall in Kurashiki was designed in 1958 and completed in 1960 . When it was constructed it was situated on the edge of the old town centre connecting it with the newer areas of the town . Kurashiki is better known as a tourist spot for its old Machiya style houses .
Set in an open square , the building sits on massive columns that taper inwards as they rise . The elevation consists of horizontal planks ( some of which are omitted to create windows ) which overlap at the corners in a " log cabin " effect . The entrance is covered with a heavy projecting concrete canopy which leads to a monumental entrance hall . The stair to this hall ascends in cantilevered straight flights to the left and right . The walls to this interior are bare shuttered concrete punctured by windows reminiscent of Le Corbusier 's La Tourette . The Council Chamber is a separate building whose raked roof has seating on top of it to form an external performance space .
= = = Tokyo Olympic arenas = = =
The Yoyogi National Gymnasium is situated in an open area in Yoyogi Park on an adjacent axis to the Meiji Shrine . The gymnasium and swimming pool were designed by Tange for the 1964 Tokyo Olympics , which were the first Olympics held in Asia . Tange began his designs in 1961 and the plans were approved by the Ministry of Education in January 1963 . The buildings were placed to optimize space available for parking and to permit the smoothest transition of incoming and outgoing people .
Inspired by the skyline of the Colosseum in Rome , the roofs have a skin suspended from two masts . The buildings were inspired by Le Corbusier 's Philips Pavilion designed for Brussel 's World Fair and the Ingalls Rink Yale University 's hockey stadium by Eero Saarinen ( both structures completed in 1958 ) . The roof of the Philips pavilion was created by complex hyperbolic paraboloid surfaces stretched between cables . In both cases Tange took Western ideas and adapted them to meet Japanese requirements .
The gymnasium has a capacity of approximately 16 @,@ 000 and the smaller building can accommodate up 5 @,@ 300 depending on the events that are taking place . At the time it was built , the gymnasium had the world 's largest suspended roof span . Two reinforced concrete pillars support a pre @-@ stressed steel net onto which steel plates are attached . The bottom anchoring of this steel net is a heavy concrete support system which forms a distinct curve on the interior and exterior of the building . In the interior , this structural anchor is used to support the grandstand seats . The overall curvature of the roof helps protect the building from the damaging effects of strong winds .
Tange won a Pritzker Prize for the design ; the citation described the gynasium as " among the most beautiful buildings of the 20th century " .
= = = Supreme Court Building of Pakistan = = =
The Supreme Court of Pakistan Building is the official and principle workplace of the Supreme Court of Pakistan , located in 44000 Constitution Avenue Islamabad , Pakistan . Completed in 1965 , it is flanked by the Prime Minister 's Secretariat to the south and President 's House and the Parliament Building to the north .
Designed by Tange , to a design brief prepared by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency , the complex was engineered and built by CDA Engineering and Siemens Engineering .
= = = Osaka Exposition 1970 = = =
In 1965 the Bureau of International Expositions decided that Japan should host the 1970 Exposition . 3 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 sq mi ) of land in the Senri Hills near Osaka were put aside for its use . Tange and Uzo Nishiyama were appointed as planners for the masterplan by the Theme Committee . Tange assembled a group of twelve architects to design the infrastructure and facilities for the Expo .
At the centre of the Expo was the Festival Plaza . Tange conceived that this plaza ( with its oversailing space frame roof ) would connect the display spaces and create a setting for a " festival " . The plaza divided the site into a northern zone for pavilions and a southern zone for administration facilities . The zones were interconnected with moving pathways .
= = Architectural circle = =
= = = Congres International d 'Architecture Moderne = = =
Tange 's first placing in the design competition for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park gained him recognition from Kunio Maekawa . The elder architect invited Tange to attend the Congres International d 'Architecture Moderne ( CIAM ) . Founded in 1928 this organization of planners and architects had initially promoted architecture in economic and social context , but at its fourth meeting in 1933 ( under the direction of Le Corbusier ) it debated the notion of the " Functional City " . This led to a series of proposals on urban planning known as " The Athens Charter " . By the 1951 CIAM meeting that was held in Hoddesdon , England , to which Tange was invited , the Athens Charter came under debate by younger members of the group ( including Tange ) who found the Charter too vague in relation to city expansion . The " Athens Charter " promoted the idea that a city gains character from its continual changes over many years ; this notion was written before the advent of mass bombings and the Second World War and therefore held little meaning for Tange who had evidenced the destruction of Hiroshima . The discussions at Hoddesdon sowed discontent within CIAM that eventually contributed to its breakup after their Dubrovnik meeting in 1956 ; the younger members of CIAM formed a splinter group known as Team X , which Tange later joined . Tange presented various designs to Team X in their meetings . At a 1959 meeting in Otterlo , Holland , one of his presentations included an unrealised project by Kiyonori Kikutake ; this project became the basis of the Metabolist Movement .
When Tange travelled back to Japan from the 1951 CIAM meeting , he visited Le Corbusier 's nearly complete Unité d 'Habitation in Marseilles , France . He also looked at the sketches for the new capital of Punjab at Chandigarh , India .
= = = Tokyo World Design Conference and urban planning = = =
Tange had left the Team X Otterlo conference early to take up a tenure at Massachusetts Institute of Technology . His experiences at the conference may have led him to set his fifth year students a project to design a 25 @-@ thousand @-@ person residential community to be erected in Boston over the bay . The scheme comprised two giant A @-@ frame structures that resembled Tange 's competition entry for the World Health Organisation 's headquarters on Lake Geneva . Both this scheme and the earlier ones by Kikutake formed the basis of Tange 's speech to the Tokyo World Design Conference in 1960 . In his speech he used words such as " cell " and " metabolism " in relation to urban design . The Metabolist movement grew out of discussions with other members of the conference . Amongst them were Kisho Kurokawa , Junzo Sakakura , Alison and Peter Smithson , Louis Kahn , Jean Prouvé , B. V. Doshi and Jacob Bakema . The conference ended with Tange 's presentation of the Boston plan and his own scheme , " The Tokyo Plan – 1960 " .
Tange argued that the normal urban pattern of a radial centripetal transportation system was a relic of the Middle Ages and would not handle the strain placed upon it by the world 's mega cities , which he qualified as those with populations greater than 10 million . Rather than building up a city from a civic centre , Tange 's proposal was based on civic axis , developing the city in a linear fashion . Three levels of traffic , graded according to speed , would facilitate the movement of up to 2 @.@ 5 million people along the axis , which would be divided into vertebrae @-@ like cyclical transportation elements . The sheer size of the proposal meant that it would stretch out across the water of Tokyo Bay . Tange 's proposals at this conference play a large part in establishing his reputation as " The West 's favourite Japanese architect " .
In 1965 Tange was asked by the United Nations to enter a limited competition for the redevelopment of Skopje , which was at that time a city of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . The town had been heavily destroyed by an earthquake in 1963 . Tange won 60 % of the prize ; the other 40 % was awarded to the Yugoslav team . Tange 's design furthered ideas put forward in the earlier " Tokyo Plan " .
Tange further developed his ideas for expandable urban forms in 1966 when he designed the Yamanashi Broadcasting and Press Centre in Kōfu . It was designed for three media companies : a newspaper printing plant , a radio station and a television studio . To allow for future expansion Tange grouped the similar functions of three offices together in three zones . The newspaper printing machinery was on the ground floor , sealed studios on the upper floors and offices on glass walled floors surrounded by balconies . The services , including stairs and lifts , are housed in 16 reinforced concrete columns that are of five @-@ metre ( 17 ft ) diameter . Space was left between the cluster of functional space to allow for future expansion , although these have been used for gardens and terraces .
= = = The Urbanists and Architects Team = = =
Tange 's inspiration for his design office came from his friend Walter Gropius who he had first met at the CIAM meeting in 1951 . While lecturing at the Bauhaus , Gropius had placed great importance on teaching architects , especially imparting on them the concept of working together as a team . The Urbanists and Architects Team was founded in 1961 and became Kenzō Tange Associates . Tange promoted a very flat hierarchy in the practice : partners were equal in importance and were encouraged to participate in every project . Multiple options were developed simultaneously , and research on individual schemes was encouraged .
= = Later career = =
During the 1970s and 1980s Tange expanded his portfolio to include buildings in over 20 countries around the world . In 1985 , at the behest of Jacques Chirac , the mayor of Paris at that time , Tange proposed a master plan for a plaza at Place d 'Italie that would interconnect the city along an east @-@ west axis .
For the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building , which opened in 1991 , Tange designed a large civic centre with a plaza dominated by two skyscrapers . These house the administration offices whilst a smaller seven @-@ storey building contains assembly facilities . In his design of a high tech version of Kofu Communications Centre , Tange equipped all three buildings with state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art building management systems that monitored air quality , light levels and security . The external skin of the building makes dual references to both tradition and the modern condition . Tange incorporated vertical and horizontal lines reminiscent of both timber boarding and the lines on semiconductor boards .
Tange continued to practice until three years before his death in 2005 . He disliked postmodernism in the 1980s and considered this style of architecture to be only " transitional architectural expressions " . His funeral was held in one of his works , the Tokyo Cathedral .
Tadao Ando , one of Japan 's greatest living architects , likes to tell the story of the stray dog , a stately akita , that wandered into his studio in Osaka some 20 years age , and decided to stay . " First , I thought I would call her Kenzo Tange ; but then I realised I couldn 't kick Kenzo Tange around . So I called her Le Corbusier instead . "
= = Legacy = =
The modular expansion of Tange 's Metabolist visions had some influence on Archigram with their plug @-@ in mega structures . The Metabolist movement gave momentum to Kikutake 's career . Although his Marine City proposals ( submitted by Tange at CIAM ) were not realised , his Miyakonojo City Hall ( 1966 ) was a more Metabolist example of Tange 's own Nichinan Cultural Centre ( 1962 ) . Although the Osaka Expo had marked a decline in the Metabolist movement , it resulted in a " handing over " of the reigns to a younger generation of architects such as Kazuo Shinohara and Arata Isozaki .
In an interview with Jeremy Melvin at the Royal Academy of Arts , Kengo Kuma explained that , at the age of ten , he was inspired to become an architect after seeing Tange 's Olympic arenas , which were constructed in 1964 .
For Reyner Banham , Tange was a prime exemplar of the use of Brutalist architecture . His use of Béton brut concrete finishes in a raw and undecorated way combined with his civic projects such as the redevelopment of Tokyo Bay made him a great influence on British architects during the 1960s . Brutalist architecture has been criticised for being soulless and for promoting the exclusive use of a material that is poor at withstanding long exposures to natural weather .
He received the AIA Gold Medal in 1966 .
Tange 's son Paul Noritaka Tange graduated from Harvard University in 1985 and went on to join Kenzō Tange Associates . He became the president of Kenzo Tange Associates in 1997 before founding Tange Associates in 2002 .
= = Awards = =
From the Japanese Wikipedia article
= = = Japan = = =
Architectural Institute of Japan best picture award ( Ehime Prefectural Museum ) ( 1954 )
Architectural Institute of Japan Special Award ( National Indoor Stadium ) ( 1965 )
Order of Culture ( 1980 )
Architectural Institute of Japan Award ( 1986 ) for contributions to the international development and establishment of modern architecture in Japan .
Prince Takamatsu Memorial World Culture Prize in the building sector category ( 1993 )
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure ( 1994 )
Third rank in the order of precedence ( 2005 ; posthumous )
= = = Others = = =
United States Institute of Architects , United States of America ( AIA ) 1st Pan @-@ Pacific Ocean Award ( 1958 )
RIBA Gold Medal ( 1965 )
U.S. AIA Gold Medal ( 1966 )
Vatican Order of St. Gregory the Great ( 1970 )
French Academy of Architecture Gold Medal ( 1973 )
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany ( 1976 )
Commander of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic ( 1979 )
U.S. Pritzker Prize ( 1987 )
Knight of the Legion of Honour of France ( 1996 )
= = List of selected projects = =
1955 : Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum , Hiroshima
1957 : ( Former ) Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building , Yūrakuchō
1958 : Kagawa Prefectural Government Building the east offices , Takamatsu , Kagawa
1960 : Kurashiki City Hall , Kurashiki , Okayama
1960 : Rikkyo University Library , Ikebukuro , Tokyo
1964 : Yoyogi National Gymnasium for the 1964 Summer Olympics , Tokyo
1964 : St. Mary 's Cathedral ( Tokyo Cathedral ) ( Roman Catholic ) , Tokyo
1966 : Yamanashi Press and Broadcasting Centre , Kofu , Yamanashi , Japan
1966 : Master plan for rebuilding of Skopje , Macedonia , then part of Yugoslavia after the 1963 earthquake
1967 : Shizuoka Press and Broadcasting Tower , Ginza , Chuo , Tokyo
1967 : Towers of Fiera district ( Regional administration of Emilia @-@ Romagna ) , Bologna , Italy
1970 : master plan , massive central " Symbol Zone " , and other work for Expo ' 70 , Suita , Osaka
1970 : Librino New Town Project , Catania , Italy
1977 : Sogetsu Kaikan , Aoyama , Tokyo
1979 : Hanae Mori Building , Aoyama , Tokyo
1982 : Centro Direzionale , Naples
1982 : Central Area New Federal Capital City of Nigeria , Nigeria
1986 : Nanyang Technological University , Singapore
1986 : OUB Centre , Singapore
1986 : Jordan University of Science and Technology , Jordan
1986 : University of Science and Technology Oran - Mohamed @-@ Boudiaf ( AMZ Group ) , Algeria
1987 : American Medical Association Headquarters Building , Chicago , Illinois , USA
1990 : Presidential Palace , Damascus , Syria ( Initial design , but subsequently resigned from project )
1991 : Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building , Shinjuku , Tokyo
1992 : UOB Plaza , Singapore
1993 : Phu My Hung Saigon South Master Plan , Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam
1996 : Fuji Television Building , Odaiba , Tokyo
1998 : University of Bahrain , Sakhir , Bahrain
1998 : WKC Centre For Health Development , Kobe , Hyōgo
2000 : Kagawa Prefectural Government Building the main offices , Takamatsu , Kagawa
2000 : Tokyo Dome Hotel
2003 : The Linear – Private Apartments , Singapore
2005 : Hwa Chong Institution Boarding School , Singapore
= Dock Ellis =
Dock Phillip Ellis , Jr . ( March 11 , 1945 – December 19 , 2008 ) was an American professional baseball player . A pitcher , Ellis played in Major League Baseball from 1968 through 1979 for the Pittsburgh Pirates , New York Yankees , Oakland Athletics , Texas Rangers , and New York Mets . In his MLB career , he had a 138 – 119 win – loss record , a 3 @.@ 46 earned run average , and 1 @,@ 136 strikeouts .
Ellis threw a no @-@ hitter on June 12 , 1970 . He later stated that he accomplished the feat under the influence of LSD . Reporters at the game say they do not believe the claim . Ellis was the starting pitcher for the National League in the All @-@ Star Game in 1971 . That year , the Pirates were World Series champions . Joining the Yankees in 1976 , he helped lead the team to the 1976 World Series , and was named the American League Comeback Player of the Year in the process .
Ellis was an outspoken individual who advocated for the rights of players and African Americans . He also had a substance abuse problem , and he acknowledged after his retirement that he never pitched without the use of drugs . After going into treatment Ellis remained sober and devoted the remainder of his life to counseling drug addicts in treatment centers and prisons . He died of a liver ailment in 2008 at the age of 63 .
= = Early life = =
Ellis attended Gardena High School in Gardena , California . At the age of 14 , he began drinking and using drugs .
Ellis played for the school 's basketball team , recording 21 assists in one game . He played baseball as an infielder for a local semi @-@ professional team called the " Pittsburgh Pirates Rookies " , along with future major leaguers Bobby Tolan , Roy White , Ron Woods , Reggie Smith , Don Wilson , Bob Watson , and Dave Nelson ; the team was managed by Chet Brewer . However , Ellis refused to play for the Gardena High School baseball team , because a baseball player referred to him as a " spearchucker " .
When Ellis was caught drinking and smoking marijuana in a high school bathroom during his senior year , the school agreed not to expel him if he agreed to play for the school 's baseball team . He appeared in four games and was named all @-@ league . Ellis then attended Los Angeles Harbor College ( LAHC ) , a junior college .
At the age of 17 , Ellis was diagnosed with sickle cell anemia . The diagnosis was later changed to sickle cell trait .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor league career ( 1964 – 1968 ) = = =
While Ellis attended LAHC , various Major League Baseball teams attempted to sign him to a professional contract , but as he heard the Pittsburgh Pirates gave out signing bonuses of $ 60 @,@ 000 , he held out until the Pirates made him an offer . He was arrested for stealing a car , and given probation . Brewer , working as a scout for the Pirates , signed Ellis to the Pirates ; as a result of the arrest , the Pirates offered Ellis $ 500 a month and a $ 2 @,@ 500 signing bonus .
Ellis played for the Batavia Pirates of the Class A New York – Pennsylvania League in 1964 . The next season , he played for the Kinston Eagles of the Class A Carolina League and the Columbus Jets of the Class AAA International League . Ellis pitched in an exhibition game for the Pirates against the Cleveland Indians in July , receiving the win . After the season , the Pirates added Ellis to their 40 @-@ man roster .
In 1966 , Ellis played for the Asheville Tourists of the Class AA Southern League , pitching to a 10 – 9 win – loss record , a 2 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) , and an All @-@ Star Game appearance . The Pirates called Ellis up to the majors near the end of the season , but the team did not use him in a game that year .
Ellis started the 1967 season with Columbus . He believed that he was not on the major league club because the Pirates already had a number of African American players ; he felt that the team did not want to alienate white fans . Ellis was sent down to the Macon Peaches of the Southern League , which Ellis believed was due to the length of his hair . Ellis said that he was promoted back to Columbus after shaving his head . He had a 2 – 0 win @-@ loss record with Macon and a 5 – 7 record with Columbus .
During his minor league career , Ellis once chased a heckler in the stands with a baseball bat . He also used pills when he pitched , specifically the amphetamines Benzedrine and Dexamyl . Stressed by the pressure of his " can 't @-@ miss " status as a prospect , Ellis became addicted . Ellis later said that he never pitched a game without using amphetamines . He eventually needed 70 to 85 milligrams ( 1 @.@ 08 – 1 @.@ 31 gr ) per game , between five and twelve capsules , depending on their strength . Ellis acknowledged that he began to use cocaine in the late 1960s .
Ellis held out from the Pirates in February 1
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968 ; he came to terms with the team in March . The Pirates optioned Ellis to Columbus , who moved Ellis from the starting rotation to the bullpen . At Columbus , Ellis credited his work with manager Johnny Pesky and pitching coach Harvey Haddix for improving his performance .
= = = Pittsburgh Pirates = = =
Ellis made his MLB debut that June , beginning as a relief pitcher . The Pirates moved Ellis into the starting rotation later that season . Ellis pitched his first complete game in September . He had a 6 – 5 win @-@ loss record with a 2 @.@ 51 ERA with the Pirates in 1968 . In 1969 , Ellis made the team 's starting rotation for Opening Day . The struggles of Steve Blass kept Ellis in the starting rotation , as Blass was moved to the bullpen .
= = = = June 12 , 1970 , no @-@ hitter = = = =
Self @-@ reportedly under the influence of LSD , Ellis threw a no @-@ hitter against the San Diego Padres 2 @-@ 0 on Friday , June 12 , 1970 in the first game of a doubleheader at San Diego Stadium . The Pirates flew to San Diego on Thursday , June 11 for a series against the Padres . Ellis reported that he visited a friend in Los Angeles and used LSD " two or three times . " Thinking it was still Thursday , he took a hit of LSD on Friday at noon , and his friend 's girlfriend reminded him at 2 : 00 PM that he was scheduled to pitch that night . Ellis flew from Los Angeles to San Diego at 3 : 00 PM and arrived at San Diego Stadium at 4 : 30 PM ; the game started at 6 : 05 PM .
Ellis threw the no @-@ hitter despite being unable to feel the ball or see the batter or catcher clearly . Ellis said his catcher Jerry May wore reflective tape on his fingers which helped him to see May 's signals . Ellis walked eight batters and struck out six , and he was aided by excellent fielding plays from second baseman Bill Mazeroski and center fielder Matty Alou .
As Ellis recounted :
I can only remember bits and pieces of the game . I was psyched . I had a feeling of euphoria . I was zeroed in on the [ catcher 's ] glove , but I didn 't hit the glove too much . I remember hitting a couple of batters , and the bases were loaded two or three times . The ball was small sometimes , the ball was large sometimes , sometimes I saw the catcher , sometimes I didn 't . Sometimes , I tried to stare the hitter down and throw while I was looking at him . I chewed my gum until it turned to powder . I started having a crazy idea in the fourth inning that Richard Nixon was the home plate umpire , and once I thought I was pitching a baseball to Jimi Hendrix , who to me was holding a guitar and swinging it over the plate . They say I had about three to four fielding chances . I remember diving out of the way of a ball I thought was a line drive . I jumped , but the ball wasn 't hit hard and never reached me .
Ellis reported that he never used LSD during the season again , though he continued to use amphetamines .
An animated short film by James Blagden about the game , " Dock Ellis and the LSD No @-@ No " , features narration in Ellis ' own voice , taken from a 2008 NPR interview .
= = = = = Assessments of LSD claim = = = = =
Bob Smizik of the Pittsburgh Press believes Ellis ' version of events that day , although he did not witness the game in person . Smizik was the reporter who first broke the story . Bill Christine , also of the Pittsburgh Press , does not believe Ellis ' claim and was at the game that day . Christine was a beat reporter who " practically lived with the team that year " . Christine said that he did not notice anything unusual , and says that if Ellis had reported to the stadium only 90 minutes before his scheduled start , reporters would have been told . John Mehno , a reporter who had " extensive interactions " with Ellis over his career , was skeptical about many stories told by Ellis , including the LSD no @-@ hitter . Mehno said that he has not found a teammate who would corroborate the story . However , one of his close friends , Scipio Spinks , a pitcher for the Astros , has said he has no doubt Ellis was telling the truth about his LSD use as he was very familiar with Dock 's drug habits , including the use of LSD .
= = = = 1970 – 1971 = = = =
Ellis struggled for the remainder of the 1970 season , and finished the year with a 13 – 10 win @-@ loss record as he experienced elbow and shoulder pain . However , he finished second in the NL with four shutouts and seventh with a 3 @.@ 21 ERA . The Pirates won the National League ( NL ) East division championship . Ellis started Game 1 of the 1970 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) to the Cincinnati Reds . Ellis took the loss , and the Pirates lost the series to the Reds in three games .
Ellis worked on his changeup for the 1971 season . He was rewarded by being named the Pirates ' Opening Day starting pitcher ; he defeated the Philadelphia Phillies by a score of 4 @-@ 2 . After a strong start to the 1971 season , posting a 13 – 3 win @-@ loss record , Ellis was named to appear in the 1971 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , held at Tiger Stadium in Detroit . The AL selected Vida Blue of the Oakland Athletics as their starter , and Ellis publicly stated that National League All @-@ Star Team manager Sparky Anderson would " never start two brothers against each other " . Anderson surprised Ellis by naming him the starting pitcher of the All @-@ Star Game . Ellis was the losing pitcher in the game . During the game , Reggie Jackson hit a towering home run off of Ellis . The home run , estimated to have traveled 600 feet ( 180 m ) , tied a 1926 home run hit by Babe Ruth for the longest measured home run on record . The next time the two opposed each other , Ellis beaned Jackson in the face in retaliation for his earlier home run .
Ellis started Game 2 of the 1971 NLCS , earning the victory over the San Francisco Giants . During the series , Ellis created a stir by complaining about the Pirates ' lodgings , complaining that the organization was " cheap " . He changed hotels because he said the hotel rooms were too small . Ellis started Game 1 of the 1971 World Series against the Baltimore Orioles . In a losing effort , he lasted only 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He allowed four hits and four runs , including two home runs . Though Ellis denied being in pain before the game , he later acknowledged that elbow pain limited his performance , and wondered if his sickle cell trait could be related to this pain . The Pirates defeated the Orioles in seven games to win the World Series .
Ellis finished the season with a 19 – 9 win @-@ loss record and a 3 @.@ 06 ERA . He placed fourth in the Cy Young Award balloting . His 19 wins were fifth best in the league , and his .679 winning percentage was fourth best .
= = = = Macing incident = = = =
On May 5 , 1972 , Ellis , Willie Stargell , and Rennie Stennett missed the team bus to Riverfront Stadium . A security guard asked the three for identification ; Stargell and Stennett complied and were allowed in , but Ellis did not have identification with him . The guard said that Ellis did not identify himself , appeared drunk , and " made threatening gestures with a closed fist . " Ellis countered that he was showing his World Series ring as evidence of his affiliation with the Pirates . In response , the guard maced Ellis . Ellis was arrested and charged with disorderly conduct .
The Reds sued Ellis for assault and Ellis countersued . Before going to trial , the Reds dropped the suit and wrote Ellis a letter of apology . The municipal court dropped the charges against Ellis , though Ellis stated that this incident made him " hate better " .
Ellis finished the 1972 season ninth in the NL in ERA ( 2 @.@ 70 ) , sixth in winning percentage ( .682 ) , fourth in walks per nine innings pitched ( 1 @.@ 818 ) , and first in home runs per nine innings ratio ( 0 @.@ 331 ) . The Pirates won the NL East that year and faced the Reds in the 1972 NLCS . The Pirates pitched Ellis with a sore arm , but the Reds won the series .
= = = = 1973 = = = =
Ellis said that the scariest moment of his career was when he attempted to pitch while sober in a 1973 game . During pre @-@ game warmups , he could not recreate his pitching mechanics . Ellis went to his locker , took some amphetamines with coffee , and returned to pitch . In August 1973 , pictures circulated of Ellis wearing hair curlers in the bullpen during pre @-@ game warmups . The Pirates told him not to wear curlers on the field again . Ellis agreed , but charged that the Pirates were displaying racism . Ebony devoted a spread to Ellis about his hairstyles , which was inspired by the hair curlers .
After Ellis defeated the Reds by a score of 1 @-@ 0 in a 1973 game , Joe Morgan claimed that Ellis threw a spitball . Anderson had the umpire check Ellis , but found no evidence . In his 1980 book , Ellis admitted that wearing hair curlers produced sweat on his hair , which he used to throw a modified version of a spitball .
Ellis missed the last month of the season due to tendinitis in his elbow . Despite a strong start from Ellis during the playoff chase in the final week of the season , the Pirates lost the division to the New York Mets . Ellis again led the league in home runs allowed per nine innings pitched ratio ( 0 @.@ 328 ) .
= = = = 1974 = = = =
Ellis attempted to hit every batter in the Cincinnati Reds lineup on May 1 , 1974 , as he was angry that the Pirates were intimidated by the Big Red Machine . Ellis admired Pete Rose and was concerned about how he would respond , but Ellis decided to do it regardless . Ellis hit Rose , Joe Morgan , and Dan Driessen in the top of the first inning . Cleanup batter Tony Pérez avoided Ellis ' attempts and drew a walk ; the first pitch to Perez was thrown behind him and over his head . Ellis threw two pitches that he aimed at the head of Johnny Bench , at which point Ellis was removed from the game by manager Danny Murtaugh . Ellis ' box score for the game reads as follows : 0 IP , 0 H , 1 R , 1 ER , 1 BB , 0 K. Ellis tied eight other players for the MLB record with the three hit batsmen in the inning .
Ellis struggled at the start of the 1974 season , pitching to a 3 – 8 win @-@ loss record and 4 @.@ 54 ERA through July 10 . Subsequently he won eight consecutive games and nine out of ten , pitching seven completed games in that ten @-@ game stretch . A line drive off of the bat of Willie Montañez fractured the fifth metacarpal bone in Ellis ' pitching hand on September 10 , prematurely ending his season . Ellis had the seventh best walks plus hits per inning pitched ratio ( 1 @.@ 155 ) . The Pirates won the NL East , but they lost the 1974 NLCS three games to one to the Los Angeles Dodgers .
= = = = 1975 = = = =
Healthy to begin the 1975 season , Ellis continued to perform well at the beginning of the season . In August , the Pirates asked Ellis to pitch in the bullpen ; he refused on consecutive nights . On August 15 , 1975 , Ellis refused assignment to the bullpen again ; as a result , the Pirates suspended him for one day . Ellis called for a team meeting the next day , where he was expected to apologize . Instead , he berated Murtaugh , who responded by cursing at Ellis , ordering the pitcher out of the clubhouse and attempting to fight him . Teammate Don Leppert reportedly also tried to fight Ellis . The Pirates suspended Ellis for thirty days and fined him $ 2 @,@ 000 . The suspension was lifted on August 30 when Ellis apologized to Murtaugh .
Ellis pitched to an 8 @-@ 9 win @-@ loss record and 3 @.@ 79 ERA during the 1975 season . The Pirates again won the NL East , but were swept by the Reds in the 1975 NLCS in three games . Ellis pitched in relief for two innings in Game 1 .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Ellis sensed that he would be traded that offseason due to the fallout from his suspension . On December 11 , Ellis was traded to the New York Yankees of the American League ( AL ) along with pitcher Ken Brett and top infield prospect Willie Randolph , in exchange for pitcher Doc Medich . Tired of Ellis ' behavior , Pittsburgh general manager Joe L. Brown insisted that the Yankees take Ellis as part of the deal .
With the Yankees , Ellis pitched to a 17 – 8 win @-@ loss record with a 3 @.@ 15 ERA during the 1976 regular season . His 17 wins were eighth in the AL , while his .680 winning percentage was third best . After the season , he was voted the AL Comeback Player of the Year by the United Press International .
The Yankees won the AL East division championship in 1976 . Ellis started in Game 3 of the 1976 American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , getting the win . The Yankees reached the 1976 World Series . Ellis started Game 3 but received the loss , allowing four earned runs in 3 1 ⁄ 3 innings . The Reds defeated the Yankees in four games .
= = = Oakland Athletics and Texas Rangers = = =
Before the 1977 season , Ellis publicly criticized Yankees owner George Steinbrenner for giving him a raise that was inadequate given his 1976 performance and for interfering with manager Billy Martin . As Ellis refused to sign his contract , and the Yankees did not want to have players who could become free agents , the Yankees traded Ellis with Larry Murray and Marty Perez to the Oakland Athletics for Mike Torrez in April 1977 . Torrez emerged as a top starting pitcher for the Yankees that season , while Ellis struggled . While pitching for Oakland , the team asked him to keep charts . Defiant , Ellis set the charts on fire in the clubhouse , setting off sprinklers . Ellis ranked this as the " craziest " thing he did during his career .
On June 15 , 1977 , the Rangers purchased Ellis from the Oakland Athletics . Ellis had a resurgent second half of the 1977 season , going 10 – 6 with a 2 @.@ 90 ERA . Ellis complained about manager Billy Hunter 's liquor policy in 1978 . Hunter , responding to a raucous team flight , banned liquor on team flights ; Ellis vowed that he would bring liquor on the plane to Toronto anyway . Ellis led a player insurrection against manager Billy Hunter 's authoritarian style , declaring that Hunter " may be Hitler , but he ain 't making no lampshade out of me . " The Rangers organization blamed Ellis for the team 's disappointing finish in 1978 and indicated that they would look to trade Ellis . However , owner Brad Corbett sided with Ellis over Hunter , firing Hunter after the season .
= = = New York Mets and return to Pittsburgh = = =
After starting the 1979 season with a 1 – 5 win @-@ loss record , Ellis was traded to the New York Mets on June 15 , 1979 for minor league pitchers Mike Bruhert and Bob Myrick . The Mets , seeking to upgrade their pitching staff due to poor performances and injuries to Pat Zachry and Skip Lockwood , acquired Andy Hassler from the Boston Red Sox on the same day . Ellis went 3 – 7 with a 6 @.@ 04 ERA with the Mets .
Ellis requested the Mets send him back to the Pirates . Seeking more pitching in their pennant race , the Pirates purchased Ellis from the Mets on September 21 , 1979 for an undisclosed sum of money ; the price was later revealed to be " something in excess of the waiver price of $ 20 @,@ 000 " . Ellis made three relief appearances with the Pirates that year , retiring after that season . Ellis finished his career with a lifetime win @-@ loss record of 138 – 119 and an ERA of 3 @.@ 46 .
= = = Pitching style = = =
Ellis threw five distinct pitches : a fastball , a curveball , a changeup , a palmball , and what Ellis called a " sliding fastball " . The latter pitch was distinct from a slider . Ellis trusted his catcher to call pitches , and he rarely asked for a new sign .
Ellis kept a notebook , called " The Book " , with detailed information about each hitter 's strengths and weaknesses . He often asked teammates and members of other teams , including pitchers Bob Gibson and Juan Marichal , for advice on how to pitch opposing batters .
= = Personal life = =
Ellis was married four times . His first wife was Paula ; they divorced in 1972 . Ellis ' second wife was Austine , divorced in 1980 , the third wife was Jacquelyn , and the fourth was Hjordis . Ellis had three children and two grandchildren ; both daughters have since died , one in 2003 due to complications arising from type 1 diabetes . Ellis had a daughter , Shangalesa , with Paula . His son with Austine , Dock Ellis III ( Trey ) , played college basketball at California State University , Bakersfield . Trey fathered Ellis ' first grandchild , Dock Phillip Ellis IV . Ellis ' youngest daughter Simone , who mothered Ellis ' second grandchild , passed in December 2012 after losing her battle with cancer . Ellis stopped using drugs and alcohol in 1980 , when his son was an infant .
Ellis fought for players ' rights , including the right to free agency . Jackie Robinson credited him with trying to further the rights of African American players , but warned him that he said too much . In 1971 , Ellis testified before the United States Senate Subcommittee on Public Health about his experiences with sickle cell and later worked with people who had the disease and raised money for sickle cell research .
Ellis collaborated with future United States Poet Laureate Donald Hall on a book , Dock Ellis in the Country of Baseball , published in 1976 . Although Hall knew of the LSD incident , he did not include it in the first edition of his book .
= = Retirement = =
Ellis retired from baseball in the spring of 1980 , saying that he lost interest in the game . That year , Ellis entered drug treatment , staying for forty days at The Meadows in Wickenburg , Arizona . In 1984 , he revealed that he had pitched his no @-@ hitter under the influence of LSD .
Ellis lived in Apple Valley , California . He worked in Victorville , California as a drug counselor . He also counseled prisoners in Pittsburgh and at a prison in Adelanto , California . The Yankees hired Ellis in the 1980s to work with their minor league players , including Pascual Perez , whom he counseled for drug problems . In 2005 , Ellis began teaching weekly classes for individuals convicted of driving under the influence . Ellis also appeared in the 1986 film Gung Ho , directed by Ron Howard .
In 1989 , Ellis served as player / coach for the St. Petersburg Pelicans of the Senior Professional Baseball Association and went 0 – 2 with a 1 @.@ 76 ERA and seven saves as a part of the team 's bullpen . In 1990 , he allowed no earned runs and recorded two saves for the Pelicans before the league folded . He continued to play in the Los Angeles Veterans League .
Ellis was diagnosed with cirrhosis in 2007 and was placed on the list for a liver transplant . Though he had no health insurance , friends from his baseball career helped him to pay his medical bills . However , Ellis suffered heart damage in his last weeks of life , which made a transplant impossible .
Ellis died on December 19 , 2008 at Los Angeles County @-@ USC Medical Center due to his liver ailment . Services were held at the Angelus Funeral Home . He is interred at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood , California . His life was the subject of the critically acclaimed 2014 documentary film , No No : A Dockumentary .
= Battlefield Earth ( film ) =
Battlefield Earth ( also referred to as Battlefield Earth : A Saga of the Year 3000 ) is a 2000 American science fiction action film based upon the first half of L. Ron Hubbard 's 1982 novel of the same name . Directed by Roger Christian and starring John Travolta , Barry Pepper , and Forest Whitaker , the film depicts an Earth that has been under the rule of the alien Psychlos for 1 @,@ 000 years and tells the story of the rebellion that develops when the Psychlos attempt to use the surviving humans as gold miners .
Travolta , a long @-@ time Scientologist , had sought for many years to make a film of the novel by Hubbard , the founder of Scientology . He was unable to obtain funding from any major studio due to concerns about the film 's script , prospects , and connections with Scientology . The project was eventually taken on in 1998 by an independent production company , Franchise Pictures , which specialized in rescuing stars ' stalled pet projects . Travolta signed on as a co @-@ producer and contributed millions of dollars of his own money to the production , which commenced in 1999 and was largely funded by German film distribution company Intertainment AG . Franchise Pictures was later sued by its investors and was bankrupted in 2004 after it emerged that it had fraudulently overstated the film 's budget by $ 31 million .
Battlefield Earth was released on May 12 , 2000 . The film was a major critical and commercial failure and has been called one of the worst films of all time . Reviewers panned the film , criticizing virtually every aspect of the production including Travolta 's acting , which many described as " hammy " , overuse of angled shots and slow @-@ motion , poor script , several plot holes and narrative inconsistencies , art direction , and dialogue . Audiences were reported to have ridiculed early screenings and stayed away from the film after its opening weekend , which led to Battlefield Earth failing to recoup its costs . The film went on to receive a total of nine Golden Raspberry Awards , which until 2012 was the most Razzie Awards given to a single film . It has since become a cult film in the so bad , it 's good vein .
Travolta originally envisioned Battlefield Earth as the first of two films to be adapted from the book , as the screenplay only covered the first half of the novel . However , the film 's poor performance at the box office , as well as the collapse of Franchise Pictures , ended plans for a sequel .
= = Plot = =
In the year 3000 , Earth has been ruled for 1 @,@ 000 years by the Psychlos , a brutal race of giant humanoid aliens . The remnants of humanity are either enslaved by the Psychlos and used for manual labor or survive in primitive tribes living in remote areas outside Psychlo control . Jonnie Goodboy Tyler ( Barry Pepper ) , a member of one such tribe , leaves his home in the Rocky Mountains on a journey of exploration . He joins forces with Carlo ( Kim Coates ) , a hunter , but both men are captured by a Psychlo raiding party and transported to a slave camp at the Psychlos ' main base on Earth , a giant dome built over the ruins of Denver , Colorado .
Terl ( John Travolta ) , the Psychlo security chief on Earth , has been condemned by his superiors to remain indefinitely at his post on Earth as punishment for an unclear incident involving " the Senator 's daughter " . Aided by his deputy , Ker ( Forest Whitaker ) , Terl devises a plan to buy his way off the planet by making a fortune using human slaves to mine gold in radioactive areas . Psychlos are unable to visit such areas due to the explosive interaction of the gas that they breathe with radionuclide particles . Terl selects Jonnie as his " foreman " for the project and gives him a Psychlo education using a rapid @-@ learning machine . Terl gives Jonnie a party of slaves and a Psychlo flying shuttle and orders him to go out and find gold .
After learning the Psychlos ' language , history , and myriad other things from the rapid learning machine , Jonnie plots a human uprising against the Psychlos . He obtains gold from Fort Knox to satisfy Terl 's demands , and uses the free time to plot a revolution . Jonnie and his followers find an abandoned underground U.S. military base with working aircraft , weapons , fuel and nuclear weapons . They use the base 's flight simulators to train themselves in aerial combat . When Terl returns , he orders more gold to be extracted , and tells how in the 21st century the Psychlos conquered Earth in a matter of minutes . Jonnie warns Terl that he will be overthrown and the humans will retake Earth , and cites the United States Declaration of Independence as inspiration , to which Terl scoffs .
After a week of training , the rebels launch a mass uprising against the Psychlos using Harrier jump @-@ jets and other weapons . Carlo sacrifices himself to destroy the dome over Denver , and the Psychlos inside suffocate in Earth 's atmosphere , which they are unable to breathe . Jonnie captures a Psychlo teleportation device and uses it to teleport an atomic bomb to the Psychlo home world . The ensuing detonation causes the entire Psychlo atmosphere to explode , wiping out the Psychlo world . The film ends with the humans in control of Earth but facing an uncertain future , along with Terl and Ker who survived the base destruction . Terl is now imprisoned inside Fort Knox in a makeshift cell of gold bars , while Ker sides with the victorious humans , and helps in their hard effort to rebuild their civilization .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Initial deals = = =
After Battlefield Earth was published in 1982 , L. Ron Hubbard suggested that a film version of the book was in the works . He gave an interview in February 1983 to the Rocky Mountain News in which he told the reporter , " I 've recently written three screenplays , and some interest has been expressed in Battlefield Earth , so I suppose I 'll be right back in Hollywood one of these days and probably on location in the Denver area for Battlefield Earth when they film it . "
Hubbard 's comments suggest that he saw himself being directly involved in the film 's production ; author Stewart Lamont suggests that Hubbard may even have envisioned directing it , given his previous work on Scientology training films . In October 1983 , the film rights were sold by the Church of Scientology 's in @-@ house literary agency , Author Services Inc . , to Salem Productions of Los Angeles . Two films were envisaged , each covering half of the book and tentatively budgeted at $ 15 million each . William Immerman was set as the producer for the film . Veteran screenwriter Abraham Polonsky and British director Ken Annakin were hired to produce a film breakdown , with production scheduled to begin in 1985 . In November 1984 , Santa Monica public relations firm Dateline Communications announced a nationwide contest to promote the film . First and second place prizes were an all @-@ expense paid trip to the film 's production location and a paid walk @-@ on part in the film , and other announced prizes included a trip to Los Angeles for the world premiere , records , cassettes , and hardcover and paperback copies of the novel . A 30 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) high inflatable figure of the film 's villain , Terl , was erected by Scientology officials on Hollywood Boulevard in 1984 in an effort to promote the production , and auditions were held in Denver . The low @-@ budget project soon collapsed , and Hubbard died soon afterwards , in 1986 .
Travolta had converted to Scientology in 1975 and subsequently became one of the Church of Scientology 's most prominent supporters . Hubbard sent him an autographed copy of Battlefield Earth when the book was first published in 1982 ; he reportedly hoped that Travolta would turn the book into a film " in the vein of Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third Kind " . While Travolta was interested , his influence in Hollywood at the time was at a low after participating in a series of flops . He gained renewed influence with the success of the 1994 film Pulp Fiction , which garnered Travolta an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor . He had not forgotten Hubbard 's wishes to see the book on the big screen and took on the task of making Battlefield Earth into a movie . Travolta described the book in interviews as " like Pulp Fiction for the year 3000 " and " like Star Wars , only better " . He lobbied influential figures in Hollywood to fund the project and was reported to have recruited the aid of fellow Scientologists in promoting it . According to Bill Mechanic , the former head of Twentieth Century Fox , " John wanted me to make Battlefield Earth . He had Scientologists all over me . They come up to you and they know who you are . And they go , ' We 're really excited about Battlefield Earth ' . " This did not impress Mechanic : " Do you think in any way , shape , or form that weirding me out is going to make me want to make this movie ? "
Travolta 's involvement in Battlefield Earth was first publicized in late 1995 . He told the New York Daily News that " Battlefield Earth is the pinnacle of using my power for something . I told my manager , ' If we can 't do the things now that we want to do , what good is the power ? Let 's test it and try to get the things done that we believe in . ' " It was assumed from the start that Travolta would star in and produce the film , which would be distributed by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ; J. D. Shapiro would write the screenplay . Shapiro was eventually fired because he refused to accept some suggestions from the studio producers that changed the tone of his script , including removing key scenes and characters . In 1997 Travolta 's long @-@ time manager Jonathan Krane signed a two @-@ year deal with Twentieth Century Fox under which that studio would release Battlefield Earth instead of MGM , but the deal with Fox also fell through . James Robert Parish , author of Fiasco : A History of Hollywood 's Iconic Flops , comments that both MGM and Fox regarded the project as too risky on several grounds . Its heavy reliance on special effects would be very expensive , pushing the budget up to as much as $ 100 million ; Hubbard 's narrative was seen as naïve and outdated ; and the " Scientology factor " could work against the film , negating Travolta 's star power . As one studio executive put it , " On any film there are ten variables that can kill you . On this film there was an eleventh : Scientology . It just wasn 't something anyone really wanted to get involved with . "
= = = Franchise Pictures = = =
In 1998 , the project was taken over by Franchise Pictures , a recently established company whose head , Elie Samaha , a former dry cleaning mogul @-@ turned @-@ nightclub owner , specialized in rescuing stars ' pet projects . Franchise sought out stars whose projects were stalled at the major studios , bringing them aboard at reduced salaries . Samaha 's approach made waves in Hollywood , earning him a reputation of being able to produce star vehicles more cheaply than the larger studios . His unorthodox deals raised eyebrows and the entertainment industry magazine Variety commented that they were " often so complex and variable as to leave outsiders scratching their heads " . As Samaha put it , " I said , ' If John wants to make this movie , what does he want to get paid ? ' ... Because I do not pay anybody what they make . That is not my business plan . ' " He learned of Battlefield Earth from Cassian Elwes , an agent at the theatrical agency William Morris , and approached Travolta . A deal was soon struck and financing was arranged ; Travolta significantly reduced his normal fee of $ 20 million , lowering the film 's cost from the $ 100 million that had previously been forecast , and costs were reduced further by using Canadian locations and facilities .
The film was set up as an independent production for Morgan Creek Productions which would release the film through Warner Bros. in the U.S. under an existing distribution agreement . Travolta 's company JTP Films was also involved , and Travolta invested $ 5 million of his own money in the production . Warner Bros. allocated $ 20 million for the film 's marketing and distribution . Franchise retained the foreign rights , licensing the European distribution rights to the German group Intertainment AG in exchange for 47 % of the production costs which were set at $ 75 million . The Intertainment deal later became the focus of a legal action that bankrupted Franchise . Samaha forecast that the film would be a hit : " My projected numbers on Battlefield Earth are really conservative . I 'm already covered internationally , and there 's no way I 'm going to lose if the movie does $ 35 million domestically . And Travolta has never had an action movie do under $ 35 million . "
According to Samaha , he got around the " negative factor " of the Scientology connection by the simple expedient of " yell [ ing ] at everyone , ' This is a science @-@ fiction film starring John Travolta ! ' again and again " . Samaha acknowledged that " everyone thought I was crazy or mentally retarded " for taking on the project , but pitched the film as " Planet of the Apes starring John Travolta " . Others in Hollywood were still skeptical ; an unnamed producer was quoted by the Los Angeles Daily News as saying that " Battlefield Earth has the stench of death . It should never have been made . It 's an $ 80 million vanity project for Travolta . " Travolta 's theatrical agency William Morris was also said to be unenthusiastic , reportedly leading to Travolta threatening to leave them if they did not help him to set up the film . Fellow Scientologist Tom Cruise was said to have warned Warner Bros. that he thought the movie was a bad idea . This was later denied by his spokesperson .
= = = Author Services Inc. and Church of Scientology = = =
In 1999 , Author Services Inc. said that it was " donating its share of the profits from the film to charitable organizations that direct drug education and drug rehabilitation programs around the world " . It was reported that the merchandising revenues would be passed on to the Scientology @-@ linked groups Narconon , a drug rehabilitation program , and Applied Scholastics , which promotes Hubbard 's Study tech , with movie @-@ related sales of the book funding the marketing of Hubbard 's fiction books and the L. Ron Hubbard Writers of the Future contest . The size of the revenue deal was not disclosed by the parties ; Trendmasters , the makers of the Battlefield Earth line of toys , stated that its deal was strictly with Franchise Pictures , which declined to comment , and Warner Bros. stated that its role was limited to distribution and had nothing to do with the associated merchandising deals .
In February 2000 , Church of Scientology spokesman Mike Rinder told Tribune Media Services that any spinoff deals based on Hubbard 's novel would benefit Author Services Inc. while another church spokesman , Aron Mason , stated , " The church has no financial interest in Battlefield Earth . Author Services is not part of the Church of Scientology . They are a literary agency without any connection to the church . "
Travolta 's manager Jonathan Krane denied that the Church of Scientology was playing any part in the production : " I 've never even dealt with or talked to the church on this . This is an action @-@ adventure , science @-@ fiction story . Period . The movie has nothing to do with Scientology . " Krane stated that the film had been financed " without a dollar coming from the Scientologists " . Some people in Hollywood feared that Travolta was using his box office draw to promote Scientology teachings , and one film producer stated , " This film could encourage kids to embrace the whole strange world of Scientology . " Travolta stated , " I 'm doing it because it 's a great piece of science fiction . This is not about Hubbard . I 'm very interested in Scientology , but that 's personal . This is different . " In a separate interview Travolta commented on the perceived similarities between Battlefield Earth and Scientology : " Well , they are kind of synonymous ... L. Ron Hubbard is very famous for Scientology and Dianetics . On the other hand , he 's equally as famous in the science fiction world . So for people to think that ... look , I don 't want everybody to try Scientology . I don 't really care if somebody thinks that . I 'm not worried about it . You can 't be . The truth of why I 'm doing it is because it 's a great piece of science fiction . I 'm going to be the wickedest 9 @-@ foot alien you 've ever seen in your life . "
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Travolta and his manager , Jonathan Krane , took the lead in hiring the on @-@ set personnel . They initially approached Quentin Tarantino to direct the film . When Tarantino declined , Roger Christian , a protégé of George Lucas , was recruited as the director on the advice of Lucas . Christian had most recently been the second unit director on Lucas ' Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . Patrick Tatopoulos was signed to develop the production design and costumes , including the design of the alien Psychlos , and Czech @-@ American composer Elia Cmiral was signed to provide the film 's score . Travolta and Krane also signed the cinematographer and most of the principal actors . Corey Mandell , a screenwriter who had previously worked with Ridley Scott on Blade Runner , signed on to write the script for the film , which had previously gone through 10 revisions . Mandell stated in an interview , " I am not a Scientologist ... I came on board because John asked me to read the book and said , ' It 's not a religious book . It 's a science @-@ fiction story . There 's nothing sacred about the story , nothing of the religious philosophy . I was given this to read purely as science fiction – to see whether it was intriguing as a movie . And it was . "
= = = Filming = = =
Filmed in Canada , principal photography took place in Montreal , Saint @-@ Jean @-@ sur @-@ Richelieu and several other Quebec locations during the summer and autumn of 1999 . In January 1999 , Travolta flew his private Boeing 727 on a secret visit to Montreal to scout out locations for shooting . The film was reported to have been the most expensive production shot in Canada up to that point . It was also reported that the production costs would have been twice as high had the film been shot in the United States . Almost every shot in the film is at a Dutch angle , because , according to Roger Christian , he wanted the film to look like a comic book .
Travolta 's wife Kelly Preston also appeared in one scene , playing Terl 's " baldish Psychlo girlfriend " . Travolta originally saw himself in the role of Jonnie , but by the time the movie was actually made , Travolta felt he was too old to play the role , and took the role of the main villain instead . Travolta 's role in the film required what he described as an amazing physical transformation : " I wear a tall head apparatus with strange hair . I have amber eyes and talons for hands . It 's quite remarkable ... I 'm on 4 @-@ foot stilts . " To star in the film , Travolta turned down the movie The Shipping News and postponed production on Standing Room Only .
The film was " plagued by bad buzz " before release with the media speculating about the possible influence of Scientology and commenting on the production 's tight security . As the film was entering post @-@ production , the alternative newspaper Mean Magazine obtained a copy of the screenplay . Mean 's staffers changed the script 's title to " Dark Forces " by " Desmond Finch " and circulated it to readers at major Hollywood film production companies . The comments that came back were unfavorable : " a thoroughly silly plotline is made all the more ludicrous by its hamfisted dialog and ridiculously shallow characterizations " , " a completely predictable story that just isn 't written well enough to make up for its lack of originality " . One reviewer labeled the screenplay " as entertaining as watching a fly breathe " .
= = Release = =
Battlefield Earth was released on May 12 , 2000 , three days after the 50th anniversary of the publication of Hubbard 's book Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health , a date celebrated by Scientologists worldwide as a major Scientology holiday . Its premiere was held on May 10 , 2000 at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles .
= = = Box office = = =
The film 's scathingly bad reviews and poor word @-@ of @-@ mouth led to a precipitous falling @-@ off in its grosses . Having earned $ 11 @,@ 548 @,@ 898 from 3 @,@ 307 screens on its opening weekend , its take collapsed by 67 percent to $ 3 @,@ 924 @,@ 921 the following weekend , giving an average take of $ 1 @,@ 158 per screen . The film made 85 percent of its entire domestic gross in its first 10 days and flatlined thereafter , with earnings dropping a further 75 percent by the end of its third week to $ 1 million . The following week , facing earnings of just $ 205 @,@ 745 , Warner Bros. attempted to cut its losses by slashing the number of screens at which the film was being shown . The number was reduced from 2 @,@ 587 to 641 . By its sixth weekend on release , the film was showing on 95 screens and had made $ 18 @,@ 993 in a week – less than $ 200 per screen .
The film ultimately earned $ 21 @,@ 471 @,@ 685 in the United States and Canada and $ 8 @,@ 253 @,@ 978 internationally for a total of $ 29 @,@ 725 @,@ 663 worldwide , falling well short of its reported $ 73 million production budget and $ 20 million in estimated marketing costs . Financially , it is regarded as one of the most expensive box office bombs in film history .
In a 2006 list of " The top 10 biggest box office failures " , Kat Giantis of MSN Movies placed Battlefield Earth as tied with Inchon for number seven .
= = = Merchandising = = =
A limited range of merchandising was produced for the film , including posters , a soundtrack CD by Elia Cmíral recorded by the Seattle Symphony , and a re @-@ released version of the novel with a new cover based on the film 's poster . Trendmasters also produced a range of action figures of the main characters , including an 11 @-@ inch ( 280 mm ) figure of Travolta as Terl voicing lines from the film such as " Exterminate all man @-@ animals at will ! " , " You wouldn 't last one day at the academy " , " Man is an endangered species " , and " Ratbastard ! " . In Hubbard 's novel the term " Ratbastard " is never used , and Terl instead refers to Jonnie Goodboy Tyler as " rat brain " .
= = = Home media = = =
A special edition DVD was released in 2001 , deleting one scene and including two additional scenes which added two minutes to the film 's running time . The DVD includes commentary tracks with director Roger Christian and production , costume and creature designer Patrick Tatopoulos , as well as special features including John Travolta 's alien makeup test . Jeff Berkwits of Sci Fi Weekly wrote that " ... the Battlefield Earth Special Edition DVD is packed with information , offering an enlightening glimpse into the creative process behind this imperfect but entertaining picture " . Randy Salas of the Star Tribune described it as the " Best DVD for a bad movie . " A review of the DVD release in the Los Angeles Times was more critical : " A dated visual style , patched @-@ together special effects and ludicrous dialogue combine in a film that is a wholly miserable experience . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon release , Battlefield Earth was heavily panned by critics , and is often considered one of the worst films ever made . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a " rotten " score of 3 % based on 148 reviews with an average rating of 2 @.@ 3 out of 10 . The critical consensus states : " Ugly , campy and poorly acted , Battlefield Earth is a stunningly misguided , aggressively bad sci @-@ fi folly " . On Metacritic , the film had an average score of 9 out of 100 , based on 33 critics indicating " Overwhelming dislike " .
Chicago Sun @-@ Times film critic Roger Ebert gave the film the rating of half a star out of four and described it as " like taking a bus trip with someone who has needed a bath for a long time . It 's not merely bad ; it 's unpleasant in a hostile way . I watched it in mounting gloom , realizing I was witnessing something historic , a film that for decades to come will be the punch line of jokes about bad movies . " Leonard Maltin rated the film a " BOMB " in his book Leonard Maltin 's Movie Guide , writing : " Clumsy plot , misplaced satire , unbelievable coincidences and a leaden pace trample Travolta 's weird but amusing performance . " David Bleiler gave the film one star out of four in the TLA Video & DVD Guide , writing : " This is disjointed , tedious and every bit as bad as its reputation . " Jon Stewart mocked the film on his television program The Daily Show , describing it as " a cross between Star Wars and the smell of ass " .
Rita Kempley of The Washington Post commented : " A million monkeys with a million crayons would be hard @-@ pressed in a million years to create anything as cretinous as Battlefield Earth . This film version of L. Ron Hubbard 's futuristic novel is so breathtakingly awful in concept and execution , it wouldn 't tax the smarts of a troglodyte . " Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote : " It may be a bit early to make such judgments , but Battlefield Earth may well turn out to be the worst movie of this century " and called it " Plan 9 from Outer Space for a new generation " . The British film critic Jonathan Ross said : " Everything about Battlefield Earth sucks . Everything . The over @-@ the @-@ top music , the unbelievable sets , the terrible dialogue , the hammy acting , the lousy special effects , the beginning , the middle and especially the end . " The Hollywood Reporter summarized the film as being " a flat @-@ out mess , by golly , with massive narrative sinkholes , leading to moments of outstanding disbelief in the muddled writing and shockingly chaotic mise en scène that 's accompanied by ear @-@ pummeling sound and bombastic music " .
Particular points that critics held up for censure included its use of angled camera shots ( which , according to the director himself in different reports , are used in all but one frame of the film or even in every single frame ) , derivative special effects and unbelievable plotting . The Providence Journal highlighted the film 's unusual color scheme : " Battlefield Earth 's primary colors are blue and gray , adding to the misery . Whenever we glimpse sunlight , the screen goes all stale yellow , as though someone had urinated on the print . This , by the way , is not such a bad idea . "
The film is profiled in Better Living Through Bad Movies by Scott Clevenger and Sheri Zollinger , who comment : " So what new truths have we gleaned from Battlefield Earth ? First , we have learned that spirituality is a fine thing , but it 's probably best to avoid joining denominations that make action movies . " In 2010 , screenwriter J.D. Shapiro wrote an apology letter in The New York Post , saying that his draft was completely different from the final product , and he was very ashamed of the poor quality of Battlefield Earth – " The only time I saw the movie was at the premiere , which was one too many times . "
The film was reported to have been greeted with widespread derision in preview screenings for the public and critics . An audience of Los Angeles entertainment journalists , critics and others greeted the film with guffaws and hoots at a screening in Century City , while other viewers in Washington , D.C. and Baltimore responded with derisive laughter or simply walked out . At a post @-@ launch publicity event , Travolta , on asking assembled journalists if they had enjoyed it , received no reply . He later asserted that other filmmakers had enjoyed the movie : " When I felt better about everything was when George Lucas and Quentin Tarantino , and a lot of people that I felt knew what they were doing , saw it and thought it was a great piece of science fiction . " Christian also spoke of an initially positive reception , mentioning an enthusiastic response from both the audience and Tarantino .
Responding to the criticism , one of the film 's producers , Elie Samaha , complained : " [ The ] critics were waiting for us to ... chop our heads off . Everybody hated Scientology for some reason . I didn 't know people were so prejudiced . " He argued that despite the film 's poor performance it would cover its costs in due course : " Maybe [ in ] the second cycle with Internet , and HBO , and DVD , you always make your money ... so I 'm not going to lose sleep over one movie that did not perform for us . "
The reviews were not uniformly negative . Bob Graham of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that the film " effectively presented " the " wary , uncomprehending relationship " between the humans and the Psychlos . A review at JoBlo 's Movie Reviews was also positive ; Berge Garabedian wrote , " Despite starting off like a bad Star Trek episode , this film eventually graduates to a higher level with great special effects , some really slick bad @-@ ass aliens , an intriguing premise and a good flow of loud , campy fun . " Luke Thompson of New Times LA wrote : " Think Independence Day without the ponderous build @-@ up or self @-@ importance . Imagine how much more enjoyable the other blockbuster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment , Gladiator , might have been if Joaquin Phoenix had addressed every one of his rivals as ' Rat brain . ' " Sean Axmaker of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer wrote positively of the interaction between Travolta and Whitaker in the film , comparing them to Abbott and Costello . Axmaker wrote that they provide " ... much @-@ needed comic relief in an otherwise humorless paean to freedom " . Axmaker also wrote positively of the production design used in the film , commenting that the director had created " a world of crumbling dead cities and empty malls turned into human hunting grounds ... " Hap Erstein of The Palm Beach Post commented : " ... production designer Patrick Tatopulos contributes some good work , imagining the ruins of Denver and Washington , D.C. , with echoes of Planet of the Apes . "
Battlefield Earth frequently appears on worst film lists , and is included on Rotten Tomatoes ' " 100 Worst of the Worst Movies " list . Rotten Tomatoes ranked the film 27th in the 100 worst reviewed films of the first decade of the 21st century . The Arizona Republic listed it as the worst film of 2000 , and called it a " monumentally bad sci @-@ fi flick " . Richard Roeper placed the film at number five on his list of " 40 movies that linger in the back chambers of my memory vault like a plate of cheese left behind a radiator in a fleabag hotel " . In 2001 the film received the " Worst Picture " award from the Dallas @-@ Fort Worth Film Critics Association . James Franklin of McClatchy @-@ Tribune News Service put the film as the worst of his " summer blockbuster bombs " list , giving it a rating of four stars for " traumatic " on his scale of how the films " generate a perverse sense of nostalgia " . Christopher Null of Filmcritic.com listed the film 's villain Terl at number 8 of his " 10 Least Effective Movie Villains " , writing : " we still can 't imagine how anyone would go face to face with one of these creatures and react with anything other than simple laughter " . In her book I Love Geeks : The Official Handbook , Carrie Tucker cites Battlefield Earth as a cult classic " in the ' so bad it 's good ' genre . "
South Park parodied the film at the 2000 MTV Movie Awards . The MTV short was the first time South Park had satirized Scientology , in a piece entitled " The Gauntlet " . The short was primarily a Gladiator parody , with the characters fighting Russell Crowe in the Roman Colosseum ; it included " John Travolta and the Church of Scientology " arriving in a spaceship to defeat Crowe and attempting to recruit the boys into Scientology . Travolta , along with his fellow Scientologists , was depicted as a Psychlo , as he appeared in the film .
= = = Golden Raspberry Awards = = =
Battlefield Earth swept the 2000 Golden Raspberry Awards and received seven " Razzies " , including Worst Movie of the Year , Worst Actor ( Travolta ) , Worst Supporting Actor ( Pepper ) , Worst Supporting Actress ( Preston ) , Worst Director ( Christian ) , Worst Screenplay ( Mandell and Shapiro ) and Worst Screen Couple ( Travolta and " anyone sharing the screen with him " ) . This tied for the highest number of Razzies won by a single film at that time , with Showgirls achieving seven wins in 1995 . Battlefield Earth was later awarded an eighth Razzie for " Worst Drama of Our First 25 Years " . In 2010 , the film received an award for " Worst Picture of the Decade " , bringing its total number of Razzie Awards to nine and consequently setting a record for the most Razzies won by a single film . That record was surpassed in 2012 when Jack and Jill won ten awards .
As Travolta did not attend to collect his trophies , an action figure of Terl , his character , accepted them in his place . Travolta responded a week later to the awards : " I didn 't even know there were such awards . I have people around me whose job it is to not tell me about such things . They 're obviously doing their job . Not every film can be a critical and box office success . It would have been awful only if Battlefield Earth was neither . That 's not the case . It is edging toward the $ 100m mark which means it has found an audience even if it didn 't impress critics . I 'd rather my films connect with audiences than with critics because it gives you more longevity as a performer . " He later insisted that he still felt " really good about it . Here I was taking big chances , breaking a new genre . "
Pepper said that he regretted not having been invited to the Razzies and blamed the film 's failure on " a weak script and poor production values " . Writer J. D. Shapiro received his Worst Screenplay award from Razzies founder John J. B. Wilson during a radio program ; he commented that Travolta had called the script " the Schindler 's List of science fiction " . Shapiro also made an appearance to pick up the Worst Picture of the Decade award at the 30th Golden Raspberry Awards , giving a speech quoting negative reviews , and thanking both the studio for firing him and Corey Mandell for " rewriting my script in a way I never , ever , ever — could have imagined or conceived of myself . "
The film 's producer , Elie Samaha , declared that he welcomed the " free publicity " , as " the more the critics hit Battlefield Earth , the more DVDs it sells . It is the kind of film that makes a movie legend and we feel we have enough staying power to last long after the critics have quieted down . "
= = Controversies = =
= = = Scientology influence = = =
Stacy Brooks , then @-@ president of the Lisa McPherson Trust , stated : " There 's no way that this movie would be happening without Scientology 's backing ... This is one example of how Scientology insinuates itself in various aspects of the culture . " Mark Bunker characterized the film as a recruitment tactic for the Church of Scientology , stating , " It 's designed to introduce L. Ron Hubbard to a whole new generation of kids . It 's there to plant a favorable seed in children 's minds . " Bunker criticized the promotional methods of the film — instead of granting interviews about the film to the press , John Travolta went on a book tour and signed copies of L. Ron Hubbard 's novel . Bunker stated , " When Michael Caine goes around to promote The Cider House Rules , he doesn 't tour bookstores and sign copies of John Irving 's novel ... Through the movie tie @-@ in with the book , kids will send in the card to get their free poster , and eventually be introduced to Dianetics . " Scientologist Nancy O 'Meara , at the time treasurer of the Foundation for Religious Freedom and currently treasurer of the Scientology @-@ run New Cult Awareness Network , responded to Bunker 's statement : " Gimme a break ... That 's like saying people are going to go see Gladiator and then suddenly find themselves wanting to explore Christianity . "
Before the film was released , rumors and allegations began to circulate that Battlefield Earth contained subliminal messages promoting Scientology . Former Scientologist Lawrence Wollersheim , in a press release issued by his group Fight Against Coercive Tactics Network , said that the Church of Scientology " has placed highly advanced subliminal messages in the Battlefield Earth film master to surreptitiously recruit new members from the movie audience and to get the audience to develop a revulsion for psychiatry and current mental health organizations and practices " . Other critics said that the film " is a veiled attempt to gain converts and influence " , and that writers were gagged from making connections between Scientology and the film with threats of lawsuits . Warner Bros. dismissed the claims as " silly nonsense " , the Church of Scientology denounced them as " hogwash " and the media reacted with skepticism ; as the Scottish journalist Duncan Campbell put it , " the only subliminal voice I could detect came about 10 minutes into this 121 @-@ minute film and it seemed to be saying Leeeaaave thisssss cinemmmaaa nooow " . When asked about the similarities between the film and Scientology beliefs in intergalactic travel and aliens , church spokesman Aron Mason stated , " That 's a pretty crude parallel ... You 'd have to make some serious leaps of logic to make that comparison . " John Travolta also stated that the film was not inspired by Scientology tenets .
= = = Fraud by Franchise Pictures = = =
Following the failure of Battlefield Earth and other films independently produced by Franchise Pictures , The Wall Street Journal reported that the FBI was probing " the question of whether some independent motion picture companies have vastly inflated the budget of films in an effort to scam investors " . In December 2000 the German @-@ based Intertainment AG filed a lawsuit alleging that Franchise Pictures had fraudulently inflated budgets in films including Battlefield Earth , which Intertainment had helped to finance . Intertainment had agreed to pay 47 % of the production costs of several films in exchange for European distribution rights , but ended up paying for between 60 and 90 % of the costs instead . The company alleged that Franchise had defrauded it to the tune of over $ 75 million by systematically submitting " grossly fraudulent and inflated budgets " .
The case was heard before a jury in a Los Angeles federal courtroom in May – June 2004 . The court heard testimony from Intertainment that according to Franchise 's bank records the real cost of Battlefield Earth was $ 44 million , not the $ 75 million declared by Franchise . The remaining $ 31 million had been fraudulent " padding " . Intertainment 's head Barry Baeres told the court that he had only funded Battlefield Earth because it was packaged as a slate that included two more commercially attractive films , the Wesley Snipes vehicle The Art of War and the Bruce Willis comedy The Whole Nine Yards . Baeres testified that " Mr. Samaha said , ' If you want the other two pictures , you have to take Battlefield Earth — it 's called packaging ' " . Baeres commented : " We would have been quite happy if he had killed [ Battlefield Earth ] " .
Intertainment won the case and was awarded $ 121 @.@ 7 million in damages . Samaha himself was declared by the court to be personally liable for $ 77 million in damages . The jury rejected Intertainment 's claims under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ( RICO ) statute , which would have trebled the damages if Franchise had been convicted on that charge . The judgment forced Franchise into bankruptcy a few months later . The failure of the film was also reported to have led in 2002 to Travolta firing his manager Jonathan Krane , who had set up the deal with Franchise in the first place .
= = Follow @-@ ups and sequels = =
Battlefield Earth is significantly shorter than its source novel , covering only the first 436 pages of the 1 @,@ 050 @-@ page book . A sequel covering the remainder of the book was originally planned at the outset . When asked during promotion of the film if there would be a Battlefield Earth 2 , Travolta responded , " Sure . Yeah . " Travolta asserted that the first film would become a cult classic , stating that there were already fan websites dedicated to the film . Corey Mandell , the scriptwriter for the first film , was commissioned to deliver the script for the sequel , and Travolta , Pepper and producer Krane were all signed up to the sequel in their contracts for the first film . Christian and Whitaker were approached to reprise their respective roles , and the producers planned for a 2003 release date so as not to compete with George Lucas ' Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of the Clones .
Despite Travolta 's earlier statements , plans for a sequel never came to fruition . According to James Robert Parish 's Fiasco : A History of Hollywood 's Iconic Flops , the disastrous performance of Battlefield Earth and the collapse of Franchise Pictures made it very unlikely that a live @-@ action sequel will be made . In a 2001 interview , Travolta stated that a sequel was not planned : " Ultimately the movie did $ 100 million when you count box office , DVD sales , video and pay per view ... But I don 't know what kind of number it would have to do to justify filming the second part of the book . And I don 't want to push any buttons in the press and stir anybody up about it now . " Author Services announced in 2001 that Pine Com International , a Tokyo @-@ based animation studio , would produce 13 one @-@ hour animated television segments based on the book and rendered in a manga style . The plans appear to have fallen through , and according to Parish , " little has been heard of the series since " .
= Bob Chappuis =
Robert Richard " Bob " Chappuis ( / ˈtʃæpiəs / CHAP @-@ ee @-@ əs ; February 24 , 1923 – June 14 , 2012 ) was an American football player who played halfback and quarterback for the University of Michigan Wolverines in 1942 , 1946 , and 1947 . His college years were interrupted by service in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II . Chappuis flew 21 missions as a radio operator and aerial gunner on B @-@ 25 bombers in the European Theater . His aircraft was shot down in February 1945 in the Lombardy region of Northern Italy . Chappuis parachuted from the plane before it crashed , and Italian partisans rescued him by hiding Chappuis and two other crew members for the final three months of the war .
After the war , Chappuis returned to Michigan where he broke the Big Nine Conference record for total offense in 1946 and then broke his own record in 1947 . He led the 1947 Michigan team known as the “ Mad Magicians ” to an undefeated season and a 49 – 0 win over the USC Trojans in the 1948 Rose Bowl game . Chappuis was a unanimous All @-@ American selection in 1947 and was named the Most Valuable Player of the 1948 Rose Bowl . His picture appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1947 in connection with a feature article about Chappuis and the 1947 Wolverines . He placed second in the 1947 Heisman Trophy balloting .
During his career he established many football records that lasted for over a generation and became an All @-@ American . He continues to hold the Big Ten Conference single @-@ season passer rating record and the Michigan Wolverines single @-@ season yards / completion records . He was one of the early passing specialists in an era where football players were just beginning to either play on offense or defense instead of both .
Chappuis played professional football in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) as a quarterback for the Brooklyn Dodgers and Chicago Hornets in 1948 and 1949 . He led the Dodgers in total offense in 1948 with 1 @,@ 402 yards passing and 310 yards rushing . When both clubs and the AAFC folded , Chappuis retired from football in 1950 . He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1988 .
= = Early years = =
Chappuis was born and raised in Toledo , Ohio , the son of Mary Ellen ( née Burchell ) and Sylvan Francis Chappuis . His father — who had played quarterback for Denison University , which is located near Columbus , Ohio — was an executive with a porcelain products company in Toledo . Chappuis graduated from DeVilbiss High School where he was a star football player . When it came time to choose a college , his father said his only preference for his son was that he not attend Ohio State . Chappuis could not provide much of an explanation for his father 's preference : “ Dad just didn 't like Ohio State . ”
Chappuis played in nine games for Michigan as a sophomore in 1942 , contributing 220 yards rushing , 358 yards passing , and 30 yards receiving . In his first game as a college halfback , Chappuis completed seven of eighteen passes for a gain of 80 yards , and also rushed for 49 yards in a 9 – 0 win over the Great Lakes Naval Training Station . Chappuis ' predecessor as Michigan 's halfback , Heisman Trophy winner Tom Harmon , completed seven passes in a single game only three times in three years , a feat accomplished by Chappuis in his first game .
= = Service in World War II = =
Chappuis ' college program was interrupted by military service from 1943 to 1945 . During World War II , Chappuis earned the rank of Lieutenant in the U.S. Army Air Forces . He flew 21 missions as a radio operator and aerial gunner in B @-@ 25 bombers . His crew sunk a cruiser in an Italian harbor , which earned it a citation in September 1944 . He flew his first mission , which was targeting a railroad bridge in the heavily fortified Brenner Pass on Christmas Day 1944 . At the time he flew this first mission , he was a sergeant . On February 13 , 1945 , Chappuis flew his 21st mission when he was assigned to fill in for a sick crew member . Chappuis ’ B @-@ 25 bomber was assigned to bomb a railroad tunnel in the Italian mountains north of the Po River . “ Over the target , a burst of flak knocked out one engine , then the other engine went out . When the order came to bail out , the tailgunner went out first , and got stuck in the escape hatch , pinned against the rear of it by the wind pressure . Chappuis kicked him in the only accessible place — his head — and knocked him loose . Then he jumped . ”
Chappuis was rescued by an Italian partisan , Aldo Comucci , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old who was in charge of one of the many underground groups operating in the area . Comucci and his band of resistance fighters got to Chappuis before the Germans and hid him and two other American flyers from the same plane for nearly three months until the end of the war . The partisans passed Chappuis and the two other Americans from house to house , and village to village , toward the Swiss frontier . Dressed in shawls — but still wearing G.I. shoes — they once walked undetected past a German sentry .
Chappuis and his crewmates finally reached a home in the small town of Asola , Italy , in the Province of Mantua , Lombardy , about 80 miles ( 130 km ) from Milan . The German headquarters was two houses away , and the drill grounds were across the street . Accordingly , Chappuis and the other Americans could not walk near a window or talk above a whisper . They passed the time playing cards with each other and with the Ugolini family with whom they stayed , and reading a well @-@ worn copy of Uncle Tom 's Cabin . The Americans were nearly captured one evening when the Fascist fiancé of one of the Ugolini daughters entered the house unannounced and found the Americans playing cards . He threatened to turn the Americans in , but was persuaded not to when told it would mean the death of his fiancée and her family for aiding the Americans .
When V @-@ E Day arrived in early May 1945 , Chappuis and his crewmates stayed in Asola for a week @-@ long celebration . On the night the war ended , residents of Asola removed the seats from the town ’ s theater for a victory ball . While two orchestras played onstage , the liberated townspeople toasted the Americans , and Chappuis danced with the Ugolinis ' daughters . When Chappuis returned to the United States , he stayed in touch with the Ugolinis and sent them weekly food packages . Chappuis also stayed in touch with Comucci , the resistance leader who rescued him . In 1974 , Chappuis returned to Italy to meet with Comucci for the first time in 20 years . And in August 1975 , Comucci and his wife traveled to Michigan to visit Chappuis .
= = All @-@ American at the University of Michigan = =
= = = 1946 season = = =
Chappuis returned to Michigan after being discharged from the military and played football in the spring of 1946 . He returned in time to join the Michigan baseball team , where he played in the outfield , led the team in batting , and helped them win the Big Nine championship with a 26 @-@ game winning streak .
When football season arrived in the fall , Chappuis was one of many veterans who returned to college and the gridiron after serving in the war . Many of the returning veterans were not in prime football condition at the start of the 1946 season , and Coach Fritz
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Crisler “ predicted it might be November before ex @-@ servicemen were adjusted physically and mentally to play their top game . ” Chappuis later recalled that he was 23 years old when he returned to school , and some of the returning veterans “ didn 't know if they could get back into the rah @-@ rah of college football , but Fritz took care of that . He really whipped us into shape . ” Despite any difficulties in re @-@ adjusting to civilian life and football , Chappuis broke Otto Graham 's Big Nine Conference record for total offensive yards during the 1946 football season . Though reports differ as to Chappuis ' total yards gained , University of Michigan records show that Chappuis gained 1 @,@ 284 yards in 1946 — 734 yards passing , 501 yards rushing and 49 yards receiving . Chappuis set the new offensive mark in 1946 with a fractured bone in his wrist that he did not report until after the season had ended , at which time an operation was performed . Chappuis later said he knew the x @-@ ray would reveal a fracture , and he would be benched before he even began . He delayed the examination until the season was over because “ the time to break into the lineup is prior to the first game . If I hadn 't , there were so many capable candidates around who could have made good behind our front wall that I 'd never have become a first @-@ stringer by returning in the middle of the season . ” Accordingly , Chappuis played the 1946 season with a fractured wrist and without even bothering to tape the wrist . He was later drafted in December by the Detroit Lions in the fifth round of the 1947 NFL Draft ( 26th overall pick ) . But Chappuis opted to stay in school to finish his collegiate career .
= = = 1947 season = = =
Given the off @-@ season wrist surgery , Chappuis was questionable for the 1947 season . As the season got underway , Chappuis said the wrist was “ not as loose ” as it was in 1946 , but he felt it was " loose enough . " In the end , Chappuis broke his own Big Nine total offense record by gaining 1 @,@ 405 yards as compared with 1 @,@ 284 yards in 1946 . He completed 48 out of 84 passes for 976 yards , including 11 touchdown passes . He also scored 5 touchdowns and gained 544 yards rushing . In the season opener against Michigan State , Chappuis scored three touchdowns in a 55 – 0 victory , as Michigan outgained the Spartans 504 yards rushing to 56 . Michigan finished the 1947 season with a 21 – 0 victory over Ohio State . In his last game at Michigan Stadium , Chappuis set a Michigan single @-@ game record for total offense that would last 20 years . Altogether , Chappuis accounted for 307 yards , rushing for 90 yards and completing 12 of 27 passes for 217 yards . This stood as a school single @-@ game total offense record for over 20 years . At the end of the 1947 season , Chappuis was named a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ American . He also finished second to Johnny Lujack in the 1947 Heisman Trophy voting , with Lujack receiving 742 first and second place votes to 555 for Chappuis . Despite the glowing adjectives heaped on him , reporters noted that “ Chappuis can still wear his regular size seven headgear . ” Chappuis gave credit to his line saying , “ Anyone passing behind the protection that line gave me could have done as well . ” In another sign of his modesty on a team with only two two @-@ way players Chappuis said " You have to smell where to go on pass defense — and my sniffer 's not too good . " when asked why he does not play both ways .
In addition to having the most accomplished season of his collegiate career , Chappuis was a leader on campus . He was elected president of the Michigan Alpha chapter of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity whose membership included a number of his teammates and prominent University of Michigan athletic alumni such as Tom Harmon , Bob Ufer , and Harry Kipke . Chappuis appeared on the cover of the October 28 , 1947 issue of Look magazine which featured pictures of him on the football field and at the fraternity house . In the magazine , Chappuis and his future wife were also featured about the Michigan campus . He expressed an interest in first playing professional football for a few years before going into the porcelain business with his father .
Look magazine devoted over a dozen pictures to showing Chappuis play in the offense . In the 1940s , the offense was perceived as gimmicky and magical and the magazine described how the offense used various fakes and delays to gain the advantage in timing by concealing the point of attack and the attacker . The contemporary football lingo described the basic attack as a " fullback spinner cycle with the backs deployed loosely . " It described an alternate formation as a single @-@ wing formation with direct snap from center to left halfback ( Chappuis ' position ) . The article also describes T maneuvers , lateral passes and end @-@ around plays as part of the offense .
= = = Passing “ specialist ” = = =
Chappuis drew considerable attention in the national press for his abilities as a passer , one of the game 's first passing “ specialists . ” In November 1947 , Time magazine ran a feature article about Chappuis and the 1947 Wolverines ( with Chappuis ' photograph on the cover ) called “ The Specialist . ” The Time article focused on the new era of specialization marked by coach Fritz Crisler 's decision to field separate offensive and defensive units in 1947 . The article focused on Chappuis as Michigan 's “ prize specialist , ” who was described as “ Crisler 's triggerman . ” “ His job is to throw forward passes and there is no one in 1947 collegiate football who does it better . … In Michigan 's first five games , Specialist Chappuis was on the field less than one @-@ third of the time , but of the 27 passes he threw , 19 were complete – five of them for touchdowns ... When Chappuis fades back to pass , he is a slow @-@ motion study in coolness and concentration . ”
Crisler said Chappuis was “ the finest passer I have ever handled and probably one of the best I 've ever seen . He plays as though he had ice water in his veins . ” Crisler felt that “ great passers are born , ” and the difference between a great and a merely good passer is in the eyes . Time noted that Chappuis had great field vision for his downfield receivers and for oncoming defenders . “ Like a good baseball catcher , he throws the ball off his right ear , with a snap motion . He throws what the coaches call a ‘ heavy ball . ’ ” Another writer noted that Chappuis was “ endowed with a passer 's sixth sense , ‘ split vision , ’ ” and an ability to “ pick out his receiver after one glance over the field . ”
Time also noted that Chappuis was unlike his predecessor , the “ hail @-@ fellow ” Tom Harmon . “ His snaggleteeth and sharp features earned him the nickname ‘ Bird Face ’ when he was a kid . ” Time also reported that Chappuis “ learns easily , just as he does in the classroom , where he makes a C @-@ plus average seemingly without ever opening a book . ”
When Chappuis graduated , he held numerous school records , including most touchdown passes in a career with 23 , a record that was not broken until 30 years later by four @-@ year starter , Rick Leach . He also held the record for most touchdown passes in a season with 13 , a record that was tied by Leach in 1976 . He also held the school record for most career total offensive yards with 3 @,@ 487 , a record broken in 1970 by Don Moorhead .
= = = 1948 Rose Bowl and All @-@ Star Game = = =
Chappuis played his last game for Michigan in a 49 – 0 win over the USC Trojans in the 1948 Rose Bowl . Chappuis ran for 91 yards , completed 14 of 24 passes for 188 yards , was named the Most Valuable Player , and set Rose Bowl records for total offense and pass completions . The Long Beach Independent reported : “ Bob Chappuis was every inch the All @-@ American he has been tabbed . Running , faking and pivoting beautifully , he averaged 7 yards a crack for 13 carries and completed 14 out of 24 pitches for 188 yards … which gave him a new total offense record of 279 yards for the classic . ”
A sidelight of the Rose Bowl was the Rose Bowl Queen nomination of Ann Gestie , the future wife of Bob Chappuis , which was against the tradition of having a queen from Pasadena , California . Buck Dawson , the manager of the Michigan Yearbook who would go on to marry the daughter of Matthew Mann , was the proponent of the nomination . Although tradition was upheld , Gestie 's photograph appeared on the front page of the Los Angeles Times along with the caption " Overlooked Michigan Beauty . "
Chappuis was also selected to play for coach Frank Leahy on the College All @-@ Star squad against the Chicago Cardinals , who were the 1947 NFL Champions . In the 15th College All @-@ Star vs. NFL Champion match , the Cardinals scored the biggest victory to date with a 28 – 0 victory . Among the collegians were Lujack and Chuck Conerly . The professional athletes included Paul Christman and Charley Trippi . Supposedly , the 1947 class had a void at fullback , which may have been the problem with their offense in the All @-@ Star game shutout .
= = = Celebrity = = =
He became a celebrity of sorts at Michigan . He was mentioned in several issues of Time Magazine , and his wedding was even announced in the magazine . In addition , his time at Michigan defined an era in a way that became a permanent reference because his contemporaries would say that they were at Michigan in the Chappuis years . In 1988 he was elected into the College Football Hall of Fame .
= = Professional football = =
Chappuis was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers , and reports in February 1948 indicated that the Steelers had offered him a two @-@ year contract for $ 20 @,@ 000 per year . However , Chappuis passed up the Steelers ' offer , opting instead to play for the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . In June 1948 , Chappuis signed with Branch Rickey 's Brooklyn Dodgers of the AAFC after coach Carl Voyles outbid the Steelers for his services at $ 17 @,@ 000 . Chappuis had been drafted by the Cleveland Browns , and the Dodgers gave the Browns three draft picks in exchange for the right to sign Chappuis . Rickey had felt that modern football was based on speed and that he could win with a good center , passing quarterback and two tall sprinting ends . Thus , he placed a premium on signing Chappuis , the passing quarterback . The college All @-@ star game caused Chappuis to miss three weeks of practice and he played little in the early season games because he had not learned his plays .
In his first professional game against the San Francisco 49ers , Chappuis ran the ball 37 yards to the 49ers six @-@ yard line in the fourth quarter , giving fans “ an indication of what sent all the major professional clubs after his services . ” Chappuis played in 13 games for the Dodgers in 1948 and shared the quarterbacking responsibilities with Bob Hoernschemeyer who played in all 14 games . Chappuis led the team in total offense ( 1712 to 1428 for Hoernschemeyer ) . Chappuis completed 100 of 213 passes for 1 @,@ 402 yards with 15 interceptions and 8 touchdown passes . He also rushed for 310 yards , for an average of 6 @.@ 0 yards per carry , and one rushing touchdown . Although Chappuis led the team in total offense , Hoernschemeyer also made eleven receptions and served as both a kick returner and punt returner at various times during the season . The Dodgers finished the season with a 2 – 12 record and folded after the 1948 season .
In 1949 , Chappuis played for the Chicago Hornets , also of the AAFC , but saw only limited playing time as a back @-@ up to Hoernschemeyer and Johnny Clement on a team that went 4 – 10 . When the AAFC went out of existence after the 1949 season , Chappuis retired from football . In announcing his retirement in June 1950 , Chappuis said he was through with professional football and that his ambition then was to enjoy a more leisurely lifestyle and to be able to visit Ann Arbor for those fall football games .
= = After football = =
After retiring from football , Chappuis worked in various business ventures . In the 1950s , he was in the electrical appliance business in South Bend , Indiana . He spent thirteen years with Central Soya Co. in Fort Wayne , Indiana , retiring in 1983 as the Vice President in charge of Labor Relations . He later formed his own management consulting business in Fort Wayne .
Chappuis and his wife , Ann Chappuis , had four children . Chappuis is the uncle of former Michigan and Baltimore Colts strong safety Rick Volk . In 2012 , he was inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame .
Chappuis fell in June 2012 and was hospitalized at the University of Michigan Hospital . He died a few days later on June 14 , 2012 .
= = Honors and accolades = =
Chappuis has received numerous honors , including the following :
Named Most Valuable Player on the 1946 Michigan Wolverines football team ;
Named to the All @-@ Big Nine Conference team , 1946 ;
Consensus All @-@ American , 1947 ;
Named to the All @-@ Big Nine Conference team , 1947 ;
Finished second to Johnny Lujack in the Heisman Trophy voting in 1947 ;
Named Most Valuable Player of the 1948 Rose Bowl game ;
Inducted into the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in 1984 ; and
Inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1988 .
Inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame in 1992 .
In 2005 , Chappuis was selected as one of the 100 greatest Michigan football players of all time by the " Motown Sports Revival , " ranking 28th on the all @-@ time team .
= George Villiers ( 1759 – 1827 ) =
George Villiers ( 23 November 1759 – 21 March 1827 ) , styled The Honourable , was a British courtier and politician from the Villiers family . The youngest son of the diplomat Lord Hyde ( later Earl of Clarendon ) , he was an intimate of Princess Amelia and personal supporter of her father , George III . His favour within the Royal Family and his father 's influence brought him a number of sinecures to support him . However , Villiers was more interested in the operation of the royal farms at Windsor Castle than in politics or the duties of his offices . When his bookkeeping as Paymaster of the Marines was carefully examined in 1810 , Villiers ' carelessness and the speculation of his clerk had left him in debt to the Crown by more than £ 250 @,@ 000 . This exposure touched off a public scandal ; Villiers promptly surrendered all his property to the Crown and threw himself on the king 's mercy . The misconduct of Joseph Hunt as Treasurer of the Ordnance to some extent obscured Villiers ' own misconduct , and he was able to retain other sinecures and a stable , if reduced , income from them until his death in 1827 .
= = Upbringing and political career = =
Villiers was the youngest son of Thomas Villiers , 1st Earl of Clarendon and Charlotte Capell . His maternal grandparents were William Capell , 3rd Earl of Essex and Jane Hyde . George , like his brother , was educated at Eton College and then St John 's College , Cambridge , graduating with an MA in 1779 . It was presumably through the influence of his father , then Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster under the first Pitt ministry , that he was appointed a Groom of the Bedchamber to George III on 13 January 1783 , and Clerk of the Council and Registrar of the Duchy of Lancaster in August 1786 . A polished courtier , Villiers earned the nickname " Tiger " among his party for his vehement support of the king ; although as Fanny Burney observed , his " remarkably slim , slight and delicate person " did not match the nickname .
In 1792 , Villiers purchased the support of Lord Warwick , and was returned as Member of Parliament for Warwick in the by @-@ election of 18 January 1792 as a Tory . On 19 March 1792 , shortly after his entry into Parliament , Villiers was appointed to the office of Paymaster of Marines , a sinecure which would ultimately prove his undoing . The salary of the post was fixed at £ 600 p.a. after a reform in 1800 . In 1794 , Villiers became the captain commanding the newly raised Western Troop of the Hertfordshire Gentlemen and Yeomanry @-@ Cavalry .
He was elected unopposed in 1796 , but did not stand for the borough in 1802 . Though a friend of Pitt 's government , he rarely attended the House ; George Rose commented in a letter that Villiers 's loss would have no impact on the Tories . While a member of parliament , in 1798 , he married Lord Boringdon 's daughter , Theresa , who would bear him ten children over the next two decades . After leaving Parliament , Villiers continued his presence at Court , and carried messages from the Princess Royal in Stuttgart to the king . In 1803 , the duties of his office as paymaster were extended , and on 9 May , he was reappointed as Paymaster and Inspector @-@ General of Marines , with a salary of £ 1 @,@ 000 p.a. In the same year , he was commissioned a captain in the Watford Volunteer Cavalry . Villiers was prepared to intercede with the king on behalf of Pitt to fulfill the latter 's desire for a more comprehensive ministry , which , however , was frustrated ; and to bring Pitt 's friends into the Ministry of All the Talents in 1806 .
Villiers , indeed , enjoyed considerable favour with the king , who granted him a private bounty of £ 400 p.a. in 1804 after being compelled to refuse him an office at Windsor Park . He was allowed to hold simultaneous office as a groom of the bedchamber and paymaster , and the king determined to place him in charge of his farms at Windsor as bailiff . Villiers and his family lived at Windsor Old Lodge until 1805 , when he was appointed ranger of Cranbourne Chase and he moved into Cranbourne Lodge , newly renovated as his residence . Villiers and his wife were particularly intimate with Princess Amelia , the king 's favourite daughter , accounting in part for the Royal favour shown him . With the fall of the Ministry of All the Talents in 1807 and the formation of Portland 's government , the Duke of Cumberland vigorously lobbied Portland to grant Villiers the mastership of the Buckhounds or some other office , on the grounds of Villiers having rendered " very serious and important services " to the Royal Family , but was unsuccessful .
In 1809 , upon the death of John Fordyce , Surveyor General of the Land Revenues of the Crown , Portland proposed to replace that office and that of the Surveyor General of Woods , Forests , Parks , and Chases , then held by Lord Glenbervie , with a three @-@ man commission ( the Commissioners of Woods and Forests ) , and to make Villiers one of the junior commissioners . This reorganisation of the Crown Lands temporarily halted upon Portland 's resignation and the formation of a new government under Spencer Perceval . This created an embarrassing difficulty for Villiers and his interest ; George Canning did not choose to serve under Perceval , and Villiers ' brother @-@ in @-@ law , the 2nd Lord Boringdon , was Canning 's friend . Nor was the proposed appointment of Villiers universally popular ; Lord Glenbervie , the proposed senior commissioner , vented his anger at Perceval 's nomination of Villiers in his journal :
Nonetheless , Villiers continued to press his claims to office on Perceval , in a letter of 18 October 1809 . He had , he said , turned down a pension of £ 1 @,@ 200 p.a. for " reasons ... which can never be publicly alluded to " and had received a promise from Portland to replace Fordyce as Surveyor General of the Land Revenues ( a post worth £ 2 @,@ 000 p.a. ) ; Villiers would , however , be satisfied with the commissionership and £ 1 @,@ 000 p.a. in addition , provided that he might retain his office of paymaster . In fact , that office was about to become the engine of Villiers ' political destruction . He appears to have received the sinecure offices of registrar of the Vice @-@ Admiralty Court of Gibraltar and marshal of the Vice @-@ Admiralty Court of Antigua around this time .
= = Scandal and disgrace = =
The value to the sinecurist of an office like that of Paymaster of Marines lay not so much in the official salary attached to it , but in the lax accounting procedures associated with disbursement of funds , which allowed the official to retain large sums of public money in his own hands for many years until accounts were made up . The office of Paymaster General had been reformed in 1783 to avoid these abuses , but these changes had not yet been extended to the Marines during Villiers ' tenure .
He appears to have taken little interest in his official duties both as paymaster and inspector @-@ general , leaving affairs in the hands of Edmund Waters . Waters had been his private secretary , and when Villiers came to office as paymaster , Waters was appointed chief clerk in that department , rising to deputy paymaster in 1797 . Waters and Villiers invested in real estate with some of the money passing through the office ; unfortunately for Villiers , Waters was also diverting some of the funds to his own interest in the Opera House , and the accounts of the office were in a shambles .
Well aware of the parlous state of the office 's accounts , Waters retired from the Marine Pay Office in 1807 as an independently wealthy man ( only to lose the fortune in his Opera House investments ) . The lax regime in the Pay Office rattled on , however , until 27 December 1809 , when Perceval became aware of the state of Villiers ' accounts . Villiers , to his credit , immediately resigned and took responsibility for his official debts . Perceval allowed him to proffer his resignation directly to the king , but Villiers could not face his master ; Perceval informed the king of the state of affairs in a letter of 15 January 1810 , laying the blame for the situation largely on Waters . Perceval 's letter noted that " reports were circulating on the subject to such an extent as to make it impossible to hope that it would not become the subject of Parliamentary observation . " By this time , Villiers 's accounts had been audited through the year 1804 , revealing him to be in arrears by the staggering sum of £ 280 @,@ 000 through that point . On the advice of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Boringdon , Villiers offered up all his property to the Crown , although he could not hope to pay off the entire sum found wanting by this means . The episode left him in a condition of nervous prostration , the more so as he by now had five children to support . A letter by " A.B. " in Cobbett 's Political Register of 27 January 1810 assailed Villiers for his delinquency and estimated that his debt , with interest , might run to £ 500 @,@ 000 .
Fortunately for Villiers , his case was not to be prosecuted with the utmost rigour . He was to some degree protected by the joint efforts of Boringdon 's friends and the Whig George Tierney , as well as his own quick action in surrendering his property through writs of extent ; and the delinquency of Joseph Hunt , Treasurer of the Ordnance attracted attention and saved Villiers from the full wrath of the finance committee . Their report on the matter noted that the writ of extent had been to the amount of £ 264 @,@ 000 , but only £ 91 @,@ 000 had been raised from the sale of his property , and about £ 30 @,@ 000 from securities and the bond posted for him when he took office . The committee recommended the abolition of the office of Paymaster of Marines and the transfer of its duties to the Treasurer of the Navy , a recommendation which was not immediately acted upon . Villiers was left , in Boringdon 's estimation , with a debt of £ 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 , an annual income of £ 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 , and the property in Cranbourne Lodge .
However , his disgrace was not over . After his resignation , Villiers had been replaced by Lord Mulgrave 's brother , Edmund Phipps , as paymaster and lost his prospective place as a commissioner of woods and forests . Then , he was informed on 4 May 1810 , after the release of the finance committee 's report , that the king had removed from him the supervision of the farms at Windsor ( he also lost the rangership ) . The news threw him into a state of great mental distress ; he wrote to the king begging him to suspend judgement on the points raised by the committee 's report . The king replied that it was " indispensable " to remove Villiers from his office under the circumstances , but extended his sympathy and suspended judgement on him .
The final disaster for Villiers occurred in November , when Princess Amelia died . After her death , Villiers and his wife attempted to blackmail the Royal Family by threatening ( in a letter to her doctor , Sir Henry Halford ) to release some of her correspondence , much to the shock of her sister , Princess Mary . The family finally moved out of Cranborne Lodge in 1812 .
The untangling of his accounts dragged on until 1819 , prolonged by his enemies at the Navy Office and his own fiscal incapacity . At length a balance of £ 220 @,@ 000 was found against him , but by this time his career was hopelessly ruined . He left office as a groom of the bedchamber in 1815 , but retained his vice @-@ admiralty sinecures until his death . In 1824 , he became heir presumptive to the Earldom of Clarendon but died in 1827 without inheriting it .
= = Marriage and children = =
On 17 April 1798 , George married Theresa Parker . She was a daughter of John Parker , 1st Baron Boringdon and his second wife Hon. Theresa Robinson . Her maternal grandparents were Thomas Robinson , 1st Baron Grantham and Frances Worsley . They had ten children :
Georgiana Villiers ( 12 February 1799 – 16 March 1799 )
George Villiers , 4th Earl of Clarendon ( 27 January 1800 – 27 June 1870 )
Thomas Hyde Villiers ( 24 January 1801 – 3 December 1832 )
Hon. Charles Pelham Villiers ( 3 January 1802 – 16 January 1898 )
Lady Maria Theresa Villiers ( 8 March 1803 – 9 November 1865 ) . Married first novelist Thomas Henry Lister on 6 November 1830 , they had a daughter ( d . 1863 ) . After her first husband 's death , she married politician Sir George Cornewall Lewis , 2nd Baronet on 25 October 1844 .
Frederick Adolphus Villiers ( 17 February 1805 – 21 November 1806 )
Hon. Edward Ernest Villiers ( 23 March 1806 – 30 October 1843 ) . He married Elizabeth Charlotte Liddell , daughter of Thomas Liddell , 1st Baron Ravensworth , leaving a son and three daughters . Their daughter Edith Villiers married Robert Bulwer @-@ Lytton , 1st Earl of Lytton and became Lady of the Bedchamber to both Queen Victoria and Her Majesty Queen Alexandra .
Augustus Villiers ( 2 March 1808 – 24 March 1808 )
Hon. Henry Montagu Villiers ( 4 January 1813 – 9 August 1861 ) , Bishop of Durham from 1860 to his death .
Lt. Hon. Augustus Algernon Villiers , RN ( 14 April 1817 – 13 July 1843 ) , died unmarried , Knight of Isabella the Catholic
= French battleship Bouvet =
Bouvet was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy . She was laid down in January 1891 , launched in April 1896 , and completed in June 1898 . She was a member of a group of five broadly similar battleships , along with Charles Martel , Jauréguiberry , Carnot , and Masséna , which were ordered in response to the British Royal Sovereign class . Like her half @-@ sisters , she was armed with a main battery of two 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns and two 274 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in individual turrets . She had a top speed of 17 @.@ 8 kn ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) .
Bouvet spent the majority of her career alternating between the Northern and Mediterranean Squadrons . At the outbreak of World War I , she escorted troop convoys from North Africa to France . She then joined the naval operations off the Dardanelles , where she participated in a major attack on the Turkish fortresses in the straits on 18 March 1915 . During the attack , she was hit approximately eight times by shellfire , though did not suffer fatal damage . She struck a mine at around 3 : 15 , and sank within two minutes ; only some 50 men were rescued from a complement of 710 . Two British battleships were also sunk by mines that day , and the disaster convinced the Allies to abandon the naval campaign in favor of an amphibious assault on Gallipoli .
= = Design = =
Bouvet was the last member of a group of five battleships built to a broadly similar design , but different enough to be considered unique vessels . The first ship was Charles Martel , which formed the basis for Bouvet and three other ships . Design specifications were identical for each of the ships , but different engineers designed each vessel . The ships were based on the previous battleship Brennus , but instead of mounting the main battery all on the centerline , the ships used the lozenge arrangement of the earlier vessel Magenta , which moved two of the main battery guns to single turrets on the wings . The five ships were built in response to the British Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Bouvet was 117 @.@ 81 meters ( 386 ft 6 in ) long between perpendiculars , and had a beam of 21 @.@ 39 m ( 70 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 38 m ( 27 ft 6 in ) . She had a displacement of 12 @,@ 007 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 817 long tons ) . Unlike her half @-@ sisters , her deck was not cut down to the main deck level , and her superstructure was reduced in size . She was equipped with two small fighting masts . Bouvet had a standard crew of 666 officers and enlisted men , though her wartime complement increased to 710 .
Bouvet had three vertical triple expansion engines each driving a single screw , with steam supplied by twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . Her propulsion system was rated at 15 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 000 kW ) , which allowed the ship to steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . As built , she could carry 610 t ( 600 long tons ; 670 short tons ) of coal , though additional space allowed for up to 980 t ( 960 long tons ; 1 @,@ 080 short tons ) in total .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Bouvet 's main armament consisted of two Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . She also mounted two Canon de 274 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two single @-@ gun turrets , one amidships on each side , sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the ship 's sides . Her secondary armament consisted of eight Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1893 guns , which were mounted in single turrets at the corners of the superstructure . She also carried eight 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) quick @-@ firing guns , twelve 3 @-@ pounders , and eight 1 @-@ pounder guns . Her armament suite was rounded out by four 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , two of which were submerged in the ship 's hull . The other two tubes were mounted above water , though these were later removed .
The ship 's armor was constructed with nickel steel . The main belt was 460 mm ( 18 in ) thick amidships , and tapered down to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at the lower edge . Forward of the central citadel , the belt was reduced to 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) and further to 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) at the stem ; the belt extended for the entire length of the hull . Above the belt was 101 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) thick side armor . The main battery guns were protected with 380 mm ( 15 in ) of armor , and the secondary turrets had 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick sides . The conning tower had 305 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Bouvet was laid down in Lorient on 16 January 1893 , and launched on 27 April 1896 . After completing fitting @-@ out work , she was commissioned into the French Navy in June 1898 . In 1903 , Bouvet was replaced in the Mediterranean Squadron by the new battleship Suffren ; she in turn replaced the old ironclad battleship Dévastation in the Northern Squadron . The Squadron remained in commission for only six months of the year . During the annual fleet maneuvers in July – August 1903 , Bouvet served as the flagship of Admiral Gervais , the neutral observer for the simulated battles . During the maneuvers off Golfe @-@ Juan , the battleship Gaulois accidentally rammed Bouvet on 31 January 1903 , though both vessels emerged largely undamaged .
By 1906 , Bouvet had returned to the Mediterranean Squadron , which was under the command of Vice Admiral Touchard . Following the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Naples in April 1906 , Bouvet and the battleships Iéna and Gaulois aided survivors of the disaster . The annual summer fleet exercises were conducted in July and August ; during the maneuvers , Bouvet nearly collided with the battleship Gaulois again . She was assigned to the Second Squadron of the Mediterranean Squadron by 1908 ; she was retained on active service for the year , but with a reduced crew .
= = = Loss off the Dardanelles = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , Bouvet escorted Allied troop convoys through the Mediterranean until November when she was ordered to the Dardanelles to guard against a sortie by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . She bombarded the Turkish fort of Kum Kale , on the Asian side of the strait on 19 February . During the bombardment , Bouvet assisted the battleship Suffren by sending firing corrections via radio while Gaulois provided counter @-@ battery fire to suppress the Ottoman coastal artillery .
On 18 March , Bouvet , along with Charlemagne , Suffren , and Gaulois , was to attack the Dardanelles fortresses . The plan called for six British pre @-@ dreadnoughts to suppress the Turkish fortifications , after which the French battleships would attack those same fortifications at close range . The French fleet was commanded by Admiral Émile Guépratte ; the acting Allied commander was Rear Admiral John de Robeck , who stood in for Admiral Sackville Carden . The Allied battleships were arranged in line abreast , in three rows ; Bouvet was stationed in the center of the second row . The force entered the straits at 11 : 30 and bombarded the town of Çanakkale , before turning to the Fortress Hamidieh and other nearby fortifications at 13 : 30 .
For the first half @-@ hour , the French and British battleships shelled the forts indiscriminately , before turning to attacking individual gun batteries . In the course of the attack on the fortresses , Bouvet sustained eight hits from Turkish artillery fire . Her forward turret was disabled after the propellant gas extractor broke down . One of the shells destroyed one of her masts . At around 15 : 15 , Bouvet struck mine with a 176 @-@ pound ( 80 kg ) explosive charge , which detonated below the starboard 274 mm gun turret . These mines had been freshly laid a week before the attack , and were unknown to the Allies .
Bouvet capsized and sank in about two minutes . The ship was in poor condition at the time due to her age , which likely contributed to her rapid sinking , though there was some speculation that her ammunition magazine exploded . The destruction of the ship caught the Allies by surprise ; her loss came during the height of the bombardment . Torpedo boats and other smaller vessels rushed to pick up survivors , but they rescued only a handful of men . From her complement of 710 men , some 660 were killed in the sinking .
Despite the sinking of the Bouvet , the first such loss of the day , the British remained unaware of the minefield , thinking the explosion had been caused by a shell or torpedo . Subsequently two British pre @-@ dreadnoughts , Ocean and Irresistible , were sunk and the battlecruiser Inflexible were damaged by the same minefield . Suffren and Gaulois were both badly damaged by coastal artillery during the engagement . The loss of Bouvet and two other British battleships during the 18 March attack was a major factor in the decision to abandon a naval strategy to take Constantinople , and instead opt for the Gallipoli land campaign .
= Styracosaurus =
Styracosaurus ( / stᵻˌrækəˈsɔːrəs / stə @-@ RAK @-@ ə @-@ SOR @-@ əs ; meaning " spiked lizard " from the Ancient Greek styrax / στύραξ " spike at the butt @-@ end of a spear @-@ shaft " and sauros / σαῦρος " lizard " ) was a genus of herbivorous ceratopsian dinosaur from the Cretaceous Period ( Campanian stage ) , about 75 @.@ 5 to 75 million years ago . It had four to six long horns extending from its neck frill , a smaller horn on each of its cheeks , and a single horn protruding from its nose , which may have been up to 60 centimetres ( 2 ft ) long and 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) wide . The function or functions of the horns and frills have been debated for many years .
Styracosaurus was a relatively large dinosaur , reaching lengths of 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) and weighing nearly 3 tonnes . It stood about 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 6 ft ) tall . Styracosaurus possessed four short legs and a bulky body . Its tail was rather short . The skull had a beak and shearing cheek teeth arranged in continuous dental batteries , suggesting that the animal sliced up plants . Like other ceratopsians , this dinosaur may have been a herd animal , traveling in large groups , as suggested by bonebeds .
Named by Lawrence Lambe in 1913 , Styracosaurus is a member of the Centrosaurinae . One species , S. albertensis , is currently assigned to Styracosaurus . Other species once assigned to the genus have since been reassigned elsewhere .
= = Description = =
Individuals of the Styracosaurus genus were approximately 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) long as adults and weighed around 2 @.@ 7 tonnes . The skull was massive , with a large nostril , a tall straight nose horn , and a parietosquamosal frill ( a neck frill ) crowned with at least four large spikes . Each of the four longest frill spines was comparable in length to the nose horn , at 50 to 55 centimetres long ( 19 @.@ 7 to 21 @.@ 7 in ) . The nasal horn is estimated at 57 centimeters long ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) in the type specimen , but the horn is only partially complete . Based on other nasal horn cores from Styracosaurus and Centrosaurus , this horn may have come to a rounded point at around half of that length .
Aside from the large nasal horn and four long frill spikes , the cranial ornamentation was variable . Some individuals had small hook @-@ like projections and knobs at the posterior margin of the frill , similar to but smaller than those in Centrosaurus . Others had less prominent tabs . Some , like the type individual , had a third pair of long frill spikes . Others had much smaller projections , and small points are found on the side margins of some but not all specimens . Modest pyramid @-@ shaped brow horns were present in subadults , but were replaced by pits in adults . Like most ceratopsids , Styracosaurus had large fenestrae ( skull openings ) in its frill . The front of the mouth had a toothless beak .
The bulky body of Styracosaurus resembled that of a rhinoceros . It had powerful shoulders which may have been useful in intraspecies combat . Styracosaurus had a relatively short tail . Each toe bore a hooflike ungual which was sheathed in horn .
Various limb positions have been proposed for Styracosaurus and ceratopsids in general , including forelegs which were held underneath the body , or , alternatively , held in a sprawling position . The most recent work has put forward an intermediate crouched position as most likely .
= = Classification = =
Styracosaurus is a member of the Centrosaurinae , a subfamily of large North American horned dinosaurs characterized by their " prominent nasal horns , subordinate brow horns , short squamosals in a short frill , a tall , deep face relative to the chasmosaurines , and a projection into the rear of the nasal fenestra . " Other members of the clade include Centrosaurus ( from which the group takes its name ) , Pachyrhinosaurus , Avaceratops , Einiosaurus , Albertaceratops , Achelousaurus , Brachyceratops , and Monoclonius , although these last two are dubious . Because of the variation between species and even individual specimens of centrosaurines , there has been much debate over which genera and species are valid , particularly whether Centrosaurus and / or Monoclonius are valid genera , undiagnosable , or possibly members of the opposite sex . In 1996 , Peter Dodson found enough variation between Centrosaurus , Styracosaurus , and Monoclonius to warrant separate genera , and that Styracosaurus resembled Centrosaurus more closely than either resembled Monoclonius . Dodson also believed one species of Monoclonius , M. nasicornis , may actually have been a female Styracosaurus . However , most other researchers have not accepted Monoclonius nasicornis as a female Styracosaurus , instead regarding it as a synonym of Centrosaurus apertus . While sexual dimorphism has been proposed for an earlier ceratopsian , Protoceratops , there is no firm evidence for sexual dimorphism in any ceratopsid .
Below is a cladogram by Andrew T. McDonald in 2011 .
= = = Origins and evolution = = =
The evolutionary origins of Styracosaurus were not understood for many years because fossil evidence for early ceratopsians was sparse . The discovery of Protoceratops , in 1922 , shed light on early ceratopsid relationships , but several decades passed before additional finds filled in more of the blanks . Fresh discoveries in the late 1990s and 2000s , including Zuniceratops , the earliest known ceratopsian with brow horns , and Yinlong , the first known Jurassic ceratopsian , indicate what the ancestors of Styracosaurus may have looked like . These new discoveries have been important in illuminating the origins of horned dinosaurs in general , and suggest that the group originated during the Jurassic in Asia , with the appearance of true horned ceratopsians occurring by the beginning of the late Cretaceous in North America .
Goodwin and colleagues proposed in 1992 that Styracosaurus was part of the lineage leading to Einiosaurus , Achelousaurus and Pachyrhinosaurus . This was based on a series of fossil skulls from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana . The position of Styracosaurus in this lineage is now equivocal , as the remains that were thought to represent Styracosaurus have been transferred to the genus Rubeosaurus .
It has been suggested that Styracosaurus albertensis is a direct descendant of Centrosaurus ( C. apertus or C. nasicornis ) , and that it in turn evolved directly into the slightly later species Rubeosaurus ovatus . Subtle changes can be traced in the arrangement of the horns through this lineage , leading from Rubeosaurus to Einiosaurus , to Achelousaurus and Pachyrhinosaurus . However , the lineage may not be a simple , straight line , as a pachyrhinosaur @-@ like species has been reported from the same time and place as Styracosaurus albertensis .
= = Discoveries and species = =
The first fossil remains of Styracosaurus were collected in Alberta , Canada by C.M. Sternberg ( from an area now known as Dinosaur Provincial Park , in a formation now called the Dinosaur Park Formation ) and named by Lawrence Lambe in 1913 . This quarry was revisited in 1935 by a Royal Ontario Museum crew who found the missing lower jaws and most of the skeleton . These fossils indicate that S. albertensis was around 5 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 8 meters in length and stood about 1 @.@ 65 meters high at the hips . An unusual feature of this first skull is that the smallest frill spike on the left side is partially overlapped at its base by the next spike . It appears that the frill suffered a break at this point in life and was shortened by about 6 centimeters ( 2 in ) . The normal shape of this area is unknown because the corresponding area of the right side of the frill was not recovered .
Barnum Brown and crew , working for the American Museum of Natural History in New York , collected a nearly complete articulated skeleton with a partial skull in 1915 . These fossils were also found in the Dinosaur Park Formation , near Steveville , Alberta . Brown and Erich Maren Schlaikjer compared the finds , and , though they allowed that both specimens were from the same general locality and geological formation , they considered the specimen sufficiently distinct from the holotype to warrant erecting a new species , and described the fossils as Styracosaurus parksi , named in honor of William Parks . Among the differences between the specimens cited by Brown and Schlaikjer were a cheekbone quite different from that of S. albertensis , and smaller tail vertebrae . S. parksi also had a more robust jaw , a shorter dentary , and the frill differed in shape from that of the type species . However , much of the skull consisted of plaster reconstruction , and the original 1937 paper did not illustrate the actual skull bones . It is now accepted as a specimen of S. albertensis .
In the summer of 2006 , Darren Tanke of the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller , Alberta relocated the long lost S. parksi site . Pieces of the skull , evidently abandoned by the 1915 crew , were found in the quarry . These were collected and it is hoped more pieces will be found , perhaps enough to warrant a redescription of the skull and test whether S. albertensis and S. parksi are the same . The Tyrrell Museum has also collected several partial Styracosaurus skulls . At least one confirmed bonebed ( bonebed 42 ) in Dinosaur Provincial Park has also been explored ( other proposed Styracosaurus bonebeds instead have fossils from a mix of animals , and nondiagnostic ceratopsian remains ) . Bonebed 42 is known to contain numerous pieces of skulls such as horncores , jaws and frill pieces .
A third species , S. ovatus , from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana , was described by Gilmore in 1930 . The fossil material is limited , with the best being a portion of the parietal bone of the frill , but one unusual feature is that the pair of spikes closest to the midline converge towards the midline , rather than away from it as in S. albertensis . There also may only have been two sets of spikes on each side of the frill , instead of three . The spikes are much shorter than in S. albertensis , with the longest only 295 millimeters ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) long . A 2010 review of styracosaur skull remains by Ryan , Holmes , and Russell found it to be a distinct species , and in 2010 McDonald and Horner placed it in its own genus , Rubeosaurus .
Several other species which were assigned to Styracosaurus have since been assigned to other genera . S. sphenocerus , described by Edward Drinker Cope in 1890 as a species of Monoclonius and based on a nasal bone with a broken Styracosaurus @-@ like straight nose horn , was attributed to Styracosaurus in 1915 . " S. makeli " , mentioned informally by amateur paleontologists Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas in 1990 in a caption to an illustration , is an early name for Einiosaurus . " S. borealis " is an early informal name for S. parksi .
= = Paleobiology = =
Styracosaurus and other horned dinosaurs are often depicted in popular culture as herd animals . A bonebed composed of Styracosaurus remains is known from the Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta , about halfway up the formation . This bonebed is associated with different types of river deposits . The mass deaths may have been a result of otherwise non @-@ herding animals congregating around a waterhole in a period of drought , with evidence suggesting the environment may have been seasonal and semiarid . Styracosaurus is known from a higher position in the formation ( relating specifically to its own genus ) than the closely related Centrosaurus , suggesting that Styracosaurus displaced Centrosaurus as the environment changed over time and / or dimension .
Paleontologists Gregory Paul and Per Christiansen of the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen in Denmark proposed that large ceratopsians such as Styracosaurus were able to run faster than an elephant , based on possible ceratopsian trackways which did not exhibit signs of sprawling forelimbs .
= = = Dentition and diet = = =
Styracosaurs were herbivorous dinosaurs ; they probably fed mostly on low growth because of the position of the head . They may , however , have been able to knock down taller plants with their horns , beak , and bulk . The jaws were tipped with a deep , narrow beak , believed to have been better at grasping and plucking than biting .
Ceratopsid teeth , including those of Styracosaurus , were arranged in groups called batteries . Older teeth on top were continually replaced by the teeth underneath them . Unlike hadrosaurids , which also had dental batteries , ceratopsid teeth sliced but did not grind . Some scientists have suggested that ceratopsids like Styracosaurus ate palms and cycads , while others have suggested ferns . Dodson has proposed that Late Cretaceous ceratopsians may have knocked down angiosperm trees and then sheared off leaves and twigs .
= = = Horns and frill = = =
The large nasal horns and frills of Styracosaurus are among the most distinctive facial adornments of all dinosaurs . Their function has been the subject of debate since the first horned dinosaurs were discovered .
Early in the 20th century , paleontologist R. S. Lull proposed that the frills of ceratopsian dinosaurs acted as anchor points for their jaw muscles . He later noted that for Styracosaurus , the spikes would have given it a formidable appearance . In 1996 , Dodson supported the idea of muscle attachments in part and created detailed diagrams of possible muscle attachments in the frills of Styracosaurus and Chasmosaurus , but did not subscribe to the idea that they completely filled in the fenestrae . C.A. Forster , however , found no evidence of large muscle attachments on the frill bones .
It was long believed that ceratopsians like Styracosaurus used their frills and horns in defence against the large predatory dinosaurs of the time . Although pitting , holes , lesions , and other damage on ceratopsid skulls are often attributed to horn damage in combat , a 2006 study found no evidence for horn thrust injuries causing these forms of damage ( for example , there is no evidence of infection or healing ) . Instead , non @-@ pathological bone resorption , or unknown bone diseases , are suggested as causes .
However , a newer study compared incidence rates of skull lesions in Triceratops and Centrosaurus and showed that these were consistent with Triceratops using its horns in combat and the frill being adapted as a protective structure , while lower pathology rates in Centrosaurus may indicate visual rather than physical use of cranial ornamentation , or a form of combat focused on the body rather than the head ; as Centrosaurus was more closely related to Styracosaurus and both genera had long nasal horns , the results for this genus would be more applicable for Styracosaurus . The researchers also concluded that the damage found on the specimens in the study was often too localized to be caused by bone disease .
The large frill on Styracosaurus and related genera also may have helped to increase body area to regulate body temperature , like the ears of the modern elephant . A similar theory has been proposed regarding the plates of Stegosaurus , although this use alone would not account for the bizarre and extravagant variation seen in different members of the Ceratopsidae . This observation is highly suggestive of what is now believed to be the primary function , display .
The theory of frill use in sexual display was first proposed in 1961 by Davitashvili . This theory has gained increasing acceptance . Evidence that visual display was important , either in courtship or in other social behavior , can be seen in the fact that horned dinosaurs differ markedly in their adornments , making each species highly distinctive . Also , modern living creatures with such displays of horns and adornments use them in similar behavior .
= = Paleoecology = =
Styracosaurus is known from the Dinosaur Park Formation , and was a member of a diverse and well @-@ documented fauna of prehistoric animals that included horned relatives such as Centrosaurus and Chasmosaurus , duckbills such as Prosaurolophus , Lambeosaurus , Gryposaurus , Corythosaurus , and Parasaurolophus , tyrannosaurids Gorgosaurus , Daspletosaurus , and armored Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus .
The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and angiosperms .
= LOL Smiley Face =
" LOL Smiley Face " ( styled as " LOL : - ) " ) is a song by American recording artist Trey Songz . It features rappers Gucci Mane and Soulja Boy Tellem . The three co @-@ wrote the song with producers Troy Taylor and Tony Scales . The song serves as the second single from Songz ' third studio album , Ready . " LOL Smiley Face " is an R & B song featuring bouncy , poppy synths , and lyrically refers to sexting and other electronic multimedia messaging . The song was released as the second single from Songz 's third album Ready on August 24 , 2009 .
The song received generally positive reviews from critics , who noted its catchy melody . The song peaked at number fifty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and number twelve on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Rather than releasing a traditional music video , a montage of fans singing and dancing to the track was released .
= = Background = =
The song was recorded in Atlanta , Georgia , at three different studios , Doppler Studios , Patchwerk Studios and D2 Music Studios . " LOL " was written by its performers , Trey Songz , Gucci Mane and Soulja Boy , and its producers , Troy Taylor and Tony Scales also contributed to the writing process . Taylor recorded the track while Jean Marie Horvat mixed the song .
When speaking on the conceptual basis of Ready , Songz said , " You think about a record like ' LOL Smiley Face , ' it 's something real simple , but when you look at the title or listen to the record , you 're like , ' Wow . ' That 's something great from a songwriter 's perspective . I 'm just trying to make hits and classic records that people can vibe to and live their life . " In an interview with BallerStatus , Songz commented on his thoughts of making a remix of the song , stating , " I think there 's going to be a remix for that song , because a lot of people dig it . A lot of people have hit me up actually about it . That song is blowing up real fast man . " He also stated the possibility of American rapper Nicki Minaj appearing on a remix , saying , " She wanted to do more of a commercial record , a cuter sex record . ' LOL ' was actually already done , but when she heard it , she hit me up , and said ' I love that song . You 're a punk for not putting me on it . ' She 'll definitely be on the remix . " However no remix was seen to be in the works nor did it come to fruition .
= = Composition = =
The song is derived from R & B , pop and hip hop music . It is backed with heavy percussion and smooth vocals . According to Andrew Rennie of NOW , the song , along with " Neighbors Know My Name " , continues Songz 's usage of his hook @-@ heavy and playful style . Ajitpaul Mangat of Tiny Mix Tapes called the chorus " ringtone ready . " The song is lyrically about sexting , as verses talk about tales of " wired romance . " Its lyrics contain references to Twitter , TwitPic , MySpace , and BlackBerry , and Soulja Boy 's line contains a reference to his song " Kiss Me Thru the Phone . " According to Mark Edward Nero of About.com , the song is aimed at teenage girls . Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe said that Ready was built about the " popping tracks " of " LOL Smiley Face " and " Say Aah " .
= = Critical reception = =
Although Mark Edward Nero of About.com called the song " gimmicky " , he said it was " catchy " and " addictive " , commenting that the song " actually deserves creativity points : it 's a silly , lighthearted song that 's not meant to be taken seriously . " Tyler Lewis of PopMatters called the song silly , and in an album review , commented , " The less said about “ LOL : ) ” , the better " , calling the listening experience " frustrating . " Ajitpaul Mangat of Tiny Mix Tapes said that in the song , " we have a genuinely novel pop music moment : a booty call ( an R & B staple ) that only this generation can relate to . " Mangat also commended the song 's beat , chorus , and Soulja Boy 's cameo , commenting , " In the end , it is all somehow apropos . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy said the song had an " irrefutably catchy melody " , and complimented the song because of the appearance of Gucci Mane and Soulja Boy , stating , " it 's incredibly playful , as any song about texting should be . " Melanie Fried of Billboard called " LOL Smiley Face " " the most absurdly appealing , tech @-@ savvy song of the year to date " , commenting " Anyone younger than 15 is already texting their friends about their new favorite song . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending September 19 , 2009 , " LOL " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number fifty @-@ one , the second highest debut of the week behind Breaking Benjamin 's " I Will Not Bow " . The song peaked at its entry position , remaining on the chart for eight weeks . At the time " LOL " was Songz 's second biggest hit overall , only behind his breakthrough single " Can 't Help but Wait . " On the week labeled October 10 , 2009 , the song peaked at number twelve on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , as Songz 's seventh overall and fifth top twenty entry on the chart .
= = Performance and music video = =
Songz and Drake performed the song on music video show 106 & Park on September 2 , 2009 as a part of a medley with " I Need a Girl " and " Successful . " Instead of releasing a typical video for the song , the accompanying clip features fans singing and dancing along to the clip , as well as tweeting and texting the title . The video was released online on November 25 , 2009 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Trey Songz , Gucci Mane , Soulja Boy , Tony Scales , Troy Taylor
Production - Troy Taylor , Tony Scales
Recording - Troy Taylor
Mixing - Jean Marie Horvat
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= River Brue =
The River Brue originates in the parish of Brewham in Somerset , England , and reaches the sea some 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) west at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea . It originally took a different route from Glastonbury to the sea , but this was changed by Glastonbury Abbey in the twelfth century . The river provides an important drainage route for water from a low @-@ lying area which is prone to flooding which man has tried to manage through rhynes , canals , artificial rivers and sluices for centuries .
The Brue Valley Living Landscape is an ecological conservation project based on the Somerset Levels and Moors and managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust . The valley includes several Sites of Special Scientific Interest including Westhay Moor , Shapwick Heath and Shapwick Moor . Much of the area has been at the centre of peat extraction on the Somerset Levels . The Brue Valley Living Landscape project commenced in January 2009 to restore and reconnect habitat that will support wildlife . The aim is to be able to sustain itself in the face of climate change while guaranteeing farmers and other landowners can continue to use their land profitably . It is one of an increasing number of landscape scale conservation projects in the UK .
= = Course = =
The River Brue originates in hills to the southwest of the catchment area , close to the border with Dorset . The same hills are the locale of the sources of the River Wylye and the Dorset Stour which flow south to the English Channel . It descends quickly in a narrow valley to a point just beyond Bruton where it is joined by the River Pitt . Here it takes a meandering route through a broad , flat @-@ bottomed valley between Castle Cary and Alhampton . By the time it reaches Baltonsborough it is only some 10 metres ( 33 ft ) above sea level and the surrounding countryside is drained into it by way of numerous rhynes . It passes Glastonbury , where it acts as a natural boundary with nearby village of Street , before flowing in a largely artificial channel across the Somerset Levels and into the River Parrett at Burnham @-@ on @-@ Sea . It is joined by the North Drain , White 's River ( which takes the water of the River Sheppey , Cripps River ( an artificial channel that connects it to the River Huntspill ) and many drainage rhynes ) . It is connect to the River Axe through several of these channels which are controlled by sluices . It is tidal below the sluices at New Clyce Bridge in Highbridge .
Bow Bridge is a 15th @-@ century Packhorse bridge over the River Brue in Plox ,
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@-@ quarters , again under the name Gerald Wiley . He was heavily involved with the show 's production , especially the serial . Corbett explained that Barker was a " perfectionist " and " as he wrote it Ronnie knew how he wanted every shot to look . " After filming the show all day , he spent the evenings helping technician Jim Franklin edit it . While filming on location Barker and Corbett would look through all of the potential material for the studio recording of the rest of the show 's content and decide on the running order . He and Corbett always got on , with Barker noting " People refuse to believe that we don 't have rows , tensions , private wars . It 's a strange thing after so many years but we never have . Actually , it 's even more amicable than a marriage – wedlock without the bad patches . Our sense of humour and perception of what 's good and what 's rubbish are uncommonly in tune . " They took turns to play the parts which had the " good lines " . One of the show 's other writers , Barry Cryer , said : " You could write almost anything knowing these two would do it brilliantly . Because they weren 't a double act ; they were two men who worked together and had their own careers . "
Barker 's material included the sketch which came to be known as " Four Candles " , airing in 1976 , although in the original script it was entitled " Annie Finkhouse " . It sees a customer ( Barker ) ask for a series of things in a hardware store . The sketch 's humour derives from similarities in word pronunciation , leading to confusion on the part of the store owner ( Corbett ) . These misunderstandings include the confusion between " four candles " and " fork handles " . The idea for the sketch came from the owners of a hardware shop in Hayes , Hillingdon who wrote in to The Two Ronnies to describe some of the amusing events and misunderstandings in their store . Barker was never happy with the sketch 's final line ( a male assistant asking " What sort of billhooks did you want ? " ) and changed it ( to a female assistant asking " What sort of knockers were you looking for ? " ) for the stage version of The Two Ronnies , although he was still not totally satisfied with it . Nevertheless , the sketch is considered the show 's most famous one and was voted as the show 's best in a TV special , while also placing fifth on Channel 4 's 50 Greatest Comedy Sketches . The original script , hand @-@ written by Barker , was sold for £ 48 @,@ 500 at auction in 2007 after being featured on an episode of Antiques Roadshow the previous year .
The show was considered a " national institution " with audiences of between 15 and 20 million regularly tuning in to its 93 episodes . Barker won the BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1971 and 1977 for the show . The Two Ronnies ended with the 1987 Christmas special . In 1978 the two performed a stage version of the show at the London Palladium ; lasting for three months , it followed the same format as the show , with old sketches and some new material , supported by variety acts . Barker 's unease with appearing as himself in the stage show led him to create a fictionalised version of himself to play instead . A second stage series took place in 1983 . Barker was reportedly offended by a sketch called ' The Two Ninnies ' on the BBC 's Not the Nine O 'Clock News , which mocked their act as being based on dated innuendo @-@ based humour .
After a tip off from Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais , Barker and Corbett opted to move with their families to Sydney , Australia in 1979 for the year to exploit a tax loophole and avoid paying the year 's income tax . They performed their stage show for four weeks in Sydney and a further four in Melbourne ; because of their existing popularity in Australia and , what Corbett terms , the Australian audiences ' " [ comedic ] soul that still related to the UK , " they made no changes to the routine . Barker made no other appearances that year and spent his time writing and engaging in recreational activities . Following the show 's success , Kerry Packer commissioned a six episode TV series of The Two Ronnies in Australia for Nine Network . The show comprised material not yet shown in Australia from The Two Ronnies and new content targeted more towards an Australian audience . They returned for a second series in 1986 .
Barker and Corbett also starred in the short , mostly silent , films The Picnic ( 1975 ) and By the Sea ( 1982 ) . By the Sea was Barker 's tribute to the seaside postcard humour of Donald McGill and his most " personal " work . The show was also widely syndicated in North America by PBS and CBC , and in 1980 they appeared in the short @-@ lived NBC variety show The Big Show ; the two were glad the show did not last as they objected to the use of canned laughter by the American networks .
= = = Porridge , Open All Hours and other work = = =
Following the success of The Two Ronnies , the BBC let Barker decide what he wanted to do . The Two Ronnies took up one third of a year to produce , allowing time for Barker and Corbett to each do a solo project . Barker 's opted to produce some sitcom pilots shown as part of 1973 's Seven of One . Two of these pilots , Open All Hours ( written by Roy Clarke ) and Prisoner and Escort ( written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais ) became series . Prisoner and Escort became Porridge , airing from 1974 – 1977 , with Barker starring as the cynical and cunning prisoner Norman Stanley Fletcher . Porridge was the first sitcom to take place in a prison ; The Times said the show " was about what it took to survive in prison , the little day @-@ to @-@ day triumphs over the system that kept the prisoners sane . " The opening sequence of the programme showed Fletcher being directed to his cell , as prison doors are locked behind him , all the while the judge can be heard pronouncing judgement and sentence . The judge 's voice was performed by Barker . The show became a huge success , attracting 15 million viewers and earning what the BBC described as " a chorus of critical acclaim and public adoration for what remains one of the most classic British sitcoms ever produced . " The Times called Fletcher his " finest creation " . Barker privately regarded the series as the finest work of his career . He won the BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1975 for his performance .
In 1976 , Barker played Friar Tuck in the film Robin and Marian , directed by Richard Lester . The same year , determined not to be remembered only as Fletcher , Barker opted to end Porridge after two series and instead focused on the second pilot Open All Hours , alongside David Jason . Barker starred as Arkwright , a money @-@ grabbing , stuttering shopkeeper . Arkwright 's stutter was not in the script ; Barker was inspired to use it by Melvyn 's performance and use of a stutter in a 1955 play the two performed at the Palace Theatre called Hot Water . Open All Hours aired one series in 1976 on BBC Two but was not renewed due to low ratings . As a result , Barker backtracked on his earlier decision and produced a third series of Porridge , as well as a film adaptation . It was followed by the spin @-@ off sitcom Going Straight which focused on Fletcher after his release from prison . While not as popular as Porridge , Barker again won the BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Performance . Plans to further the show were ended when Barker 's co @-@ star Richard Beckinsale died of a heart attack in 1979 aged 31 . With repeats of Open All Hours earning high ratings on BBC One , the BBC commissioned a further series of the show in 1981 , with another two made as well as the show continued its ratings success . Both shows placed in the top ten of the 2004 poll to determine Britain 's Best Sitcom ; Porridge finished seventh and Open All Hours eighth .
Barker 's next sitcom , The Magnificent Evans , which was about a Welsh photographer and aired in 1984 , was not successful . His final sitcom , Clarence in which he played Clarence Sale , a removal man with failing sight , aired in 1988 . Barker wrote the show himself , again using a pseudonym , this time as " Bob Ferris " .
= = = Retirement and re @-@ appearances = = =
In 1987 , before Clarence aired and after rejecting Hall 's offer of the part of Falstaff in a Royal National Theatre production of Henry IV , Part 1 & 2 , Barker retired from show business , aged 58 , " at the height of his fame " , citing a decline in his own writing quality , lack of ambition and ideas , and a desire to go out on top so as not to damage his legacy , as well as concerns about the state of his heart . He had decided to retire in 1985 but his decision was kept secret for two years , Corbett being the only one knowing about it . He made his decision public on an appearance on the chat show Wogan . Retired , Barker opened and ran an antiques shop called The Emporium in Chipping Norton in Oxfordshire and resisted all calls to come out of retirement from then onwards . He joked : " I lose money every week , but it 's a hobby . It 's cheaper than skiing and safer at my age . " Because of its unprofitability , the shop was sold after ten years . He wrote his autobiography , Dancing in the Moonlight : My Early Years on Stage in 1993 and released All I Ever Wrote , his complete scripts , in 1999 . He wrote the play Mum for his daughter Charlotte Barker in 1998 , which was performed at The King 's Head Theatre , but garnered a negative response , with Barker stating it got " the worst notices of any play in the history of the theatre . "
Just over a decade after retiring , Barker was persuaded to make occasional appearances on TV again . In 1997 he appeared with Corbett at the Royal Command Performance , driving on stage in a motorcycle as the Two Fat Ladies , and in 1999 he was reunited with Corbett for Two Ronnies Night on BBC One , and the following year for A Tribute to the Two Ronnies . In 2002 , director Richard Loncraine persuaded Barker to appear as Winston Churchill 's butler David Inches in the BBC @-@ HBO drama The Gathering Storm and then cast him in the larger role of the General in the TV film My House in Umbria in 2003 , alongside Maggie Smith ( whom he had , early in their careers , advised to give up acting as he felt she would not be a success ) . In the same year , he briefly reprised his role as Norman Stanley Fletcher in the spoof documentary Life Beyond the Box .
Barker received several lifetime achievement awards . He won the Royal Television Society 's award for Outstanding Creative Achievement in 1975 . Sir Alec Guinness presented him with a lifetime achievement honour at the inaugural British Comedy Awards in 1990 , while he received another such honour at the BBC Centenary Programme in 1996 . In 2004 he was given a special BAFTA lifetime achievement award at Ronnie Barker : A BAFTA Tribute , a televised celebratory tribute evening . In 2005 , he and Corbett were part of the first 100 people given stars on London 's Avenue of Stars . Previous awards included the Variety Club of Great Britain Award in 1969 , 1974 and 1980 , the Radio Industry Club Award in 1973 , 1974 , 1977 and 1981 .
Following the success of Ronnie Barker : A BAFTA Tribute , Barker wanted to return The Two Ronnies to television and the BBC commissioned The Two Ronnies Sketchbook , a clip show of their best sketches along with newly recorded introductions . These were recorded in one day due to Barker 's declining health and aired in 2005 . The project , when announced , met with " some derision among the professional critics " , but after the first episode drew eight million viewers , they had to " eat their words " . The final special , and Barker 's final appearance on TV – The Two Ronnies Christmas Sketchbook – was recorded in July 2005 as a result of Barker 's failing health and aired posthumously in December .
= = Acting and writing style = =
Barker became a comic actor in his theatre days , noting " I think it 's better to make people laugh than cry . " He has been described by The Times as " not a comedian , [ but ] an actor with a talent for comedy , " who " slipped into characters with apparent ease . " Barker felt he was funny only in character . The BBC wrote of him : " Able to deliver the great tongue @-@ twisting speeches required of his characters , Barker pronounced himself ' completely boring ' without a script . " Peter Hall spoke of Barker 's skills as a dramatic actor , calling him " the great actor we lost " and lamented that Barker was unable to take a role in one of his Shakespearean productions . Barker , though , preferred comedy , and felt it was " as good and as important as serious work " and he was not " dumbing down " by doing it . Actor Gene Wilder compared him to Charlie Chaplin in saying " no matter how farcical [ his performance ] was ... there was always an element of reality to what he did . " Corbett praised Barker 's skill at playing serious authority figures saying absurd things , using Barker 's verbal dexterity and energetic performances .
Barker 's writing style was , for The Times , " based on precise scripts and perfect timing . " It often involved playing with language , including humour involving such linguistic items as spoonerisms and double entendres . Dennis Baker of The Guardian wrote that Barker " preferred innuendo over the crudely explicit , a restraint that demanded some imagination from the audience and was the essence of his comedy . " Corbett said he had " a mastery of the English language " .
In private , he annotated a copy of A Book of Nonsense by Edward Lear , penning punch lines of his own for each limerick . On the title page he wrote , " There was an old fossil named Lear , Whose verses were boring and drear . His last lines were worst – just the same as the first ! So I 've tried to improve on them here . " The annotated copy of Lear 's book , signed and dated November 2001 , was auctioned in 2012 .
= = Personal life = =
Barker met Joy Tubb in Cambridge while she was a stage manager for two plays he was in . They married nine months later in July 1957 and they had three children : two sons , Larry ( born 1959 ) and Adam ( born 1968 ) , who became an actor , and one daughter , Charlotte ( born 1962 ) , who became an actress . Larry was named after Barker 's idol Laurence Olivier . The family lived in Pinner for many years ; and subsequently in a converted mill in Dean , Oxfordshire . According to Corbett , Barker was " first and foremost a family man . " Joy died in January 2011 , aged 78 .
Barker received an OBE in 1978 . He was an avid collector of antiques , books and posters and amassed a collection of over 53 @,@ 000 postcards ; he produced several compilation books of them including Ronnie Barker 's Book of Bathing Beauties , A Pennyworth of Art and Sauce . Barker rarely appeared in public , and when he did it was almost always in character . He once said " I 've always known I haven 't a personality of my own , I have to be someone else to be happy . That 's why I became an actor , I suppose . "
Barker was a heavy smoker until 1972 when he gave up the habit after having a pre @-@ cancerous growth removed from his throat ; he took to drinking wine and using placebo cigarettes to maintain his concentration and help him sleep . He underwent a heart bypass in 1996 and survived a pulmonary embolism the following year .
= = Death = =
Barker opted not to have heart valve replacement surgery , and his health rapidly declined after the recording of The Two Ronnies Christmas Sketchbook . He died of heart failure at the Katherine House hospice in Adderbury , Oxfordshire , on 3 October 2005 , aged 76 , with Joy by his side . News of his death made top billing on television news bulletins , and The Sun ran a front page with just the headline " It 's Goodnight From Him " and an image of Barker 's glasses .
Barker was cremated at a private humanist funeral at Banbury Crematorium , which was attended only by family and close friends . A public memorial service for Barker was held on 3 March 2006 at Westminster Abbey , with some 2 @,@ 000 people in attendance . Corbett , Richard Briers , Josephine Tewson , Michael Grade and Peter Kay all read at the service , while others in attendance included David Jason , Stephen Fry , Michael Palin , Leslie Phillips , Lenny Henry , Dawn French and June Whitfield . A recording of Barker 's rhyming slang sermon from The Two Ronnies was played , while the cross was in procession in the aisle of the abbey it was accompanied by four candles instead of the usual two , in reference to the Four Candles sketch . Barker was the third comedy professional to be given a memorial at Westminster Abbey , after Joyce Grenfell and Les Dawson .
= = = Legacy = = =
Following his death the Writer of the Year Award at the British Comedy Awards was renamed in his honour . In 2005 he was voted as the 16th greatest comedy act ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders in a poll to find The Comedian 's Comedian .
The BBC described him as " one of the leading figures of British television comedy " , and " much loved and admired " . The Independent called him " a master of television sitcom " . The Guardian said he was " much loved ... Both as an actor and a writer he was recognised as a master of pyrotechnic puns , surreal behaviour in public and private places , and crackling cross @-@ chat . " It concluded that " it says much about the decline of the British television industry that Ronnie Barker , one of its most creative comic talents , should have turned his back on it long before he died at the age of 76 " . In a eulogy for Barker the Reverend Robert Wright stated that he was " undoubtedly one of the very greatest television comedy actors " and that " as a performer he made comedy look effortlessly funny " .
In 2006 Barker 's stage play Mum was adapted and directed by Neil Cargill for BBC Radio 4 , and broadcast as an Afternoon Play , starring Maxine Peake and Sam Kelly .
In Barker 's home town of Oxford , a Wetherspoons pub on George Street is named after his Four Candles sketch . It is often used by Wikimedia for Oxford meetups .
A bronze statue of Barker sculpted by Martin Jennings , and showing him in character as Norman Stanley Fletcher , was unveiled at the entrance of the Aylesbury Waterside Theatre in September 2010 by his widow Joy , David Jason and Ronnie Corbett .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Radio = = =
= = = Self = = =
= = = Adverts = = =
= = = Productions Made to Honour Ronnie Barker and Archival Appearances = = =
= Mississippi Highway 454 =
Mississippi Highway 454 ( MS 454 ) is a state highway in western Mississippi . MS 454 starts at U.S. Highway 82 ( US 82 ) and US 278 . It travels eastward to its eastern terminus at MS 1 . The road that became MS 454 was constructed in 1940 and opened the next year . MS 454 was designated in 1953 , and has not changed significantly since .
= = Route description = =
MS 454 starts at the intersection of US 82 and US 278 and travels southeast . The road soon turns east , as it passes through vast farmland . MS 454 passes near its future alignment , and continues eastward . Less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , the road intersects Tanya Road and West Lake Lee Road , and passes by a small group of trees . About halfway through the route , the road crosses a creek , and travels through small forests . MS 454 ends at a T @-@ intersection with MS 1 . The whole highway is a paved , two @-@ lane road . MS 454 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 . In 2012 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 4 @,@ 500 vehicles traveling west of MS 1 , and as few as 3 @,@ 100 vehicles traveling east of US 82 / US 278 . MS 454 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .
= = History = =
A road from US 82 to MS 1 was constructed during 1940 , and opened in 1941 . The road was unsigned , and was already paved in concrete . It was designated as MS 454 by 1953 . By 1999 , US 278 became concurrent with US 82 through MS 454 's western terminus . A bypass around Greenville has been planned in the 1990s , and construction began in 2008 . It was partially built before funding stopped . A bridge for MS 454 's future alignment has been built , with no roads connecting to it .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Washington County .
= Subtropical Storm Andrea ( 2007 ) =
Subtropical Storm Andrea was the first named storm and first subtropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed out of a non @-@ tropical low on May 9 about 150 miles ( 240 km ) northeast of Daytona Beach , Florida , three weeks before the official start of the season . After encountering dry air and strong vertical wind shear , Andrea weakened to a subtropical depression on May 10 while remaining nearly stationary , and the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories early on May 11 . Andrea was the first pre @-@ season storm to develop since Tropical Storm Ana in April 2003 . Additionally , the storm was the first Atlantic named storm in May since Tropical Storm Arlene in 1981 .
The storm produced rough surf along the coastline from Florida to North Carolina , causing beach erosion and some damage . In some areas , the waves eroded up to 20 feet ( 6 m ) of beach , leaving 70 homes in danger of collapse . Offshore North Carolina , high waves of 34 feet ( 10 m ) and tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds damaged three boats ; their combined nine passengers were rescued by the Coast Guard , although all nine sustained injuries . Light rainfall was also reported in some coastal locations . Damage was minimal , but six people drowned as a result of the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early May , an upper @-@ level trough dropped southward through the western Atlantic Ocean , forcing a back @-@ door cold front — a cold front that moves southwestward ahead of a building surface ridge to its north or northeast — southward . For several days , forecast models had anticipated for the trough to evolve into a closed low pressure area , and on May 6 , a frontal low with a large and well @-@ defined circulation developed about 90 miles ( 140 km ) east of Cape Hatteras . The low maintained scattered convection around its circulation center , and in conjunction with the strong high pressure to its north , a very tight pressure gradient produced gale force winds near the coastline . The extratropical storm tracked southeastward and later turned to the southwest while steadily deepening ; on May 7 , it attained hurricane @-@ force winds . With a lack of tropical moisture , its corresponding convection was minimal and scattered .
The National Hurricane Center first mentioned the possibility of tropical cyclogenesis on May 8 , while the storm was located about 230 miles ( 370 km ) east @-@ southeast of the South Carolina coastline . Its associated convection had steadily increased as it tracked slowly westward at 5 – 10 mph ( 8 – 16 km / h ) . The system changed little in organization throughout the day , though by the following morning , hurricane specialists indicated the low was acquiring subtropical characteristics as it tracked over progressively warmer waters . Early on May 9 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system revealed winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) and a flat thermal core , which indicated the system was neither warm @-@ core nor cold @-@ core . In addition , satellite imagery indicated a consolidation of the convection near the center , as well as hints of upper @-@ level outflow and a contraction of the radius of maximum winds from more than 115 miles ( 185 km ) to about 70 miles ( 120 km ) . Based on the observations and the hybrid structure of the system , the National Hurricane Center classified the low as Subtropical Storm Andrea at 1500 UTC on May 9 about 150 miles ( 240 km ) northeast of Daytona Beach , Florida . During a subsequent analysis of the storm , researchers estimated that the storm had transitioned into a subtropical cyclone nine hours earlier . As Andrea developed before June 1 — the traditional start of hurricane seasons in the Atlantic Ocean — it became the first pre @-@ season storm since Tropical Storm Ana in April 2003 . Additionally , the storm was the first Atlantic named storm in May since Tropical Storm Arlene in 1981 .
Upon first becoming a subtropical cyclone , Andrea was embedded within a large , nearly stationary deep @-@ layer trough , resulting in a westward movement . Drifting over sea surface temperatures of no more than 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) , the organization of the system deteriorated with a significant decrease in convection . By early on May 10 , much of the associated weather was located to the east of the cyclone within a band of moderate convection due to a brief spell of westerly vertical wind shear . The center of circulation had become disorganized , with several small cloud swirls within the larger circulation . This disorganization of the center , combined with increasing wind shear and dry air suppressing convective activity , caused it to begin weakening later that morning . By 1500 UTC on May 10 , only a few thunderstorms remained near the center , and thus the NHC downgraded Andrea to subtropical depression status . Though a few intermittent thunderstorms persisted over the eastern semicircle , the depression remained disorganized and weak ; the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories early on May 11 , after it had been without significant deep convection for 18 hours about 80 miles ( 125 km ) northeast of Cape Canaveral , Florida .
Later on May 11 , convection re @-@ fired over the center as the system drifted south @-@ southeastward , though it lacked sufficient organization to qualify as a tropical cyclone . By May 12 , shower activity had organized greatly to the east of the center , and the National Hurricane Center remarked that a small increase in convection would result in the formation of a tropical depression . It accelerated east @-@ northeastward away from the continental United States without redeveloping , and after passing over cooler waters , the remnants of Andrea merged with an approaching cold front on May 14 .
= = Preparations = =
Due to rough surf from the precursor low , local National Weather Service offices issued a High Surf Advisory for much of the coastline from Florida through North Carolina . Upon first becoming a subtropical cyclone , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from the mouth of the Altamaha River in Georgia southward to Flagler Beach , Florida . The watch was discontinued after Andrea weakened to a subtropical depression . Additionally , a gale warning was issued for much of the South Carolina coastline .
At Isle of Palms in South Carolina , workers and dozens of firefighters prepared sandbags in preparation for high tide after waves from the storm previously caused moderate beach erosion . As a precaution , officials there intentionally cut power and gas to multiple uninhabited buildings . Officials closed schools in Dare County , North Carolina due to the threat for high winds from the storm . The North Carolina Department of Transportation also canceled ferry transportation to and from Ocracoke and Knotts Island , North Carolina .
= = Impact = =
Prior to becoming a subtropical cyclone , the low produced gale @-@ force winds and dangerous surf near the coast from North Carolina through Georgia , and later along the coast of Florida . Significant swells were also reported in the Bahamas . The waves caused beach erosion and washed up against coastal houses along the southeast coast of the United States .
= = = Southeast U.S. = = =
Off the coast of North Carolina , the storm produced 34 @-@ foot ( 10 @-@ m ) waves and storm force winds which damaged three boats ; their combined nine passengers were rescued by the Coast Guard . All nine were injured to some degree ; three endured hypothermia , one received a broken rib , and one Coast Guardsman experienced back injuries from the surf . Another boat and its four occupants were reported missing , and after twelve days they remain missing . Rough waves from the precursor low left two kayakers missing near Seabrook Island , South Carolina . One was found the next day , and the other was found dead a week later .
Onshore , winds reached 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) in Norfolk , Virginia , with an unofficial report of 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) near Virginia Beach . Similar observations occurred along the Outer Banks , with the winds knocking some tree limbs onto power lines ; some isolated power outages were reported . Wind damage included some roofs losing shingles from the winds . In Elizabeth City , North Carolina , an outer rainband dropped 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 10 mm ) of precipitation in about two hours as well as several lightning strikes ; one bolt of lightning injured two firefighters . The winds covered portions of North Carolina Highway 12 with sand , and for a day the route was closed after waves from the storm washed out about 200 feet ( 60 m ) of roadway . In some locations , the waves eroded up to 20 feet ( 6 m ) of beach , leaving 70 homes in imminent danger . On St. Simons Island in Georgia , the storm produced a storm tide of 8 @.@ 09 feet ( 2 @.@ 43 m ) . Trace amounts of rainfall occurred in the southeastern portion of the state .
= = = Florida = = =
In Florida , waves of over 10 feet ( 3 m ) in height capsized a boat near Lantana ; the two occupants were rescued without injury . Additionally , the waves displaced a sailboat that had previously been washed ashore in Juno Beach . Large waves flooded a parking lot and destroyed several fences and tree branches at Jupiter Beach , which resulted in its temporary closure ; nearby a maintenance shed was destroyed . Eight Leatherback Sea Turtle nests in Boca Raton were destroyed after the surf reached the dunes . Due to high surf , the beach pier at Flagler Beach was closed for about a day . Minor to moderate beach erosion caused the Florida Department of Transportation to fill in areas near the seawall with sand . One death occurred when a surfer drowned in the rough waves off the coast at New Smyrna Beach in Volusia County . Outer rainbands produced light rainfall , with the highest report in the Jacksonville National Weather Service area of responsibility totaling 0 @.@ 77 inches ( 20 mm ) ; the bands also caused tropical storm force wind gusts in the northeastern portion of the state . The winds spread smoke from local brush fires through the Tampa Bay area to Miami . High winds from Andrea were reported as fueling severe wildfires in northern Florida and southern Georgia .
= October Rebellion =
October Rebellion was the collective name for the series of protest events surrounding the fall 2007 meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund on October 19 – 20 , 2007 , in Washington , D.C. , United States . The events were organized by the October Coalition . According to the October Coalition 's call to action , the group demanded an end to all third world debt using the financial institutions ' own resources , the end to structural adjustment policies believed to prioritize profit over the lives of individuals , and an end to social and environmental issues caused by oil and gas production , mining , and certain kinds of infrastructure development .
= = Demonstration at Immigration and Customs Enforcement = =
Early in the day on October 19 , an estimated 100 activists demonstrated outside the Washington headquarters of the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement , an agency of the Department of Homeland Security . Demonstrators had assembled to express a critical view of the economic and immigration policies of the United States , while chanting , " No justice , no peace ! " According to The Washington Post , " They said that much immigration to the United States was the result of harsh overseas economic policies on the part of the government , the World Bank and the IMF . "
= = Georgetown march = =
The October Coalition called for " disruptive actions throughout Georgetown , " in a march starting at 9 : 00 PM on October 19 from Washington Circle in Foggy Bottom . In explaining their selection of Georgetown for a march , organizers stated on their Web site , " Georgetown , Washington 's seat of power , is a playground for the rich . Its residents possess enormous wealth at the expense of the poor majority who live so close to them . They live so close , yet a world away , hidden in plain sight . Georgetown embodies neoliberalism . Georgetown is neoliberalism . " A demonstrator at the event described the reason for going to Georgetown as being where the delegates were staying . Prior to the march , the organizers did not outline what specific actions would be taken , nor did they indicate whether or not the group would carry weapons , but encouraged participants to use " creativity " and a " diversity of tactics " . According to The Hoya , it was suggested that 30th and M Streets NW would be a preliminary destination .
The night before the march , officials at Georgetown University issued a safety alert , indicating that the demonstration was expected to occur between 6 PM and 11 PM , and was expected to end in Georgetown 's commercial district . The university advised its students to avoid the area , citing an expectation of traffic delays and road closures .
According to Josh Aldiva , an officer in the Second District of the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia , there would be an increased police presence throughout the entire city , with no extra precautions taken in Georgetown beyond those being taken throughout the city , while recalling that in the past , protest activity surrounding the World Bank and IMF had been mostly peaceful .
At the appointed time , an estimated 200 to 300 demonstrators , many wearing the black clothing and masks characteristic of a black bloc , gathered at Washington Circle before departing with a heavy police escort for Georgetown , via Pennsylvania Avenue and M Street NW . The march turned north at Wisconsin Avenue , before reversing course and returning to M Street . Over the course of the march , newspaper boxes were overturned , objects were thrown , and trash cans were knocked over . Many storefronts were boarded in anticipation of the march . Two unboarded windows were broken at the intersection of Wisconsin Avenue and M Street . Two arrests were made , related to an incident where an officer was pushed from a scooter .
The event was marred by an accident involving a female bystander , who was walking with a group of friends when she was struck in the forehead by a brick thrown by a demonstrator . The woman was taken to a nearby hospital for treatment following the incident . The Georgetown march ended at approximately 10 : 30 PM , when , at 29th and M Streets , police ordered the demonstrators to disperse . Most complied with the order .
= = March to the World Bank = =
On October 20 , 2007 , approximately 500 demonstrators gathered at Franklin Square for a rally and march to the World Bank headquarters at 18th and H Streets . The group consisted of a mix of people , including students , community activists , as well as anarchists dressed for a black bloc .
The protest was peaceful , with the exception of an incident in Murrow Park , across the street from the World Bank , where several demonstrators charged the line of police as a group of finance ministers arrived and crossed the police lines for mid @-@ afternoon meetings . Police quickly came in carrying batons and shoving demonstrators , which sent some people running . However , according to Bob Exe , one of the demonstrators , the police line was never charged , but that " some pushing " may have occurred .
Following the scuffle with police , the People 's Tribunal began , which consisted of a panel of six judges , and a line @-@ up of people from countries affected by the policies of the World Bank and the IMF speaking .
= Rings of Uranus =
The planet Uranus has a system of rings intermediate in complexity between the more extensive set around Saturn and the simpler systems around Jupiter and Neptune . The rings of Uranus were discovered on March 10 , 1977 , by James L. Elliot , Edward W. Dunham , and Jessica Mink . More than 200 years ago , in 1789 , William Herschel also reported observing rings ; some modern astronomers are skeptical that he could have actually seen them , as they are very dark and faint – others are not .
By 1978 , nine distinct rings were identified . Two additional rings were discovered in 1986 in images taken by the Voyager 2 spacecraft , and two outer rings were found in 2003 – 2005 in Hubble Space Telescope photos . In the order of increasing distance from the planet the 13 known rings are designated 1986U2R / ζ , 6 , 5 , 4 , α , β , η , γ , δ , λ , ε , ν and μ . Their radii range from about 38 @,@ 000 km for the 1986U2R / ζ ring to about 98 @,@ 000 km for the μ ring . Additional faint dust bands and incomplete arcs may exist between the main rings . The rings are extremely dark — the Bond albedo of the rings ' particles does not exceed 2 % . They are probably composed of water ice with the addition of some dark radiation @-@ processed organics .
The majority of Uranus 's rings are opaque and only a few kilometers wide . The ring system contains little dust overall ; it consists mostly of large bodies 0 @.@ 2 – 20 m in diameter . However , some rings are optically thin : the broad and faint 1986U2R / ζ , μ and ν rings are made of small dust particles , while the narrow and faint λ ring also contains larger bodies . The relative lack of dust in the ring system is due to aerodynamic drag from the extended Uranian exosphere — corona .
The rings of Uranus are thought to be relatively young , at not more than 600 million years old . The Uranian ring system probably originated from the collisional fragmentation of a number of moons that once existed around the planet . After colliding , the moons probably broke up into numerous particles , which survived as narrow and optically dense rings only in strictly confined zones of maximum stability .
The mechanism that confines the narrow rings is not well understood . Initially it was assumed that every narrow ring had a pair of nearby shepherd moons corralling them into shape . However , in 1986 Voyager 2 discovered only one such shepherd pair ( Cordelia and Ophelia ) around the brightest ring ( 11 rings ) .
= = Discovery = =
The first mention of a Uranian ring system comes from William Herschel 's notes detailing his observations of Uranus in the 18th century , which include the following passage : " February 22 , 1789 : A ring was suspected " . Herschel drew a small diagram of the ring and noted that it was " a little inclined to the red " . The Keck Telescope in Hawaii has since confirmed this to be the case , at least for the ν ring . Herschel 's notes were published in a Royal Society journal in 1797 . However , in the two centuries between 1797 and 1977 the rings are rarely mentioned , if at all . This casts serious doubt on whether Herschel could have seen anything of the sort while hundreds of other astronomers saw nothing . Still , it has been claimed by some that Herschel gave accurate descriptions of the ν ring 's size relative to Uranus , its changes as Uranus travelled around the Sun , and its color .
The definitive discovery of the Uranian Rings was made by astronomers James L. Elliot , Edward W. Dunham , and Jessica Mink on March 10 , 1977 , using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory , and was serendipitous . They planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 by Uranus to study the planet 's atmosphere . However , when their observations were analyzed , they found that the star disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it was eclipsed by the planet . They deduced that a system of narrow rings was present . The five occultation events they observed were denoted by the Greek letters α , β , γ , δ and ε in their papers . These designations have been used as the rings ' names since then . Later they found four additional rings : one between the β and γ rings and three inside the α ring . The former was named the η ring . The latter were dubbed rings 4 , 5 and 6 — according to the numbering of the occultation events in one paper . Uranus 's ring system was the second to be discovered in the Solar System , after that of Saturn .
The rings were directly imaged when the Voyager 2 spacecraft flew through the Uranian system in 1986 . Two more faint rings were revealed , bringing the total to eleven . The Hubble Space Telescope detected an additional pair of previously unseen rings in 2003 – 2005 , bringing the total number known to 13 . The discovery of these outer rings doubled the known radius of the ring system . Hubble also imaged two small satellites for the first time , one of which , Mab , shares its orbit with the outermost newly discovered ring .
= = General properties = =
As currently understood , the ring system of Uranus comprises thirteen distinct rings . In order of increasing distance from the planet they are : 1986U2R / ζ , 6 , 5 , 4 , α , β , η , γ , δ , λ , ε , ν , μ rings . They can be divided into three groups : nine narrow main rings ( 6 , 5 , 4 , α , β , η , γ , δ , ε ) , two dusty rings ( 1986U2R / ζ , λ ) and two outer rings ( μ , ν ) . The rings of Uranus consist mainly of macroscopic particles and little dust , although dust is known to be present in 1986U2R / ζ , η , δ , λ , ν and μ rings . In addition to these well @-@ known rings , there may be numerous optically thin dust bands and faint rings between them . These faint rings and dust bands may exist only temporarily or consist of a number of separate arcs , which are sometimes detected during occultations . Some of them became visible during a series of ring plane @-@ crossing events in 2007 . A number of dust bands between the rings were observed in forward @-@ scattering geometry by Voyager 2 . All rings of Uranus show azimuthal brightness variations .
The rings are made of an extremely dark material . The geometric albedo of the ring particles does not exceed 5 – 6 % , while the Bond albedo is even lower — about 2 % . The rings particles demonstrate a steep opposition surge — an increase of the albedo when the phase angle is close to zero . This means that their albedo is much lower when they are observed slightly off the opposition . The rings are slightly red in the ultraviolet and visible parts of the spectrum and grey in near @-@ infrared . They exhibit no identifiable spectral features . The chemical composition of the ring particles is not known . However , they cannot be made of pure water ice like the rings of Saturn because they are too dark , darker than the inner moons of Uranus . This indicates that they are probably composed of a mixture of the ice and a dark material . The nature of this material is not clear , but it may be organic compounds considerably darkened by the charged particle irradiation from the Uranian magnetosphere . The rings ' particles may consist of a heavily processed material which was initially similar to that of the inner moons .
As a whole , the ring system of Uranus is unlike either the faint dusty rings of Jupiter or the broad and complex rings of Saturn , some of which are composed of very bright material — water ice . However , there are similarities with some parts of the latter ring system ; the Saturnian F ring and the ε ring are both narrow , relatively dark and are shepherded by a pair of moons . The newly discovered outer rings of Uranus are similar to the outer G and E rings of Saturn . Narrow ringlets existing in the broad Saturnian rings also resemble the narrow rings of Uranus . In addition , dust bands observed between the main rings of Uranus may be similar to the rings of Jupiter . In contrast , the Neptunian ring system is quite similar to that of Uranus , although it is less complex , darker and contains more dust ; the Neptunian rings are also positioned further from the planet .
= = Narrow main rings = =
= = = ε ring = = =
The ε ring is the brightest and densest part of the Uranian ring system , and is responsible for about two @-@ thirds of the light reflected by the rings . While it is the most eccentric of the Uranian rings , it has negligible orbital inclination . The ring 's eccentricity causes its brightness to vary over the course of its orbit . The radially integrated brightness of the ε ring is highest near apoapsis and lowest near periapsis . The maximum / minimum brightness ratio is about 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 0 . These variations are connected with the variations of the ring width , which is 19 @.@ 7 km at the periapsis and 96 @.@ 4 km at the apoapsis . As the ring becomes wider , the amount of shadowing between particles decreases and more of them come into view , leading to higher integrated brightness . The width variations were measured directly from Voyager 2 images , as the ε ring was one of only two rings resolved by Voyager ’ s cameras . Such behavior indicates that the ring is not optically thin . Indeed , occultation observations conducted from the ground and the spacecraft showed that its normal optical depth varies between 0 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 5 , being highest near the periapsis . The equivalent depth of the ε ring is around 47 km and is invariant around the orbit .
The geometric thickness of the ε ring is not precisely known , although the ring is certainly very thin — by some estimates as thin as 150 m . Despite such infinitesimal thickness , it consists of several layers of particles . The ε ring is a rather crowded place with a filling factor near the apoapsis estimated by different sources at from 0 @.@ 008 to 0 @.@ 06 . The mean size of the ring particles is 0 @.@ 2 – 20 @.@ 0 m , and the mean separation is around 4 @.@ 5 times their radius . The ring is almost devoid of dust , possibly due to the aerodynamic drag from Uranus 's extended atmospheric corona . Due to its razor @-@ thin nature the ε ring disappears when viewed edge @-@ on . This happened in 2007 when a ring plane @-@ crossing was observed .
The Voyager 2 spacecraft observed a strange signal from the ε ring during the radio occultation experiment . The signal looked like a strong enhancement of the forward @-@ scattering at the wavelength 3 @.@ 6 cm near ring ’ s apoapsis . Such strong scattering requires the existence of a coherent structure . That the ε ring does have such a fine structure has been confirmed by many occultation observations . The ε ring seems to consist of a number of narrow and optically dense ringlets , some of which may have incomplete arcs .
The ε ring is known to have interior and exterior shepherd moons — Cordelia and Ophelia , respectively . The inner edge of the ring is in 24 : 25 resonance with Cordelia , and the outer edge is in 14 : 13 resonance with Ophelia . The masses of the moons need to be at least three times the mass of the ring to confine it effectively . The mass of the ε ring is estimated to be about 1016 kg .
= = = δ ring = = =
The δ ring is circular and slightly inclined . It shows significant unexplained azimuthal variations in normal optical depth and width . One possible explanation is that the ring has an azimuthal wave @-@ like structure , excited by a small moonlet just inside it . The sharp outer edge of the δ ring is in 23 : 22 resonance with Cordelia . The δ ring consists of two components : a narrow optically dense component and a broad inward shoulder with low optical depth . The width of the narrow component is 4 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 1 km and the equivalent depth is about 2 @.@ 2 km , which corresponds to a normal optical depth of about 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 6 . The ring 's broad component is about 10 – 12 km wide and its equivalent depth is close to 0 @.@ 3 km , indicating a low normal optical depth of 3 × 10 − 2 . This is known only from occultation data because Voyager 2 's imaging experiment failed to resolve the δ ring . When observed in forward @-@ scattering geometry by Voyager 2 , the δ ring appeared relatively bright , which is compatible with the presence of dust in its broad component . The broad component is geometrically thicker than the narrow component . This is supported by the observations of a ring plane @-@ crossing event in 2007 , when the δ ring remained visible , which is consistent with the behavior of a simultaneously geometrically thick and optically thin ring .
= = = γ ring = = =
The γ ring is narrow , optically dense and slightly eccentric . Its orbital inclination is almost zero . The width of the ring varies in the range 3 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 km , although equivalent optical depth is constant at 3 @.@ 3 km . The normal optical depth of the γ ring is 0 @.@ 7 – 0 @.@ 9 . During a ring plane @-@ crossing event in 2007 the γ ring disappeared , which means it is geometrically thin like the ε ring and devoid of dust . The width and normal optical depth of the γ ring show significant azimuthal variations . The mechanism of confinement of such a narrow ring is not known , but it has been noticed that the sharp inner edge of the γ ring is in a 6 : 5 resonance with Ophelia .
= = = η ring = = =
The η ring has zero orbital eccentricity and inclination . Like the δ ring , it consists of two components : a narrow optically dense component and a broad outward shoulder with low optical depth . The width of the narrow component is 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 7 km and the equivalent depth is about 0 @.@ 42 km , which corresponds to the normal optical depth of about 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 25 . The broad component is about 40 km wide and its equivalent depth is close to 0 @.@ 85 km , indicating a low normal optical depth of 2 × 10 − 2 . It was resolved in Voyager 2 images . In forward @-@ scattered light , the η ring looked bright , which indicated the presence of a considerable amount of dust in this ring , probably in the broad component . The broad component is much thicker ( geometrically ) than the narrow one . This conclusion is supported by the observations of a ring plane @-@ crossing event in 2007 , when the η ring demonstrated increased brightness , becoming the second brightest feature in the ring system . This is consistent with the behavior of a geometrically thick but simultaneously optically thin ring . Like the majority of other rings , the η ring shows significant azimuthal variations in the normal optical depth and width . The narrow component even vanishes in some places .
= = = α and β rings = = =
After the ε ring , the α and β rings are the brightest of Uranus 's rings . Like the ε ring , they exhibit regular variations in brightness and width . They are brightest and widest 30 ° from the apoapsis and dimmest and narrowest 30 ° from the periapsis . The α and β rings have sizable orbital eccentricity and non @-@ negligible inclination . The widths of these rings are 4 @.@ 8 –
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10 km and 6 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 4 km , respectively . The equivalent optical depths are 3 @.@ 29 km and 2 @.@ 14 km , resulting in normal optical depths of 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 and 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 35 , respectively . During a ring plane @-@ crossing event in 2007 the rings disappeared , which means they are geometrically thin like the ε ring and devoid of dust . However , the same event revealed a thick and optically thin dust band just outside the β ring , which was also observed earlier by Voyager 2 . The masses of the α and β rings are estimated to be about 5 × 1015 kg ( each ) — half the mass of the ε ring .
= = = Rings 6 , 5 and 4 = = =
Rings 6 , 5 and 4 are the innermost and dimmest of Uranus 's narrow rings . They are the most inclined rings , and their orbital eccentricities are the largest excluding the ε ring . In fact , their inclinations ( 0 @.@ 06 ° , 0 @.@ 05 ° and 0 @.@ 03 ° ) were large enough for Voyager 2 to observe their elevations above the Uranian equatorial plane , which were 24 – 46 km . Rings 6 , 5 and 4 are also the narrowest rings of Uranus , measuring 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 2 km , 1 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 9 km and 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 4 km wide , respectively . Their equivalent depths are 0 @.@ 41 km , 0 @.@ 91 and 0 @.@ 71 km resulting in normal optical depth 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 25 , 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 48 and 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 3 . They were not visible during a ring plane @-@ crossing event in 2007 due to their narrowness and lack of dust .
= = Dusty rings = =
= = = λ ring = = =
The λ ring was one of two rings discovered by Voyager 2 in 1986 . It is a narrow , faint ring located just inside the ε ring , between it and the shepherd moon Cordelia . This moon clears a dark lane just inside the λ ring . When viewed in back @-@ scattered light , the λ ring is extremely narrow — about 1 – 2 km — and has the equivalent optical depth 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 km at the wavelength 2 @.@ 2 μm . The normal optical depth is 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 . The optical depth of the λ ring shows strong wavelength dependence , which is atypical for the Uranian ring system . The equivalent depth is as high as 0 @.@ 36 km in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum , which explains why λ ring was initially detected only in UV stellar occultations by Voyager 2 . The detection during a stellar occultation at the wavelength 2 @.@ 2 μm was only announced in 1996 .
The appearance of the λ ring changed dramatically when it was observed in forward @-@ scattered light in 1986 . In this geometry the ring became the brightest feature of the Uranian ring system , outshining the ε ring . This observation , together with the wavelength dependence of the optical depth , indicates that the λ ring contains significant amount of micrometer @-@ sized dust . The normal optical depth of this dust is 10 − 4 – 10 − 3 . Observations in 2007 by the Keck telescope during the ring plane @-@ crossing event confirmed this conclusion , because the λ ring became one of the brightest features in the Uranian ring system .
Detailed analysis of the Voyager 2 images revealed azimuthal variations in the brightness of the λ ring . The variations appear to be periodic , resembling a standing wave . The origin of this fine structure in the λ ring remains a mystery .
= = = 1986U2R / ζ ring = = =
In 1986 Voyager 2 detected a broad and faint sheet of material inward of ring 6 . This ring was given the temporary designation 1986U2R . It had a normal optical depth of 10 − 3 or less and was extremely faint . It was visible only in a single Voyager 2 image . The ring was located between 37 @,@ 000 and 39 @,@ 500 km from the centre of Uranus , or only about 12 @,@ 000 km above the clouds . It was not observed again until 2003 – 2004 , when the Keck telescope found a broad and faint sheet of material just inside ring 6 . This ring was dubbed the ζ ring . However the position of the recovered ζ ring differs significantly from that observed in 1986 . Now it is situated between 37 @,@ 850 and 41 @,@ 350 km from the centre of the planet . There is an inward gradually fading extension reaching to at least 32 @,@ 600 km , or possibly even to 27 @,@ 000 km — to the atmosphere of Uranus .
The ζ ring was observed again during the ring plane @-@ crossing event in 2007 when it became the brightest feature of the ring system , outshining all other rings combined . The equivalent optical depth of this ring is near 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 km for the inward extension ) , while the normal optical depth is again less than 10 − 3 . Rather different appearances of the 1986U2R and ζ rings may be caused by different viewing geometries : back @-@ scattering geometry in 2003 – 2007 and side @-@ scattering geometry in 1986 . However , changes during the past 20 years in the distribution of dust , which is thought to predominate in the ring , cannot be ruled out .
= = = Other dust bands = = =
In addition to the 1986U2R / ζ and λ rings , there are other extremely faint dust bands in the Uranian ring system . They are invisible during occultations because they have negligible optical depth , though they are bright in forward @-@ scattered light . Voyager 2 's images of forward @-@ scattered light revealed the existence of bright dust bands between the λ and δ rings , between the η and β rings , and between the α ring and ring 4 . Many of these bands were detected again in 2003 – 2004 by the Keck Telescope and during the 2007 ring @-@ plane crossing event in backscattered light , but their precise locations and relative brightnesses were different from during the Voyager observations . The normal optical depth of the dust bands is about 10 − 5 or less . The dust particle size distribution is thought to obey a power law with the index p = 2 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 5 .
In addition to separate dust bands the system of Uranian rings appears to be immersed into wide and faint sheet of dust with the normal optical depth not exceeding 10 − 3 .
= = Outer ring system = =
In 2003 – 2005 , the Hubble Space Telescope detected a pair of previously unknown rings , now called the outer ring system , which brought the number of known Uranian rings to 13 . These rings were subsequently named the μ and ν rings . The μ ring is the outermost of the pair , and is twice the distance from the planet as the bright η ring . The outer rings differ from the inner narrow rings in a number of respects . They are broad , 17 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 800 km wide , respectively , and very faint . Their peak normal optical depths are 8 @.@ 5 × 10 − 6 and 5 @.@ 4 × 10 − 6 , respectively . The resulting equivalent optical depths are 0 @.@ 14 km and 0 @.@ 012 km . The rings have triangular radial brightness profiles .
The peak brightness of the μ ring lies almost exactly on the orbit of the small Uranian moon Mab , which is probably the source of the ring ’ s particles . The ν ring is positioned between Portia and Rosalind and does not contain any moons inside it . A reanalysis of the Voyager 2 images of forward @-@ scattered light clearly reveals the μ and ν rings . In this geometry the rings are much brighter , which indicates that they contain much micrometer @-@ sized dust . The outer rings of Uranus may be similar to the G and E rings of Saturn as E ring is extremely broad and receives dust from Enceladus .
The μ ring may consist entirely of dust , without any large particles at all . This hypothesis is supported by observations performed by the Keck telescope , which failed to detect the μ ring in the near infrared at 2 @.@ 2 μm , but detected the ν ring . This failure means that the μ ring is blue in color , which in turn indicates that very small ( submicrometer ) dust predominates within it . The dust may be made of water ice . In contrast , the ν ring is slightly red in color .
= = Dynamics and origin = =
An outstanding problem concerning the physics governing the narrow Uranian rings is their confinement . Without some mechanism to hold their particles together , the rings would quickly spread out radially . The lifetime of the Uranian rings without such a mechanism cannot be more than 1 million years . The most widely cited model for such confinement , proposed initially by Goldreich and Tremaine , is that a pair of nearby moons , outer and inner shepherds , interact gravitationally with a ring and act like sinks and donors , respectively , for excessive and insufficient angular momentum ( or equivalently , energy ) . The shepherds thus keep ring particles in place , but gradually move away from the ring themselves . To be effective , the masses of the shepherds should exceed the mass of the ring by at least a factor of two to three . This mechanism is known to be at work in the case of the ε ring , where Cordelia and Ophelia serve as shepherds . Cordelia is also the outer shepherd of the δ ring , and Ophelia is the outer shepherd of the γ ring . However no moon larger than 10 km is known in the vicinity of other rings . The current distance of Cordelia and Ophelia from the ε ring can be used to estimate the ring ’ s age . The calculations show that the ε ring cannot be older than 600 million years .
Since the rings of Uranus appear to be young , they must be continuously renewed by the collisional fragmentation of larger bodies . The estimates show that the lifetime against collisional disruption of a moon with the size like that of Puck is a few billion years . The lifetime of a smaller satellite is much shorter . Therefore , all current inner moons and rings can be products of disruption of several Puck @-@ sized satellites during the last four and half billion years . Every such disruption would have started a collisional cascade that quickly ground almost all large bodies into much smaller particles , including dust . Eventually the majority of mass was lost , and particles survived only in positions that were stabilized by mutual resonances and shepherding . The end product of such a disruptive evolution would be a system of narrow rings . However , a few moonlets must still be embedded within the rings at present . The maximum size of such moonlets is probably around 10 km .
The origin of the dust bands is less problematic . The dust has a very short lifetime , 100 – 1000 years , and should be continuously replenished by collisions between larger ring particles , moonlets and meteoroids from outside the Uranian system . The belts of the parent moonlets and particles are themselves invisible due to their low optical depth , while the dust reveals itself in forward @-@ scattered light . The narrow main rings and the moonlet belts that create dust bands are expected to differ in particle size distribution . The main rings have more centimeter to meter @-@ sized bodies . Such a distribution increases the surface area of the material in the rings , leading to high optical density in back @-@ scattered light . In contrast , the dust bands have relatively few large particles , which results in low optical depth .
= = Exploration = =
The rings were thoroughly investigated during the Voyager 2 spacecraft 's flyby of Uranus in January 1986 . Two new faint rings — λ and 1986U2R — were discovered bringing the total number then known to eleven . Rings were studied by analysing results of radio , ultraviolet and optical occultations . Voyager 2 observed the rings in different geometries relative to the sun , producing images with back @-@ scattered , forward @-@ scattered and side @-@ scattered light . Analysis of these images allowed derivation of the complete phase function , geometrical and Bond albedo of ring particles . Two rings — ε and η — were resolved in the images revealing a complicated fine structure . Analysis of Voyager 's images also led to discovery of 10 inner moons of Uranus , including the two shepherd moons of the ε ring — Cordelia and Ophelia .
= = List of properties = =
This table summarizes the properties of the planetary ring system of Uranus .
= Marie Curie =
Marie Skłodowska Curie ( / ˈkjʊri , kjʊˈriː / ; French : [ kyʁi ] ; Polish : [ kʲiˈri ] ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934 ) , born Maria Salomea Skłodowska [ ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska ] , was a Polish and naturalized @-@ French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity . She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize , the first person and only woman to win twice , the only person to win twice in multiple sciences , and was part of the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes . She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris , and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris .
She was born in Warsaw , in what was then the Kingdom of Poland , part of the Russian Empire . She studied at Warsaw 's clandestine Floating University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw . In 1891 , aged 24 , she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris , where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work . She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel . She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry .
Her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity ( a term that she coined ) , techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes , and the discovery of two elements , polonium and radium . Under her direction , the world 's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms , using radioactive isotopes . She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw , which remain major centres of medical research today . During World War I , she established the first military field radiological centres .
While a French citizen , Marie Skłodowska Curie ( she used both surnames ) never lost her sense of Polish identity . She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland . She named the first chemical element that she discovered — polonium , which she isolated in 1898 — after her native country .
Curie died in 1934 , aged 66 , at a sanatorium in Sancellemoz ( Haute @-@ Savoie ) , France , due to aplastic anemia brought on by exposure to radiation while carrying test tubes of radium in her pockets during research , and in the course of her service in World War I mobile X @-@ ray units that she had set up .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw , in the Russian partition of Poland , on 7 November 1867 , the fifth and youngest child of well @-@ known teachers Bronisława , née Boguska , and Władysław Skłodowski . The elder siblings of Maria ( nickname : Mania ) were Zofia ( born 1862 , nickname : Zosia ) , Józef ( born 1863 , nickname : Józio ) , Bronisława ( born 1865 , nickname : Bronia ) and Helena ( born 1866 , nickname : Hela ) .
On both the paternal and maternal sides , the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland 's independence ( the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863 – 65 ) . This condemned the subsequent generation , including Maria , her elder sisters and her brother , to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life .
Maria 's paternal grandfather , Józef Skłodowski , had been a respected teacher in Lublin , where he taught the young Bolesław Prus , who would become a leading figure in Polish literature . Her father , Władysław Skłodowski , taught mathematics and physics , subjects that Maria was to pursue , and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys . After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools , he brought much of the laboratory equipment home , and instructed his children in its use .
The father was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro @-@ Polish sentiments , and forced to take lower @-@ paying posts ; the family also lost money on a bad investment , and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house . Maria 's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls ; she resigned from the position after Maria was born . She died of tuberculosis in May 1878 , when Maria was ten years old . Less than three years earlier , Maria 's oldest sibling , Zofia , had died of typhus contracted from a boarder . Maria 's father was an atheist ; her mother a devout Catholic . The deaths of Maria 's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic .
When she was ten years old , Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska ; next she attended a gymnasium for girls , from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal . After a collapse , possibly due to depression , she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father , and the next year with her father in Warsaw , where she did some tutoring . Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman , she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University , a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students .
Maria made an agreement with her sister , Bronisława , that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława 's medical studies in Paris , in exchange for similar assistance two years later . In connection with this , Maria took a position as governess : first as a home tutor in Warsaw ; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family , the Żorawskis , who were relatives of her father . While working for the latter family , she fell in love with their son , Kazimierz Żorawski , a future eminent mathematician . His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative , and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them . Maria 's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both . He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician , becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University . Still , as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic , he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska which had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute that she had founded in 1932 .
At the beginning of 1890 , Bronisława — who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski , a Polish physician and social and political activist — invited Maria to join them in Paris . Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition ; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds . She was helped by her father , who was able to secure a more lucrative position again . All that time she continued to educate herself , reading books , exchanging letters , and being tutored herself . In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw . She continued working as a governess , and remained there till late 1891 . She tutored , studied at the Flying University , and began her practical scientific training ( 1890 – 91 ) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66 , near Warsaw 's Old Town . The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski , who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev .
= = = New life in Paris = = =
In late 1891 , she left Poland for France . In Paris , Maria ( or Marie , as she would be known in France ) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law before renting a garret closer to the university , in the Latin Quarter , and proceeding with her studies of physics , chemistry , and mathematics at the University of Paris , where she enrolled in late 1891 . She subsisted on her meager resources , suffering from cold winters and occasionally fainting from hunger .
Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings , barely earning her keep . In 1893 , she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Professor Gabriel Lippmann . Meanwhile , she continued studying at the University of Paris , and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894 .
Marie had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels , commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry ( Société d 'encouragement pour l 'industrie nationale [ 1 ] ) . That same year Pierre Curie entered her life ; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together . Pierre was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry , the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris ( ESPCI ) . They were introduced by the Polish physicist , Professor Józef Wierusz @-@ Kowalski , who had learned that Marie was looking for a larger laboratory space , something that Wierusz @-@ Kowalski thought Pierre had access to . Though Pierre did not have a large laboratory , he was able to find some space for Marie where she was able to begin work .
Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer , and they began to develop feelings for one another . Eventually Pierre proposed marriage , but at first Marie did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country . Pierre , however , declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland , even if it meant being reduced to teaching French . Meanwhile , for the 1894 summer break , Marie returned to Warsaw , where she visited her family . She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland , but she was denied a place at Kraków University because she was a woman . A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph.D. At Marie 's insistence , Pierre had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895 ; he was also promoted to professor at the School . A contemporary quip would call Marie , " Pierre 's biggest discovery . " On 26 July 1895 they were married in Sceaux ( Seine ) ; neither wanted a religious service . Marie 's dark blue outfit , worn instead of a bridal gown , would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit . They shared two pastimes : long bicycle trips , and journeys abroad , which brought them even closer . In Pierre , Marie had found a new love , a partner , and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend .
= = = New elements = = =
In 1895 , Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X @-@ rays , though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood . In 1896 , Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X @-@ rays in their penetrating power . He demonstrated that this radiation , unlike phosphorescence , did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself . Influenced by these two important discoveries , Marie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis .
She used an innovative technique to investigate samples . Fifteen years earlier , her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer , a sensitive device for measuring electric charge . Using Pierre 's electrometer , she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity . Using this technique , her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present . She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself . This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible .
In 1897 , her daughter Irène was born . To support her family , Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory ; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry . The shed , formerly a medical school dissecting room , was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof . They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances . The School did not sponsor her research , but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments .
Curie 's systematic studies included two uranium minerals , pitchblende and torbernite ( also known as chalcolite ) . Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself , and chalcolite twice as active . She concluded that , if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct , then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium . She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation , and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive .
Pierre was increasingly intrigued by her work . By mid @-@ 1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her .
The [ research ] idea [ writes Reid ] was her own ; no one helped her formulate it , and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it . She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity . It [ is ] likely that already at this early stage of her career [ she ] realized that ... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved .
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority . Had not Becquerel , two years earlier , presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it , credit for the discovery of radioactivity , and even a Nobel Prize , would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson . Curie chose the same rapid means of publication . Her paper , giving a brief and simple account of her work , was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor , Gabriel Lippmann . Even so , just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel , so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium ; two months earlier , Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin .
At that time , no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper , describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself : " The fact is very remarkable , and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium . " She later would recall how she felt " a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible . " On 14 April 1898 , the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100 @-@ gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar . They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore .
In July 1898 , Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element which they named " polonium " , in honour of her native Poland , which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires . On 26 December 1898 , the Curies announced the existence of a second element , which they named " radium " , from the Latin word for " ray " . In the course of their research , they also coined the word " radioactivity " .
To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt , the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form . Pitchblende is a complex mineral ; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task . The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy ; chemically it resembles the element bismuth , and polonium was the only bismuth @-@ like substance in the ore . Radium , however , was more elusive ; it is closely related chemically to barium , and pitchblende contains both elements . By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium , but appreciable quantities , uncontaminated with barium , were still beyond reach . The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization . From a ton of pitchblende , one @-@ tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902 . In 1910 , Marie Curie isolated pure radium metal . She never succeeded in isolating polonium , which has a half @-@ life of only 138 days .
Between 1898 and 1902 , the Curies published , jointly or separately , a total of 32 scientific papers , including one that announced that , when exposed to radium , diseased , tumor @-@ forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells .
In 1900 , Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure , and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris . In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father 's death .
In June 1903 , supervised by Gabriel Lippmann , Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris . That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity ; being a woman , she was prevented from speaking , and Pierre alone was allowed to . Meanwhile , a new industry began developing , based on radium . The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business .
= = = Nobel Prizes = = =
In December 1903 , the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie , Marie Curie , and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics , " in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel . " At first , the Committee intended to honour only Pierre and Becquerel , but one of the committee members and an advocate of woman scientists , Swedish mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag @-@ Leffler , alerted Pierre to the situation , and after his complaint , Marie 's name was added to the nomination . Marie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize .
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person ; they were too busy with their work , and Pierre , who disliked public ceremonies , was feeling increasingly ill . As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture , the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905 . The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant . Following the award of the Nobel Prize , and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva , which offered Pierre a position , the University of Paris gave Pierre a professorship and the chair of physics , although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory . Upon Pierre 's complaint , the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory , but it would not be ready until 1906 .
In December 1904 , Curie gave birth to their second daughter , Ève . She later hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language , and sent or took them on visits to Poland .
On 19 April 1906 , Pierre was killed in a road accident . Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain , he was struck by a horse @-@ drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels , causing his skull to fracture . Curie was devastated by her husband 's death . On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for Pierre and to offer it to Marie . She accepted it hoping to create a world @-@ class laboratory as a tribute to Pierre . She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris .
Curie 's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris , however . In her later years , she headed the Radium Institute ( Institut du radium , now Curie Institute , Institut Curie ) , a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris . The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux , director of the Pasteur Institute , who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute . Only then , with the threat of Curie leaving , did the University of Paris relent , and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute .
In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium ; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre : the curie . Nevertheless , in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences did not elect her to be a member by one or two votes . Elected instead was Édouard Branly , an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph . A doctoral student of Curie , Marguerite Perey , became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy – over half a century later , in 1962 . Despite Curie 's fame as a scientist working for France , the public 's attitude tended toward xenophobia — the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair – which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish . During the French Academy of Sciences elections , she was vilified by the right wing press who criticised her for being a foreigner and an atheist . Her daughter later remarked on the public hypocrisy as the French press often portrayed Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour , but would portray her as a French hero when she received a foreign one such as her Nobel Prizes .
In 1911 it was revealed that in 1910 – 11 Curie had conducted an affair of about a year 's duration with physicist Paul Langevin , a former student of Pierre 's — a married man who was estranged from his wife . This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents . Curie ( then in her mid @-@ 40s ) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home @-@ wrecker . When the scandal broke , she was away at a conference in Belgium ; on her return , she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge , with her daughters , in the home of a friend .
International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights , and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal , honored her a second time , with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . This award was " in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium , by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element . " She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes , and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each . A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning , headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz , encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country . Curie 's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute , built in 1914 , where research was conducted in chemistry , physics , and medicine . A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize , she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment . For most of 1912 she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist , Hertha Ayrton . She returned to her laboratory only in December , after a break of about 14 months .
In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined , focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914 , and on a new street named Rue Pierre @-@ Curie . She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly
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and together he and Macnamara escaped out to sea under heavy fire from the French shore batteries . Macnamara reported his triumph to Jervis
Sir , in obedience to the orders I received from you on the Victory 's quarter @-@ deck last evening , I pushed through the Grande Passe , and hauled up under the batteries on the N.E. of Porguerol with an easy sail , in hopes that I should be taken for a French or neutral frigate , which I have great reason to believe succeeded , as I got within pistol @-@ shot of the enemy 's ship before I was discovered , and cautioned the Captain through a trumpet not to make a fruitless resistance , when he immediately snapped his pistol at me , and fired a broadside . At this period , being very near the heavy battery of Fort Breganson , I laid him instantly onboard , and Lieutenant Lydiard , at the head of the boarders , with an intrepidity that no words can describe entered and carried her in about ten minutes , although he met with a spirited resistance from the captain ( who fell ) and a hundred men under arms to receive him ... After lashing the two ships together , I found some difficulty in getting from under the battery , which kept up a very heavy fire , and was not able to return through the Grande Passe before half after one o 'clock this morning ...
The prize , a 24 @-@ gun corvette named Utile , was taken into service with the Royal Navy as HMS Utile and Lydiard was promoted and given command of her , a commission confirmed on 22 July 1796 . Macnamara 's later service with Nelson included the capture of Portoferraio , the evacuations of Caprera and Corsica , and expeditions against Piombino and Castiglione . Macnamara had already developed a reputation for intrepidity bordering on recklessness , and he displayed these qualities again in an attack on the 18 @-@ gun Spanish brig Corso in a strong gale under enemy shore batteries . The first attempt to capture her failed , with only one man , the coxswain , getting on board . Macnamara tried again , managing to place 30 men aboard the Spanish ship , at which she surrendered . Having done so the weather prevented any further attempt to make contact with the prize . One of Macnamara 's last acts in support of the Mediterranean Fleet was to take part in the Battle of Cape St Vincent on 14 February 1797 , in which Southampton formed part of the centre of the line as a repeating frigate .
= = = Captain of Cerberus = = =
Southampton returned to Britain within a few months of the battle , and Macnamara was appointed to command the 32 @-@ gun HMS Cerberus , initially on the Irish station . During his time there he captured the 10 @-@ gun French privateer Echange , and on 20 October 1799 came across a convoy of Spanish merchantmen escorted by five frigates and two brigs . Despite the enemy 's numerical superiority Macnamara attacked and captured one of the frigates , but was forced to abandon his prize after the other Spanish frigates came to her defence . He also captured a merchant ship , and having taken her men off , burnt her . Cerberus sustained minor damage during the engagement , and had only four men wounded . The Admiralty showed their approval of Macnamara 's actions by promoting his first lieutenant . Macnamara was then sent out to the West Indies , where he cruised off Jamaica and San Domingo until the Peace of Amiens . Cerberus was then paid off in February 1803 , and Macnamara went ashore .
= = Duel = =
While ashore during the peace Macnamara contrived to become embroiled in a duel . While walking his Newfoundland dog in Hyde Park on 6 April 1803 he had an altercation with Colonel Robert Montgomery , when their dogs began fighting . Harsh words were exchanged , and the two parties fought a duel that evening at Chalk Farm . Both men were wounded , the colonel mortally . Macnamara was arrested on a charge of manslaughter and put on trial at the Old Bailey on 22 April . Macnamara defended himself from the charge on the grounds that he had received an affront and that it was necessary for him to challenge it in order to maintain his position as a naval officer . He summoned many of his naval friends , among whom Viscounts Hood and Nelson , Lord Hotham , Sir Hyde Parker , Sir Thomas Troubridge , Captains Martin , Towry , Lydiard , Moore and Waller ; and General Churchill and Lord Minto , to testify in his defence . They supported his assertion that he was the ' reverse of quarrelsome ' and the jury took ten minutes to acquit him .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
Macnamara returned to service with the resumption of the wars with France and took command of the 64 @-@ gun HMS Dictator in June 1805 for service in the North Sea . He commanded her for two years on this station before taking command of the 74 @-@ gun HMS Edgar . Macnamara served with the Baltic Fleet under Sir Richard Goodwin Keats in the Great Belt in 1808 . During this service he took command of a squadron of gunboats and attacked a Danish brig and cutter off Nyborg . In a fierce attack , in which seven Danes were killed and thirteen wounded to one British officer killed and two seamen wounded ; both Danish ships were captured . They were found to be the 18 @-@ gun Fama and the 12 @-@ gun Salorman . Macnamara was then appointed to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Berwick in 1809 . This service took him back to the North Sea and then the coast of France . While commanding a small squadron blockading Cherbourg on 24 March 1811 , he chased the French frigate Amazone off Barfleur , attacking the French ship and forcing her crew to abandon and burn her .
= = Flag rank and later life = =
Macnamara was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 4 June 1814 , but never had an active command . He married Henrietta , the widow of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel the Hon. George Carleton , on 26 January 1818 . Rear @-@ Admiral James Macnamara died at Clifton , Bristol , on 15 January 1826 at the age of 57 .
= History of Fairbanks , Alaska =
The history of Fairbanks , the second @-@ largest city in Alaska , can be traced to the founding of a trading post by E.T. Barnette on the south bank of the Chena River on August 26 , 1901 . The area had seen human occupation since at least the last ice age , but a permanent settlement was not established at the site of Fairbanks until the 20th century .
The discovery of gold near Barnette 's trading post caused him to turn what had been a temporary stop into a permanent one . The gold caused a stampede of miners to the area , and buildings sprang up around Barnette 's trading post . In November 1903 , the area 's residents voted to incorporate the city of Fairbanks . Barnette became the city 's first mayor , and the city flourished as thousands of people came in search of gold during the Fairbanks Gold Rush .
By the time of World War I , the easy @-@ to @-@ reach gold was exhausted and Fairbanks ' population plunged as miners moved to promising finds at Ruby and Iditarod . Construction of the Alaska Railroad caused a surge of economic activity and allowed heavy equipment to be brought in for further exploitation of Fairbanks ' gold deposits . Enormous gold dredges were built north of Fairbanks , and the city grew throughout the 1930s as the price of gold rose during the Great Depression . A further boom came during the 1940s and 1950s as the city became a staging area for construction of military depots during World War II and the first decade of the Cold War .
In 1968 , the vast Prudhoe Bay Oil Field was discovered in Alaska 's North Slope . Fairbanks became a supply point for exploitation of the oil field and for construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System , which caused a boom unseen since the first years of Fairbanks ' founding and helped the town recover from the devastating 1967 Fairbanks Flood . Fairbanks became a government center in the late 1960s with the establishment of the Fairbanks North Star Borough , which took Fairbanks as its borough seat . A drop in oil prices during the 1980s caused a recession in the Fairbanks area , but the city gradually recovered as oil prices climbed during the 1990s . Tourism also became an important factor in Fairbanks ' economy , and the growth of the tourism industry and the city continues even as oil production declines .
= = Before Fairbanks = =
Though there was never a permanent Alaska Native settlement at the site of Fairbanks , Athabascan Indians have used the area for thousands of years . An archaeological site excavated on the grounds of the University of Alaska Fairbanks uncovered a Native camp about 3 @,@ 500 years old . From evidence gathered at the site , archaeologists surmise that Native activities in the area were limited to seasonal hunting and fishing . In addition , archeological sites on the grounds of nearby Fort Wainwright date back 10 @,@ 000 years . Sites within Alaska but away from Fairbanks date to the time of the Bering Land Bridge more than 13 @,@ 000 years ago . Arrowheads excavated from the University of Alaska Fairbanks site matched similar items found in Asia , providing some of the first evidence that humans arrived in North America via the land bridge .
The first recorded exploration of the Tanana Valley and the Tanana River did not take place until 1885 , but historians believe Russian traders from Nulato and Hudson 's Bay Company traders ventured into the lower reaches of the Tanana and possibly the Chena River in the middle of the 19th century . In 1885 , Henry Tureman Allen of the U.S. Army led the first recorded expedition down the length of the Tanana River , charting the Chena River 's mouth along the way .
In July 1897 , the first news of the Klondike gold strike reached Seattle , Washington , triggering the Klondike Gold Rush . Thousands of people boarded steamships heading north to the gold fields . Some of these travelers sailed around the western tip of Alaska and up the Yukon River to Dawson City ( site of the gold fields ) rather than take an arduous overland trip across the Boundary Ranges .
One of these adventurers was E.T. Barnette , who intended to establish a trading post at Tanacross , Alaska , where the Valdez @-@ Eagle Trail crossed the Tanana River . He hired the steamer Lavelle Young to transport him and his supplies , and they began their trip upriver in August 1901 . After turning into the Tanana from the Yukon , the steamboat ran into low water . After venturing upstream several miles , the boat reached an impassable point . Barnette suggested the Chena River ( then called the Rock River ) might be a slough of the Tanana and a way around the low water . About 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the mouth of the Chena , the Lavelle Young again ran into an impassable stretch of river . The captain of the Young did not want to travel downstream with a heavy load because of the danger posed by the extra mass . He therefore unloaded Barnette 's cargo on August 26 , 1901 , with an irate Barnette assisting .
Barnette began building a cabin at a site he named " Chenoa City " , and he sold supplies to two prospectors , Felix Pedro and Tom Gilmore , who were in the area . Barnette traded for furs , then traveled to Valdez via dog team with his wife and three other men . The mountain pass they traveled through was later named Isabel Pass in honor of Barnette 's wife . From Valdez , he returned to St. Michael , where he built a steamboat , the Isabelle , and began sailing up the Yukon in August 1902 . He intended to move his supplies to Tanacross , but when he arrived at his trading post on the Chena River , he changed his mind . Felix Pedro had discovered gold .
= = Origins of Fairbanks = =
Before Barnette traveled upriver with the Isabelle , he met Judge James Wickersham in St. Michael . Wickersham was the judge for the federal Third Judicial District , which stretched from the North Slope to the Aleutian Islands . Wickersham was impressed with Barnette and his plan to establish a trading post at Tanacross . He suggested Barnette name his settlement Fairbanks , after Charles W. Fairbanks , the senior Senator from Indiana . Barnette liked the idea and later said , " If we should ever want aid at the national capital , we would have the friendship , at least , of someone who could help us . " When Barnette heard of Pedro 's gold strike , he transferred the name for his planned Tanacross store to the settlement on the Chena River and convinced the people with him to accept the name .
When Barnette and the Isabelle 's crew heard of Pedro 's discovery , they immediately fled the boat and the settlement to stake claims on creeks and likely gold @-@ bearing spots 12 miles ( 19 km ) north , near the mountain and creek Pedro named after himself . Marking a claim was simple . Each man could pick a set amount of space , which was marked with posts at each corner , hence " staking " the claim . Each claim had to be listed by a federal recorder . When Barnette and the crew of the Isabelle were staking claims , Barnette proclaimed himself the interim recorder until an official one could be brought to the area . Although they also recorded their claims with Barnette , most men also reported their claims at the official office in Circle . To maximize his gain , Barnette had power of attorney for several relatives in Ohio . He staked claims in their names , thus giving him authority over a large portion of what was believed to be the gold @-@ bearing terrain .
Word of Pedro 's discovery spread during the months that followed Barnette 's arrival in September 1902 . In December , he wrote to a friend in Seattle , " A message came yesterday that 1 @,@ 000 people had left Nome during the last three days for here . I look for half of Dawson here before spring . " In January 1903 , Barnette 's cook , Jujiro Wada , arrived in Dawson City with word of the gold find . On January 17 , 1903 , the Yukon Sun newspaper ran the headline " RICH STRIKE MADE IN THE TANANA " across most of its front page , spurring miners from the Yukon to stampede to Fairbanks in the first big rush of the settlement 's history .
= = Boom = =
When the miners from Nome , Dawson , Rampart , and other places arrived in the Tanana Valley , they were disappointed with what they found . Hundreds of claims were staked , but none were close to Pedro 's discovery claims , which had been taken by the crew of the Isabelle and other early arrivers . Adding to the pressure on claiming land were men who , like Barnette , had power of attorney rights for others , and could thus make multiple claims . The Dawson Daily News reported that one man claimed 144 portions of 20 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) apiece . Around Barnette 's trading post , town lots were claimed for $ 2 @.@ 50 apiece , and there was fierce competition for the choicest spots . At the mouth of the Chena River , a competing settlement , named Chena , sprang up when two traders moved their store to the junction of the two rivers . Land speculation was fierce in Chena , where claims were frequently stolen and had to be enforced with firearms .
Accounts vary , but historians estimate that by spring 1903 , between 700 and 1 @,@ 000 men arrived in the Tanana Valley . This put an enormous strain on Barnette 's stock of food , which rapidly rose in price with demand . Miners objected to Barnette charging $ 12 per bag of flour and requiring them to buy cases of canned food . They gathered outside his store and demanded he lower his prices or they would burn it down . He responded that he had riflemen inside the building , and both groups reached a compromise . Shortly afterward , Barnette headed south with his wife on a dog team , intending to gather investors to purchase more supplies .
In April , Judge Wickersham arrived on a trip looking for a location for the courthouse , jail , and government offices for the Third District courts . He later described his first view of the settlement : " A half @-@ dozen new squat log structures , a few tents ... a small clearing in the primitive forest — that was Fairbanks as I first saw it on April 9 , 1903 . " Wickersham examined Chena as a potential site for the government offices , but he settled on Fairbanks , partially because Barnette 's partner and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Frank Cleary , gave Wickersham a choice piece of land valued at between $ 1 @,@ 500 and $ 2 @,@ 000 . Wickersham asked Cleary to name the two main streets in town Cushman and Lacey , after U.S. Representatives Francis W. Cushman of Washington and John F. Lacey of Iowa .
Wickersham estimated 500 people in town , and another count estimated 1 @,@ 000 , with 387 houses under construction , six saloons , and no churches . Before spring arrived , Wickersham published the first newspaper in the settlement — the Fairbanks Miner — on a typewriter . It sold seven copies at $ 5 per copy . But even as the walls of Wickersham 's courthouse were going up , dissatisfied miners were leaving the area . Hundreds left on rafts going downriver or steamers going to Dawson City . By June 1903 , cabins on city lots were selling for as little as $ 10 . Meanwhile , Barnette sold two @-@ thirds of his store to the Alaska Commercial Company and arranged for the establishment of a post office at his settlement .
In fall 1903 , the flood of miners leaving the Tanana Valley ended when major gold strikes were made north of Fairbanks . The gold was deeper than in the Klondike , and it had taken time to dig to it . At Cleary Creek , miner Jesse Noble discovered what became the richest vein of gold in Alaska . Gold extraction was slow , because almost no heavy machinery was available to remove the overburden above the layers of gold . The gold discoveries of 1903 reversed the trend of people away from the Tanana Valley . By Christmas 1903 , there were between 1 @,@ 500 and 1 @,@ 800 miners in the valley . Another food shortage arose during the winter of 1903 , alleviated only by the food Barnette had brought in after his trip to the Lower 48 .
Despite the food shortage , more buildings were constructed . The Northern Commercial Company built a store to replace Barnette 's cabin , and Wickersham recorded a wide range of businesses , including 500 houses and 1 @,@ 200 people . To manage the growing population , the settlement held a vote on November 10 , 1903 to decide whether to incorporate Fairbanks as a town or not . The vote passed , and Barnette was sworn in as the city 's first mayor on the next day .
= = City of Fairbanks = =
Barnette 's first action as mayor was to write a letter to Washington , D.C. , asking the federal government to sell its military food stores from posts near the town , thus alleviating the food shortage . This move was followed by others : licensing a telephone company , providing for garbage collection , fire protection , and a one @-@ room school ( which shut down later that winter for lack of funds ) . Barnette used his position to grant long @-@ term contracts for city utilities to members of his family . One of Barnette 's brothers @-@ in @-@ law , James W. Hill , was given a 25 @-@ year contract to provide electricity , drinking water , and steam heat to the city . In 1904 , Barnette arranged for regular shipments of supplies to Fairbanks , and the town continued to expand . In addition to the local telephone system , Fairbanks was connected to the outside world via the Washington @-@ Alaska Military Cable and Telegraph System , which was expanded from Eagle to Nome in 1903 and passed through Fairbanks .
Gold production increased from $ 40 @,@ 000 in 1903 to $ 600 @,@ 000 in 1904 and $ 6 million in 1905 . This expansion and the accompanying rise in population drove further productivity . Barnette opened the town 's first bank on September 9 , 1904 . One month earlier , two Catholic priests built the town 's first church , Immaculate Conception Church . Also in 1904 , construction of a railroad began in Fairbanks and Chena , its downstream neighbor . Low water on the Chena River prevented steamboats from reaching Fairbanks , so a railroad line was built from the Tanana River at Chena to Fairbanks and the mines north of town . Construction of the Tanana Mines Railroad ( later the Tanana Valley Railroad ) was finished to Fairbanks on July 17 , 1905 . Two new banks opened in 1905 , as did the city 's first greenhouse , and a new $ 10 @,@ 000 bridge across the Chena River . In June 1905 , the bridge caused the biggest flood in the young city 's history when a bridge upstream of it collapsed and the resulting wreckage caught in the bridge and blocked the river 's flow . The river rose , flooding the town , and the bridge had to be dynamited to halt the flood . The next year , a fire destroyed most of Fairbanks , and the damage was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The town was quickly rebuilt , and the town 's first hospital , St. Joseph 's , was built on the north bank of the Chena . Because the hospital was run by a Catholic religious order , Immaculate Conception Church was later transported across the Chena River and placed next to the hospital . In 1907 , Barnette 's bank was forced to temporarily close due to the Panic of 1907 and legal troubles . A new school was built , which housed 150 students . Other schools were built on the north side of the Chena River , which was separate from town .
In 1908 , the U.S. Army Signal Corps built a radio telegraph tower in town , replacing the cable telegraph system to Valdez and Seattle . The 176 feet ( 54 m ) tower was the tallest structure in town for decades . In 1909 , Fairbanks gold production peaked at more than $ 9 @.@ 5 million . The town saw its first library open that year , and the Fairbanks Daily News @-@ Miner , the city 's longest @-@ lived newspaper , began publishing .
Poor investments caused the bank founded by Barnette to fail in January 1911 , at a time when it held more than $ 1 million in deposits from Fairbanks residents . In Fairbanks , the common belief was that Barnette had embezzled money from the bank . Although he was found guilty of only one of 11 charges against him , Barnette had a poor reputation in Fairbanks . For years afterward , Fairbanks newspapers referred to any robbery as " Barnetting " the subject .
The accusations against Barnette were big news in a town that had little crime . Gambling and drinking were common throughout town . Prostitution was restricted to a district separated from the rest of town by a wooden fence . The " line , " as it was known , operated until the 1950s with the tacit approval of city authorities . Fights were common , but gunplay was not . As one miner recalled , not more than one man in 500 carried a gun , and while fisticuffs were common , gunfights were not . This was backed up by the experience of Northern Commercial Company stagecoach drivers , who carried more than $ 7 million overland during a 12 @-@ year period without a single incident .
= = Decline = =
In 1911 , the Fairbanks Commercial Club , a group of businesses , created the slogan " Fairbanks , Alaska 's Golden Heart . " The slogan remains the city 's motto today . In that year , Fairbanks boasted a population of more than 3 @,@ 500 people , making it the largest city in Alaska . Thousands more people lived in mining camps outside the city itself . But 1910 marked the beginning of a decline in Fairbanks ' fortunes . That year , less than $ 6 million in gold was produced — two @-@ thirds the total of the previous year . By 1911 , production was half what it had been in 1909 . In 1918 , it was ten percent of what it had been nine years before . The decline in production caused businesses to go out of business . Stores that sold to miners closed , as did those that supported the mines directly . World War I caused a further decline as the town 's young men were drafted and sent overseas . Economic effects also were felt . A local judge later stated that the war " set Fairbanks back by 10 years " because it dried up construction and sent men overseas . After the war , the 1918 flu pandemic was particularly virulent in Alaska ; it killed between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 people in the territory . By 1923 , the Fairbanks Daily News @-@ Miner estimated there were fewer than 1 @,@ 000 people in the city , and almost none at the mining camps beyond town .
= = Slowing the decline = =
Although Fairbanks was in decline , two major projects mitigated the worst effects of the post @-@ gold rush slump : construction of the Alaska Railroad and the creation of the University of Alaska .
= = = Alaska Railroad = = =
In 1906 , L.A. Nadeau of the Northern Pacific Railroad predicted a railroad link to the ocean would allow gold miners to bring in heavy equipment and process large amounts of low @-@ grade ore . " Not only will the cost of living be cheaper to the miner , but he will be able to get his heavy machinery at a price low enough to enable him to work a vast quantity of low @-@ grade ground , which cannot be touched under present conditions . " Eight years after that remark , the U.S. Congress appropriated $ 35 million for construction of the Alaska Railroad system . News of the appropriation set off celebrations among Fairbanks residents who hoped its construction would prove a boon for the local economy .
In 1917 , the Alaska Railroad purchased the Tanana Valley Railroad , which had suffered from the wartime economic problems . The railroad line was extended westward , until it reached the town of Nenana and a construction party working north from Ship Creek , later renamed Anchorage . Until the railroad was finished and coal from Healy became available , Fairbanks burned wood as a heating source and to provide electricity . In 1913 , the town burned between 12 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 cords of wood , with the Northern Commercial Company ( owners of the power plant ) burning 8 @,@ 500 cords alone .
President Warren G. Harding visited Fairbanks in 1923 as part of a trip to hammer in the ceremonial final spike of the railroad at Nenana . The rail yards of the Tanana Valley Railroad were converted for use by the Alaska Railroad , and Fairbanks became the northern end of the line and its second @-@ largest depot .
= = = University of Alaska = = =
One year before Harding 's visit to Fairbanks , the Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines ( today known as the University of Alaska Fairbanks ) , opened its doors to six students . The school was thought up by James Wickersham , who had risen to become Alaska 's delegate to Congress . In 1915 , Wickersham gained approval of a bill funding the college from the 63rd United States Congress . After the bill was approved , he traveled to Fairbanks and selected a site on a hill four miles west of Fairbanks , in what is today College , Alaska which is now often referred to as part of Fairbanks , and not as a separate entity . On July 4 , 1915 , acting " without the authority of law , " he laid the cornerstone for the school .
The site for the school was directly north of the U.S. Agricultural Experimental Station ( Tanana Valley ) , an experimental farm created by Charles Christian Georgeson in 1907 . The farm was a project by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to explore the agricultural potential of Interior Alaska . By 1916 , one year after the founding of the University of Alaska , the experimental farm employed 20 people . As mining declined in the Fairbanks area , some miners turned to homesteading . Under the Homestead Act , many miners applied for grants of land from the federal government and established farms around the city . A 1919 survey by the U.S. Geological Survey identified 94 homesteads within six miles of Fairbanks . Also listed were two tungsten mills and 16 gold mills .
Agriculture in the area was spurred by food and fodder shortages during the winters of 1913 , 1915 , and 1916 . Fairbanks businessmen also encouraged the growth of farming . Wickersham provided more funding for the experimental farm , the Tanana Valley Railroad provided free grain seed acquired from an experimental farm in Sweden , and William Fentress Thompson , editor of the Fairbanks Daily News @-@ Miner , wrote frequent editorials in favor of more farming . Prominent Fairbanks businessmen formed the Alaska Loyal League , a group that encouraged farming . Farmers also created the Tanana Valley State Fair in 1924 to demonstrate their agricultural success . It is Alaska 's oldest state fair and still operates today . Despite these moves , the agriculture movement in Fairbanks had only limited success . A farmers ' bank established in 1917 to provide loans for equipment purchases went out of business two years later , and although the Alaska Railroad allowed for cheaper shipment of tractors and other agricultural equipment , it also permitted a steady supply of food shipments to Fairbanks . In 1929 , Alaska farms met only about 10 percent of the state 's food demand . By 1931 , the University of Alaska had grown to the point that the experimental farm was annexed by the school .
= = Dredging era = =
After the completion of the Alaska Railroad , it became economically feasible to bring in heavy equipment and build gold dredges to work the large amount of low @-@ grade ore that remained after the Fairbanks Gold Rush . The best example of this is the construction of Davidson Ditch , a 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) aqueduct built between 1924 and 1929 to provide water for gold dredging . Fairbanks Exploration Company ( FE Co . ) , a division of the United States Smelting , Refining and Mining Company , built both the aqueduct and many of the dredges that used its water to process ore . Large @-@ scale dredging began in 1928 , and FE Co. became the town 's biggest employer . It built the biggest power plant in Alaska to provide electricity for the dredges , and it built pumping stations to provide them with water from the Chena and other rivers .
In 1933 , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt fixed the price of gold at $ 35 per ounce . This price increase encouraged mining and insulated Fairbanks from the Great Depression . When Roosevelt called for a bank holiday to alleviate the worst effects of the depression , Fairbanks banks declined , saying they didn 't need one . Large @-@ scale dredging peaked in 1940 , when 209 @,@ 000 ounces of gold were produced in the Fairbanks area . After the outbreak of World War II in the United States , the federal government closed most gold @-@ mining operations , deeming them unessential to the war effort .
In 1932 , Fairbanks ' two @-@ story school , built in 1907 , burned to the ground . A new , $ 150 @,@ 000 three @-@ story concrete art deco building was proposed as a replacement , and after heated debate , a $ 100 @,@ 000 bond measure was approved in 1933 . On January 22 , 1934 , the new school opened . It had space for about 500 students , but the town 's growth required renovation and expansion in 1939 and 1948 .
= = = Paving Fairbanks = = =
Until 1938 , Fairbanks lacked paved streets . The town 's dirt roads turned to dust in summer and thick mud in spring and fall , causing problems as Fairbanks ' population grew in the 1930s . In 1937 , the mayor of Fairbanks , E. B. Collins , proposed using a federal grant and city bonds to pave the roads , but he was turned down by voters . The next year , he tried again and was successful . By 1940 , the first 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) of paved road was complete .
= = = Aviation = = =
About the time of the completion of the Alaska Railroad and the beginning of the dredging era in Fairbanks , Alaska 's aviation industry began to take off . The first airplane flight in Alaska took place in Fairbanks on July 4 , 1913 , when a barnstormer flew from a field south of town . The aircraft had been crated and sent from Seattle via Skagway and Whitehorse . The pilot subsequently tried to sell the aircraft , but had no takers . Alaska 's first commercial aircraft didn 't arrive until June 1923 , when Noel Wien began flying a Curtiss JN @-@ 4 on mail routes between Fairbanks and isolated communities . From Fairbanks , Wien became the first person to fly to Anchorage and cross the Arctic Circle in an airplane .
Given Alaska 's limited road and rail infrastructure , the territorial government saw the advantages of aerial transport . In 1925 , the territorial legislature authorized the spending of up to $ 40 @,@ 000 per year on airfield construction . Between that year and 1927 , more than 20 airfields were built . By 1930 , Alaska had more than 100 . In Fairbanks , airplanes flew from a field that doubled as a baseball diamond until 1931 , when the city bought the field , installed infrastructure , and named it Weeks Field . By the late 1930s , there were more than four dozen airplanes in the town of about 3 @,@ 000 people , giving Fairbanks the reputation of having the most airplanes per capita in the world . Because of Fairbanks ' location halfway between New York City and Tokyo , it became a crucial stop on the first around @-@ the @-@ world flights . Wiley Post 's 1933 solo circumnavigation stopped in Fairbanks , as did Howard Hughes ' 1938 effort .
Military flights also used Fairbanks as a base . In 1920 , the first flight from the continental United States to Alaska used Fairbanks as a base . In 1934 , a flight of Martin B @-@ 10 bombers flew from Washington , D.C. to Fairbanks , ostensibly to demonstrate the feasibility of long @-@ range bomber deployments . In reality , the bombers flew photographic missions intended to scout locations for military airfields to be built in the territory .
= = Military era = =
In his final public appearance , U.S. Army General Billy Mitchell said , " I believe that , in the future , whoever holds Alaska will hold the world ... I think it is the most important strategic place in the world . " That year , Congress passed the Wilcox National Air Defense Act , which provided for a new airbase in Alaska for cold @-@ weather testing and training . A survey team visited Fairbanks in 1936 , and in 1937 , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt issued Executive Order 7596 , which set aside 6 square miles ( 16 km2 ) of public land east of Fairbanks for the new airbase , which was named Ladd Army Airfield after Army pilot Arthur Ladd . Preliminary construction began in summer 1939 , a few days before Germany invaded Poland to start World War II . The first runway was finished in September 1940 , and the base was dedicated then , before most of the buildings were complete .
In the first winter after the dedication , soldiers practiced flying and servicing aircraft in subzero weather conditions . More than 1 @,@ 000 workers , most of whom were hired from outside Alaska , worked on the project through 1941 . Despite these outside workers , the construction effort caused unemployment to almost vanish in Fairbanks , causing a large demand for labor . Fairbanks ' economy grew , and the city 's second < http : / / www.akhistorycourse.org / articles / article.php ? artID = 178 > radio station , KFAR , began broadcasting on October 1 , 1939 . Hangars and base buildings were completed in summer 1941 , but the second winter of cold @-@ weather testing was interrupted by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = = World War II = = =
Fairbanks received word of the attack on Pearl Harbor via civilian shortwave radio operators who passed the news to the U.S. Army base . More than 200 civil defense volunteers immediately signed up for work that included orchestrating a town blackout , blocking town airfields , and making emergency plans to evacuate the town in the event of an attack . In June 1942 , the invasion of the Aleutian Islands and the bombing of Dutch Harbor intensified the war 's effect on Fairbanks . Ladd Field 's cold @-@ weather testing detachment was disbanded as its soldiers were used to bolster Alaska defenses at other locations .
During summer 1942 , more soldiers arrived in Fairbanks to replace those moved away from town . Fairbanks residents were drafted to work at Ladd Field because the U.S. Army believed Alaskans were best experienced in cold @-@ weather work . After gold mining was suspended during the war , the Army leased FE Co. offices and requisitioned supplies from Fairbanks businesses . Wartime demand and the draft caused a severe labor shortage in Fairbanks , and supplies of various food and commercial products were interrupted beyond the wartime rationing in the rest of the country . Crime also increased , and because the U.S. Army was placed in wartime control of the Alaska Territory , all newspapers and letters to and from Fairbanks were censored .
To alleviate shortages and supply the war effort , the U.S. Army and the Canadian government began construction of the Alaska Highway , which connected the Canadian road network to Alaska 's Richardson Highway and Fairbanks . The highway was completed in fall 1942 and regular traffic began in 1943 . As work on the highway took place , war supplies were already reaching Fairbanks through the air . The Northwest Staging Route , a chain of airfields , ended at Fairbanks . Starting in February 1942 , supply aircraft began landing in Fairbanks to supply the war effort in Alaska . In summer 1942 , negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union resulted in an extension of the Lend @-@ Lease effort to Russia . Using the Northwest Staging Route , aircraft were flown from Great Falls , Montana , to Ladd Field . At Ladd Field , the aircraft were turned over to Soviet pilots , who flew them to Nome and on to the Soviet Union . Fairbanks was chosen as a transfer location because it was more protected from potential Japanese attack than Nome .
Starting in fall 1942 , large numbers of Soviet soldiers arrived in Fairbanks to work with the U.S. soldiers already in the town . The massive Lend @-@ Lease effort required additional facilities to be built in and near Fairbanks . Ladd Field expanded in size , and the grounds of the U.S. Army post expanded until it met the city limits of Fairbanks . The University of Alaska , which saw most of its students taken up by the draft , provided office and dormitory space for U.S. and Soviet soldiers . Its professors also contributed to the war effort with specially created Russian language classes . Russian airmen were regular customers of Fairbanks stores , and they bought large amounts of consumer goods unavailable at home . To meet demand when Ladd Field was unusable due to fog , an airfield now known as Eielson Air Force Base was built southeast of Fairbanks . Although there were some conflicts between Soviet and U.S. soldiers and civilians , Lend @-@ Lease operations in Fairbanks continued through the end of the war , and when Lend @-@ Lease ended in September 1945 , 7 @,@ 926 aircraft and tons of cargo had been transferred to Soviet officials in Fairbanks .
= = = Cold War = = =
By fall 1945 , Ladd Field had grown to encompass almost 5 @,@ 000 military personnel and acres of runways and buildings . While there was a brief lull in activity as the U.S. Army demobilized after World War II , activity in Fairbanks remained high as the Cold War began . The population of the Fairbanks area grew by 240 percent between 1940 and 1950 , then doubled between 1950 and 1953 . This growth strained the city 's infrastructure : schools , water , power , sewer , and telephone systems were all overstressed by new arrivals and expansion . Suburbs sprang up around Fairbanks , which began annexing them in turn . In 1952 , the city 's boundaries grew from 1 @.@ 3 square miles ( 3 @.@ 4 km2 ) to 2 @.@ 4 square miles ( 6 @.@ 2 km2 ) , with another 1 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) soon after . More than a dozen subdivisions and housing developments filled the area between Fairbanks city limits and College , and the city 's border advanced westward until it met the College city limit . The burgeoning town stopped to commemorate its roots with the Golden Days Festival , a weeklong celebration of Fairbanks history that started to mark the 50th anniversary of the discovery of gold . The annual festival continues today .
The University of Alaska also grew during this period . In 1946 , Congress appropriated money for construction of a Geophysical Institute to study Arctic phenomena such as the aurora borealis . The institute was established in 1949 and spurred the university 's growth as the GI Bill simultaneously boosted the student population . Elementary education also developed as the Fairbanks Independent School District ( the precursor to today 's Fairbanks North Star Borough School District ) was established in 1947 to collect school taxes from areas outside city limits that were sending students to Fairbanks ' school . The Golden Valley Electric Association , an electrical cooperative , was founded in the 1940s to provide electricity to areas outside Fairbanks city limits . In 1953 , it bought the FE Co. power plant that served Fairbanks and provided electricity to customers as varied as Fairbanks ' second radio station , KFRB , and the town 's largest farm , Creamer 's Dairy .
A new airport opened on Oct. 15 , 1951 to replace Weeks Field , which had been encroached upon by the town 's growth , including Denali Elementary School , the town 's first new school since the 1930s . The new Fairbanks International Airport began serving DC @-@ 6s , which cut the travel time from Seattle to six hours from eight . The new airport also attracted an over @-@ the @-@ pole test flight by Scandinavian Airlines System , but the airline eventually chose Anchorage as a refueling point for flights from Stockholm to Tokyo . Ground transportation also improved in Fairbanks , as a major program to pave downtown roads began in 1953 with the goal of coating 30 blocks . New military facilities sprang up around Fairbanks and further away . The Haines - Fairbanks 626 mile long 8 " petroleum products pipeline was constructed during the period 1953 @-@ 55 . The city was a staging area for construction of the Distant Early Warning Line , the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at Clear Air Station , and several Nike Hercules air defense missile batteries .
The first skyscrapers were built in Fairbanks during this period : the eight @-@ story Northward Building and the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) Hill ( later Polaris ) Building were built in the first half of the 1950s . The first traffic lights were installed during the same period . Fairbanks ' first television station , KTVF Channel 11 , began broadcasting on February 17 , 1955 . The city 's first dedicated high school , Lathrop High ( originally Fairbanks High ) , also began operating in 1955 . In the four years that followed , four new elementary schools opened , taking the burden off Main School , which became Main Junior High School .
= = Statehood = =
During the 1950s , agitation grew in Alaska for the territory to become a state . Alaskans could not vote in presidential elections and had a territorial legislature with limited powers . Efforts to lobby federal legislators for an Alaska statehood bill met with limited success , so prominent territorial officials decided to draft a state constitution to prove Alaska 's readiness to become a state . On November 8 , 1955 , 55 elected delegates gathered at the University of Alaska to begin drafting a state constitution . The resulting debates lasted more than two months and caused a sensation in Fairbanks . Debates of the constitutional convention were broadcast on Fairbanks radio , and the Fairbanks Daily News @-@ Miner dedicated daily reports to the progress of the convention . On February 5 , 1956 , the delegates signed the constitution in front of 1 @,@ 000 people who crowded into the University of Alaska gymnasium . The building where deliberations took place was subsequently named Constitution Hall .
On June 30 , 1958 , the U.S. Senate voted 64 – 20 to accept Alaska as a state . The news set off massive celebrations in Fairbanks . Residents set off fireworks , an impromptu parade took place down Cushman Street , the city 's main road , and an attempt to dye the Chena River gold in celebration instead turned it green . The celebration was capped when residents used weather balloons to lift a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide wooden star painted gold and emblazoned with " 49 " into the air . The balloons lifted it , then drifted into power lines , causing a 16 @-@ minute power outage across the city .
President Dwight Eisenhower officially signed the new state into the United States on January 3 , 1959 , putting the Alaska constitution into effect . The new state 's constitution called for the creation of borough governments to help manage the new state . Fairbanks and other areas were reluctant to impose an additional layer of government on themselves , and balked . In 1963 , the Alaska Legislature passed the Mandatory Borough Act , which required the eight most populous areas of the state to form organized boroughs by 1964 . Students from Fairbanks schools chose " North Star " as the Fairbanks ' borough 's name , and the Fairbanks North Star Borough came into existence on January 1 , 1964 .
The years after statehood saw the military boom continue to boost the Fairbanks economy and growth of the city . Fairbanks International Airport 's runway was lengthened to 11 @,@ 500 feet to accommodate jet aircraft . The George Parks Highway was built from Fairbanks to Anchorage and Denali National Park , encouraging tourism . Homes were built on the hills to the north of Fairbanks for the first time , roads were repaved and smoothed , and sidewalks replaced dirt paths . The growth had a price , however . Many of the structures built during Fairbanks ' founding were torn down in the name of urban renewal . The first home built in Fairbanks was demolished , as were the final homes remaining on " the line " , Fairbanks ' prostitution district .
In 1960 , the U.S. Air Force made plans to close Ladd Airfield and transfer its functions to nearby Eielson Air Force Base and Elmendorf Air Force Base near Anchorage . When the decision was publicly announced , it was met with almost unanimous opposition by Fairbanks residents and businesses in the area . Although the Air Force held firm in its decision to transfer out of the base , the U.S. Army took over the post on January 1 , 1961 and renamed it Fort Wainwright .
The arts scene in Fairbanks also grew during this time . The Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1959 , and the Fairbanks Drama Association was created in 1963 . The Alaska Goldpanners baseball team was founded in 1959 as the city 's first professional sports team . The next year , the Goldpanners hosted their first annual Midnight Sun Baseball Game , a tradition that had been conducted since 1905 and continues under the Goldpanners ' auspices today . Through the 1960s , Fairbanks became much more like small towns in the Lower 48 as communications , transportation , and utilities improved .
= = The Great Flood = =
In 1967 , Alaska celebrated 100 years since its purchase by the United States from Russia . To celebrate the event , Fairbanksans built A @-@ 67 ( later Alaskaland and today Pioneer Park ) , a theme park celebrating the history of Fairbanks and Alaska . At a site away from downtown Fairbanks , it features pioneer cabins , historic exhibits , and the steamer SS Nenana , one of the steamboats that traveled Interior Alaska rivers during the gold rush era . The summer exposition that opened the park in July 1967 was attended by U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey but was plagued by rain , financial problems , and low attendance .
One month after the celebration of Alaska 's centennial , the worst disaster in Fairbanks history took place . In July 1967 , Fairbanks received 3 @.@ 34 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 cm ) of rain , almost double the July average of 1 @.@ 84 inches ( 4 @.@ 7 cm ) . Then between August 11 and August 13 , Fairbanks and the Tanana Valley received the heaviest rainfall in recorded history . In the 24 hours prior to noon on August 12 , 3 @.@ 42 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 cm ) of rain fell . Average rainfall for the entire month of August is 2 @.@ 20 inches ( 5 @.@ 6 cm ) . In August 1967 , 6 @.@ 20 inches ( 15 @.@ 7 cm ) fell on Fairbanks and the Tanana Valley .
The unprecedented rainfall turned the Chena River into a torrent . On August 14 , it passed flood stage and continued to rise . Because no hydrological equipment had been installed upstream of Fairbanks , residents were unaware of the flood 's scale . All day and night on August 14 , the water rose . It inundated the A @-@ 67 site and volunteers allowed water to fill the hold of the SS Nenana to keep it from floating on the rising waters and damaging buildings . In downtown Fairbanks , hundreds of volunteers built a sandbag dike around St. Joseph 's Hospital to no avail . As the water crested the emergency dike , doctors , nurses , and patients evacuated to the University of Alaska on College Hill .
The university , which is built on high ground , served as an evacuation point and emergency shelter for thousands of flood refugees . The civil defense director of the university expected between 700 and 800 people to take shelter at the university . Between 7 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 showed up as the water rose through August 14 and 15 and crammed into facilities designed to house just over 1 @,@ 000 students . A helipad was set up in a parking lot , and helicopters from Eielson Air Force Base ferried supplies to the refugees . Fairbanks ' power plant was flooded ,
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so the university depended on its physical plant to provide electricity for the refugees . When the rising water threatened to flood the plant , hundreds of the refugees massed to build barricades and pump out the plant 's basement .
The flood had a massive effect on Fairbanks . Four people were killed , and the damage ran into the hundreds of millions of dollars . It helped push the city 's remaining farm , Creamer 's Dairy , into bankruptcy , and it forced the closure of St. Joseph 's Hospital . Fairbanks residents responded to the problems with aplomb . The annual Tanana Valley State Fair was postponed but not canceled . Seven thousand dollars were raised to buy Creamer 's Dairy and turn it into a bird sanctuary . KTVF , one of the few town businesses to have flood insurance , rebuilt its studio and became the first Fairbanks TV station to broadcast in color , four months after the flood . When two bond measures to build a government @-@ run hospital were turned down by Fairbanks voters , residents raised $ 2 @.@ 6 million from private contributions and $ 6 million from the state and federal government to build Fairbanks Memorial Hospital .
In the flood 's wake , the U.S. Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1968 , which provided funding for construction of the Chena River Lakes Flood Control Project on the Chena River upstream of Fairbanks . The project was built between 1973 and 1979 and diverts the Chena River into the Tanana River when the former river rises above a certain level . A chain of dikes were built along the Tanana River to prevent high water from that river flooding Fairbanks from the south . Many businesses benefited from low @-@ interest federal loans to rebuild , which was done quickly . In 1969 , Fairbanks was one of 11 cities honored as an " All @-@ America City " by Look magazine and the National League of Cities in honor of its success in recovering from the flood .
= = Oil boom = =
On March 12 , 1968 , an Atlantic Richfield drilling crew struck oil near Prudhoe Bay , about 400 miles ( 640 km ) north of Fairbanks . The resulting discovery of the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field sparked a massive boom in Fairbanks , which was the nearest city to the field . After abortive attempts to transport oil from the field using seagoing tankers and airplanes , the oil companies developing the field decided to build a pipeline . Plans were set into motion and about to move forward when legal challenges halted the project in 1970 . One set of challenges , those levied by Alaska Native groups in the path of the pipeline , was settled by passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971 . Thirteen major Alaska Native corporations and dozens of smaller ones were created to manage the cash payment and land grants distributed by the federal government under the act . In 1972 , Fairbanks became the headquarters of Doyon , Limited , the largest of these corporations .
The Fairbanks economy , which briefly boomed in the period between the discovery of oil and the legal challenge , stagnated as legal challenges dragged on . The challenges were ended by approval of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act in late 1973 . When pipeline work began in early 1974 , it sparked a boom in Fairbanks unlike anything since the years immediately after the city 's founding . Alyeska Pipeline Service Company alone spent an estimated $ 800 @,@ 000 a day in Fairbanks , which housed the construction headquarters on Fort Wainwright . Tens of thousands of workers poured into the city , straining the economy , infrastructure , and public works . The population of the Fairbanks North Star Borough increased by 40 percent between 1973 and 1976 . The number of businesses in the area doubled during the same period .
This increase in population caused many adverse effects . Municipal Utilities Service , which operated telephone service , ran out of phone numbers and the waiting list for phone connections stretched to 1 @,@ 500 entries . Electric demand was so high that the power company advised homeowners to buy generators to cope with frequent brownouts . Home prices skyrocketed — a home that sold for $ 40 @,@ 000 in 1974 was purchased for $ 80 @,@ 000 in 1975 . Home and apartment rentals were correspondingly squeezed upward by the rising prices and the demand from pipeline workers . Two @-@ room log cabins with no plumbing rented for $ 500 per month . One two @-@ bedroom home housed 45 pipeline workers who shared beds on a rotating schedule for $ 40 per week .
The skyrocketing prices were driven by the high salaries paid to pipeline workers , who were eager to spend their money . The high salaries caused a corresponding demand for higher wages among non @-@ pipeline workers in Alaska . Non @-@ pipeline businesses often could not keep up with the demand for higher wages , and job turnover was high . Yellow Cab in Fairbanks had a turnover rate of 800 percent ; a nearby restaurant had a turnover rate of more than 1 @,@ 000 percent . Many positions were filled by high school students promoted above their experience level . To meet the demand , Lathrop High School ran in two shifts : one in the morning and the other in the afternoon to teach students who also worked eight hours a day . More wages and more people meant higher demand for goods and services . Waiting in line became a fact of life in Fairbanks , and the Fairbanks McDonalds became No. 2 in the world for sales — behind only the recently opened Stockholm store . Alyeska and its contractors bought in bulk from local stores , causing shortages of everything from cars to tractor parts , water softener salt , batteries and ladders .
The large sums of money being made and spent caused an upsurge in crime and illicit activity . This was exacerbated because police officers and state troopers resigned in large groups to become pipeline security guards at wages far in excess of those available in public @-@ sector jobs . Fairbanks ' Second Avenue became a notorious hangout for prostitutes , and dozens of bars operated throughout town . In 1975 , the Fairbanks Police Department estimated between 40 and 175 prostitutes were working in the city of 15 @,@ 000 people . In the frigid temperatures of the winter months throughout the 1970s it was common to see street @-@ walking prostitutes in downtown Fairbanks , clad fully from head @-@ to @-@ toe in luxuriant fur coats ( and leaving everything to the imagination ) . Prostitutes brought pimps , who then engaged in turf fights . In 1976 , police responded to a shootout between warring pimps who wielded automatic firearms . By and large , however , the biggest police issues were drunken brawls and fighting , resulting in a situation akin to the lawlessness associated with the " American Old WestWild West " of the American frontier of popular lore .
By 1976 , after the city 's residents had endured a spike in crime , overstressed public infrastructure , and an influx of people unfamiliar with Alaska customs , 56 percent said the pipeline had changed Fairbanks for the worse . In downtown Fairbanks , overcrowding , traffic problems , and drunken rambunctiousness caused by pipeline workers pushed businesses to move into malls built away from downtown . New commercial centers like Gavora Mall , Bentley Mall , and others away from the city center drove the construction of freeways that bypassed downtown Fairbanks .
= = Post @-@ boom = =
Pipeline construction ended in 1977 , beginning a gradual decline in Fairbanks ' economy . The loss of construction spending was mostly offset by state spending . Taxes on oil flowing through the pipeline were spent on low @-@ interest loans , grants , and business assistance that poured money into the city . To entice businesses to return to downtown Fairbanks , the city demolished many of the bars favored by pipeline workers and attempted to attract a hotel or major business to the location . This effort was unsuccessful , and the land remained vacant until the late 1990s . Redevelopment of the Fairbanks airport was more successful . A new terminal built in 1984 functioned until 2009 .
Bolstered by grants and subsidies , cultural events and institutions grew in Fairbanks . The Fairbanks Light Opera Theatre was created in 1970 , and groups such as the Fairbanks Concert Association and the Northstar Ballet were also created at about the same time . Fairbanks largest arts event , the Summer Arts Festival , began in 1980 and continues today .
Sports facilities also benefited from the influx of state funding . The Big Dipper Ice Arena , a converted airplane hangar moved from Tanacross in 1969 , went through a $ 5 million renovation in 1981 that allowed it to host the Arctic Winter Games the next year . In 1979 , the University of Alaska built the Patty Center , the first full indoor ice arena in Interior Alaska . The same year , the school started a NCAA Division I hockey team .
Wien Air Alaska , which had its headquarters in Fairbanks , was the state 's largest private employer until it declared bankruptcy in 1983 . The resulting shutdown cost hundreds of jobs in Fairbanks . This was a foretaste of more problems to come . In 1986 , Saudi Arabia boosted oil production and oil prices plummeted . Alaska banks failed , construction came to a halt , and bankruptcies and foreclosures were common . A common practice in Fairbanks was for workers to drop their house keys off at local banks before catching a flight out of Alaska , the better to speed the foreclosure process . Although an expansion of Fort Wainwright helped the construction industry during this time , Fairbanks lost about 3 @,@ 000 jobs between 1986 and 1989 . The U.S. Army 's 6th Infantry Division was stationed at Fort Wainwright in late 1987 , but it was reduced to a single brigade and renamed in 1993 .
This period in the city 's history also had some bright spots . To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Alaska statehood , the city commissioned a 25 @-@ foot sculpture of an Alaska Native family signifying " Alaska 's first family " . The statue is the centerpiece of Golden Heart Plaza , which was dedicated in 1986 on the south bank of the Chena River in the middle of downtown Fairbanks . In 1984 , President Ronald Reagan and Pope John Paul II briefly met in Fairbanks after it was realized that their two separate visits to Asia would cross over Alaska at the same time . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 people attended their meeting , which was the largest gathering of people in Fairbanks ' history .
= = Modern Fairbanks = =
As oil prices rose during the 1990s , Fairbanks ' economy improved . The city was also boosted by the regrowth of gold mining in the area . The Fort Knox Gold Mine north of Fairbanks opened in 1997 after several years of development , and another gold prospect is likely to be developed in the next decade . The same year that Fort Knox Mine opened , Alyeska moved 300 jobs from Anchorage to Fairbanks , making the city the base of its operations for the first time in several decades .
The U.S. military remains a large presence in Fairbanks . The U.S. 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team of the 25th Infantry Division is based at Fort Wainwright , and Eielson Air Force Base remains a training and logistics hub for the U.S. Air Force . In 2009 , the U.S. Army announced that it is considering basing 1 @,@ 000 additional soldiers at Fort Wainwright because of its ample space .
Utilities and other services also have significantly changed since 1990 . Fairbanks Memorial Hospital was renovated and expanded in 1976 , 1985 , 1995 , and 2000 . In 2009 , the hospital opened a new heart care center during its latest expansion . Bassett Army Hospital on Fort Wainwright went through a $ 132 million renovation in 2005 . To meet the demand for a convention center and large sporting arena , the city paid for construction of the Carlson Center , a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ seat arena that opened in 1990 . In 1996 , the city of Fairbanks privatized its utilities when the Municipal Utilities Service was sold to a private company . About $ 74 million from the sale was deposited into a savings account called the Fairbanks Permanent Fund , which was invested and managed in a fashion similar to the Alaska Permanent Fund , though residents do not receive any income from the Fairbanks Permanent Fund .
= = Additional reading = =
= = = Books = = =
= = = Periodicals = = =
= Disi Water Conveyance Project =
The Disi Water Conveyance Project is a water supply project in Jordan . It is designed to pump 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 2 @.@ 2 × 1010 imp gal ) of water per year from the Disi aquifer , which lies beneath the desert in southern Jordan and northwestern Saudi Arabia . The water is piped to the capital , Amman , and other cities to meet increased demand . Construction began in 2009 and was mostly completed in July 2013 when the project was inaugurated by King Abdullah of Jordan . Its total cost was USD 1 @.@ 1 billion . An independent study revealed the water to be radioactive and potentially dangerous to drink , surrounding the project with controversy . Jordan 's Ministry of Water and Irrigation has stated that the radioactivity is not a problem because the water is to be diluted with an equal amount of water from other sources , although it remains disputed if this would be enough to bring the water up to standards . The Ministry said the independent study was inaccurate , as it did not test water from any of the wells that will be used in the project . The President of the Jordanian Geologists Association Bahjat Al Adwan stated that the radiation is present in the water in the form of Radon , and thus dissipates harmlessly when the water is exposed to air on the surface .
= = Background = =
The water in the Disi aquifer gathered 30 @,@ 000 years ago during the Pleistocene era . It is 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) long and located 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) below ground inside of porous sandstone . The aquifer is classified as a fossil aquifer , meaning that the water is not replenished if it is removed . In fact , the aquifer has a recharge rate of 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 1 @.@ 1 × 1010 imp gal ) of water per year . This recharge is dwarfed , however , by the current extraction rate of 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 2 @.@ 0 × 1010 imp gal ) for agricultural and domestic needs , including 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 3 @.@ 3 × 109 imp gal ) of water that is supplied to Aqaba , Jordan . The current extraction rate of 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 2 @.@ 0 × 1010 imp gal ) , coupled with the future extraction rate of 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 2 @.@ 2 × 1010 imp gal ) for the project , is expected to produce a total extraction rate of 190 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 4 @.@ 2 × 1010 imp gal ) . At that rate , the water in the aquifer will last a minimum of 50 years , according to the Disi Water Company .
Only a small portion of the Disi aquifer lies beneath Jordan , while the majority lies beneath Saudi Arabia . Saudi Arabia also extracts water from the aquifer ( called the Saq aquifer in Saudi Arabia ) . The aquifer has created controversy between Saudi Arabia and Jordan , with each country demanding the other to use less of the shared water . There is no formal agreement between the countries regarding the water and the Disi Water Conveyance Project is being constructed without Saudi consultation or involvement .
Non @-@ revenue water is a serious problem in Amman . Currently , 40 % of water in Amman is lost as non @-@ revenue water . The city rations water , with individual residents averaging 36 hours of water access weekly . If the non @-@ revenue water problem remains , it is possible that a large portion of the water provided by the Disi Water Conveyance project will also be lost as it is piped through Amman .
The Disi Water Conveyance project was first proposed in the 1990s , but was initially regarded as too expensive . A feasibility study was completed in 1996 . But it was not until 2007 that the Jordanian Government was able to contract a firm to begin construction .
= = Design = =
The project proposed by the Jordanian government will pump 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 2 @.@ 2 × 1010 imp gal ) of water per year from 55 wells in the aquifer . However , a total of 64 wells will be drilled , the extra wells to be used as piezometers to measure the elevation of the water . Nine of the 55 water producing wells will be used in emergencies only . The wells producing water will be drilled 600 – 700 m ( 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 300 ft ) deep while the piezometers will be drilled to a depth of 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . The plan is to pump the piezometer wells for 25 years , according to the project leader .
After being pumped from the wells , water will then be transported to Amman , via a 325 km ( 202 mi ) pipeline , passing through a pumping station , then flowing by gravity and being pumped up again . The reservoirs near Amman are only 200 m ( 660 ft ) higher than the surface area where the pumping field is located . Nevertheless , the total elevation differential over which water needs to be lifted by both pumping stations is about 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . To pump the water through the proposed pipeline will require 4 kilowatt @-@ hours per cubic meter of water . The entire project would require approximately 4 percent of Jordan 's current electrical production . The project is expected to be completed by January 2017 and to run for 25 years or until the Two Seas Canal is built .
The 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 2 @.@ 2 × 1010 imp gal ) of water will be divided between the Abu Alanda reservoir and the Dabouq reservoir . Approximately 40 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 8 @.@ 8 × 109 imp gal ) of water will be sent to the Abu Alanda reservoir where it will be diluted with water from the Zara Ma ’ en desalination plant as well as water from Wala . The remaining 60 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 1 @.@ 3 × 1010 imp gal ) of water will be sent to the Dabouq reservoir where it will be diluted with water from the Zai Treatment Plant as well as water from Wala . It is estimated that the cost of one cubic meter of water from the project will be 0 @.@ 74 JOD ( $ 1 @.@ 05 USD ) .
= = Construction = =
In June 2009 , the Turkish firm GAMA began construction . By February 2011 , eight piezometer wells and two water producing wells have been completed . Twenty @-@ three other wells were to be drilled , and 85 km ( 53 mi ) of pipe were to be installed . By April 2011 , 99 % of the 340 km ( 210 mi ) of project 's piping had arrived from Turkey , an anonymous source told The Jordan Times . This source stated that the project was over 50 % completed and that it was ahead of schedule .
Construction was delayed by disgruntled members of a Bedouin tribe living in the area , who allegedly intimidated workers by shooting in the air and at construction equipment . All work was stopped for two weeks after two employees were killed in January 2011 — allegedly murdered by a member of the Bedouin tribe . The tribe had been upset because GAMA did not rent its water tankers , according to Adnan Zu 'b , Assistant Secretary Genera at the Ministry of Water and Irrigation . To satisfy the tribe , GAMA then announced plans to rent tankers from the tribe . However , near the site of the killings , the town of Ma 'an had protests against the government 's failure to punish the killers . During October and November , 2011 the construction works have been suspended at southern part of the project from Hasa to Mudawarra due to security problems created by tribes , therefore there is delay in this part which will affect the completion date of the project .
= = Structure and funding = =
The project is funded on a build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession contract between the Jordanian government and the Disi Water Company ( Diwaco ) , a subsidiary of the Turkish construction company GAMA Energy . GAMA Energy is a joint venture between the Turkish GAMA Holding and the US firm General Electric Energy Financial Services . Diwaco is responsible to build the project over a 4 @-@ year period and to operate it for another 25 years . At the end of the concession period the ownership will transfer to the Jordanian government . Diwaco will retain any profits and will bear the risk of losing its equity . Construction is undertaken by GAMA Power Systems , another subsidiary of GAMA Holding , under a turnkey engineering , procurement and construction contract with Diwaco . Operation will be undertaken by Disi Amman Operation Maintenance LLC , a fully owned subsidiary of the French water company Suez Environnement , under a separate operating contract with Diwaco .
The project is funded through an equity contribution of about USD 200m from Diwaco , a USD 300m grant and a USD 100m stand @-@ by facility from the Jordanian government , as well as USD 475m in foreign loans to Diwaco . The project 's total cost is expected to be $ 1 @.@ 1 billion USD . The U.S. Overseas Private Investment Corporation has lent USD 250m to Diwaco to support U.S. foreign investment on the basis that General Electric partially owns GAMA Energy . The state @-@ owned French bank PROPARCO , which is the part of the French Development Agency ( AFD ) that supports private sector development , and the European Investment Bank ( EIB ) each lent about USD 100m to Diwaco . The loan package has been put together by the Arab Banking Corporation . Much of the government grant supporting the project comes from sovereign soft loans that the government of Jordan has borrowed from the EIB and AFD and passes on as a grant to the project . AFD provided USD 50m for the state grant and USD 48m for the stand @-@ by facility .
= = Radioactivity concerns = =
The project became controversial in 2009 when a study performed by Avner Vengosh of Duke University revealed the Disi water to be highly radioactive . Water was tested from 37 existing wells in the aquifer , and all but one had concentrations of radioactive radium @-@ 226 and radium @-@ 228 isotopes that exceeded international standards for drinking water . Some of the water tested exceeded standards by 2 @,@ 000 % . Drinking water with these isotopes has been linked to bone cancer and leukemia . Though expensive , the water could be purified of the radioactive isotopes through ion @-@ exchange purification .
Jordan 's Ministry of Water and Irrigation has stated that the radioactivity is not a problem because the water is to be diluted with an equal amount of water from other sources . This dilution would presumably halve the radioactivity of the water which , according to Vengosh 's data , would not be enough to bring the water up to standards . The Ministry of Water and Irrigation , however , has declared Vengosh 's data to be inaccurate , as his study did not test water from any of the wells that will be used in the project . As radiation varies from well to well , it is possible that the data Vengosh collected does not accurately reflect the water sources to be used in the project .
Although testing at the well sites that supply Aqaba reveals high radioactivity , testing performed using water from the tap in Aqaba shows the water to be safe . There is no confirmed explanation for this phenomenon , although it is hypothesized that the depth of the wells ( the ones that supply Aqaba are relatively shallow ) may play a role as the radiation varies greatly at shallow depths . In May , 2011 , the President of the Jordanian Geologists Association Bahjat Al Adwan stated that the radiation is present in the water in the form of Radon , and thus dissipates harmlessly when the water is exposed to air on the surface . This explanation has not been confirmed scientifically , however .
During the inauguration of the conveyor in July 2013 Minister of Water and Irrigation Hazim El @-@ Nasser said that after mixing Disi water radiation is less than 0 @.@ 5 millisievert per year . The worldwide average natural dose of human ’ s exposure to radiation is about 2 @.@ 5 @-@ 3 millisievert per year . " Disi water is purer than bottled water and I take full responsibility for what I ’ m saying , ” the Minister said during a press conference .
= Nuckelavee =
The nuckelavee ( pronunciation : / nʌklɑːˈviː / ) or nuckalavee is a horse @-@ like demon from Orcadian mythology that combines equine and human elements . It has its origins in Norse mythology , and is the most horrible of all the demons of the Scottish islands . The nuck component of its name may be cognate with Nick in Old Nick , a name for the Christian Devil . The nuckelavee 's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock , and the creature was held responsible for droughts and epidemics on land despite its being predominantly a sea @-@ dweller .
A graphic description of the nuckelavee as it appears on land was given by an islander who claimed to have had a confrontation with it , but accounts describing the details of the creature 's appearance are inconsistent . In common with many other sea monsters it is unable to tolerate fresh water , therefore those it is pursuing have only to cross a river or stream to be rid of it . The nuckelavee is kept in confinement during the summer months by the Mither o ' the Sea , an ancient Orcadian spirit , and the only one able to control it .
Orcadian folklore had a strong Scandinavian influence , and it may be that the nuckelavee is a composite of a water horse from Celtic mythology and a creature imported by the Norsemen . As with similar malevolent entities such as the kelpie , it possibly offered an explanation for incidents that islanders in ancient times could not otherwise understand .
= = Etymology = =
The late 19th century saw an upsurge of interest in transcribing folklore , but the recorders used inconsistent spelling and frequently anglicised words , thus the same entity could be given different names . The term nuckelavee derives from Orcadian knoggelvi , and according to Orkney resident and 19th @-@ century folklorist Walter Traill Dennison means " Devil of the Sea " . The same demon is called a mukkelevi in Shetland , where it was considered a nasty sea trow or sea devil . Samuel Hibbert , an antiquarian of the early nineteenth century , considered the component nuck of the nuckelavee 's name to be cognate with both the Nick in Old Nick , a name sometimes given to the Devil of Christian belief , and with the Latin necare , to kill .
= = Folk beliefs = =
= = = Description and common attributes = = =
Stories of mythical Orcadian demons are recorded in the 16th @-@ century Latin manuscripts of Jo Ben , who may have been referring to the nuckelavee in his description of the Orkney island of Stronsay . Dennison transcribed much of the information available about traditional tales told on Orkney , but to an extent romanticised and systematically altered certain elements of the stories in the process of transforming them into prose .
The nuckelavee is a mythical sea creature that appears as a horse @-@ like demon when it ventures onto land . Writer and folklorist Ernest Marwick considered it very similar to the Norwegian nøkk , the nuggle of the Shetlands and the kelpie . A unique and solitary creature possessing extensive evil powers , its malevolent behaviour can influence events throughout the islands . Islanders were terrified of the creature and would not speak its name without immediately saying a prayer . It was often found in the vicinity of a beach , but would never come ashore if it was raining .
No tales describe what form the nuckelavee takes when in the sea , but its appearance on land has been recounted in graphic detail . An islander , Tammas , claimed to have survived a confrontation with the beast and , after much cajoling from Dennison , reluctantly gave his description of the monster , the only known first @-@ hand account . According to Tammas , the nuckelavee has a man 's torso attached to a horse 's back as if it were a rider . The male torso has no legs , but its arms can reach the ground from its position on top of the equine body , the legs of which have fin like appendages . The torso has a large head – possibly as much as 3 feet ( 90 centimetres ) in diameter – that rolls back and forth . The monster described by Tammas has two heads ; the equine head has an enormous gaping mouth that exudes a smelly toxic vapour , and a single giant eye like a burning red flame . A particularly gruesome detail is that the nuckelavee has no skin ; black blood courses through yellow veins , and the pale sinews and powerful muscles are visible as a pulsating mass . Other reports state that the creature resembles a centaur ; narratives are inconsistent in the finer details of the demon 's description however . Traill Dennison only describes a man 's head with a " mouth projected like that of a pig " . Marwick also only mentions one head with a single red eye , and he borrows some of Tammas 's characterisation by recording the creature 's mouth as " like a whale 's " .
The nuckelavee 's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock , and it was considered responsible for epidemics and drought . Seaweed burning to create what was known at the time as kelp began on Stronsay in 1722 . The product – soda ash – was an alkali mainly used to treat acidic soil , although as time went on its commercial importance in soap and glass manufacture increased . The pungent smoke emitted during the process was believed to enrage the nuckelavee , resulting in a wild rampage of plague , the deaths of cattle and the destruction of crops . The nuckelavee was said to have infected horses on Stronsay with the deadly disease known as mortasheen , to demonstrate its fury and exact its revenge against the islanders for burning seaweed ; the infection subsequently spread to all the other islands involved in the industry . The creature was also blamed for prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall , leading to water shortages and poor harvests .
= = Confinement = =
The nuckelavee is the most malevolent of the demons in and around the Scottish islands , without any redeeming characteristics . The only entity able to control it is the Mither o ' the Sea , an ancient spirit in Orcadian mythology who keeps the nuckelavee confined during the summer months . In common with other mythical sea monsters , with the possible exception of kelpies and the nuggle of Shetland , it is unable to wade through fresh flowing water , therefore those it is chasing have only to cross a stream to be rid of it . Tammas managed to escape from the nuckelavee after he inadvertently splashed it with water from the loch he was alongside ; this briefly distracted the monster , allowing Tammas to run over to a nearby channel of fresh water and jump to safety on the opposite bank .
= = Origins = =
Malevolent creatures possibly served to provide explanations for incidents that islanders from bygone times were otherwise unable to account for ; many ancient myths were based upon the natural elements of the turbulent and ever changing sea around Orkney . Established Orcadian tales were strongly influenced by Scandinavian mythology with a blending of traditional Celtic stories , so the nuckelavee may have its roots in a mythical creature imported by the Norsemen fused with a traditional Celtic water horse .
= Folgore @-@ class cruiser =
The Folgore class was a pair of torpedo cruisers built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . The two ships — Folgore and Saetta — were designed by Benedetto Brin during a period of experimentation with the theories of the Jeune École in the 1880s . The vessels were armed with three 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , and they had a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Both ships ' careers were uneventful , and they spent most of their time in service conducting training exercises . Folgore was seriously damaged in a collision in 1889 , and was thereafter reduced to reserve status , as the damage could not be completely repaired . She was eventually sold for scrapping in 1900 , while Saetta served as a gunnery training ship from 1897 to 1908 , when she too was dismantled .
= = Design = =
Folgore and Saetta were designed by Benedetto Brin ; Brin had previously designed several classes of very large ironclad battleships , including the Caio Duilio and Italia classes , but by the 1880s , he had begun to embrace the ideas of the Jeune École , which emphasized small , fast , torpedo @-@ armed vessels that could damage or destroy the much larger battleships at a fraction of the cost . After the two Folgores , which were rated as torpediniere @-@ avisos ( torpedo @-@ avisos ) , the eight ships of the Partenope class were laid down , continuing Brin 's ideas at the time .
= = = Characteristics = = =
The ships of the Folgore class were 56 @.@ 7 meters ( 186 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 6 @.@ 31 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) . Folgore displaced 364 metric tons ( 358 long tons ; 401 short tons ) normally , while Saetta displaced 394 metric tons ( 388 long tons ; 434 short tons ) . Folgore had an average draft of 2 @.@ 15 m ( 7 ft 1 in ) , while Saetta sat slightly lower in the water as a result of her greater displacement , with a draft of 2 @.@ 27 m ( 7 ft 5 in ) . Their hulls were constructed from steel and featured a pronounced ram bow . The ships had a crew of between 57 – 70 that varied in size over the course of their careers .
Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal double @-@ expansion steam engines manufactured by Hawthorn Leslie and Co . , each driving a single screw propeller . Steam for the engines was supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers that were trunked into a single funnel amidships . In 1892 , Saetta was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models for experimentation purposes . Folgore could steam at a speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) from 2 @,@ 150 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 600 kW ) , while Saetta reached the same speed from 2 @,@ 130 ihp ( 1 @,@ 590 kW ) . The ships had a coal storage capacity of 60 metric tons ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) .
The primary armament for the Folgore class was three 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . They also carried a small gun armament , consisting of two 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ caliber ( cal . ) guns and four 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 25 @-@ cal. guns , all mounted singly . The ships carried no armor protection .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
After entering service , both vessels were assigned to the main Italian fleet . They were primarily occupied with annual training exercises , along with occasional fleet reviews for monarchs , including one for the King of Italy , Umberto I in 1887 and German Emperor Wilhelm II in 1888 . In 1889 , Folgore was badly damaged in a collision with the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan and could not be repaired to her original condition . As a result , she spent most of the rest of her career in reserve .
For much of the 1890s , Saetta was frequently reduced to reserve , in part to reduce maintenance on the vessel . Folgore made a temporary return to active service in 1895 , when she joined Saetta for the annual maneuvers . In 1897 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line service and employed with the gunnery school ; her gun armament was accordingly increased in 1902 to provide a variety of weapons for gunnery trainees to practice operating . In the meantime , Folgore was stricken from the naval register in 1900 and broken up for scrap . Saetta continued in her service with the gunnery school until 1908 , when she too was broken up .
= F @-@ 41 ( Michigan county highway ) =
F @-@ 41 is a county @-@ designated highway in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan . It was previously designated as M @-@ 171 , a former state trunkline highway , until 1960 , running from US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) just north of Oscoda , and coming back to US 23 about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of Alpena . The road runs through rural , forested areas of Iosco and Alcona counties , inland from Lake Huron .
Although it has been a county road since 1960 , F @-@ 41 was a state highway in 1919 when the state trunkline highway system was formed . It was a segment of the original M @-@ 10 that was replaced by US 23 in 1926 . Later changes to US 23 shifted that road closer to Lake Huron , and the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) created two different routings for M @-@ 171 out of the former US 23 routings in the area . The second of these highways has been designated F @-@ 41 since 1970 .
= = Route description = =
F @-@ 41 begins at an intersection with US 23 on the north side of Oscoda . The route travels to the northwest away from town , passing between Van Etten Lake and what was previously Wurtsmith Air Force Base . The road continues north through a rural area of Alcona County on Somers and Mikado roads , running parallel , but inland , to the Lake Huron shoreline . It passes through the small communities of Mikado and Gustin before coming to a junction with M @-@ 72 . After crossing M @-@ 72 , F @-@ 41 turns east into the community of Lincoln along Traverse Bay State Road , 2nd Street and Main Street before leaving town to the north . The road continues on to the north on Barlow Road through Alcona County before terminating at a second junction with US 23 . The highway travels through wooded terrain along its routing .
= = History = =
The first highway designation to run from Oscoda toward Spruce to Alpena was the original M @-@ 10 on July 1 , 1919 . This segment of highway was later redesignated as a part of US 23 in 1926 when the United States Numbered Highway System was established . Realignments of US 23 created both versions of M @-@ 171 .
The initial incarnation of M @-@ 171 served as a loop route off US 23 which departed the main highway east of Spruce , traveled west through Spruce , then north past Hubbard Lake and through Wilson before returning to US 23 near Alpena . This roadway was part of US 23 before it was redesignated M @-@ 171 in 1932 . This routing is now occupied by the present day routings of Spruce , Hubbard Lake and Wilson roads . This version of M @-@ 171 was removed from the system in 1934 .
The second version of M @-@ 171 that ran between Oscoda and Caledonia Township in Alcona County was assumed into the state trunkline system in 1936 . This was another former segment of US 23 . Expansion of the Oscoda Army Air Field ( later Wurtsmith Air Force Base ) in the early 1940s shifted M @-@ 171 eastward , more closely following the west shore of Van Ettan Lake . Portions of the old route were taken up by the expansion , while the rest became part of present @-@ day Skeel Avenue . M @-@ 171 existed along the Oscoda to Caledonia Township route for 24 years before being decommissioned in late 1960 or early 1961 . The routing was then assigned County Road F @-@ 41 after October 5 , 1970 , and has retained that designation ever since .
= = Major intersections = =
= U.S. Route 59 in Oklahoma =
U.S. Highway 59 ( US @-@ 59 ) heads along the eastern portion of the state of Oklahoma . US @-@ 59 's 216 @.@ 47 @-@ mile ( 348 @.@ 37 km ) route through Oklahoma takes it through the mountainous terrain of the eastern Oklahoma Ouachitas and Ozarks . US @-@ 59 serves several lakes and towns through Oklahoma 's Green Country , including Grand Lake , a major recreation center . The route enters the state from Arkansas near Fogel , Arkansas , and ends at the Kansas state line south of Chetopa , Kansas .
US @-@ 59 was first designated in Oklahoma around 1935 . The highway 's route at that time was largely the same as it is today ; however , between the Afton area and Welch , US @-@ 59 passed through Vinita instead following the modern @-@ day route passing east of it . US @-@ 59 was changed to follow the present @-@ day route in 1951 . Since then , US @-@ 59 has undergone only minor adjustments , many of which eliminated curves and provided a more direct route for travelers using the highway to traverse eastern Oklahoma .
= = Route description = =
= = = Le Flore County = = =
US @-@ 59 enters Oklahoma in Le Flore County , in the Ouachita National Forest , at the state line at Fogel , Arkansas . US @-@ 270 is concurrent with US @-@ 59 as it crosses the line . The two routes head westward from the state line , passing through a valley between Black Fork Mountain and Rich Mountain . The first Oklahoma town the two routes pass through is unincorporated Page . Northwest of town , US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 270 form the northern terminus of US @-@ 259 , which heads south toward Nacogdoches , Texas . After this junction , US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 270 curve around to the north and pass through the two small hamlets of Zoe and Stapp . US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 270 head north , paralleling the Black Fork Poteau River as they leave the national forest , into Hodgen . North of Hodgen , the highways cross the main branch of the Poteau River and pass through the Wister Wildlife Management Area . Upon landing on the north bank of the river , US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 270 curve to the northeast as they enter Heavener , where SH @-@ 128 terminates . On the north side of the town , US @-@ 270 splits away to the west . US @-@ 59 parallels the Kansas City Southern Railroad and passes Heavener Memorial Cemetery . The highway turns to the northwest , passing through Howe , and intersects with SH @-@ 83 at its northern terminus . North of this junction , US @-@ 59 crosses the Poteau River again .
US @-@ 59 heads northward , coming to an interchange with US @-@ 271 just north of the Choctaw Country Club in the city of Poteau , county seat of Le Flore County . At this interchange , US @-@ 59 exits from the mainline to join US @-@ 271 ; continuing north through the interchange places the motorist on the Poteau Bypass , an unnumbered state highway . US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 271 proceed through Poteau , coming to an interchange at the southern terminus of SH @-@ 112 , which is also the northern terminus of the Poteau Bypass . The two concurrent roads head north through the towns of Shady Point and Panama . North of Panama , US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 271 form the eastern terminus of SH @-@ 31 . At Sunset Corner , US @-@ 59 turns to the west and US @-@ 271 turns to the east , ending the concurrency . SH @-@ 9 passes straight through this intersection from west to east ; upon turning west , US @-@ 59 follows SH @-@ 9 for five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , splitting away southeast of Cowlington . Just north of this junction , US @-@ 59 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway . It crosses the Arkansas River on a bridge just downstream of the dam that impounds Robert S. Kerr Reservoir . Upon crossing the river , the highway enters Sequoyah County .
= = = Sequoyah and Adair counties = = =
US @-@ 59 's first highway junction in Sequoyah County is with SH @-@ 141 west of Gans , where the latter highway reaches its western terminus . US @-@ 59 continues northward , crossing Wildhorse Mountain as well as Little Sallisaw Creek , just upstream of where it empties into Robert S. Kerr Reservoir . The highway then enters the county seat of Sequoyah County , Sallisaw , where it has an interchange with Interstate 40 at Exit 308 . North of the interstate , US @-@ 59 intersects US @-@ 64 , turning east to follow the latter route into downtown Sallisaw . US @-@ 59 splits away to the north , becoming a two @-@ lane highway . North of
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town , the highway serves as the western terminus of SH @-@ 101 . US @-@ 59 then passes through unincorporated Brushy . North of Brushy , the highway winds through the Brushy Mountains . The road exits Sequoyah County north of this group of mountains .
The next county US @-@ 59 enters is mountainous Adair County . The route continues to follow a winding course as it makes its way northeast to unincorporated Cherry Tree . The highway continues northeast past Cherry Tree , before turning back to a due north course as it makes its way into the county seat of Stilwell . Here , the U.S. route has brief concurrencies with SH @-@ 100 and SH @-@ 51 . US @-@ 59 leaves Stilwell , twisting through mountainous terrain alongside Peavine Creek until the stream 's mouth at the Baron Fork of the Illinois River . The highway crosses the Baron Fork , then passes west of the unincorporated location of Baron . About twelve miles ( 19 km ) north of Stilwell , the highway intersects with US @-@ 62 in Westville . From Westville , US @-@ 59 heads northward . The highway passes just east of Mission Mountain ; north of the mountain , the road begins paralleling a Kansas City Southern railroad line . In northern Adair County , US @-@ 59 serves unincorporated Ballard and the town of Watts , where it runs just west of Lake Frances . North of Watts , the highway crosses the Illinois River and continues northward into Delaware County .
= = = Delaware , Ottawa , and Craig counties = = =
In Delaware County , US @-@ 59 enters West Siloam Springs and becomes concurrent with US @-@ 412 . This junction is only 0 @.@ 07 miles ( 0 @.@ 11 km ) west of the Oklahoma – Arkansas state line . The two roads head westward through West Siloam Springs before coming to unincorporated Flint . US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 412 split here , with US @-@ 412 following the Cherokee Turnpike , which begins at this interchange . The eastern terminus of US @-@ 412 Alternate is also at this interchange ; it becomes concurrent with US @-@ 59 as the two routes head west . The two highways enter Kansas , Oklahoma , where they part ways at an intersection with SH @-@ 10 ; US @-@ 412 Alternate continues to the east , while US @-@ 59 turns north along SH @-@ 10 . Just north of this intersection lies an interchange with mainline US @-@ 412 , which is still on the Cherokee Turnpike at this point . US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 head north out of the town of Kansas , intersecting with SH @-@ 116 at its western terminus west of Colcord . As US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 follow a course with many curves as they approach Eucha Lake , which they bridge the east arm of . In Jay , SH @-@ 20 joins the concurrency as US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 turn east toward downtown Jay . There , the three highways form the southern terminus of SH @-@ 127 . On the east side of Jay , US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 turn north , leaving SH @-@ 20 as it heads east towards its intersection with Arkansas Highway 43 . North of Jay , US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 intersect with SH @-@ 127 again , this time at its northern terminus . US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 cross over the Honey Creek arm of Grand Lake o ' the Cherokees before coming to Grove , where SH @-@ 10 turns east and US @-@ 59 turns west . As it leaves Grove , US @-@ 59 turns northwest , running the length of a peninsula out into the lake . At the end of the peninsula , US @-@ 59 crosses the lake yet again , landing on the north shore near Copeland . The highway then passes into Ottawa County .
The next highway junction for US @-@ 59 , the first in Ottawa County , is with SH @-@ 125 . US @-@ 59 turns due west shortly after this junction , then curves to due north . Just east of Afton , US @-@ 59 joins US @-@ 60 and US @-@ 69 , and the three highways head northeast . However , only 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) northeast of the junction , US @-@ 60 splits off at a cloverleaf interchange which also provides access to I @-@ 44 , the Will Rogers Turnpike . US @-@ 59 and US @-@ 69 continue northward to Narcissa , where they are the site of SH @-@ 25 's eastern terminus . Further north , at Dotyville , US @-@ 59 meets SH @-@ 10 again , turning west along it , while US @-@ 69 heads east along SH @-@ 10 toward Miami . US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 10 continue west , turning north for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before turning back to the west . Southwest of Dawes , the highways cross into Craig County . The northernmost town that US @-@ 59 serves in Oklahoma is Welch . Here , US @-@ 59 splits away from SH @-@ 10 , turning northward along unsigned SH @-@ 2 , its final stretch in Oklahoma . The highway crosses the Kansas state line 14 @.@ 53 miles ( 23 @.@ 38 km ) north of Welch .
= = History = =
Before US @-@ 59 was designated in Oklahoma , what would become its route was designated as US @-@ 270 between the Arkansas state line and Poteau , US @-@ 271 between Poteau and Sunset Corner , SH @-@ 10 along the modern @-@ day SH @-@ 9 concurrency , SH @-@ 17 between Sallisaw and West Siloam Springs , SH @-@ 33 between West Siloam Springs and the town of Kansas , and SH @-@ 10 between Kansas and Grove . There was no road between modern @-@ day SH @-@ 9 and Sallisaw . US @-@ 59 first appeared on the official state map in 1935 . At this time , the road south of Sallisaw was marked as " Conditional Location " , and between Grove and the Kansas state line , the highway followed a different route : it proceeded west out of Grove to meet US @-@ 60 / US @-@ 66 south of Afton , concurring with those two highways to Vinita , where it turned north along SH @-@ 2 , following it to Welch and the state line .
The gap between SH @-@ 10 and Sallisaw was filled by the designation of a state highway there by the Oklahoma State Highway Commission on November 15 , 1935 . The commission designated this highway as US @-@ 59 , effective upon the completion of its construction . Maintenance of the portion of this road in Sequoyah County was authorized on October 22 , 1936 .
On October 3 , 1951 , the highway commission approved the realignment of US @-@ 59 between the highway junction northeast of Afton and Welch . The old highway between Vinita and Welch became the northern SH @-@ 2 . The Highway Commission modified US @-@ 59 's route through Westville on February 5 , 1952 . Previously , at the site of the present @-@ day US @-@ 59 / US @-@ 62 intersection , US @-@ 59 turned east along US @-@ 62 , splitting off at Williams Avenue , then followed Williams Avenue north to Main Street , where it turned east . At the eastern city limit of Westville , US @-@ 59 turned north , joining its modern @-@ day alignment 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) north of the US @-@ 62 junction . With the 1952 realignment , US @-@ 59 continued straight through the intersection , bypassing Westville to the west . The next change to US @-@ 59 was a realignment between the SH @-@ 33 junction in the town of Kansas and downtown Jay . The new highway had several curves straightened , reducing this segment 's length from 20 @.@ 6 miles ( 33 @.@ 2 km ) to 18 @.@ 9 miles ( 30 @.@ 4 km ) . This change was approved by the Highway Commission on August 19 , 1952 .
On July 6 , 1964 , the Oklahoma State Highway Commission approved a realignment to US @-@ 59 's route through Poteau . Another change , further north , was approved on March 4 , 1968 . This moved US @-@ 59 onto a new bridge over the Arkansas River upon completion of its construction , with the old highway being turned over to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . An application for this change was received by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) on March 26 , 1968 , and approved by that body on June 18 , 1968 .
The highway commission approved another alteration to US @-@ 59 in the Poteau area on February 5 , 1973 . On that date , the commission approved a realignment of US @-@ 59 from a point south of the intersection with US @-@ 270 and US @-@ 271 , to that junction , and on into Poteau . The realignment was submitted to AASHO on April 10 of that year , received on April 13 , and approved on June 26 . A section of highway north of Jay was straightened on October 7 , 1974 . Another straightening was approved the following year , this time in the vicinity of Heavener ; this change was approved by the highway commission on August 19 , 1975 , and approved by AASHO , now renamed to AASHTO , on July 13 , 1976 . On March 7 , 1977 , the Oklahoma State Transportation Commission ( which had replaced the highway commission ) approved another straightening in the Howe area . The realignment was approved by AASHTO on July 7 , 1977 .
The next change to US @-@ 59 came on November 2 , 1981 , when the transportation commission approved moving just over 5 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) of highway between Flint and West Siloam Springs to the north of the previous alignment . AASHTO approved the realignment on June 29 , 1982 . A section of highway , south of Stilwell , in Sequoyah and Adair counties , was straightened , shortening the highway by 0 @.@ 22 miles ( 350 m ) . The transportation commission approved on October 4 , 1982 .
On September 7 , 1999 , the Oklahoma State Transportation Commission approved an item realigning US @-@ 59 and SH @-@ 100 in Stilwell , removing US @-@ 59 from Second Street and placing it on Front Street . On March 3 , 2003 , the commission approved elimination of two sharp curves in western Ottawa County , shortening the highway by 0 @.@ 57 miles ( 0 @.@ 92 km ) .
The section of US @-@ 59 between I @-@ 40 and SH @-@ 9 was pressed into service as a detour for eastbound I @-@ 40 traffic after the collapse of its bridge over the Arkansas River on May 26 , 2002 .
= = Junction list = =
= The Negotiation =
" The Negotiation " ( originally titled " Labor Negotiation " ) is the nineteenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office . The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) tries to attack Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) for kissing Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) on Casino Night , only to be pepper @-@ sprayed by Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . Jim repeatedly tries to thank Dwight for his actions , but each attempt is rejected . Meanwhile , with Roy fired , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) asks for a raise and is astounded when he learns that this raise would cause him to be paid more than his boss , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) .
It first aired on April 5 , 2007 on NBC as a longer , " super @-@ sized " episode . It was written by Michael Schur and directed by Jeffrey Blitz , and featured the end of Roy 's plot arc to win back Pam , his former fiancé . The episode also included the return of actor Ed Helms , who portrays Andy Bernard . The episode was first screened at Paleyfest in early 2007 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was viewed by an estimated audience of 6 @.@ 7 million people and earned a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 ratings share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews , with television critics in particular praising the Dwight – Angela storyline . Schur received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , but lost to fellow Office writer Greg Daniels for his work on " Gay Witch Hunt " .
= = Synopsis = =
Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) enters the office and attacks Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) for kissing Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , his former fiancé , but Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) subdues him with pepper spray . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) and Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) fire Roy , and Jim , feeling guilty about all of his pranks over the years , tries to show his appreciation to Dwight for saving him , but each gesture is coolly rejected , as Dwight believes he only acted in the line of duty and is undeserving of any special praise .
Pam apologizes to Jim that Roy attacked him but her assurance that her relationship with Roy is over for good is met with polite skepticism . Roy picks up his last paycheck , apologizes to Jim for threatening him during their previous encounter , and asks Pam to join him for coffee . Their meeting at a local diner is awkward and ends with their relationship ( and even friendship ) appearing to be over ; they hug and Pam wipes a tear from her face . Roy does not understand his long @-@ time fiancée , especially her choice to not pursue Jim .
Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) interviews people from the office repeatedly to hear the tale of Dwight 's heroics . Believing themselves to be alone at the end of the day , the two kiss passionately . Jim sees them and decides that keeping their relationship secret will be his gift to Dwight to make things " even " . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns from anger management , and Dwight , unprovoked , subdues him with pepper spray . Toby confiscates the rest of Dwight 's arsenal , previously hidden in various locations in the office .
Meanwhile , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) asks Michael for a 10 percent raise due to the extra workload resulting from Roy 's absence . When he discovers that the raise would make him higher @-@ paid than Michael , Darryl goads Michael into going to Corporate to negotiate his own raise . Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) initially tries to keep their romantic relationship out of the negotiations but ultimately gives Michael the maximum 12 percent raise that was authorized despite his continued inability to negotiate properly .
Elsewhere , Toby becomes considerably annoyed with Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) and Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) ' s constant making out and arguing in the cubicle next to his .
= = Production = =
" The Negotiation " was written by supervising producer Michael Schur and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . It featured the end of the story arc featuring Roy Anderson 's attempt to win back Pam , his former fiancée . Roy 's portrayer , David Denman , reported he was " really grateful " that executive producer Greg Daniels allowed his character to develop , " where all of a sudden , he wasn ’ t just a complete idiot but felt bad for being a bad boyfriend and wanted to try to get the girl back . It ’ s so rare to have that on a television show , because so often everyone wants you to be the same character every week . It was quite refreshing creatively to get to do that . " Referring to Jim and Pam , Denman felt it was " inevitable that Romeo and Juliet had to get together " and end the series ' love triangle . " Otherwise , " he explained , " it gets kind of tiring and old . I think it was the appropriate time [ to leave ] , and I had such a great experience working with all those guys . " Denman also added that Daniels ' decision stemmed from a desire to advance the Jim – Pam storyline " to the next stage , " rather than having anything to do specifically with Denman himself . Denman briefly returned in the series ' fifth , seventh , and ninth seasons .
Actress Kate Flannery , who plays Meredith Palmer , attributed her love of the episode to Craig Robinson , because the two shared an enjoyment of singing together ever since the first season episode " Basketball " . She explained , " We sing on the set and in the hair and makeup trailer . We sound good together , but sometimes people are not in the mood to hear our amazing duets , mostly from the ' 80s . " Flannery believed that Robinson 's performance in the episode was " very funny , " as his character served as a " great foil for Michael Scott . " " The Negotiation " featured the return of character Andy Bernard , who had last been seen in the episode " The Return " , as he was attending anger management classes . At the time " The Return " aired , no one was certain Helms would be returning , but in early February , NBC confirmed Helms had been hired on as a series regular for the rest of the year .
In early 2007 , the first half of " The Negotiation " was screened before fans at Paleyfest , along with its preceding episode , " Cocktails " . According to Eric Goldman of IGN , " the crowd reacted gleefully to watching the series in the group setting , with many females ... laughing uproariously at the never ending stream of terrifically funny material . " Part of " The Negotiation " involved Michael Scott reading the Wikipedia entry on negotiations for advice in his attempt to fend off Darryl 's request for a pay raise . This scene triggered a plethora of activity around that particular article , as viewers added their own thoughts on the subject . It was ultimately placed into " semi @-@ protection " mode by Wikipedia administrators to discourage false information and vandalism among anonymous IP users . One hundred edits were added before the security protection was added .
= = Reception = =
" The Negotiation " first aired on April 5 , 2007 in the United States on NBC as a " super @-@ sized " episode , a term used by the network and media outlets to indicate an unusually long episode . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 7 million people and earned a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , the highest of the night . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . IGN 's Brian Zoromski rated " The Negotiation " 9 @.@ 7 out of 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . He opined that it " had something for everyone -- uncomfortable moments , laugh @-@ out @-@ loud ridiculous situations , and scenes progressing various ongoing storylines . " Writing for AOL TV , Jay Black sympathized with Roy 's actions but faulted the writers for " just treading water " with the Jim @-@ Pam relationship . Though he called the episode a " let down " , Black did find some episode highlights , such as Angela 's " lusty " responses to Dwight 's defense of Jim . Television Without Pity graded the episode with an A.
In her review for Give Me My Remote , Kath Skerry wrote that the episode " left me satisfied and smiling , " ( a reference to a line from the episode " Sexual Harassment " ) partly attributing this to Roy 's attack as a " way to make a very heavy , not do funny moment hysterical . " She again expressed her dislike for Karen , but thought it " was a fun episode for my two favorite Dunder Mifflin couples : Ryan & Kelly and Dwight & Angela . " Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West enjoyed the Dwight @-@ Angela scenes , asserting that " some of the best moments on screen are when those two let their freak flags fly . " For his work on this episode , Michael Schur received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series , but lost to Greg Daniels for his work on " Gay Witch Hunt " .
= Bramshill House =
Bramshill House , in Bramshill , northeast Hampshire , England , is one of the largest and most important Jacobean prodigy house mansions in England . It was built in the early 17th century by Baron Edward la Zouche of Harringworth , but was partly destroyed by fire a few years later . The design shows the influence of the Italian Renaissance , which became popular in England during the late 16th century . The house was designated a Grade I listed building in 1952 .
The mansion 's southern façade is notable for its decorative architecture , which includes at its centre a large oriel window above the principal entrance . Interior features include a great hall displaying 92 coats of arms on a Jacobean screen , an ornate drawing room , and a 126 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 38 @.@ 6 m ) long gallery containing many portraits . Numerous columns and friezes are found throughout the mansion , while several rooms have large tapestries depicting historical figures and events on their panelled walls . The house is set in 262 @-@ acre ( 106 ha ) of grounds containing an 18 @-@ acre ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) lake . The grounds , which received a Grade II * listing in 1984 , are part of a Registered Historic Park that includes about 25 acres ( 10 ha ) of early 17th @-@ century formal gardens near the house . The wider medieval park was landscaped from the 17th to the 20th century and contains woodland .
Bramshill appears to have been a local sporting and social venue since the 16th century . The cricket ground at the house played host to a first @-@ class match in 1823 when an early Hampshire team played an England XI , and it hosted three other matches in 1825 – 26 . During the Second World War , the mansion was used as a Red Cross maternity home , before becoming the residence of the exiled King Michael and Queen Anne of Romania for a number of years . It became the location of the Police Staff College in 1960 , and was later home to the European Police College . As a result , many campus buildings have been added to the estate . Owing to escalating maintenance costs the property was sold to the heritage property developers City & Country in August 2014 . Among the 14 ghosts reputed to haunt the house is that of a bride who accidentally locked herself in a chest on her wedding night and was not found until 50 years later .
= = Location = =
Bramshill House is at the approximate centre of a triangular shape formed by Reading , Basingstoke and Farnborough , about 47 miles ( 76 km ) by road southwest of central London . It lies to the northeast of Hartley Wintney , east of Hazeley off the B3349 road , southeast of the village of Bramshill , which lies on the B3011 road . Three main lanes approach the property : Mansion Drive from the B3011 in the southwest , Reading Drive South from the B3011 to the east of Bramshill village from the north , and the shorter Pheasantry Drive which approaches it from the southeast from Chalwin 's Copse , just north of the course of the River Hart . There is also a private lane within the grounds , known as Lower Pool Road , which connects Mansion Drive to Reading Drive South , passing the pond and several outer buildings . The latitudinal and longitudinal location is 51 ° 19 ' 57 @.@ 9 " N 0 ° 54 ' 43 @.@ 2 " W or also , 51 @.@ 332759 , -0.911991 .
= = History = =
= = = Original house = = =
The 1086 Domesday Book lists one of the two manors of Bromeselle ( the Anglo @-@ Norman spelling of Bromshyll ) as held by Hugh de Port , whose family were in possession of it for nine generations . The last of the de Port line , William de Port ( who had assumed the name St. John ) , died in 1346 without leaving a male heir . In the early 14th century , Sir John Foxley , Baron of the Exchequer , ( c . 1270 – c . 1325 ) , built and endowed a chapel in the village of Bramshill . His first wife , Constance de Bramshill , may have been the heiress of the Bramshill family . Their son , Thomas Foxley ( c . 1305 – 60 ) , became MP for Berkshire in 1325 , and was appointed constable of Windsor Castle in 1328 , soon after the accession of the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Edward III . In 1347 he obtained a licence to build a manor house or small castle at Bramshill , which included a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 000 ha ) wooded park . The house , built between 1351 and 1360 , had thick walls , vaulted cellars , and an internal courtyard measuring 100 feet ( 30 m ) by 80 feet ( 24 m ) . Based on the similarity of the surviving vaults under Bramshill House and those under what became the servants ' hall and steward 's room at Windsor Castle , it may have been a copy of William of Wykeham 's work there . The estate remained in the hands of the Foxley family and their heirs , the Essex family , until 1499 , when it was sold to Giles Daubeney , 1st Baron Daubeney . Giles 's son Henry Daubeney ( later Earl of Bridgewater ) sold the property to Henry VIII , and in 1547 Edward VI granted the estate to William Paulet , whose heirs sold it in 1600 to Sir Stephen Thornhurst of Agnes Court , Kent .
= = = New manor house = = =
In March 1605 , Edward la Zouche , 11th Baron Zouche , a favourite of James I , bought the property from Thornhurst . A house was earlier planned on the site for Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales ( 1594 – 1612 ) , whose heraldic feathers are displayed above the central pediment . Lord Zouche demolished a large part of the building and began to build the Bramshill House of today . Henry Shaw describes the new house which Zouche built as a " specimen of Elizabethan [ sic ] architecture [ which ] merits particular attention , exhibiting all the stateliness for which the period referred to was remarkable , with a suite of apartments both large and lofty . The amplitude of its dimensions indicate a princely residence . "
An inventory taken in 1634 after Zouche 's death listed the library as having 250 books and a collection of mathematical instruments , and revealed that the maids ' chamber was of a very high standard . James Zouch , grandson of Edward la Zouche , sold the property to the Earl of Antrim in 1637 , at which time the house 's furniture was valued at £ 2 @,@ 762 . During the reign of Charles I , the house was partly destroyed by a fire . On 25 June 1640 , Lord Antrim sold Bramshill for £ 9 @,@ 500 to Sir Robert Henley . In 1673 it was the property of his son , Sir Andrew Henley , 1st Baronet .
Sir John Cope purchased the property in 1699 , and his descendants occupied the premises until 1935 . The Cope family shortened the wings on the south side in 1703 , converted most of the chapel to a drawing room and introduced a mezzanine on the west side during the 18th century . They were responsible for much of the interior , with significant renovation work done in the 19th century and in 1920 . After his victory over Napoleon , the Duke of Wellington was offered his choice of house by Parliament ; he visited Bramshill but in 1817 chose Stratfield Saye instead .
= = = Sporting events = = =
Numerous paintings and prints depict games and social events taking place on the lawn ; one such painting by Joseph Nash , now in the National Fencing Museum , depicts 17th @-@ century rapier practice , with a number of upper @-@ class men , women and children as spectators .
The cricket ground at the house first played host to a first @-@ class match in 1823 when an early Hampshire team played an England XI . Hampshire won by five wickets . Two further first @-@ class matches were played there in 1825 , when Hampshire drew against Godalming and defeated Sussex . A final first @-@ class match was held there in 1826 when a combined Hampshire and Surrey team played and lost to Sussex .
= = = Modern times = = =
In 1935 , the house was purchased from the Cope family by Ronald Nall @-@ Cain , 2nd Baron Brocket , the house 's last private owner . It was used by the Red Cross as a maternity home during the Second World War , after which it became the home of the exiled King Michael and Queen Anne of Romania for several years .
Bramshill House became a Grade I listed building on 8 July 1952 , and was acquired by the British government the following year as a dedicated site for police training . It became the location of the National Police College in 1960 . From 2005 , two buildings on the site housed the European Police College ( CEPOL ) until it was moved to Budapest in 2014 .
By the late 1980s the estate had become expensive to maintain , and according to Sir John Wheeler , Chair of the Home Affairs Select Committee , by 1989 it was " in a poor state of repair " . The Daily Mail reported that the police were criticised for subsequent lavish spending on the estate , including £ 1 @,@ 800 for a beehive , £ 750 @,@ 000 on restoring a bridge and £ 2 million for the access drive . In July 2013 the Home Office placed the house and estate on the market for £ 25 million , citing costs of £ 5 million annually to run it . It was sold to the heritage property developers City & Country in August 2014 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The 15 @-@ bedroom Bramshill House is one of the largest and most important Jacobean mansions in England , described as one of the " glories of English architecture " by the historians Anthony Blunt and James Lees @-@ Milne . The architecture of the three @-@ storey building was inspired by the Italian Renaissance , and was executed mainly by German builders . It is approximately 140 feet ( 43 m ) in length . The design is traditionally attributed to the architect John Thorpe , although no records remain to confirm the attribution . The building stands on the edge of a plateau , overlooking the park to the south . The plan of the house is unusual , partly because of its incorporation of the earlier building ; it extends at right angles to the primary ( southern ) façade . The elevations are symmetrical , facing outwards , but the interior court is narrow , and projecting wings lie at either end of the eastern and western sides . Bramshill House is three storeys high on the southern main entrance side and two storeys high to the north and east . There are three vaulted cellars to the west . The house is built of red brick laid in English bond dressed with stone , with ashlar quoining at the corners of the wings . Stone dressings are featured on numerous large mullion windows . An open carved parapet surmounts the building . The roof consists of red tiles , and there are large gables on the west side . The chimney stacks are rectangular .
= = = = North and south = = = =
The north façade has three bays separated by windows and features a loggia , typical of early 17th @-@ century houses , with a central arched entrance to accommodate coaches . The central bay is crowned by an ornamental pierced parapet below a niched Dutch gable , which shelters a small statue of Lord Zouche or James I. There are small obelisks at either side of the gable . Thorpe originally intended the main entrance of the house to be on this side , building on the gatehouse of the earlier Foxley house .
The southern façade was described by Nikolaus Pevsner as " among the most fanciful pieces of Jacobean design in [ England ] " . It is three storeys high and features three sets of three bays in either wing , with five inner sections . The outer two of the inner sections feature eight angular windows , aligned in rows of four on the first two floors and then a row of four windows on the top floor . The inner two sections feature the same layout on the first and top floors with eight windows aligned in rows of four on the first floor and four windows on the top floor , but the ground floor features two arches , which form part of the central loggia . The stone central bay , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide , is emphasised by superimposed double decorated pilasters on all floors and the central archway of the loggia in the Doric , Ionic , and Corinthian orders , surmounted by a florid perforated pediment . In addition there is an oriel window on the first floor above the main entrance .
An important difference from the other sides of this building is a terrace , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in width , between the projecting wings , a kind of architectural foreground to the garden . The terrace is bounded by a 3 feet 3 inches ( 0 @.@ 99 m ) high balustrade . The arcade on the terrace of the southern front is a good example of Italian domestic architecture , used in villas . The triglyphs and ornamented metopes , together with the simple capitals of the columns , indicate the Doric order , but are light enough to be Ionic .
= = = = East and west = = = =
The east façade is the longest , about 124 feet ( 38 m ) wide , and two storeys high . It features four full @-@ height angular bays with two windows between , while its upper walls have two arches set within a rectangular panel . On this side there is a Troco Terrace with a lawn , as well as two arcaded openings at the side on either wing of the house . The southernmost arcaded opening contains a bench with eight arches and has three tables , one of which is older and octagonal . Carved in the wall at the side is a frieze consisting of four squares , each depicting an animal : a lion , an elephant , a wild boar and a camel .
The west façade dates to the 18th century and is the only one with multiple gables ; the windows on the ground floor are sashed .
= = = Interior = = =
The mansion is richly furnished with period pieces . Many of the rooms have large tapestries on their panelled walls depicting historical figures and scenes . Those in the drawing room contain scenes from Roman history and were based on designs by Peter Paul Rubens , who supervised the work in Brussels . These tapestries were initially made for Dudley Carleton , 1st Viscount Dorchester , Zouche 's brother @-@ diplomat , but in the end he rejected them for another set ; how the first set came to Bramshill is not known . Rubens ' sketches for the first and last tapestries in the series are in the Munich gallery , Alte Pinakothek .
The ground floor contains , in the west section , the former dining room and kitchen . The openings in the wall between the billiard room and the garden room had been blocked up but the rooms were reconnected in the 19th century under Sir William Henry Cope , uncovering an original doorway with a four @-@ centred pointed arch . Cope applied arabesque patterns to the panelling in the garden room , which he had traced when two of the bedrooms were being repainted . The billiard room has a hidden door leading to the original entrance on the north side of the house through the Foxley gatehouse into the interior courtyard , and several doorways remain in the kitchen and housekeeping areas .
The Great Hall , to which an arcaded porch gives direct access , retains the basic design of the original construction . It has a dais and a Jacobean stone screen , 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) high , decorated with 92 shields . Resident families emblazoned the shields with the arms of ancestors and family members . The entablature of the screen has a double row of 40 sculptured shields and has a depth of 2 feet 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) . Beyond the dais , double doors lead into the Terrace Hall at the foot of the staircase . Across from this is the former dining room , containing a large tapestry , believed to be made by an English artist , " representing forest scenery in very subdued colours " . During the time of the Cope family in the 1880s , the kitchen near the south hall was used as a dairy . The kitchen and the adjoining room had back @-@ to @-@ back fireplaces .
= = = = Drawing room and library = = = =
The drawing room , containing four bay windows of different sizes , is panelled with oak for its entire height of about 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) . One of the upper panels , surmounted by its Corinthian entablature , is a frieze depicting a fig , grape , and pomegranate , each with foliage and blossoms . One of the lower panels , part of the dado in the same room , has a section of projecting mouldings . The upper panel is 2 feet 10 inches ( 0 @.@ 86 m ) by 2 feet 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 71 m ) ; the lower , 2 feet 7 inches ( 0 @.@ 79 m ) by 2 feet 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) .
The massive chimneypiece in the drawing room is classically designed , believed to be inspired by one of the great Italian architects of 16th @-@ century Mannerism , Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola . It is two storeys in height , the lower being Doric and the upper Ionic . The distribution of the members is regular , and the shafts of the columns are variegated marble . The upper compartment of the chimney @-@ piece is composed of separate pieces of the same diversified material , and the frieze of the upper order also consists of coloured marble in the centre . The fireplace is 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide and 4 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) high , and retains the ancient andirons , used for burning wood . These are large and well adorned , particularly in the lower part .
The ceilings of the drawing room and library are the most elaborate in the house . The plaster frieze in the library also displays fine workmanship ; 1 foot 7 inches ( 0 @.@ 48 m ) wide , it is designed in a striking arabesque pattern , with an evident Florentine influence . In the 1880s the library had a collection of 5 @,@ 000 volumes , about half the number of books the Cope family owned at the time .
= = = = Staircase and first floor = = = =
The standards and balusters of the stairs on the north side of the hall came from Eversley Manor House and probably date to the mid @-@ 17th century , although the treads are original to the house and possibly mid @-@ 16th century . The walls above the stairs and on the first @-@ floor landing contain some very large paintings , including several portraits .
Beyond the staircase are the state rooms and what was known as the " Wrought Room " . The room has an ornamental ceiling with a Renaissance chimneypiece . Two of the bedrooms , the two " White Rooms " , were originally connected to what was called the Flower @-@ de @-@ luce Room , but the doors were boarded up .
The Long Gallery fills the first floor of the northern range : 126 @.@ 5 feet ( 38 @.@ 6 m ) long and with a richly decorated stucco ceiling and a complex wooden chimneypiece , it formerly contained a " very curious collection of portraits of distinguished characters " .
Also on the first floor is the " Chapel Drawing Room " in the south wing , connected to the Drawing Room . The Copes created this room by reducing the size of the original chapel , which is entered through it . The current chapel has an altar reredos with paintings of the Virgin Mary , St. Stephen , St. Mary Magdalene and St. John the Evangelist , by Alexander Rowan and dated by Pevsner to about 1840 . The tapestry in the chapel room is older than the house , and was assessed by an expert as dating to 1450 or earlier ; in the early 19th century it had hung in the Red Drawing Room . When the chapel ceiling was restored by Sir William Cope , it was discovered that one section of the plaster work had previously been replaced with carved wood . The large window in the south wall of the courtyard was presumably moved from the original chapel .
= = Grounds and garden = =
The house is set in 262 @-@ acre ( 106 ha ) of grounds , which include an 18 @-@ acre ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) lake north of the house . The grounds form part of a Registered Historic Park that received a Grade II * listing in 1984 . Under this designation are the 25 acres ( 10 ha ) of early 17th @-@ century formal gardens near the house , the wider 490 acres ( 200 ha ) medieval park , landscaped from the 17th to the 20th century , with 250 acres ( 100 ha ) of woodland and buildings including an icehouse and a folly known as Conduit House . Parts of the park have been used for commercial softwood production since the 19th century .
To the west of the house is Peatmoor Copse and to the east Bramshill Forest , and the grounds contained what was known as the " Green Court " and the " Flower Garden " at the time of William Henry Cope in the 1880s . The Grade I listed gatehouse dates to the time of the Foxleys . The fir trees in the grounds are reputed to have been planted " as a memento of his former home " by James I , who brought them from Scotland . The formal gardens were first laid out by Edward la Zouche , who was a horticulturist . Sir John Cope redesigned the gardens and continued the planting of trees in the park . At the close of the 18th century the grounds were re @-@ landscaped to be less formal , and some areas in the south were returned to parkland .
Bramshill Park was conceived as a " hunting box " for Henry Frederick and became a popular estate for hunting . On 24 July 1621 , while hunting in the park , George Abbot , Archbishop of Canterbury , accidentally shot and killed one of the gamekeepers with his crossbow . An inquiry cleared him of murder . Another notable clergyman / hunter who frequented Bramshill was Charles Kingsley , rector of Eversley , who hunted fox and deer and collected butterflies there and frequently took his family and friends . Kingsley was reportedly especially enamoured with the fir trees , which he considered " a source of constant delight " , fondly naming them " James the First 's gnarled giants " . In the 19th century , Sir John Cope , a friend of Kingsley 's , was known as a supporter of the fox hunt and especially as a breeder of fox hounds . The opening of the season at Bramshill in the late 1840s was noted in the British hunting press .
The main avenue approaches from the southwest , through an arched gateway formed by two Grade II listed early 19th @-@ century lodges , before crossing the Broad Water formed by the River Hart by a Grade I listed early 19th @-@ century bridge with two arches . There are separate listings for other structures near the house , including the Grade I listed early 17th @-@ century triple @-@ arched gateway on the route to Reading to the northeast of the house , Grade I listed early 17th @-@ century boundary walls and turrets to the south and west , Grade II listed boundary walls and gate @-@ piers to the west , including the kitchen garden , Grade I listed garden walls and gateways to the north and east , and the Grade II listed late 18th @-@ century stable block to the north .
= = Legends = =
Bramshill has been cited as one of the most haunted houses in England . According to one UK police officer who worked at the college , 14 ghosts have purportedly been identified , although another officer at the college did not take these suggestions seriously . They include a Grey Lady ( one story suggests that her husband , a religious dissenter , was beheaded in the 17th century ) and a Green Man ( a Cope family member who either drowned in the lake in 1806 , according to the journalist P. Lal , or threw himself off a cliff near Brighton , according to the author Penny Legg ) . The Green Man , dressed as his name suggests , reportedly manifests near the lake , as does the ghost supposed to be that of a gardener who drowned there . The Grey Lady allegedly haunts the terrace , the library , and the chapel . Legg suggests that she has a young and beautiful appearance , with a sad , tear @-@ stained face and golden hair , and smelling of
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memories . In order to not draw suspicion to his plan , Alucard masquerades himself as Zobek 's Lieutenant and eventually reveals his true identity to his father once he remembers their pact . They destroy Zobek and Satan and appear to be on good terms in the end . Alucard is also the protagonist of the DLC Revelations , taking place shortly prior to the events of the game .
= = Reception = =
Alucard has received praise and criticism from several video game publications , primarily concentrating on his role in Symphony of the Night . GameSpot featured him in their article " All Time Greatest Game Hero " . In a review of Symphony of the Night , RPGFan celebrated the fact that Alucard was not a member of the Belmont clan , the protagonists of most Castlevania games , and that the fact he was Dracula 's son added " an element of depth to the plot " due to the varied reactions he would receive from the inhabitants of Dracula 's castle . RPGamer disagreed with this assessment , noting that the plot and Alucard 's role " isn 't very deep " and secondary to the concentration on gameplay . GameSpot called Alucard 's sprite and running animation " easily some of the most impressive visuals in the entire Castlevania library . " James Paul Gee of CiteSeer noted that " even though Alucard is a vampire hunter , he has no distinctive skills associated with this profession " . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as the 91st best hero in video games . Empire also included Alucard on their list of the 50 greatest video game characters , ranking him as 34th .
Alucard 's appearance in Aria of Sorrow and Dawn of Sorrow as Genya Arikado was also noted by reviewers . RPGamer celebrated how the greater concentration on supporting characters , including Arikado , were a welcome change from previous Castlevania games . RPGFan derided Arikado 's " cool and impassive personality " as stereotypical , but praised the game 's character development as setting him apart from previous supporting characters in the series . The switch to an anime style for the character designs in Dawn of Sorrow was notably criticized , as many reviewers preferred the designs made by Ayami Kojima . GameSpy deplored the " shallow , lifeless anime images " and IGN called the images " down to the level of ' generic Saturday morning Anime ' quality . "
= To Kill a Mockingbird =
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960 . It was immediately successful , winning the Pulitzer Prize , and has become a classic of modern American literature . The plot and characters are loosely based on the author 's observations of her family and neighbors , as well as on an event that occurred near her hometown in 1936 , when she was 10 years old .
The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor , despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality . The narrator 's father , Atticus Finch , has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers . One critic explains the novel 's impact by writing , " In the twentieth century , To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America , and its protagonist , Atticus Finch , the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism . "
As a Southern Gothic novel and a Bildungsroman , the primary themes of To Kill a Mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence . Scholars have noted that Lee also addresses issues of class , courage , compassion , and gender roles in the American Deep South . The book is widely taught in schools in the United States with lessons that emphasize tolerance and decry prejudice . Despite its themes , To Kill a Mockingbird has been subject to campaigns for removal from public classrooms , often challenged for its use of racial epithets .
Reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication . Literary analysis of it is sparse , considering the number of copies sold and its widespread use in education . Author Mary McDonough Murphy , who collected individual impressions of To Kill a Mockingbird by several authors and public figures , calls the book , " an astonishing phenomenon " . In 2006 , British librarians ranked the book ahead of the Bible as one " every adult should read before they die " . It was adapted into an Oscar @-@ winning film in 1962 by director Robert Mulligan , with a screenplay by Horton Foote . Since 1990 , a play based on the novel has been performed annually in Harper Lee 's hometown of Monroeville , Alabama .
To Kill a Mockingbird was Lee 's only published book until Go Set a Watchman , an earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird , was published on July 14 , 2015 . Lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in February 2016 , although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964 .
= = Biographical background and publication = =
Born in 1926 , Harper Lee grew up in the Southern town of Monroeville , Alabama , where she became close friends with soon @-@ to @-@ be famous writer Truman Capote . She attended Huntingdon College in Montgomery ( 1944 – 45 ) , and then studied law at the University of Alabama ( 1945 – 49 ) . While attending college , she wrote for campus literary magazines : Huntress at Huntingdon and the humor magazine Rammer Jammer at the University of Alabama . At both colleges , she wrote short stories and other works about racial injustice , a rarely mentioned topic on such campuses at the time . In 1950 , Lee moved to New York City , where she worked as a reservation clerk for British Overseas Airways Corporation ; there , she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in Monroeville . Hoping to be published , Lee presented her writing in 1957 to a literary agent recommended by Capote . An editor at J. B. Lippincott , who bought the manuscript , advised her to quit the airline and concentrate on writing . Donations from friends allowed her to write uninterrupted for a year .
After finishing the first draft and returning it to Lippincott , the manuscript , at that point titled " Go Set a Watchman " , fell into the hands of Therese von Hohoff Torrey — known professionally as Tay Hohoff — a small , wiry veteran editor in her late 50s . Hohoff was impressed . “ [ T ] he spark of the true writer flashed in every line , ” she would later recount in a corporate history of Lippincott . But as Hohoff saw it , the manuscript was by no means fit for publication . It was , as she described it , “ more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel . ” During the next couple of years , she led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form and was retitled To Kill a Mockingbird .
Lee had lost her mother , who suffered from mental illness , six years before she met Hohoff at Lippincott ’ s offices . Her father , a lawyer on whom Atticus was modeled , would die two years after the publication of To Kill a Mockingbird .
Ultimately , Lee spent over two and a half years writing To Kill a Mockingbird . The book was published on July 11 , 1960 . After rejecting the " Watchman " title , it was initially re @-@ titled Atticus , but Lee renamed it " To Kill a Mockingbird " to reflect that the story went beyond just a character portrait . The editorial team at Lippincott warned Lee that she would probably sell only several thousand copies . In 1964 , Lee recalled her hopes for the book when she said , " I never expected any sort of success with ' Mockingbird . ' ... I was hoping for a quick and merciful death at the hands of the reviewers but , at the same time , I sort of hoped someone would like it enough to give me encouragement . Public encouragement . I hoped for a little , as I said , but I got rather a whole lot , and in some ways this was just about as frightening as the quick , merciful death I 'd expected . " Instead of a " quick and merciful death " , Reader 's Digest Condensed Books chose the book for reprinting in part , which gave it a wide readership immediately . Since the original publication , the book has never been out of print .
= = Plot summary = =
The story takes place during three years ( 1933 – 35 ) of the Great Depression in the fictional " tired old town " of Maycomb , Alabama , the seat of Maycomb County . It focuses on six @-@ year @-@ old Jean Louise Finch ( Scout ) , who lives with her older brother , Jem , and their widowed father , Atticus , a middle @-@ aged lawyer . Jem and Scout befriend a boy named Dill , who visits Maycomb to stay with his aunt each summer . The three children are terrified of , and fascinated by , their neighbor , the reclusive Arthur " Boo " Radley . The adults of Maycomb are hesitant to talk about Boo , and few of them have seen him for many years . The children feed one another 's imagination with rumors about his appearance and reasons for remaining hidden , and they fantasize about how to get him out of his house . After two summers of friendship with Dill , Scout and Jem find that someone leaves them small gifts in a tree outside the Radley place . Several times the mysterious Boo makes gestures of affection to the children , but , to their disappointment , he never appears in person .
Judge Taylor appoints Atticus to defend Tom Robinson , a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman , Mayella Ewell . Although many of Maycomb 's citizens disapprove , Atticus agrees to defend Tom to the best of his ability . Other children taunt Jem and Scout for Atticus 's actions , calling him a " nigger @-@ lover " . Scout is tempted to stand up for her father 's honor by fighting , even though he has told her not to . Atticus faces a group of men intent on lynching Tom . This danger is averted when Scout , Jem , and Dill shame the mob into dispersing by forcing them to view the situation from Atticus ' and Tom 's points of view .
Atticus does not want Jem and Scout to be present at Tom Robinson 's trial . No seat is available on the main floor , so by invitation of Rev. Sykes , Jem , Scout , and Dill watch from the colored balcony . Atticus establishes that the accusers — Mayella and her father , Bob Ewell , the town drunk — are lying . It also becomes clear that the friendless Mayella made sexual advances toward Tom , and that her father caught her and beat her . Despite significant evidence of Tom 's innocence , the jury convicts him . Jem 's faith in justice becomes badly shaken , as is Atticus ' , when the hapless Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape from prison .
Despite Tom 's conviction , Bob Ewell is humiliated by the events of the trial , Atticus explaining that he " destroyed [ Ewell 's ] last shred of credibility at that trial . " Ewell vows revenge , spitting in Atticus ' face , trying to break into the judge 's house , and menacing Tom Robinson 's widow . Finally , he attacks the defenseless Jem and Scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school Halloween pageant . One of Jem 's arms is broken in the struggle , but amid the confusion someone comes to the children 's rescue . The mysterious man carries Jem home , where Scout realizes that he is Boo Radley .
Sheriff Tate arrives and discovers that Bob Ewell has died during the fight . The sheriff argues with Atticus about the prudence and ethics of charging Jem ( whom Atticus believes to be responsible ) or Boo ( whom Tate believes to be responsible ) . Atticus eventually accepts the sheriff 's story that Ewell simply fell on his own knife . Boo asks Scout to walk him home , and after she says goodbye to him at his front door he disappears again . While standing on the Radley porch , Scout imagines life from Boo 's perspective , and regrets that they had never repaid him for the gifts he had given them .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
Lee has said that To Kill a Mockingbird is not an autobiography , but rather an example of how an author " should write about what he knows and write truthfully " . Nevertheless , several people and events from Lee 's childhood parallel those of the fictional Scout . Lee 's father , Amasa Coleman Lee , was an attorney , similar to Atticus Finch , and in 1919 , he defended two black men accused of murder . After they were convicted , hanged and mutilated , he never tried another criminal case . Lee 's father was also the editor and publisher of the Monroeville newspaper . Although more of a proponent of racial segregation than Atticus , he gradually became more liberal in his later years . Though Scout 's mother died when she was a baby , Lee was 25 when her mother , Frances Cunningham Finch , died . Lee 's mother was prone to a nervous condition that rendered her mentally and emotionally absent . Lee had a brother named Edwin , who — like the fictional Jem — was four years older than his sister . As in the novel , a black housekeeper came daily to care for the Lee house and family .
Lee modeled the character of Dill on her childhood friend , Truman Capote , known then as Truman Persons . Just as Dill lived next door to Scout during the summer , Capote lived next door to Lee with his aunts while his mother visited New York City . Like Dill , Capote had an impressive imagination and a gift for fascinating stories . Both Lee and Capote were atypical children : both loved to read . Lee was a scrappy tomboy who was quick to fight , but Capote was ridiculed for his advanced vocabulary and lisp . She and Capote made up and acted out stories they wrote on an old Underwood typewriter Lee 's father gave them . They became good friends when both felt alienated from their peers ; Capote called the two of them " apart people " . In 1960 , Capote and Lee traveled to Kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for Capote 's nonfiction novel In Cold Blood .
Down the street from the Lees lived a family whose house was always boarded up ; they served as the models for the fictional Radleys . The son of the family got into some legal trouble and the father kept him at home for 24 years out of shame . He was hidden until virtually forgotten ; he died in 1952 .
The origin of Tom Robinson is less clear , although many have speculated that his character was inspired by several models . When Lee was 10 years old , a white woman near Monroeville accused a black man named Walter Lett of raping her . The story and the trial were covered by her father 's newspaper which reported that Lett was convicted and sentenced to death . After a series of letters appeared claiming Lett had been falsely accused , his sentence was commuted to life in prison . He died there of tuberculosis in 1937 . Scholars believe that Robinson 's difficulties reflect the notorious case of the Scottsboro Boys , in which nine black men were convicted of raping two white women on negligible evidence . However , in 2005 , Lee stated that she had in mind something less sensational , although the Scottsboro case served " the same purpose " to display Southern prejudices . Emmett Till , a black teenager who was murdered for flirting with a white woman in Mississippi in 1955 , and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement , is also considered a model for Tom Robinson .
= = Style = =
The strongest element of style noted by critics and reviewers is Lee 's talent for narration , which in an early review in Time was called " tactile brilliance " . Writing a decade later , another scholar noted , " Harper Lee has a remarkable gift of story @-@ telling . Her art is visual , and with cinematographic fluidity and subtlety we see a scene melting into another scene without jolts of transition . " Lee combines the narrator 's voice of a child observing her surroundings with a grown woman 's reflecting on her childhood , using the ambiguity of this voice combined with the narrative technique of flashback to play intricately with perspectives . This narrative method allows Lee to tell a " delightfully deceptive " story that mixes the simplicity of childhood observation with adult situations complicated by hidden motivations and unquestioned tradition . However , at times the blending causes reviewers to question Scout 's preternatural vocabulary and depth of understanding . Both Harding LeMay and the novelist and literary critic Granville Hicks expressed doubt that children as sheltered as Scout and Jem could understand the complexities and horrors involved in the trial for Tom Robinson 's life .
Writing about Lee 's style and use of humor in a tragic story , scholar Jacqueline Tavernier @-@ Courbin states : " Laughter ... [ exposes ] the gangrene under the beautiful surface but also by demeaning it ; one can hardly ... be controlled by what one is able to laugh at . " Scout 's precocious observations about her neighbors and behavior inspire National Endowment of the Arts director David Kipen to call her " hysterically funny " . To address complex issues , however , Tavernier @-@ Courbin notes that Lee uses parody , satire , and irony effectively by using a child 's perspective . After Dill promises to marry her , then spends too much time with Jem , Scout reasons the best way to get him to pay attention to her is to beat him up , which she does several times . Scout 's first day in school is a satirical treatment of education ; her teacher says she must undo the damage Atticus has wrought in teaching her to read and write , and forbids Atticus from teaching her further . Lee treats the most unfunny situations with irony , however , as Jem and Scout try to understand how Maycomb embraces racism and still tries sincerely to remain a decent society . Satire and irony are used to such an extent that Tavernier @-@ Courbin suggests one interpretation for the book 's title : Lee is doing the mocking — of education , the justice system , and her own society by using them as subjects of her humorous disapproval .
Critics also note the entertaining methods used to drive the plot . When Atticus is out of town , Jem locks a Sunday school classmate in the church basement with the furnace during a game of Shadrach . This prompts their black housekeeper Calpurnia to escort Scout and Jem to her church , which allows the children a glimpse into her personal life , as well as Tom Robinson 's . Scout falls asleep during the Halloween pageant and makes a tardy entrance onstage , causing the audience to laugh uproariously . She is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume , which saves her life .
= = = Genres = = =
Scholars have characterized To Kill a Mockingbird as both a Southern Gothic and coming @-@ of @-@ age or Bildungsroman novel . The grotesque and near @-@ supernatural qualities of Boo Radley and his house , and the element of racial injustice involving Tom Robinson contribute to the aura of the Gothic in the novel . Lee used the term " Gothic " to describe the architecture of Maycomb 's courthouse and in regard to Dill 's exaggeratedly morbid performances as Boo Radley . Outsiders are also an important element of Southern Gothic texts and Scout and Jem 's questions about the hierarchy in the town cause scholars to compare the novel to Catcher in the Rye and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn . Despite challenging the town 's systems , Scout reveres Atticus as an authority above all others , because he believes that following one 's conscience is the highest priority , even when the result is social ostracism . However , scholars debate about the Southern Gothic classification , noting that Boo Radley is in fact human , protective , and benevolent . Furthermore , in addressing themes such as alcoholism , incest , rape , and racial violence , Lee wrote about her small town realistically rather than melodramatically . She portrays the problems of individual characters as universal underlying issues in every society .
As children coming of age , Scout and Jem face hard realities and learn from them . Lee seems to examine Jem 's sense of loss about how his neighbors have disappointed him more than Scout 's . Jem says to their neighbor Miss Maudie the day after the trial , " It 's like bein ' a caterpillar wrapped in a cocoon ... I always thought Maycomb folks were the best folks in the world , least that 's what they seemed like " . This leads him to struggle with understanding the separations of race and class . Just as the novel is an illustration of the changes Jem faces , it is also an exploration of the realities Scout must face as an atypical girl on the verge of womanhood . As one scholar writes , " To Kill a Mockingbird can be read as a feminist Bildungsroman , for Scout emerges from her childhood experiences with a clear sense of her place in her community and an awareness of her potential power as the woman she will one day be . "
= = Themes = =
Despite the novel 's immense popularity upon publication , it has not received the close critical attention paid to other modern American classics . Don Noble , editor of a book of essays about the novel , estimates that the ratio of sales to analytical essays may be a million to one . Christopher Metress writes that the book is " an icon whose emotive sway remains strangely powerful because it also remains unexamined " . Noble suggests it does not receive academic attention because of its consistent status as a best @-@ seller ( " If that many people like it , it can 't be any good . " ) and that general readers seem to feel they do not require analytical interpretation .
Harper Lee has remained famously detached from interpreting the novel since the mid @-@ 1960s . However , she gave some insight into her themes when , in a rare letter to the editor , she wrote in response to the passionate reaction her book caused : " Surely it is plain to the simplest intelligence that To Kill a Mockingbird spells out in words of seldom more than two syllables a code of honor and conduct , Christian in its ethic , that is the heritage of all Southerners . "
= = = Southern life and racial injustice = = =
When the book was released , reviewers noted that it was divided into two parts , and opinion was mixed about Lee 's ability to connect them . The first part of the novel concerns the children 's fascination with Boo Radley and their feelings of safety and comfort in the neighborhood . Reviewers were generally charmed by Scout and Jem 's observations of their quirky neighbors . One writer was so impressed by Lee 's detailed explanations of the people of Maycomb that he categorized the book as Southern romantic regionalism . This sentimentalism can be seen in Lee 's representation of the Southern caste system to explain almost every character 's behavior in the novel . Scout 's Aunt Alexandra attributes Maycomb 's inhabitants ' faults and advantages to genealogy ( families that have gambling streaks and drinking streaks ) , and the narrator sets the action and characters amid a finely detailed background of the Finch family history and the history of Maycomb . This regionalist theme is further reflected in Mayella Ewell 's apparent powerlessness to admit her advances toward Tom Robinson , and Scout 's definition of " fine folks " being people with good sense who do the best they can with what they have . The South itself , with its traditions and taboos , seems to drive the plot more than the characters .
The second part of the novel deals with what book reviewer Harding LeMay termed " the spirit @-@ corroding shame of the civilized white Southerner in the treatment of the Negro " . In the years following its release , many reviewers considered To Kill a Mockingbird a novel primarily concerned with race relations . Claudia Durst Johnson considers it " reasonable to believe " that the novel was shaped by two events involving racial issues in Alabama : Rosa Parks ' refusal to yield her seat on a city bus to a white person , which sparked the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott , and the 1956 riots at the University of Alabama after Autherine Lucy and Polly Myers were admitted ( Myers eventually withdrew her application and Lucy was expelled , but reinstated in 1980 ) . In writing about the historical context of the novel 's construction , two other literary scholars remark : " To Kill a Mockingbird was written and published amidst the most significant and conflict @-@ ridden social change in the South since the Civil War and Reconstruction . Inevitably , despite its mid @-@ 1930s setting , the story told from the perspective of the 1950s voices the conflicts , tensions , and fears induced by this transition . "
Scholar Patrick Chura , who suggests Emmett Till was a model for Tom Robinson , enumerates the injustices endured by the fictional Tom that Till also faced . Chura notes the icon of the black rapist causing harm to the representation of the " mythologized vulnerable and sacred Southern womanhood " . Any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused . Tom Robinson 's trial was juried by poor white farmers who convicted him despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence , as more educated and moderate white townspeople supported the jury 's decision . Furthermore , the victim of racial injustice in To Kill a Mockingbird was physically impaired , which made him unable to commit the act he was accused of , but also crippled him in other ways . Roslyn Siegel includes Tom Robinson as an example of the recurring motif among white Southern writers of the black man as " stupid , pathetic , defenseless , and dependent upon the fair dealing of the whites , rather than his own intelligence to save him " . Although Tom is spared from being lynched , he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison , shot seventeen times .
The theme of racial injustice appears symbolically in the novel as well . For example , Atticus must shoot a rabid dog , even though it is not his job to do so . Carolyn Jones argues that the dog represents prejudice within the town of Maycomb , and Atticus , who waits on a deserted street to shoot the dog , must fight against the town 's racism without help from other white citizens . He is also alone when he faces a group intending to lynch Tom Robinson and once more in the courthouse during Tom 's trial . Lee even uses dreamlike imagery from the mad dog incident to describe some of the courtroom scenes . Jones writes , " [ t ] he real mad dog in Maycomb is the racism that denies the humanity of Tom Robinson .... When Atticus makes his summation to the jury , he literally bares himself to the jury 's and the town 's anger . "
= = = Class = = =
In a 1964 interview , Lee remarked that her aspiration was " to be ... the Jane Austen of South Alabama . " Both Austen and Lee challenged the social status quo and valued individual worth over social standing . When Scout embarrasses her poorer classmate , Walter Cunningham , at the Finch home one day , Calpurnia , their black cook , chastises and punishes her for doing so . Atticus respects Calpurnia 's judgment , and later in the book even stands up to his sister , the formidable Aunt Alexandra , when she strongly suggests they fire Calpurnia . One writer notes that Scout , " in Austenian fashion " , satirizes women with whom she does not wish to identify . Literary critic Jean Blackall lists the priorities shared by the two authors : " affirmation of order in society , obedience , courtesy , and respect for the individual without regard for status " .
Scholars argue that Lee 's approach to class and race was more complex " than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ' poor white trash ' ... Lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice , silence the voices that might challenge the existing order , and greatly complicate many Americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation . " Lee 's use of the middle @-@ class narrative voice is a literary device that allows an intimacy with the reader , regardless of class or cultural background , and fosters a sense of nostalgia . Sharing Scout and Jem 's perspective , the reader is allowed to engage in relationships with the conservative antebellum Mrs. Dubose ; the lower @-@ class Ewells , and the Cunninghams who are equally poor but behave in vastly different ways ; the wealthy but ostracized Mr. Dolphus Raymond ; and Calpurnia and other members of the black community . The children internalize Atticus ' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person 's skin , gaining a greater understanding of people 's motives and behavior .
= = = Courage and compassion = = =
The novel has been noted for its poignant exploration of different forms of courage . Scout 's impulsive inclination to fight students who insult Atticus reflects her attempt to stand up for him and defend him . Atticus is the moral center of the novel , however , and he teaches Jem one of the most significant lessons of courage . In a statement that foreshadows Atticus ' motivation for defending Tom Robinson and describes Mrs. Dubose , who is determined to break herself of a morphine addiction , Atticus tells Jem that courage is " when you 're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what " .
Charles Shields , who has written the only book @-@ length biography of Harper Lee to date , offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that " its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal " . Atticus ' lesson to Scout that " you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view — until you climb around in his skin and walk around in it " exemplifies his compassion . She ponders the comment when listening to Mayella Ewell 's testimony . When Mayella reacts with confusion to Atticus ' question if she has any friends , Scout offers that she must be lonelier than Boo Radley . Having walked Boo home after he saves their lives , Scout stands on the Radley porch and considers the events of the previous three years from Boo 's perspective . One writer remarks , " ... [ w ] hile the novel concerns tragedy and injustice , heartache and loss , it also carries with it a strong sense [ of ] courage , compassion , and an awareness of history to be better human beings . "
= = = Gender roles = = =
Just as Lee explores Jem 's development in coming to grips with a racist and unjust society , Scout realizes what being female means , and several female characters influence her development . Scout 's primary identification with her father and older brother allows her to describe the variety and depth of female characters in the novel both as one of them and as an outsider . Scout 's primary female models are Calpurnia and her neighbor Miss Maudie , both of whom are strong willed , independent , and protective . Mayella Ewell also has an influence ; Scout watches her destroy an innocent man in order to hide her desire for him . The female characters who comment the most on Scout 's lack of willingness to adhere to a more feminine role are also those who promote the most racist and classist points of view . For example , Mrs. Dubose chastises Scout for not wearing a dress and camisole , and indicates she is ruining the family name by not doing so , in addition to insulting Atticus ' intentions to defend Tom Robinson . By balancing the masculine influences of Atticus and Jem with the feminine influences of Calpurnia and Miss Maudie , one scholar writes , " Lee gradually demonstrates that Scout is becoming a feminist in the South , for with the use of first @-@ person narration , she indicates that Scout / Jean Louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a Southern lady she possessed as a child . "
Absent mothers and abusive fathers are another theme in the novel . Scout and Jem 's mother died before Scout could remember her , Mayella 's mother is dead , and Mrs. Radley is silent about Boo 's confinement to the house . Apart from Atticus , the fathers described are abusers . Bob Ewell , it is hinted , molested his daughter , and Mr. Radley imprisons his son in his house until Boo is remembered only as a phantom . Bob Ewell and Mr. Radley represent a form of masculinity that Atticus does not , and the novel suggests that such men as well as the traditionally feminine hypocrites at the Missionary Society can lead society astray . Atticus stands apart as a unique model of masculinity ; as one scholar explains : " It is the job of real men who embody the traditional masculine qualities of heroic individualism , bravery , and an unshrinking knowledge of and dedication to social justice and morality , to set the society straight . "
= = = Laws , written and unwritten = = =
Allusions to legal issues in To Kill a Mockingbird , particularly in scenes outside of the courtroom , has drawn the attention from legal scholars . Claudia Durst Johnson writes that " a greater volume of critical readings has been amassed by two legal scholars in law journals than by all the literary scholars in literary journals " . The opening quote by the 19th @-@ century essayist Charles Lamb reads : " Lawyers , I suppose , were children once . " Johnson notes that even in Scout and Jem 's childhood world , compromises and treaties are struck with each other by spitting on one 's palm and laws are discussed by Atticus and his children : is it right that Bob Ewell hunts and traps out of season ? Many social codes are broken by people in symbolic courtrooms : Mr. Dolphus Raymond has been exiled by society for taking a black woman as his common @-@ law wife and having interracial children ; Mayella Ewell is beaten by her father in punishment for kissing Tom Robinson ; by being turned into a non @-@ person , Boo Radley receives a punishment far greater than any court could have given him . Scout repeatedly breaks codes and laws and reacts to her punishment for them . For example , she refuses to wear frilly clothes , saying that Aunt Alexandra 's " fanatical " attempts to place her in them made her feel " a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on [ her ] " . Johnson states , " [ t ] he novel is a study of how Jem and Scout begin to perceive the complexity of social codes and how the configuration of relationships dictated by or set off by those codes fails or nurtures the inhabitants of ( their ) small worlds . "
= = = Loss of innocence = = =
Songbirds and their associated symbolism appear throughout the novel . The family 's last name of Finch also shares Lee 's mother 's maiden name . The titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme , which first appears when Atticus , having given his children air @-@ rifles for Christmas , allows their Uncle Jack to teach them to shoot . Atticus warns them that , although they can " shoot all the bluejays they want " , they must remember that " it 's a sin to kill a mockingbird " . Confused , Scout approaches her neighbor Miss Maudie , who explains that mockingbirds never harm other living creatures . She points out that mockingbirds simply provide pleasure with their songs , saying , " They don 't do one thing but sing their hearts out for us . " Writer Edwin Bruell summarized the symbolism when he wrote in 1964 , " ' To kill a mockingbird ' is to kill that which is innocent and harmless — like Tom Robinson . " Scholars have noted that Lee often returns to the mockingbird theme when trying to make a moral point .
Tom Robinson is the chief example among several innocents destroyed carelessly or deliberately throughout the novel . However , scholar Christopher Metress connects the mockingbird to Boo Radley : " Instead of wanting to exploit Boo for her own fun ( as she does in the beginning of the novel by putting on gothic plays about his history ) , Scout comes to see him as a ' mockingbird ' — that is , as someone with an inner goodness that must be cherished . " The last pages of the book illustrate this as Scout relates the moral of a story Atticus has been reading to her , and in allusions to both Boo Radley and Tom Robinson states about a character who was misunderstood , " when they finally saw him , why he hadn 't done any of those things ... Atticus , he was real nice , " to which he responds , " Most people are , Scout , when you finally see them . "
The novel exposes the loss of innocence so frequently that reviewer R. A. Dave claims that because every character has to face , or even suffer defeat , the book takes on elements of a classical tragedy . In exploring how each character deals with his or her own personal defeat , Lee builds a framework to judge whether the characters are heroes or fools . She guides the reader in such judgments , alternating between unabashed adoration and biting irony . Scout 's experience with the Missionary Society is an ironic juxtaposition of women who mock her , gossip , and " reflect a smug , colonialist attitude toward other races " while giving the " appearance of gentility , piety , and morality " . Conversely , when Atticus loses Tom 's case , he is last to leave the courtroom , except for his children and the black spectators in the colored balcony , who rise silently as he walks underneath them , to honor his efforts .
= = Reception = =
Despite her editors ' warnings that the book might not sell well , it quickly became a sensation , bringing acclaim to Lee in literary circles , in her hometown of Monroeville , and throughout Alabama . The book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the Book of the Month Club and editions released by Reader 's Digest Condensed Books .
Initial reactions to the novel were varied . The New Yorker declared Lee " a skilled , unpretentious , and totally ingenuous writer " , and The Atlantic Monthly 's reviewer rated the book " pleasant , undemanding reading " , but found the narrative voice — " a six @-@ year @-@ old girl with the prose style of a well @-@ educated adult " — to be implausible . Time magazine 's 1960 review of the book states that it " teaches the reader an astonishing number of useful truths about little girls and about Southern life " and calls Scout Finch " the most appealing child since Carson McCullers ' Frankie got left behind at the wedding " . The Chicago Sunday Tribune noted the even @-@ handed approach to the narration of the novel 's events , writing : " This is in no way a sociological novel . It underlines no cause ... To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel of strong contemporary national significance . "
Not all reviewers were enthusiastic . Some lamented the use of poor white Southerners , and one @-@ dimensional black victims , and Granville Hicks labeled the book " melodramatic and contrived " . When the book was first released , Southern writer Flannery O 'Connor commented , " I think for a child 's book it does all right . It 's interesting that all the folks that are buying it don 't know they 're reading a child 's book . Somebody ought to say what it is . " Carson McCullers apparently agreed with the Time magazine review , writing to a cousin : " Well , honey , one thing we know is that she 's been poaching on my literary preserves . "
One year after its publication To Kill a Mockingbird had been translated into ten languages . In the years since , it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages . The novel has never been out of print in hardcover or paperback , and has become part of the standard literature curriculum . A 2008 survey of secondary books read by students between grades 9 – 12 in the U.S. indicates the novel is the most widely read book in these grades . A 1991 survey by the Book of the Month Club and the Library of Congress Center for the Book found that To Kill a Mockingbird was rated behind only the Bible in books that are " most often cited as making a difference " . It is considered by some to be the Great American Novel .
The 50th anniversary of the novel 's release was met with celebrations and reflections on its impact . Eric Zorn of the Chicago Tribune praises Lee 's " rich use of language " but writes that the central lesson is that " courage isn 't always flashy , isn 't always enough , but is always in style " . Jane Sullivan in the Sydney Morning Herald agrees , stating that the book " still rouses fresh and horrified indignation " as it examines morality , a topic that has recently become unfashionable . Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie writing in The Guardian states that Lee , rare among American novelists , writes with " a fiercely progressive ink , in which there is nothing inevitable about racism and its very foundation is open to question " , comparing her to William Faulkner , who wrote about racism as an inevitability . Literary critic Rosemary Goring in Scotland 's The Herald notes the connections between Lee and Jane Austen , stating the book 's central theme , that " one ’ s moral convictions are worth fighting for , even at the risk of being reviled " is eloquently discussed .
Native Alabamian Allen Barra sharply criticized Lee and the novel in The Wall Street Journal calling Atticus a " repository of cracker @-@ barrel epigrams " and the novel represents a " sugar @-@ coated myth " of Alabama history . Barra writes , " It 's time to stop pretending that To Kill a Mockingbird is some kind of timeless classic that ranks with the great works of American literature . Its bloodless liberal humanism is sadly dated " . Thomas Mallon in The New Yorker criticizes Atticus ' stiff and self @-@ righteous demeanor , and calls Scout " a kind of highly constructed doll " whose speech and actions are improbable . Although acknowledging that the novel works , Mallon blasts Lee 's " wildly unstable " narrative voice for developing a story about a content neighborhood until it begins to impart morals in the courtroom drama , following with his observation that " the book has begun to cherish its own goodness " by the time the case is over . Defending the book , Akin Ajayi writes that justice " is often complicated , but must always be founded upon the notion of equality and fairness for all . " Ajayi states that the book forces readers to question issues about race , class , and society , but that it was not written to resolve them .
Many writers compare their perceptions of To Kill a Mockingbird as adults with when they first read it as children . Mary McDonagh Murphy interviewed celebrities including Oprah Winfrey , Rosanne Cash , Tom Brokaw , and Harper 's sister Alice Lee , who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled Scout , Atticus , and Boo .
= = = Atticus Finch and the legal profession = = =
One of the most significant impacts To Kill a Mockingbird has had is Atticus Finch 's model of integrity for the legal profession . As scholar Alice Petry explains , " Atticus has become something of a folk hero in legal circles and is treated almost as if he were an actual person . " Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center cites Atticus Finch as the reason he became a lawyer , and Richard Matsch , the federal judge who presided over the Timothy McVeigh trial , counts Atticus as a major judicial influence . One law professor at the University of Notre Dame stated that the most influential textbook he taught from was To Kill a Mockingbird , and an article in the Michigan Law Review claims , " No real @-@ life lawyer has done more for the self @-@ image or public perception of the legal profession , " before questioning whether " Atticus Finch is a paragon of honor or an especially slick hired gun " .
In 1992 , an Alabama editorial called for the death of Atticus , saying that as liberal as Atticus was , he still worked within a system of institutionalized racism and sexism and should not be revered . The editorial sparked a flurry of responses from attorneys who entered the profession because of him and esteemed him as a hero . Critics of Atticus maintain he is morally ambiguous and does not use his legal skills to challenge the racist status quo in Maycomb . However , in 1997 , the Alabama State Bar erected a monument to Atticus in Monroeville , marking his existence as the " first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history " . In 2008 , Lee herself received an honorary special membership to the Alabama State Bar for creating Atticus who " has become the personification of the exemplary lawyer in serving the legal needs of the poor " .
= = = Social commentary and challenges = = =
To Kill a Mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963 . The book 's racial slurs , profanity , and frank discussion of rape have led people to challenge its appropriateness in libraries and classrooms across the United States . The American Library Association reported that To Kill a Mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 – 2009 .
One of the first incidents of the book being challenged was in Hanover , Virginia , in 1966 : a parent protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral . Johnson cites examples of letters to local newspapers , which ranged from amusement to fury ; those letters expressing the most outrage , however , complained about Mayella Ewell 's attraction to Tom Robinson over the depictions of rape . Upon learning the school administrators were holding hearings to decide the book 's appropriateness for the classroom , Harper Lee sent $ 10 to The Richmond News Leader suggesting it to be used toward the enrollment of " the Hanover County School Board in any first grade of its choice " . The National Education Association in 1968 placed the novel second on a list of books receiving the most complaints from private organizations — after Little Black Sambo .
With a shift of attitudes about race in the 1970s , To Kill a Mockingbird faced challenges of a different sort : the treatment of racism in Maycomb was not condemned harshly enough . This has led to disparate perceptions that the novel has a generally positive impact on race relations for white readers , but a more ambiguous reception by black readers . In one high @-@ profile case outside the U.S. , school districts in the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia attempted to have the book removed from standard teaching curricula in the 1990s , stating :
The terminology in this novel subjects students to humiliating experiences that rob them of their self @-@ respect and the respect of their peers . The word ' Nigger ' is used 48 times [ in ] the novel ... We believe that the English Language Arts curriculum in Nova Scotia must enable all students to feel comfortable with ideas , feelings and experiences presented without fear of humiliation ... To Kill a Mockingbird is clearly a book that no longer meets these goals and therefore must no longer be used for classroom instruction .
Furthermore , despite the novel 's thematic focus on racial injustice , its black characters are not fully examined . In its use of racial epithets , stereotyped depictions of superstitious blacks , and Calpurnia , who to some critics is an updated version of the " contented slave " motif and to others simply unexplored , the book is viewed as marginalizing black characters . One writer asserts that the use of Scout 's narration serves as a convenient mechanism for readers to be innocent and detached from the racial conflict . Scout 's voice " functions as the not @-@ me which allows the rest of us — black and white , male and female — to find our relative position in society " . A teaching guide for the novel published by The English Journal cautions , " what seems wonderful or powerful to one group of students may seem degrading to another " . A Canadian language arts consultant found that the novel resonated well with white students , but that black students found it " demoralizing " . Another criticism , articulated by Michael Lind , is that the novel indulges in classist stereotyping and demonization of poor rural " white trash " .
The novel is cited as a factor in the success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s , however , in that it " arrived at the right moment to help the South and the nation grapple with the racial tensions ( of ) the accelerating civil rights movement " . Its publication is so closely associated with the Civil Rights Movement that many studies of the book and biographies of Harper Lee include descriptions of important moments in the movement , despite the fact that she had no direct involvement in any of them . Civil Rights leader Andrew Young comments that part of the book 's effectiveness is that it " inspires hope in the midst of chaos and confusion " and by using racial epithets portrays the reality of the times in which it was set . Young views the novel as " an act of humanity " in showing the possibility of people rising above their prejudices . Alabama author Mark Childress compares it to the impact of Uncle Tom 's Cabin , a book that is popularly implicated in starting the U.S. Civil War . Childress states the novel " gives white Southerners a way to understand the racism that they 've been brought up with and to find another way . And most white people in the South were good people . Most white people in the South were not throwing bombs and causing havoc ... I think the book really helped them come to understand what was wrong with the system in the way that any number of treatises could never do , because it was popular art , because it was told from a child 's point of view . "
Diane McWhorter , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning historian of the Birmingham civil rights campaign , asserts that To Kill a Mockingbird condemns racism instead of racists , and states that every child in the South has moments of racial cognitive dissonance when they are faced with the harsh reality of inequality . This feeling causes them to question the beliefs with which they have been raised , which for many children is what the novel does . McWhorter writes of Lee , " for a white person from the South to write a book like this in the late 1950s is really unusual — by its very existence an act of protest . " Author James McBride calls Lee brilliant but stops short of calling her brave : " I think by calling Harper Lee brave you kind of absolve yourself of your own racism ... She certainly set the standards in terms of how these issues need to be discussed , but in many ways I feel ... the moral bar 's been lowered . And that 's really distressing . We need a thousand Atticus Finches . " McBride , however , defends the book 's sentimentality , and the way Lee approaches the story with " honesty and integrity " .
= = = Rumors of authorship by Truman Capote = = =
Lee 's childhood friend , author Truman Capote , wrote on the dust jacket of the first edition , " Someone rare has written this very fine first novel : a writer with the liveliest sense of life , and the warmest , most authentic sense of humor . A touching book ; and so funny , so likeable . " While Capote may have helped Lee to edit the book , the National Endowment for the Arts considers rumors that he contributed heavily " baseless " . In 2003 , a Tuscaloosa newspaper quoted Capote 's biological father , Archulus Persons , as claiming that Capote had written " almost all " of the book . In 2006 , a Capote letter was donated to Monroeville 's literary heritage museum ; in a letter to a neighbor in Monroeville in 1959 , Capote mentioned that Lee was writing a book that was to be published soon . Extensive notes between Lee and her editor at Lippincott also refute the rumor of Capote 's authorship . Lee 's older sister , Alice , responded to the rumor , saying : " That 's the biggest lie ever told . "
= = = Honors = = =
During the years immediately following the novel 's publication , Harper Lee enjoyed the attention its popularity garnered her , granting interviews , visiting schools , and attending events honoring the book . In 1961 , when To Kill a Mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list , it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize , stunning Lee . It also won the Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the same year , and the Paperback of the Year award from Bestsellers magazine in 1962 . Starting in 1964 , Lee began to turn down interviews , complaining that the questions were monotonous , and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought . Since then , she declined talking with reporters about the book . She also steadfastly refused to provide an introduction , writing in 1995 : " Introductions inhibit pleasure , they kill the joy of anticipation , they frustrate curiosity . The only good thing about Introductions is that in some cases they delay the dose to come . Mockingbird still says what it has to say ; it has managed to survive the years without preamble . "
In 2001 , Lee was inducted into the Alabama Academy of Honor . In the same year , Chicago mayor Richard M. Daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries , and chose his favorite book , To Kill a Mockingbird , as the first title of the One City , One Book program . Lee declared that " there is no greater honor the novel could receive " . By 2004 , the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program , more than any other novel . David Kipen of the National Endowment of the Arts , who supervised The Big Read , states " people just seem to connect with it . It dredges up things in their own lives , their interactions across racial lines , legal encounters , and childhood . It 's just this skeleton key to so many different parts of people 's lives , and they cherish it . "
In 2006 , Lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Notre Dame . During the ceremony , the students and audience gave Lee a standing ovation , and the entire graduating class held up copies of To Kill a Mockingbird to honor her . Lee was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 5 , 2007 by President George W. Bush . In his remarks , Bush stated , " One reason To Kill a Mockingbird succeeded is the wise and kind heart of the author , which comes through on every page ... To Kill a Mockingbird has influenced the character of our country for the better . It 's been a gift to the entire world . As a model of good writing and humane sensibility , this book will be read and studied forever . "
= = Adaptations = =
= = = 1962 film = = =
The book was made into the well @-@ received 1962 film with the same title , starring Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch . The film 's producer , Alan J. Pakula , remembered Universal Pictures executives questioning him about a potential script : " They said , ' What story do you plan to tell for the film ? ' I said , ' Have you read the book ? ' They said , ' Yes . ' I said , ' That 's the story . ' " The movie was a hit at the box office , quickly grossing more than $ 20 million from a $ 2 @-@ million budget . It won three Oscars : Best Actor for Gregory Peck , Best Art Direction @-@ Set Decoration , Black @-@ and @-@ White , and Best Writing , Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium for Horton Foote . It was nominated for five more Oscars including Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Mary Badham , the actress who played Scout .
Harper Lee was pleased with the movie , saying : " In that film the man and the part met ... I 've had many , many offers to turn it into musicals , into TV or stage plays , but I 've always refused . That film was a work of art . " Peck met Lee 's father , the model for Atticus , before the filming . Lee 's father died before the film 's release , and Lee was so impressed with Peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocketwatch , which he had with him the evening he was awarded the Oscar for best actor . Years later , he was reluctant to tell Lee that the watch was stolen out of his luggage in London Heathrow Airport . When Peck eventually did tell Lee , he said she responded , " ' Well , it 's only a watch . ' Harper — she feels deeply , but she 's not a sentimental person about things . " Lee and Peck shared a friendship long after the movie was made . Peck 's grandson was named " Harper " in her honor .
In May 2005 , Lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the Los Angeles Public Library at the request of Peck 's widow Veronique , who said of Lee : " She 's like a national treasure . She 's someone who has made a difference ... with this book . The book is still as strong as it ever was , and so is the film . All the kids in the United States read this book and see the film in the seventh and eighth grades and write papers and essays . My husband used to get thousands and thousands of letters from teachers who would send them to him . "
= = = Play = = =
The book has also been adapted as a play by Christopher Sergel . It debuted in 1990 in Monroeville , a town that labels itself " The Literary Capital of Alabama " . The play runs every May on the county courthouse grounds and townspeople make up the cast . White male audience members are chosen at the intermission to make up the jury . During the courtroom scene the production moves into the Monroe County Courthouse and the audience is racially segregated . Author Albert Murray said of the relationship of the town to the novel ( and the annual performance ) : " It becomes part of the town ritual , like the religious underpinning of Mardi Gras . With the whole town crowded around the actual courthouse , it 's part of a central , civic education — what Monroeville aspires to be . "
Sergel 's play toured in the UK starting at West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in 2006 , and again in 2011 starting at the York Theatre Royal , both productions featuring Duncan Preston as Atticus Finch . The play also opened the 2013 season at Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre in London where it played to full houses and starred Robert Sean Leonard as Atticus Finch , his first London appearance in 22 years . The production returned to the venue to close the 2014 season , prior to a UK tour .
According to a National Geographic article , the novel is so revered in Monroeville that people quote lines from it like Scripture ; yet Harper Lee herself refused to attend any performances , because " she abhors anything that trades on the book 's fame " . To underscore this sentiment , Lee demanded that a book of recipes named Calpurnia 's Cookbook not be published and sold out of the Monroe County Heritage Museum . David Lister in The Independent states that Lee 's refusal to speak to reporters made them desire to interview her all the more , and her silence " makes Bob Dylan look like a media tart " . Despite her discouragement , a rising number of tourists made Monroeville their destination , hoping to see Lee 's inspiration for the book , or Lee herself . Local residents call them " Mockingbird groupies " , and although Lee was not reclusive , she refused publicity and interviews with an emphatic " Hell , no ! "
= = Go Set a Watchman = =
An earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird , titled Go Set a Watchman , was controversially released on July 14 , 2015 . This draft , which was completed in 1957 , is set 20 years after the time period depicted in To Kill a Mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative . This earlier version of the story follows an adult Scout Finch who travels from New York to visit her father , Atticus Finch , in Maycomb , Alabama , where she is confronted by the intolerance in her community . The Watchman manuscript was believed to have been lost until Lee 's lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it ; however , this claim has been widely disputed . Watchman contains early versions of many of the characters from To Kill a Mockingbird . According to Lee 's agent Andrew Nurnberg , Mockingbird was originally intended to be the first book of a trilogy : " They discussed publishing Mockingbird first , Watchman last , and a shorter connecting novel between the two . " This assertion has been discredited however by the rare books expert James S. Jaffe , who reviewed the pages at the request of Lee 's attorney and found them to be only another draft of " To Kill a Mockingbird " . The statement was also contrary to Jonathan Mahler 's description of how " Watchman " was seen as just the first draft of " Mockingbird " . Instances where many passages overlap between the two books , in some case word for word , also refutes this assertion .
= Interstate 355 =
Interstate 355 ( I @-@ 355 ) , also known as the Veterans Memorial Tollway , is an Interstate Highway and tollway in the western and southwest suburbs of Chicago in the U.S. state of Illinois . Like most other toll roads in the northeastern portion of the state , I @-@ 355 is maintained by the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority ( ISTHA ) . I @-@ 355 runs from I @-@ 80 in New Lenox north to I @-@ 290 in Itasca , a distance of 32 @.@ 5 miles ( 52 @.@ 3 km ) . With the exception of a four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) expansion in 2009 , from U.S. Route 34 ( US 34 , Ogden Avenue ) to 75th Street , the highway is six lanes wide for its entire length .
The tollway authority opened I @-@ 355 as the North – South Tollway in 1989 to ease congestion on Illinois Route 53 ( IL 53 ) , a parallel two @-@ lane state highway in central DuPage County . Initially , I @-@ 355 ran from I @-@ 55 north to I @-@ 290 . The new highway helped cut travel times for commuters traveling north and south in the county . According to commercial real estate developers at the time , the new tollway also opened the western suburbs of Chicago to commercial and industrial development .
On November 11 , 2007 , the tollway authority opened a southern extension of I @-@ 355 from I @-@ 55 to I @-@ 80 , a distance of 12 @.@ 5 miles ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) ; on its opening , the tollway authority changed the name of the tollway to " Veterans Memorial Tollway " . The tollway authority laid the route of the new extension through Will County and a small portion of Cook County , one of the fastest @-@ growing regions in Illinois . The tollway authority expected the extension to cut travel times in the region by 20 percent .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
From the late 1920s through 1963 , the two @-@ lane @-@ wide Rohlwing Road ( also known as SBI Route 53 , and later IL 53 ) serviced the north – south transportation corridor that includes eastern portions of DuPage County . From 1963 to 1970 , the Illinois Department of Transportation ( IDOT ) planned and built a new expressway north from Army Trail Road through Schaumburg to the Northwest Tollway ( now the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway ) . After its completion , IDOT rerouted IL 53 onto this new expressway from Rohlwing Road .
The original alignment of I @-@ 355 was defined in the Chicago Area Transportation Study ( abbreviated CATS ) Transportation Plan of April 1962 . The plan called for a supplemental system of limited @-@ access expressways to be built in the Chicago metropolitan area by 1980 , and defined corridors where the expressways were to be located . Most of these corridors , including the Des Plaines River expressway , the Crosstown Expressway running north – south along the west side of Chicago , and most of a proposed northern extension of IL 53 were scrapped because of intense local opposition .
Initially , state and county officials anticipated building a freeway for the expressway south of Army Trail Road , similar to the existing freeway north of Army Trail Road . In 1979 , Chicago mayor Jane Byrne canceled plans for the proposed Crosstown Expressway . Following the move , Congress gave the rights to half of the $ 200 million ( equivalent to $ 954 million in 2015 ) that had been earmarked for the Crosstown Expressway to DuPage County . However , county officials found this amount insufficient for construction of the new freeway . The officials then handed authority for the project over to the tollway authority , and spent the money on other projects in the county .
In June 1984 , Republican minority leader of the Illinois House of Representatives James " Pate " Philip helped push through legislation authorizing the construction of the tollway , then referred to as simply the DuPage Tollway . Officials at the Morton Arboretum , one of the nation 's premier woodland research centers , promptly filed a federal lawsuit to block construction of the tollway . They also promised to prevent the tollway authority from obtaining environmental approval from federal officials .
In April 1985 , the two agencies came to an agreement regarding construction of the new tollway . To protect the arboretum from salt spray and other pollutants caused by cars on the tollway , the tollway authority agreed to build I @-@ 355 below grade around the perimeter of the arboretum . The tollway authority would build a water collection system to divert runoff from the arboretum . In addition , they would build earthen berms along the new road , preventing salt spray from damaging arboretum plants . In exchange , the DuPage County Forest Preserve District agreed to a 99 @-@ year lease providing 189 acres ( 0 @.@ 76 km2 ) of its land to the arboretum for the development of an " urban vegetation laboratory " . Under the agreement , Morton Arboretum agreed to charge DuPage County residents lower admissions one day of the week , build a bicycle path connecting the arboretum to nearby forest preserves , and begin a joint clean @-@ streams program to improve the water quality of DuPage County 's lakes and streams . In January 1986 , the tollway paid out $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 7 @.@ 31 million in 2015 ) to a trust fund as a part of the settlement to help finance the arboretum 's new programs .
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers released a preliminary environmental impact statement on March 13 , 1986 . At a public hearing a month later , arboretum executives and Woodridge officials strongly criticized the report as " fatally flawed " and a repeat of tollway @-@ provided research , including typographical errors . The opposition also cited outdated and inaccurate data regarding wetlands replacement , salt dispersion , and the lack of compensation to residents for lowered property values . The tollway authority agreed to run the road below @-@ grade at 75th Street instead of as a 28 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) elevated highway . In addition , they agreed to spend an extra $ 1 million ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 92 million in 2015 ) on the redesigned elevation and interchange .
The Corps of Engineers issued a permit for the tollway on October 8 , 1986 , rejecting last @-@ minute concerns from the Sierra Club to reroute the toll road around sections of Churchill Woods Prairie , between Glen Ellyn and Lombard . The permit allowed the first two earth moving contracts issued by the tollway authority to move forward . The tollway authority put the total cost of 17 @.@ 7 miles ( 28 @.@ 5 km ) of new pavement at $ 450 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in 2015 ) . Of the total cost , $ 325 million ( equivalent to $ 904 million in 2015 ) was allocated for construction , $ 30 million ( equivalent to $ 83 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) to alleviating environmental concerns , including moving and enlarging 117 acres ( 0 @.@ 47 km2 ) of wetlands , and $ 30 million ( equivalent to $ 83 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) for utility relocation . Work in 1987 consisted primarily of excavation , embankment building and land acquisition .
Because of problems with pavement on other roads in the system and anticipation of heavy traffic on the new Interstate , the tollway authority decided to pave I @-@ 355 with pavement expected to last 20 years . Construction workers laid concrete on the tollway to a thickness of 12 inches ( 30 cm )
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5 extension , stopping at each interchange to remove barricades . By the time the maintenance crews began to remove barricades along the northbound lanes of the extension , a group of 50 to 60 vehicles had gathered behind the crews .
= = = Veterans Memorial Trail = = =
As part of constructing the southern extension , the tollway authority donated a 15 @-@ to @-@ 20 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 5 – 6 m ) corridor to local municipalities for the construction of a multi @-@ use trail , named the Veterans Memorial Trail , that will run along most of the length of the tollway from I @-@ 80 to I @-@ 55 . Completion of the trail is expected to cost $ 10 million , with funding to be provided by local communities along the path . A new construction fund for the trail was created from registration fees collected for " Roll the Tollway " . The Active Transportation Alliance announced on January 29 , 2008 that about $ 108 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 125 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) was raised through " Roll the Tollway " . Of this amount , $ 70 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 81 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) was set aside for preliminary engineering studies on the 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) bicycle trail . The remaining amount was directed towards advocacy efforts for the Chicago Bicycle Federation and other local bicycle clubs .
The initial engineering phase of the bike trail has been completed in the form of the I @-@ 355 Area Trails Master Plan , a framework created by Housel Lavigne Associates designed to distribute the work of creating and funding the trail among local communities . The Forest Preserve District of Will County has begun work on the Veterans Memorial Trail from International Parkway , Woodridge , to 135th Street , Romeoville , and will then extend the trail to US 6 in the Village of New Lenox . This addition will link the trail to a number of businesses in New Lenox , including a shopping mall currently being constructed , Silver Cross Hospital , and medical offices . The Omnibus Appropriations Act included $ 470 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 543 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) in federal funding for construction of the first phase of the trail .
= = Route description = =
The southern terminus of I @-@ 355 is northeast of New Lenox , where the highway intersects I @-@ 80 . I @-@ 355 is routed north and slightly west through rural , hilly portions of Will County . Just after the US 6 interchange ( mile 1 @.@ 0 ) , tollway drivers pay a toll at Spring Creek Toll Plaza , the only toll plaza on the southern extension of I @-@ 355 . It continues north through the rural sections of Will County , having exits that serve the towns of Homer Glen and Lockport . At 135th Street ( approximately mile 8 @.@ 0 ) in Lemont , I @-@ 355 briefly enters Cook County . After an interchange at 127th Street ( mile 9 @.@ 0 ) , I @-@ 355 crosses over the Des Plaines River on the Des Plaines River Valley Bridge before returning to Will County . Shortly north of the bridge , I @-@ 355 intersects I @-@ 55 at Bolingbrook ( mile 12 @.@ 5 ) . Multiple flyover ramps connect all directions of both highways .
North of I @-@ 55 , I @-@ 355 continues to run almost due north through the established western suburbs of Chicago in DuPage County . Travelers pay another toll just north of Boughton Road , at the Boughton Road Toll Plaza ( mile 13 @.@ 5 ) . Continuing north , I @-@ 355 has another multiple flyover interchange with I @-@ 88 ( miles 19 @.@ 5 and 23 @.@ 0 ) , officially designated the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway . On the southern end of the interchange , northbound I @-@ 355 has exits to both directions of I @-@ 88 . I @-@ 355 then swings below I @-@ 88 and runs side @-@ by @-@ side with the other tollway for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Southbound exits to both directions of I @-@ 88 are at the northern end of the interchange . At the Army Trail Road Toll Plaza ( mile 29 @.@ 0 ) , through traffic pays the last toll of the tollway . I @-@ 355 has no tolls north of the Army Trail Road exit ( mile 30 ) in Addison . There is one untolled exit ( mile 31 @.@ 5 ) at US 20 ( Lake Street ) north of the tollway . I @-@ 355 terminates at the I @-@ 290 interchange near the border of the villages of Itasca and Addison .
As a result of a toll rate increase effective January 1 , 2012 , the northernmost two toll plazas ( Boughton Road and Army Trail Road ) charge $ 1 @.@ 90 cash and $ 0 @.@ 95 for cars with I @-@ Pass and E @-@ ZPass . The Spring Creek Toll Plaza charges $ 3 @.@ 80 for travelers paying with cash and $ 1 @.@ 90 for I @-@ Pass and E @-@ ZPass . All three toll plazas force traffic paying with cash to exit right into an area separate from the dedicated I @-@ Pass lanes . Drivers paying with cash then pay their tolls at manned plaza tollbooths . I @-@ Pass and E @-@ ZPass equipped cars and trucks are permitted to stay on the mainline and pay tolls at highway speeds in the tollway 's ORT lanes .
On I @-@ 355 , the only control cities that are actual cities are Joliet , St. Louis , Missouri , and from I @-@ 80 , Rockford . Other control cities on I @-@ 355 are limited to general areas of suburban Chicago . For example , control cities for I @-@ 355 while on I @-@ 55 are " West Suburbs " and " Southwest Suburbs " . The control city for areas north of I @-@ 88 are " Northwest Suburbs " .
Because of increasing congestion , the Veterans Memorial Tollway has been widened to eight lanes between 75th Street and US 34 . The tollway authority added the four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , $ 60 @.@ 4 @-@ million project ( equivalent to $ 70 @.@ 2 million in 2015 ) to its Congestion Relief Plan in mid @-@ 2007 , and the new lanes opened on October 24 , 2009 .
= = Exit list = =
= Larry Itliong =
Larry Dulay Itliong ( 25 October 1913 – 8 February 1977 ) , also known as " Seven Fingers " , was a Filipino American labor organizer . He organized West Coast agricultural workers starting in the 1930s , and rose to national prominence in 1965 , when he , Philip Vera Cruz , Benjamin Gines and Pete Velasco , walked off the farms of area table @-@ grape growers , demanding wages equal to the federal minimum wage , that became known as the Delano grape strike . He has been described as " one of the fathers of the West Coast labor movement . "
= = Biography = =
Itliong was a native of Pangasinan Province in the Philippines . One of six children of Artemio and Francesca Itliong , Itliong only had a sixth grade education . He immigrated to the United States in 1929 and joined his first strike in 1930 ; Itliong was only 14 when he came to the United States . Itliong was an excellent card player , and avid cigar smoker , who spoke multiple Filipino languages , Spanish , Cantonese , Japanese , and taught himself about law . Itliong married six times , had seven children , and raised his family in the Delano area and in the Little Manila community of Stockton , California
As a farmworker Itliong worked in Alaska , where he organized cannery and agricultural unions , Washington , and up and down California ; he also worked in Montana and South Dakota . While living in Alaska , he helped found the Alaska Cannery Workers Union ( which later became Local 7 of the United Cannery and Packing and Allied Workers Union , then Local 7 of the International Longshoreman 's and Warehouse Workers Union ) . He lost three fingers in an accident in an Alaskan cannery , which earned him the nickname , " Seven Fingers . "
Some of the labor organizers whom Itliong met in his early days had ties to the Communist Party . Filipinos in California lead the way in unionization efforts among farmworkers in the 1930s and 40s . During World War II , Itliong served on a U.S. Army transport ship as a messman . After the war , he settled in the city of Stockton in California 's Central Valley . In 1948 , Itliong ( along with Rudy Delvo , Chris Mensalvas , Philip Vera Cruz , and Ernesto Mangaoang ) became involved in the 1948 asparagus strike , which was the first major agriculture strike after World War II . Itliong served as the first shop steward of International Longshore and Warehouse Union Local 37 , in Seattle , and was elected its vice @-@ president in 1953 . He served as secretary of the Filipino Community of Stockton from 1954 to 1956 . In 1956 , Itliong founded the Filipino Farm Labor Union in Stockton . In 1957 , he was elected president of the Filipino Voters League in Stockton . By 1965 , Itliong was leading the AFL – CIO union Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee ; the majority of members of the committee were Filipinos who had in the 1930s arrived in the United States .
A vote was held on 3 May 1965 in which the committee voted to strike against Coachella Valley grape growers . Although the strikers weren 't able to negotiate a contract with the growers , they did succeed in winning higher wages . Following the success in Southern California , on 8 September 1965 the Agriculture Workers Organizing Committee voted to strike against grape growers in Delano , California , where the grape season starts in September . This strike became the first time Mexican workers , due to the decision of Cesar Chavez , did not break a strike of Filipinos ; later , on 16 September 1965 , Chavez 's National Farm Workers Association joined the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee on the picket lines . These strikes occurred around the same time when younger Filipino Americans began a period of political self @-@ reflection and awakening .
The Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee and National Farm Workers Association merged to form the United Farm Workers ; Itliong was skeptical of the merger , as he believed that Mexicans would become dominant over the Filipinos when the organizations merged , and that improving work conditions would come at the expense of Filipino farmworkers , but Itliong kept those feelings to himself at the time . In 1966 , the California Rural Legal Assistance was founded as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's War on Poverty , with Cesar Chavez , Dolores Huerta , and Itliong sitting on the founding board . Itliong served as assistant director of the United Farm Workers under Cesar Chavez , and in 1970 he was appointed the United Farm Workers ' national boycott coordinator . In 1971 , Itliong resigned from the United Farm Workers because of disagreements about the governance of the union ; another reason for resigning from the United Farm Workers , was that Itliong felt that the union was not willing to support aging Filipinos . Alex Fabros , a doctoral candidate at University of California , Santa Barbara , called the merger " devastating for the Filipinos who participated in the UFW . " .
After leaving the United Farm Workers , Itliong assisted retired Filipino farmworkers in Delano , and was a delegate at the 1972 Democratic National Convention . Together with Vera Cruz , Itliong worked towards building a retirement facility for UFW workers , known as Agbayabi Village . Although no longer in the United Farm Workers , Itliong continued to support others in the organized labor movement , such as helping others plan a strike against Safeway supermarkets in 1974 . Itliong also served as President of the Filipino American Political Association , a bipartisan lobbying organization . He died in 1977 at the age of 63 in Delano of Lou Gehrig 's disease .
= = Legacy = =
Most history books mention Chavez and the United Farm Workers , but do not include a mention of Itliong or other Filipinos . Speaking about Chavez and his father , Johnny Itliong said , " Larry was militant . Cesar was non @-@ violent . Cesar had handlers . Cesar had lawyers . Cesar was a dictator . "
The first public art memorial honoring Filipino American farmworkers was unveiled on June 24 , 1995 in LA`s Historic Filipinotown with Larry Itliong and Philip Vera Cruz as its most prominent historical figures . Itliong was posthumously honored in 2010 by inclusion in a mural at California State University , Dominguez Hills . In 2011 , Los Angeles County recognized Itliong with Larry Itliong Day on 25 October ; this follows the City of Carson which became the first city in the United States to recognize Larry Itliong Day in the United States in 2010 . In mid @-@ April 2013 , the New Haven Unified School District renamed Alvarado Middle School Itliong @-@ Vera Cruz Middle School in honor of Vera Cruz and Larry Itliong ; this school is the first school in the United States to be named for Filipino Americans . There was a vocal opposition to the name change , some of whom waved Mexican flags , who said that the name changing disrupts the neighborhood 's tradition . The middle school was originally named for Juan Bautista Alvarado , and the name change will not take effect until 2015 . This occurred after a 13 @-@ year effort to rename a school for the Filipino American leaders , after several other schools had been named to reflect the city 's diverse population , including Cesar Chavez Middle School , where 20 % of the population is Filipino American . In late April 2013 , a Filipino business and a Filipino Community Center were targeted with graffiti vandalism ; the graffiti was investigated as a hate crime . In 2014 , an overpass over the Filipino American Highway was designated as the " Itliong @-@ Vera Cruz Memorial Bridge " .
Itliong will be portrayed by Darion Basco in the 2014 film about Cesar Chavez ; the film will not include other Filipino American farm labor leaders such as Vera Cruz . A documentary titled The Delano Manongs : Forgotten Heroes of the UFW was made to highlight the role of Filipinos in the farm labor movement , including Itliong ; the documentary was released in 2013 .
The Filipino Hall in Delano , California houses a collection of memorabilia .
The Larry Itliong Papers are housed at the Walter Reuther Library at Wayne State University in Detroit .
= Fuck : Word Taboo and Protecting Our First Amendment Liberties =
Fuck : Word Taboo and Protecting Our First Amendment Liberties is a nonfiction book by law professor Christopher M. Fairman about freedom of speech , the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , censorship , and use of the word fuck in society . The book was first published in 2009 by Sphinx as a follow @-@ up on the author 's article " Fuck " , published in 2007 in the Cardozo Law Review . It cites studies from academics in social science , psychoanalysis , and linguistics . Fairman establishes that most current usages of the word have connotations distinct from its meaning of sexual intercourse . The book discusses the efforts of conservatives in the United States to censor the word from common parlance . The author says that legal precedent regarding its use is unclear because of contradictory court decisions . Fairman argues that once citizens allow the government to restrict the use of specific words , this will lead to an encroachment upon freedom of thought .
The book received a mostly favorable reception from news sources and library trade publications . Library Journal described the book as a sincere analysis of the word and its history of censorship , Choice : Current Reviews for Academic Libraries called it stimulating , and the San Diego Law Review said it was thought @-@ provoking . One reviewer said that the book , like the article , was a format for the author to repeatedly use " fuck " , rather than actually analyze it from a rigorous perspective . After the book 's release , Fairman was consulted by media sources including CNN and The New York Times , as well as the American Civil Liberties Union , on issues surrounding word taboo in society .
= = Background = =
Christopher M. Fairman graduated from the University of Texas at Austin . He taught high @-@ school level history for nine years before returning to his alma mater where he ultimately received his Juris Doctor degree . He worked as a clerk on the Texas Court of Appeals for the Third District for Justice J. Woodfin Jones . Subsequently , he was a clerk on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit for Judge Fortunato P. Benavides , and worked for the law firm Weil Gotshal in their office in Dallas . Fairman became a professor at Ohio State University 's Moritz College of Law in 2000 . He specialized in areas of freedom of speech and word taboo , and earned a reputation as an expert on the subject of legal ethics .
Fairman was motivated to conduct research on " fuck " after learning of a Columbus , Ohio , man who was arrested for using the word in an email to a judge in 2004 . Fairman delayed writing the article until he received tenure because he was concerned its publication would adversely affect his professional reputation . Nevertheless , his supervisors did not try to convince him to cease research into the topic . Government funding helped finance Fairman 's scholarship .
His original 2006 article " Fuck " is an analysis of forbidden speech from linguistic and legal perspectives . It covers use of the word in case studies about sexual harassment and education . The article is 74 pages long , and the word fuck appears over 560 times . According to author Jesse Sheidlower in his book The F @-@ Word , Fairman 's work is the first academic article with the title of simply " Fuck " .
Fairman made his article available as a working paper on the Social Science Research Network website on April 17 , 2006 . Initially the author unsuccessfully tried to have the article published by providing copies to multiple U.S. law reviews . The Kansas Law Review rejected his article 25 minutes after receipt . It was published by the Cardozo Law Review in 2007 . The author wrote a follow @-@ up piece in April 2007 titled " Fuck and Law Faculty Rankings " . Fairman died on July 22 , 2015 . At the time of his death , Fairman 's 2007 Cardozo Law Review article , " Fuck " was still classed with the 20 top downloaded works on the Social Science Research Network .
= = Content summary = =
Fuck cites studies from academics in social science , psychoanalysis , and linguistics . Of the sixteen chapters in the book , eight use the word " fuck " in their titles . He discusses uses of the word from the 15th century onwards . Fairman establishes that most current usages have connotations distinct from its denotation of sexual intercourse , and asserts that rather than having sexual meaning , the word 's use is most commonly associated with power .
Fairman discusses the efforts of conservatives in the United States to censor the word from common parlance in the country , and says these acts are opposed to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution . Fairman warns against a tendency toward self @-@ censorship . He explains that those who choose to silence themselves tacitly encourage a process by which speech is forbidden through the legal process . He argues that this passivity has an impact of increasing the taboo nature of the word .
Fairman writes that legal precedent regarding use of the word is unclear because of contradictory court decisions . He presents case studies of these contradictory applications of the law , and uses them to analyze public perceptions surrounding freedom of speech . He provides examples of exceptions to the First Amendment , such as speech intended to cause violent acts , and discusses the manner in which federal and state governments sanction these exceptions . Fairman draws parallels between protection of comedians ' usage of taboo language to the ability of individuals in society to express ideas freely . He argues that once citizens allow the government to restrict specific words that can be used in speech , this will lead to an encroachment upon freedom of thought .
= = Reception = =
Fuck : Word Taboo and Protecting Our First Amendment Liberties was first published in 2009 in paperback by Sphinx Publishing , and in an electronic format for the Amazon Kindle the same year . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer called Fairman 's paper compelling and amusing . The Horn Book Magazine described the paper as a contemplative scholarly work which was simultaneously an engaging read . Writing in the San Diego Law Review , Orly Lobel called Fairman 's article a thought @-@ provoking analysis into how the law and the First Amendment address issues of sexual language . In a 2011 article for the Federal Communications Law Journal , W. Wat Hopkins was critical of Fairman 's article and subsequent book , writing that both appeared to be formats for the author to repeatedly use the word " fuck " , rather than actually analyze the subject from a rigorous perspective .
A review of the book in Publishers Weekly called it a vibrant extension of his article , and described it as educational and assertive in its promotion of freedom of speech , particularly in the face of the controversial language discussed . Choice : Current Reviews for Academic Libraries reviewed Fuck and called it a stimulating book . The review concluded , " [ h ] ighly recommended . All readership levels . "
Library Journal described the book as a sincere analysis of " fuck " and its history of censorship . The review characterized the book as of a higher quality than The Compleat Motherfucker : A History of the Mother of all Dirty Words ( 2009 ) by Jim Dawson . Ian Crouch of The New Yorker praised the cover design for the book . Crouch observed that the word Fuck was shown partially obscured by correction fluid but was still clearly evident in full . He concluded this was an appropriate image for a book on free speech and word taboo .
After the book 's publication , Fairman was consulted by media sources , including CNN , on issues involving word taboo . The American Civil Liberties Union of Ohio invited Fairman to host its forum " Word Taboos " in 2010 ; his presentation was titled " Putting the ' F ' in Free Speech " . In a 2012 article on the word " fuck " , The New York Times characterized Fairman as the foremost legal scholar in the United States on the word " fuck " .
= Missouri Route 16 =
Route 16 is a 16 @.@ 709 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 891 km ) highway in Lewis County , Missouri . The western terminus is at Route 6 east of Lewistown . The route travels eastward , through Monticello and a few rivers . Route 16 then intersects U.S. Route 61 ( US 61 ) . The route ends at US 61 Business and Route B in Canton . The road was formerly part of Route 6 , but it was rerouted in 1931 . The old alignment was renumbered Route 96 that year . Ten years later , the route was renumbered to Route 16 .
= = Route description = =
All of the road is in Lewis County . Route 16 starts at a three @-@ way junction at Route 6 in rural farmland east of Lewistown . The route travels eastward in a straight line for over two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before turning northeast . It crosses over the Middle Fabius River one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later . Route 16 then passes through large groups of forests and enters back into large fields . The road continues traveling northeast and intersects Routes Y and BB . From there , Route 16 heads northward , crossing over North Fabius River , and enters Monticello . The road passes through the center of the village and meets Route A as it turns east . The route then intersects Route Z , near the Lewis County Regional Airport . The road begins to shift northward , and three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) later , Route 16 crosses over Sugar Creek . At Wyanconda River , the route begins to shift back southward , and enters the city limits of Canton . The route intersects Route 81 , and later intersects US 61 at a diamond interchange . The road enters downtown Canton , and ends at a junction with Route B and US 61 Business . The river crossing lies east of the terminus . In 2012 , Missouri Department of Transportation ( MoDOT ) calculated as many as 1 @,@ 160 vehicles traveling east of Route 6 , and as few as 1 @,@ 054 vehicles traveling east of Route A. This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . Route 16 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .
= = History = =
A road from Lewistown to Canton has existed since 1918 , and it became part of Route 6 by 1926 . A section of a road from Monticello to Lewiston was paved in gravel two years later . In 1931 , Route 6 was re @-@ aligned south of Canton , and the former alignment was designated as Route 96 . The next year , Route 96 was fully paved in gravel . The route was renumbered to Route 16 in 1941 , and was fully paved in concrete by 1942 . In 1977 , US 61 was realigned west of Canton , and the old route became Route B. Around 1989 – 90 , US 61 Business was designated , concurrent with Route B through Canton . An interchange was built at US 61 and Route 16 around 2001 – 02 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lewis County .
= BYU Jerusalem Center =
The Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center for Near Eastern Studies ( often simply referred to as the BYU Jerusalem Center , BYU – Jerusalem or Mormon University ) , situated on Mount of Olives in Jerusalem , Israel , is a satellite campus of Brigham Young University ( BYU ) , the largest religious university in the United States . Owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) , the center provides a curriculum that focuses on Old and New Testament , ancient and modern Near Eastern studies , and language ( Hebrew and Arabic ) . Classroom study is built around field trips that cover the Holy Land , and the program is open to qualifying full @-@ time undergraduate students at either BYU , BYU @-@ Idaho , or BYU @-@ Hawaii .
Plans to build a center for students were announced by LDS Church president Spencer W. Kimball in 1979 . By 1984 , the church had obtained a 49 @-@ year lease on the land and had begun construction . The center 's prominent position on the Jerusalem skyline quickly brought it notice by the religious conservatives , or Haredim , of Israel . Protests and opposition to the building of the center springing from the Haredim made the issue of building the center a national and even international issue . After several investigative committees of Israel 's Knesset reviewed and debated the issue , Israeli officials decided to allow the center 's construction to continue in 1986 . The center opened to students in May 1988 and was dedicated by Howard W. Hunter on May 16 , 1989 . It did not admit students from 2001 to 2006 due to security issues during the Second Intifada but continued to provide tours for visitors and weekly concerts .
= = History = =
= = = Before the center = = =
The first LDS official to enter Jerusalem was LDS Apostle Orson Hyde , who came in 1841 and dedicated the land for the gathering of the people of Israel , the creation of a Jewish state , and the building of an LDS temple at some future time . After his visit , LDS presence in the city was virtually non @-@ existent . By 1971 , the city saw enough LDS visitors for the church to lease a building in East Jerusalem for church services . BYU 's study abroad program to Jerusalem , which began in 1968 , played a key role in the growth of LDS visitors to the area . The LDS presence in the area soon grew too large for the leased space to provide adequate space for worship , so the church began looking into building a center for students . In 1972 , David B. Galbraith became the director of BYU 's program in Jerusalem . He remained in this position until 1987 when the church 's First Presidency asked him to organize the BYU Jerusalem Center .
On October 24 , 1979 , church president Spencer W. Kimball visited Jerusalem to dedicate the Orson Hyde Memorial Gardens , located on the Mount of Olives . The church had donated money to beautify the Jerusalem area , and officials of the Jerusalem government were present at the occasion . It was at this dedication that Kimball announced the church 's intent to build a center for BYU students in the city . Negotiations between the church and the Israeli government stretched from 1980 @-@ 1984 . The land the church wanted for the center , located at the northwestern margin of Mount Olivet , right next to the valley which separates it from Mount Scopus , had been acquired by Israel during the Six Day War of 1967 and could not be sold under Israeli law . The church decided to obtain a lease on the land instead . Leasing the land also prevented the politically controversial problem of the church owning a piece of Jerusalem land . Israeli officials saw the building of the center on the land as a way of solidifying control over land whose ownership was ambiguous under international law . By August 1984 , the church had the land on a 49 @-@ year lease , building permits had been obtained , and construction on the building began .
= = = Construction and controversy = = =
The 1980s saw not only Mormons , but many Christian groups vying for representation and space in the city . These groups constantly faced opposition from a strong political minority of Orthodox Jews living in the city . Neither major political party in Israel ( the Likud and Labor Parties ) could achieve a majority vote in the Knesset without support from the more religious parties . Religious parties used this situation to pass laws in favor of Jewish Orthodoxy in exchange for their support on other issues . At the time , the conservative Jews , who made up the " religious right " in Israel , or the Haredim , constituted 27 % of the population of Jerusalem , and was decidedly against the building of the BYU Jerusalem Center or any other similar Christian structure . Larger parties faced loss of a majority if they stood opposite on this issue . Many Israeli officials , however , such as the Mayor of Jerusalem at the time , Teddy Kollek , along with others in attendance at the Orson Hyde Memorial Garden dedication , supported the center because of what the church had done for the city . Kollek specifically stated that " the Mormon church 's presence in Jerusalem can do a great deal of work in providing the bridge of understanding between the Arab and Jews ... because its members look with sympathy and understanding at both sides . " The land on which the center was built was then still considered Arab land by many , and many officials saw that its lease would add an image of religious tolerance to their government and increase Israeli control of the land .
Because of its prominent location in the Jerusalem skyline , construction was quickly noticed , and this sparked a major controversy in Israel and in the Jewish world as a whole beginning in 1985 . The Haredim led the opposition , their main concern being that the building would be used not as a school , but as a center for Mormon proselyting efforts in Jerusalem . The Haredim warned of a " spiritual holocaust " . The LDS Church , they argued , had no local presence in the population of the Jerusalem area and no historical connections to the land . The group spread warnings through letters , newspapers , and television that Mormon missionaries would convert Jews throughout the city , saying that :
" The Mormon organization is one of the most dangerous , and in America they have already struck down many Jews . At the present the Mormons are cautious because of the tremendous opposition their missionary activities would engender , but the moment their new Center is completed , we won ’ t be able to stop them . " -- Kol Ha ’ Ir
and that :
" At the heart of the " emotional " and " bitter " controversy brewing in Jerusalem is whether Christian Zionism , based on Christian eschatological expectations , should function in Israel with the help and active aid of government and municipal authorities , such as the assistance being rendered to the Brigham Young University . " -- Inter Mountain Jewish News
Warnings in the media led to street protests and demonstrations . Orthodox Jews marched on City Hall and to the construction site in 1986 . Some even gathered at the Western Wall in a public prayer of mourning because of the center . They also gathered at the hotel at which the BYU President was staying at one point , carrying signs saying : " Conversion is Murder ! " and " Mormons , stop your mission now " . Despite the intensity of the Haredi opposition , at no point did the protests become physically violent . In late 1985 , the Haredim motioned for a no @-@ confidence vote against the leading Labor Party . Prime Minister Shimon Peres organized a committee of eight , four for the center and four against , to debate the issue and come up with a solution either for or against the center 's presence . Another committee was formed to look into the allegation that the money the church had put into Jerusalem was a bribe to gain Mayor Kolleck 's support for the center ( the committee found the church " Not Guilty " ) . A subcommittee of the Knesset requested that the LDS Church issue a formal promise not to proselytize Jews . Some Israelis considered this discriminatory , as no other Christian church had been asked to do this in Jerusalem . Church leaders , however , agreed to comply and sent a formally signed statement soon after . Some Jews in the area were still uneasy and doubted the church 's intent , believing that religious belief among Mormons would supersede adherence to the law . One protestor stated that " converting the sons of Judah , us , is a basic article of their faith . . . . They regard themselves as sons of Joseph and believe there will be no Second Coming for as long as we and they do not fuse . "
In addition to the promise not to proselyte , BYU began a public relations campaign to inform the public of their intentions for the center as a school and a gathering place for those already of the LDS faith . Ads were purchased in local newspapers , magazines , and on television , and the center had personnel appear on radio talk shows . Government officials in favor of the center also began to speak out , saying that Jerusalem should deny no one a place to worship , Jew , Muslim , or Christian . The Minister for Economic Planning , Gad Yaakobi said that the debate had " already caused considerable damage to Israel " , and Former Foreign Minister Abba Eban stated that the " free exercise of conscience and dissent in a democratic society " was at stake . The center also received support in the U.S. , as former President Gerald Ford spoke for the center , as well the United Jewish Council of Utah , who wrote a letter stating that " For over one hundred years , the Jewish and LDS communities have coexisted in the Salt Lake Valley in a spirit of true friendship and harmony . It has been our experience that when the leaders of the LDS Church make a commitment of policy , it is a commitment which can be relied upon . The stated commitment of Brigham Young University not to violate the laws of the state of Israel , or its own commitment regarding proselytizing in the state of Israel through the Jerusalem @-@ based Brigham Young facility , is a commitment which we sincerely believe will be honored . " The U.S. government also became an intermediary for BYU as 154 members of Congress issued a letter to the Knesset in support of the BYU Jerusalem Center . In 1986 , the Knesset approved the completion of the center .
= = = Opening and dedication = = =
Students moved into the center on May 8 , 1987 . The school remained unfinished , but the dormitory levels had been completed . Students had formerly been housed at Kibbutz Ramat Rachel . In 1988 , before the center 's dedication , a few Jerusalem locals complained that the arrangement of the windows at night looked like a Christian cross . The center purchased blinds and carefully arranged them over the windows so that no such sign would be seen . Members of the LDS Church do not use the symbol of the cross as other Christian denominations do , due to their focus on the resurrection , rather than the death , of Christ .
The center was dedicated on May 16 , 1989 by Howard W. Hunter , the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles . The dedication ceremony was small , as the church decided not to announce it until a month later . The church did not want a large ceremony to cause concern among those in opposition to the center , who may have seen it as a religious gathering . Thomas S. Monson , then a second counselor in the First Presidency of the LDS Church , and Boyd K. Packer , another member of the church 's Quorum of the Twelve , were among those in attendance , as well as BYU President Jeffrey R. Holland . Robert C. Taylor , director of the BYU Travel Study program was in attendance and stated in an interview with The Daily Universe that the dedication of the building was centered solely on the educational aspect of the school , as well as for " whatever purposes [ the Lord ] has in store " in the future . Taylor stated that the church would respect the laws of the land and their commitment not to proselyte .
= = = Center closings = = =
After the onset of the Second Intifada , security for BYU students became increasingly difficult to maintain , and the center closed indefinitely to students in 2000 . During the fighting , BYU sources reported that the center 's staff remained on location and managed to maintain good relations on both Israeli and Palestinian sides . As negotiations to stop the fighting continued , one proposed settlement had the center placed within the borders of a proposed Palestinian state ( this , however , was not the proposal ultimately agreed upon by the two sides ) . While closed to students , the center remained open for visitors and concerts .
On June 9 , 2006 , officials announced their intention to reopen the Jerusalem Center for the Fall 2006 semester . However , escalating violence in the area from the 2006 Israel @-@ Lebanon Conflict frustrated these plans and raised new concerns about students ' safety in the area . School officials deemed the center would remain closed until the conflict was resolved . During this time , some LDS members in Northern Israel were " voluntarily relocated " into the center , away from border missile strikes . BYU officials announced on October 9 , 2006 that the center would be reopening for student academic programs for Winter Semester 2007 . The initial program was limited to only 44 students . The center remains open into future academic terms .
= = Facilities and architecture = =
The center was designed in partnership with Frank Ferguson of FFKR Architects ( Salt Lake City ) and by Brazilian @-@ Israeli architect David Resnick , who also designed the nearby campus of the Hebrew University . The center is situated on the western slope of the Mount of Olives , right where it connects to Mount Scopus , overlooking the Kidron Valley and the Old City . The 125 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) , eight @-@ level structure is set amid 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 008 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 020 km2 ) of gardens . The first five levels provide dormitory and apartment space for up to 170 students , each of these apartments having a patio overlooking the Old City . The sixth level houses a cafeteria , classrooms , computer facilities , and a gymnasium , while administrative and faculty offices are located on the seventh level , along with a 250 @-@ seat auditorium . The main entry is on the eighth level , which also contains a recital and special events auditorium with organ , lecture rooms , general and reserve libraries , offices , a domed theater , and a learning resource area . This auditorium is surrounded by glass on three sides , providing views of the city . The organ within it is a Scandinavian @-@ made Marcussen organ . The aforementioned library on the same floor as the auditorium contains 10 @,@ 000 @-@ 15 @,@ 000 volumes focusing largely on the Near East .
The center 's design reflects the architecture of the Near East . It is constructed of cast concrete . Hand @-@ carved Jerusalem limestone adorn the building , according to local custom . The use of arches and domes closely models other building of Jerusalem and the gardens throughout the center contain many trees and other plants named in the Bible . The interior contains the arches and cupolas typical of the Near East , and large , windowed pavilions provide wide views of Jerusalem .
Over 400 micropiles were drilled into the Mount to secure the foundation in case of an earthquake . The building also contains , in adherence to Israeli law , bomb shelters capable of holding all faculty , staff , and students in case of emergency .
= = Research and education = =
The Jerusalem Center played a role in the research of the Dead Sea Scrolls in cooperation with the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation of Jerusalem . They developed a comprehensive CD @-@ ROM database of the contents of the Scrolls , enabling researchers worldwide the ability to study them .
The center provides a curriculum that focuses on Old and New Testament , ancient and modern Near Eastern studies , and language ( Hebrew and Arabic ) . Classroom study is built around field trips that cover the Holy Land , and the program is open only to qualifying full @-@ time undergraduate students at either BYU , BYU @-@ Idaho , or BYU @-@ Hawaii .
The center teaches classes in four @-@ month semesters occurring three times per year . Each semester costs $ 10 @,@ 815 . Students are required to take a small orientation course online before entering the center and are interviewed individually . Application requirements state that students must have attended at least two semesters ( including the semester immediately preceding the trip abroad ) at BYU , BYU @-@ Hawaii , or BYU @-@ Idaho , have a GPA of at least 2 @.@ 5 , and sign an agreement not to proselytize . Married students are not allowed to attend .
= = Mission = =
Members of the LDS Church believe that Jesus Christ will return in glory in his Second Coming . Howard W. Hunter , who was president of the church 's Quorum of the Twelve at the time of the center 's construction , pointed out that although there would be no proselytizing from the center , it still served a valuable purpose . One church member quoted him this way : " Elder Hunter said that our mission was not to harvest , probably not even to plant , but to clear away a few more stones . " Latter @-@ day Saints often see the center as a way for them to show local Jews what the church is about by example , rather than by proselyting . This is done by the way students and faculty at the center live their lives , as well as through the hiring of both Israeli and Palestinian workers , as an example of what can be done through cooperation . During construction of the center , for example , the church hired as many as 300 workers at one time , with about 60 % of them being Arab and the other 40 % being Jewish . Similar cooperation continues today .
The center also strives to meet the goals of the BYU Mission statement , " to assist individuals in their quest for perfection and eternal life " as well as in their educational endeavors . The center aims to give students not only an educational experience by experiencing cultures and languages firsthand , but a spiritual experience by taking them to the sites of biblical events and encouraging them to live their lives in a Christian way .
= Delaware Route 202 =
Delaware Route 202 ( DE 202 ) , also known as Concord Avenue , is a short state highway in Wilmington , Delaware . It runs from U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . , Market Street ) north to a modified cloverleaf interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and US 202 at the northern city limits . North of the interchange , the route becomes US 202 northbound , also known as the Concord Pike . The road is two lanes and undivided for most of its length except for the part just south of the I @-@ 95 interchange , which is four lanes and divided . DE 202 was a part of US 202 until that highway was truncated to the I @-@ 95 interchange in 1970 . DE 202 was designated by 1981 .
= = Route description = =
DE 202 begins at an intersection with US 13 Bus . ( Market Street ) in the city of Wilmington , heading north on two @-@ lane undivided Concord Avenue . The road passes homes and businesses in the northern part of the city . Concord Avenue crosses several streets including Washington Street and Baynard Boulevard . At the intersection with the latter , the road becomes four lanes and becomes a divided highway at the Franklin Street intersection . After passing under CSX ’ s Philadelphia Subdivision , DE 202 reaches an interchange with I @-@ 95 and US 202 , where DE 202 ends and the road continues north as part of US 202 ( Concord Pike ) .
DE 202 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 25 @,@ 601 vehicles at the north end of Wilmington to a low of 8 @,@ 387 vehicles at the Baynard Boulevard intersection . The entire length of DE 202 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
When the U.S. Highway System was created in 1926 , what is now DE 202 was designated as the southernmost part of US 122 , a U.S. highway that ran from US 13 in Wilmington north to New Jersey . By the mid @-@ 1930s , the US 122 designation was replaced with US 202 , and the route was shifted to head southwest from Concord Avenue and continue into downtown Wilmington on Washington Boulevard . By 1959 , US 202 was moved onto a one @-@ way pair through downtown Wilmington , with the southbound direction splitting from Concord Avenue to follow Baynard Boulevard to Washington Street and the northbound direction turning onto Concord Avenue at Market Street ( US 13 ) . In 1970 , the southern terminus of US 202 was cut back to the I @-@ 95 interchange , leaving Concord Avenue unnumbered . DE 202 was designated along Concord Avenue between US 13 Bus. and I @-@ 95 / US 202 by 1981 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Wilmington , New Castle County .
= Alive and Schticking =
" Alive and Schticking " is the season premiere of the American television series Will & Grace 's eighth season . It was written by Bill Wrubel and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode was broadcast live on NBC in the United States on September 29 , 2005 , and was performed twice by the actors that evening for the East and West coasts . Alec Baldwin guest starred in " Alive and Schticking " and received an Emmy Award nomination for his performance .
In the episode , Grace ( Debra Messing ) contemplates having an affair with a married man , while Jack ( Sean Hayes ) begins a new career as the host of his new talk show Jack Talk . Meanwhile , Will ( Eric McCormack ) tries to hide from Karen ( Megan Mullally ) the fact that her husband , Stan , is alive and faked his death due to troubles with the mob . Will also tries to stop his former boss , Malcolm ( Baldwin ) , from dating Karen .
Will & Grace creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick were in favor of doing a live episode , and Kevin Reilly , who at the time served as NBC Entertainment President , thought it would be a good way to inaugurate the final season of the show . Since airing , " Alive and Schticking " has received mostly positive reviews from television critics , who enjoyed watching the mistakes made by the actors and their attempts to hide their laughter during the live broadcast . The episode acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 81 and garnered the series ' highest rating in the 18 – 49 demographic since February 17 , 2005 , and biggest overall viewer total since February 24 , 2005 .
= = Plot = =
Will ( Eric McCormack ) reveals to Grace ( Debra Messing ) that Karen 's ( Megan Mullally ) husband Stan is still alive . He learned this from his former boss , Malcolm ( Alec Baldwin ) , a secret agent , who told him that Stan is now living under seclusion and faked his death because of troubles with the mob . Will makes Grace promise that she keep this information to herself , but she breaks the promise and tells Jack ( Sean Hayes ) . When Malcolm later visits Will at his apartment and warns him to not to tell people about Stan 's predicament , Karen and Rosario ( Shelley Morrison ) also arrive . At meeting Karen , Malcolm becomes fond of her , as does Karen of him , even asking him out on a date , to which he accepts . Will , however , tells Malcolm that he cannot date Karen because Malcolm is still protecting Stan from the mob .
Meanwhile , Grace and Jack are discussing their own problems . Grace uses Jack 's promiscuous history with married men as a legitimate reason to have an affair with a married man , but Jack tells her to forget about it as both of them are the moral role models to their friends . After being honest with her , Jack confesses that the reason he is wearing an eye patch is not because he got glitter in his eye , as he told his friends . When he refused to stop his singing performance during the debut of his new talk show , Jack Talk , even though the entire set had accidentally been set on fire , his eyebrow was burnt off . Later , Will , Grace , and Jack all decide that it would be for the best to let Karen know the truth about Stan . Will breaks the news to her , but Karen believes he is joking . Rosario tells Karen that Stan is not dead , as she has been giving him reports on Karen . At the admission , Karen fires Rosario and leaves Will 's apartment with Malcolm , explaining that Stan may be alive , but that he is still dead to her .
= = Production = =
" Alive and Schticking " was written by Bill Wrubel and directed by series producer James Burrows . In July 2005 , it was announced by the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) that Will & Grace 's season premiere for season eight would be performed live . It was also confirmed that actor Alec Baldwin would appear in the episode . This was Baldwin 's third appearance , as he guest starred in two episodes from season seven , playing Will 's boss . His initial decision to do the show was to work with Megan Mullally , who plays Karen ; " I just love Megan . And so I said , ' Well , if you let me do it with Megan . ' And they said ' You got it . ' So I went and did that with them for four [ episodes ] . It was fun . For me now , it 's about who I work with . "
Will & Grace creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick were in favor of doing a live episode ; " We love the idea of a live episode because we get to show the audience of Will & Grace what we 've known from day one — we work with the best cast in network television , " said Mutchnick . He noted that the live element would allow the writers to make changes in the script right up until the airing of the episode . Kevin Reilly , who at the time served as NBC Entertainment President , said the " challenging live platform launch " for Will & Grace would be a good way for the show to inaugurate its final season . In discussion of the episode , Burrows , the director of all Will & Grace episodes , commented : " This will be like the classic golden era of television that I was weaned on , where the audience sees everything . Directing a live broadcast will be a first for me , and as long as I have been in the business , there are very few firsts . "
Upon learning about the live telecast , the cast had mixed emotions . Sean Hayes , who plays Jack , was nervous about the episode and hoped there would be cue cards . Debra Messing ( Grace ) " gasped loudly " when it was revealed that the technical demands of live television would mean that Burrows would not be directing on the stage floor , but would be up in a booth instead . Messing noted that she had never done live television , but in regards to the live broadcast , said , " It starts out our final season in a real special way . " Eric McCormack ( Will ) was intrigued about the idea and seemed to be ready for whatever happened ; " It keeps it interesting for us . It stirs it up . It gives us a new way to do it . "
Mullally revealed that the show 's writing team was " notorious for tinkering with the script 's laugh lines " , even during the actual taping of the episodes . She hoped they would resist that urge for the live episode . Messing , however , was sure that the writers would interfere during the broadcasts ; " I have a gut feeling that , like , 10 minutes before we go they 'll be like , ' Oh , no , no , you know what ? Change this line to this . Now we 're locked – go . ' " Prior to the live episode , the cast had shot the second , third and fourth episodes of the season . Shortly before this episode , Mullally injured her foot and was unable to walk without crutches . The writers therefore had to put Mullally 's character , Karen , in a cast and a motorized scooter , ostensibly because the character was recovering from an operation to correct a webbed toe .
" Alive and Schticking " was performed live twice for viewers in the East and West coasts , with different jokes for each broadcast . The first show was broadcast at 8 : 30 p.m. ( ET ) for the East ( this feed also aired live at 7 : 30 p.m. in the Central Time Zone ) and the second three hours later at 11 : 30 p.m. ET ( 8 : 30pm PT ) for the West . During the two performances , Messing and Hayes had " attacks of the giggles " . An audience member who was in attendance commented that Messing and Hayes " were so bad at keeping a straight face " during a dress rehearsal that Burrows had to get on the show 's PA system to yell at them . After both telecasts were aired , Burrows revealed that McCormack , Messing , Hayes , Mullally , and Baldwin " had a ball , but they also dreaded it . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Alive and Schticking " was watched by 9 @.@ 81 million households , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode received a 4 @.@ 4 rating / 11 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . It also scored the series ' highest 18 – 49 rating since February 17 , 2005 , and biggest overall viewer total since February 24 , 2005 . " Alive and Schticking " finished 21st in the weekly ratings for the week of September 26 – October 2 , 2005 . In 2006 , Baldwin was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series " category for this episode .
" Alive and Schticking " received positive reviews . Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram contributor Robert Philpot , who gave the episode a B + rating , thought it was a pleasant surprise and an indication that there " might be some life " left in the show . He added that the episode feels fresher because of the " rapid @-@ fire dialogue , farcical situations and ubiquitous double @-@ entendres . And although this live edition was inarguably a stunt , it did prove that real people — and not mere machines — laugh at the characters and the jokes . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also noted that the episode showed that Will & Grace still had a bit of life left . He added that McCormack seemed to flourish under the pressure , and that Hayes and Mullally " were given free rein to flex their Jack and Karen [ ... ] " . Dana Stevens of Slate magazine reported that " Alive and Schticking " offered a chance to punch up the show with some " unusually broad sight gags . " She wrote that the real reason to watch the episode were the mistakes made by the actors .
Philpot continued that moments like Will and his boss making out recalled the show 's " glory days " , and Messing 's trouble keeping a straight face " brought back fond memories of Tim Conway cracking up Harvey Korman on The Carol Burnett Show . " Knoxville News Sentinel 's writer Terry Morrow also commented that the episode reminded him of The Carol Burnett Show because of its " goofiness and by @-@ the @-@ seat @-@ of @-@ its @-@ pants style . " Morrow added that the episode made him laugh more than any other sitcom on network television . Jeffrey Kauffman of DVD Talk praised Baldwin for his performance and commented that " Alive and Schticking " helped " jumpstart the series creatively after a couple of seasons " and " It 's fun [ ... ] to see the actors momentarily break character , a la The Carol Burnett Show , where the absurdity of certain situations ( usually involving Jack and / or Karen ) makes giggling all but impossible . " Entertainment Weekly television critic Gary Susman gave " Alive and Schticking " four stars , while Frazier Moore of the Associated Press lauded it as a " fun , and attention @-@ grabbing , note . " The Hollywood Reporter 's Ray Richmond said " In hindsight , this live thing proved a good idea . "
" Alive and Schticking " received less positive reviews as well . Gail Pennington of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch wrote that the live episode " proved once and for all that Will & Grace should have been buried before now , " and Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk pointed out that its underlying storyline " is a little too over @-@ the @-@ top . " Jessica Banov of the The Fayetteville Observer wrote , " The first live show ... was so @-@ so . The lighting was weird , and I 'm not sure what was up with Debra Messing 's hair . But it was funny to see Messing and Sean Hayes break from their scripts to giggle . " Cinquemani commented that Baldwin 's " absurd " role as Malcolm " is proving to be one of Will & Grace 's most enduring guest stars . " David Blum of The New York Sun reported that the producers of Will & Grace wasted Baldwin 's " prodigious talents on a supporting role this past season , when it 's clear he could effortlessly carry his own network series . " Kauffman concluded that Grace 's joke about George Bush being brain dead " just falls amazingly flat " .
= 1930 Salmas earthquake =
The 1930 Salmas earthquake occurred on May 7 at 01 : 34 : 26 IRST in West Azerbaijan Province , Iran . The earthquake , which was among Iran 's largest , measured 7 @.@ 1 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of X ( Extreme ) . A damaging foreshock occurred fifteen hours prior to the main event and served as a warning to the people that felt it strongly . Reports from seismologists and seismological organizations indicate that up to 3 @,@ 000 fatalities may have occurred in western Iran and eastern Turkey .
Sixty villages ( including the large settlement of Dilman , which was relocated and rebuilt as Salmas ) were destroyed in the Salmas Plain and in the surrounding mountainous regions . A destructive aftershock sequence affected many villages , and in some cases , damage was inflicted on some that had escaped devastation during the mainshock . An inspection of the region was undertaken , but not until decades later , at which time substantial surface faulting and other ground effects were documented .
= = Preface = =
The epicentral area in the Salmas Plain covers 300 square kilometres ( 120 sq mi ) and is positioned northwest of Lake Urmia . This area had been inhabited primarily by Christians for about a thousand years prior to the event ( which was one of the strongest earthquakes to occur in Iran since 1900 ) . The mountainous areas surrounding the plain are extremely isolated with villages ( comprising mainly Kurdish people ) that are spread far apart . Montane villagers sustained themselves primarily on wheat and cattle farming . To the west , near the Turkish border , lies Aravil Dagi , a volcano that is the highest peak in the region .
= = Foreshock = =
A relatively strong foreshock occurred at about 10 : 03 : 26 IRST on May 6 in the same area as the mainshock . This destructive event caused 25 fatalities and was felt as far as northwestern Azerbaijan and southeastern Turkey . Damage to adobe homes was substantial . Roofs and walls collapsed and in some instances whole homes were demolished . Many of the villagers in the valley spent the following night outdoors and were spared during the main event , but in the mountainous villages where the shock was not felt as strongly ( Shekar Yazi , Sheydan , Ashnak , Aslanik , and others ) the population was not as concerned . Many slept indoors and this led to high casualties in those areas during the mainshock a little more than 15 hours later .
= = Earthquake = =
The earthquake was a result of oblique @-@ slip faulting , and was felt over a very wide area , from Leninakan in Armenia and Tbilisi in Georgia in the north , and Baghdad and Kirkuk in Iraq to the south . Dextral strike @-@ slip motion , along with dip @-@ slip motion ( normal faulting , northeast side down ) occurred on a fault trending west @-@ northwest . The United States ' National Geophysical Data Center lists 1 @,@ 360 fatalities for the event , while the Belgian Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters ' EM @-@ DAT database and Ambraseys & Melville 2005 both list 2 @,@ 500 . Tchalenko & Berberian 1
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974 , the USGS ' PAGER loss estimate database , and Utsu 2002 all state 2 @,@ 514 . The Utsu list also acknowledges other estimates of 1 @,@ 360 and 3 @,@ 000 .
= = = Damage = = =
Sixty villages and about 40 churches were destroyed in the southwest Salmas Plain and the surrounding mountainous regions . In the zone of heaviest damage ( bounded by the villages of Kohneh Shahr , Payajuk and Zaviehjuk ) all the homes and all but one of the churches were destroyed . To the east of this area , the large village of Dilman reportedly had 1 @,@ 100 casualties , but seismologists J. S. Tchalenko and M. Berberian questioned the reliability of this figure . In smaller villages , survivors provided an accurate count of those lost because they remembered the victims by name , but in a village of 18 @,@ 000 , survivors were unable to grasp the extent of the losses . Only two homes remained standing there , and the village was renamed Salmas and moved to a new location to the west .
The villages in the mountains to the south , west , and north of the Salmas Plain were generally smaller , and accounted for about half of the total number of villages that were lost . The foreshock was not felt at Borusliqalan ( the westernmost village that was destroyed ) and the losses were high . The foreshock was also not strongly felt to the east of Lake Urmia ( and to the southwest of Tabriz ) where the village of Mamaqan was completely destroyed and 85 people were killed . Other nearby villages went almost unscathed , with the differing amounts of damage being attributed to soil type .
= = = Ground effects = = =
A post @-@ earthquake survey of the land was undertaken by seismologists N. N. Ambraseys and C. P. Melville , but it was not completed until the mid 1970s . At that time , 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) of surface breaks with right @-@ lateral offsets between 1 – 4 metres ( 3 ft 3 in – 13 ft 1 in ) were located between the villages of Shurgil and Kuhneh Shahr . Substantial vertical movement of the west @-@ northwest trending fault was also seen , with even greater maximum displacements of 4 – 6 metres ( 13 – 20 ft ) , but the average vertical slip was about 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 ft 11 in ) throughout the extent of the observed surface faulting . They estimated that about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) of visible fault breaks were present immediately following the shocks , but by the time they had completed their survey 45 years later about half of the surface features had succumbed to erosion . Other effects included disturbed stream and spring flow , water table fluctuations , and landslides .
= = = Aftershocks = = =
A series of strong and damaging aftershocks persisted for about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months . The largest in the sequence came on May 8 . The event caused additional destruction to the northeast of the initial meizoseismal area . Qatur , which had been nearly destroyed by the mainshock , took another serious hit . Other villages ( Chaliyan , Givaran , Mir ' Umar , and Ravyan ) also experienced major destruction . Shikaryazi was a village in the southeast region that had not been seriously affected by the mainshock , but experienced heavy damage during the May 8 event .
= Haddam Island State Park =
Haddam Island State Park is an undeveloped 14 @-@ acre ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) island in the lower Connecticut River in the town of Haddam , Connecticut , in the United States . Originally used by the Wangunk tribe , the island was reserved for their use as part of a 150 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 390 km2 ) land sale to English colonists in May 1662 . In the 19th century , the island was used for fishing and farming . The early 20th century saw it as a place of public recreation , and the State of Connecticut purchased the island and made it a state park in 1944 . The park is only accessible by boat , and recommended activities are boating , fishing , and birdwatching .
= = History = =
The English settlers in the Connecticut Colony originally named the island Thirty Mile Island because it was erroneously believed to be 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the Connecticut River 's mouth . The original English settlement in the area was called Thirty Mile Island Plantation . In May 1662 , an area of 150 square miles ( 390 km2 ) of land , including the island , was sold by the Wangunk tribe to the English settlers for 30 coats . However , the natives reserved the right to use the island as part of the sale stipulations . Though little documentation exists today , the Wangunk tribe lived on the island and in the surrounding area before selling it along with the rest of their land . Recorded deeds show that the Wangunk tribe made another land sale in 1672 , and the remaining parcels of Wangunk land were sold between 1765 and 1769 .
At the close of the 18th century , the island was one of the most important fishing locations on the Connecticut River . By 1819 , the island was listed as 18 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) in area and was expected to increase in size following the construction of a pier 90 rods north of the island , which caused the accumulation of sand at the head of the island . The island is currently listed as 14 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) in size . In the 19th century , two fishing companies operated from the island and constructed piers , and the island was also used for grazing cattle and farming corn . Records in the late 19th century indicate that the Haddam Island area of the Connecticut River was dredged annually . The island became a popular recreational area with picnics and private events in the beginning of the 20th century . The island was purchased by the State of Connecticut in 1944 , and it became a state park . According to legend , Captain Kidd buried some of his treasure on the island , but none has been found .
= = Activities = =
Haddam Island State Park is home to a large number of bird species , especially during annual migrations , which make it suitable for birdwatching . Bird @-@ banding and other research activities have taken place on the island . Other recommended activities are boating and fishing ; fishing was the historic use of the island from centuries ago . To access to the island , one must cross the Connecticut River , and there is no parking area or fees . The northern side of the island has a beach that is fragile and cannot support heavy visitation , and the island has a significant amount of poison ivy . The nearest access point is the Haddam Meadows State Park boat launch , which features chemical toilets and parking .
= Badshahi Mosque =
The Badshahi Mosque ( Punjabi , Urdu : بادشاہی مسجد , Imperial Mosque ) in Lahore was commissioned by the sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb . Constructed between 1671 and 1673 , it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction . It is the second largest mosque in Pakistan and the seventh largest mosque in the world . It is Lahore 's most iconic and famous landmark and a major tourist attraction . Aurangzeb 's mosque 's architectural plan is similar to that of his father , Shah Jehan , the Jama Masjid in Delhi ; though it is much larger. it also functions as an idgah . The courtyard which spreads over 276 @,@ 000 square feet , can accommodate one hundred thousand worshippers ; ten thousand can be accommodated inside the mosque . The minarets are 196 feet ( 60 m ) tall . The Mosque is one of the most famous Mughal structures , but suffered greatly under the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh . In 1993 , the Government of Pakistan included the Badshahi Mosque in the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Site .
= = Location = =
The mosque is located in the Walled City of Lahore , Pakistan , just opposite to the Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore Fort . The Hazuri Bagh separates the mosque and the fort . On the Eastern side of the garden is one of the thirteen gates of Lahore , The Roshnai Gate . The Tomb of Muhammad Iqbal lies beside the mosque on one side ; while on the other side is the tomb of Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan , who played a major role in preserving and restoring this building .
= = History = =
= = = 1671 – 1849 = = =
The mosque was constructed by the sixth Mughal emperor Aurangzeb , who , unlike the previous emperors , was not a patron of art and architecture . He built the mosque between 1671 and 1673 under the guidance of Fidai Khan Koka , his " master of ordinance " .
On 7 July 1799 , the Sikh army of the Sukerchakia chief , Ranjit Singh , took control of Lahore . After the capture of the city , the Badshahi mosque was desecrated by Ranjit Singh , who used its vast courtyard as a stable for his army horses , and its 80 hujras ( small study rooms surrounding the courtyard ) as quarters for his soldiers and as magazines for military stores . Ranjit Singh used the Hazuri Bagh , the enclosed garden next to it , as his official royal court of audience . In 1818 , he built a marble edifice in the garden facing the mosque .
In 1841 , during the First Anglo @-@ Sikh War , Ranjit Singh 's son , Sher Singh , used the mosque 's large minarets for placement of zamburahs or light guns . It was used to bombard the supporters of Chand Kaur taking refuge in the besieged Lahore Fort , inflicting great damage to the fort itself . In one of these bombardments , the fort 's Diwan @-@ e @-@ Aam ( Hall of Public Audience ) was destroyed ( it was subsequently rebuilt by the British but it could not be exactly restored in the previous state ) . During this time , Henri De la Rouche , a French cavalry officer employed in the army of Sher Singh , used a tunnel connecting the Badshahi mosque to the Lahore fort to temporarily store gunpowder .
In 1849 during the British Raj , the British continued using the mosque and the adjoining fort as a military garrison . The 80 cells ( hujras ) built into the walls surrounding the its vast courtyard on three sides were originally study rooms , which were used by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh to house troops and military stores . The British demolished them so as to prevent them from being used for anti @-@ British activities and rebuilt them to form open arcades or dalans .
= = = 1849 – 1947 = = =
Because of increasing Muslim resentment against the use of the mosque as a military garrison , the British set up the Badshahi Mosque Authority in 1852 to oversee the restoration and to re @-@ establish it as a place of religious worship . From then onwards , piecemeal repairs were carried out under the supervision of the Badshahi Mosque Authority . Extensive repairs commenced from 1939 onwards , when Sikandar Hayat Khan took on the task of raising funds for this purpose .
It was not until 1852 that the British established the Badshahi Mosque Authority to oversee the restoration of the mosque as a place of worship . Although repairs were carried out , it was not until 1939 that extensive repairs began , supervised by the architect Nawab Zen Yar Jang Bahadur . The repairs continued until 1960 and were completed at a cost of 4 @.@ 8 million rupees .
= = = Post @-@ independence = = =
On the occasion of the 2nd Islamic Summit held at Lahore on 22 February 1974 , thirty @-@ nine heads of Muslim states offered their Friday prayers in the Badshahi Mosque , including , among others , Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan , Faisal of Saudi Arabia , Muammar Gaddafi of Libya , Yasser Arafat of the Palestine Liberation Organization and Sabah III Al @-@ Salim Al @-@ Sabah of Kuwait . The prayers were led by Mawlānā Abdul Qadir Azad , the then khatib of the mosque .
Between 1939 and 1960 , the mosque was repaired to bring it back to its original condition . In 1993 , the Government of Pakistan included the Badshahi Mosque in the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Site .
In 2000 , the marble inlay in the main prayer hall was repaired . In 2008 , replacement work on the red sandstone tiles on the mosque 's large courtyard commenced , using red sandstone especially imported from the original source near Jaipur , India , bringing it to be nearly restored .
= = Features = =
The mosque 's full name " Masjid Abul Zafar Muhy @-@ ud @-@ Din Mohammad Alamgir Badshah Ghazi " is written in calligraphy on marble above the entrance gate . The architectural plan of the mosque is similar to that of Jama Masjid , built by Aurangzeb 's father Shah Jahan in Delhi . It combines the functions of both a mosque and an idgah . On the eastern side of the mosque is the entrance stairway which leads through a vaulted entrance constructed of red sandstone . The courtyard measures 276 @,@ 000 square feet and is enclosed by single @-@ aisled arcades . At each of the four corners of the mosque , there is an octagonal , three storeyed minar of red sandstone which has an open , marble @-@ covered canopy . The courtyard is framed by four smaller minarets . The prayer chamber has a central arched niche with five arches on either side which is about one third the size of the central niche . The largest dome is behind the central arch and on its two sides there are two bulbous marble domes . Besides the mosque has symmetry as well as balanced clarity and proportions .
The minarets are 196 feet tall with an outer circumference of 67 feet and the inner circumference is eight and half feet . The mosque is built on a raised platform , which is reached by a flight of 22 steps . Though the rooms above the entrance gate are not open to the public , it is believed that it contains Muhammad 's and his son @-@ in @-@ law Ali 's hairs .
The main prayer chamber is divided into seven chambers by engraved arches . On the top of the middle , there are three domes , one main and two minor which is a common feature of Mughal architecture . The courtyard is made up of brownstone slabs . The interior of the mosque is adorned with precious and semi @-@ precious stones in floral design . The three chambers on each side of the main chamber contains rooms which are used for teaching purpose . The mosque can accommodate 10 @,@ 000 worshippers in the prayer hall and 1 @,@ 00 @,@ 000 worshippers in the courtyard . The courtyard is the largest amongst other mosques in the world .
= Western Chalukya literature in Kannada =
A large body of Western Chalukya literature in Kannada language was produced during the reign of the Western Chalukya Empire ( 973 – 1200 CE ) in what is now southern India . This dynasty , which ruled most of the western Deccan in South India is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukya Dynasty after its royal capital at Kalyani ( now Basavakalyan ) and sometimes called the Later Chalukya Dynasty for its theoretical relationship to the 6th @-@ century Chalukya dynasty of Badami . For a brief period ( 1162 – 1183 ) , the Kalachuris , a dynasty of kings who had earlier migrated to the Karnataka region from central India and served as vassals for several generations , exploited the growing weakness of their overlords and annexed the Kalyani . Around 1183 , the last Chalukya scion , Someshvara IV , overthrew the Kalachuris to regain control of the royal city . But his efforts were in vain , as other prominent Chalukya vassals in the Deccan , the Hoysalas , the Kakatiyas and the Seunas destroyed the remnants of the Chalukya power .
Kannada literature from this period is usually categorised into the linguistic phase called Old @-@ Kannada . It constituted the bulk of the Chalukya court 's textual production and pertained mostly to writings relating to the socio @-@ religious development of the Jain faith . The earliest well @-@ known writers belonging to the Shaiva faith are also from this period . Under the patronage of Kalachuri King Bijjala II , whose prime minister was the well @-@ known Kannada poet and social reformer Basavanna , a native form of poetic literature called Vachana literature ( lit " utterance " , " saying " or " sentence " ) proliferated . The beginnings of the Vachana poetic tradition in the Kannada @-@ speaking region trace back to the early 11th century . Kannada literature written in the champu metre , composed of prose and verse , was popularised by the Chalukyan court poets . However , with the advent of the Veerashaiva ( lit , " brave devotees of the god Shiva " ) religious movement in the mid @-@ 12th century , poets favoured the native tripadi ( three @-@ line verse composed of eleven ganas or prosodic units ) , hadugabba ( song @-@ poem ) and free verse metres for their poems .
Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets , noblemen , royalty , ascetics and saints who wrote in the marga ( mainstream ) style , but also by commoners and artisans , including cobblers , weavers , cowherds and shepherds who wrote in the desi ( folk ) style . These Vachana poets ( called Vachanakaras ) revolutionised Kannada literature , rejecting traditional themes that eulogised kings and noblemen , and writing didactic poems that were closer to the spoken and sung form of the language . In addition to hundreds of male poets , over thirty female poets have been recorded , some of whom wrote along with their husbands .
= = Background = =
= = = Political developments = = =
Towards the end of the 10th century , a new Karnataka dynasty , called the Western Chalukyas , had come to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta ( modern Malkhed in the Gulbarga district , Karnataka ) . Their earliest inscription is dated to c . 957 and is ascribed to a subordinate ruler , Tailapa II of Tardavadi , later to become the founding king of the empire , in the Bijapur district , Karnataka . An inscription from c . 967 suggests that an unsuccessful rebellion was staged by Chattideva , a local king belonging to the Chalukya family , with the help of the Kadamba chief from the temple town Banavasi . These events , however , paved the way for Tailapa II to launch a successful rebellion against the Rashtrakuta King Karka II with the help of the Kadamba chief of Hangal .
A century before these political developments , the age of great Sanskrit and Prakrit epics and classics had come to an end . This productive period had made available a vast corpus of literature that could be expressed in the local language of Kannada . Kannada , which had flourished both as a language of political discourse and literature in the Rashtrakuta court , found enthusiastic support from the Chalukya kings . The influential Jains , who according to historian A.S. Altekar may have comprised 30 percent of the population , not only dominated the cultural landscape of 9th and 10th century Karnataka , but were also eager to encourage literature in the local language . According to Professor S.N. Sen , a research fellow at the Indian council of historical research , Kannada literature under the Chalukyas reached a " perfection of form " . Scholars Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed that 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada , a virtual displacement of Sanskrit as the language of courtly discourse .
= = = Mainstream literature = = =
For a few centuries after Kavirajamarga ( " Royal path for poets " , c . 850 ) , the earliest available Kannada literary work , Jain writings had adhered to Sanskritic models that had been recognised by the state as the path for future Kannada writers , while relegating native poetic forms ( compositions such as Chattana and Bedande ) to subordinate status . The stranglehold that the Sanskritic models had over Kannada literature is best exemplified by Ranna 's lexicon Rannakanda ( 990 ) , where native day @-@ to @-@ day Kannada words had been translated into Sanskrit . This implied that the pure form of the local language was not viewed as equal to Sanskrit , from the cosmopolitan viewpoint . Kannada writings by Jain authors thus used impressive Sanskrit @-@ derived verses interspersed with prose to extol the virtues of their patron kings , who were often compared to heroes from the Hindu epics . While Adikavi Pampa ( Pampa Bharata , 941 ) compared his patron , the feudatory Chalukya King Arikesari , to Pandava prince Arjuna , in Vikramarjuna Vijaya , his version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , Ranna ( 983 ) found it suitable to compare his patron , King Satyashraya , to Pandava prince Bhima .
= = = Folk literature = = =
The mainstream literary style was to lose popularity during the mid @-@ 12th century Kalachuri rule , due to the rise of revolutionary notions about the social and cultural order . The Veerashaivas , acting in protest , used the pure form of Kannada language in their poems ; moreover , they encouraged writers from lower castes to participate and completely eliminated themes that had been considered formal by the king and the monastery . Thus , written in native metres , in a language close to the spoken form of Kannada , the Vachana poems gained mass appeal . A new religious faith was thereby propagated by the Veerashaivas whose ascendancy is called the " Veerashaiva movement " and their communicative genre , the Vachana . While the Vachana poetry is generally categorised as a part of the pan @-@ Indian Bhakti ( devotional ) literature , such generalisations tend to disguise the very esoteric and anti @-@ bhakti positions taken by many Vachanakaras . The origin of the Veerashaiva ideology and the beginnings of their poetry is unclear . According to D.R. Nagaraj , a scholar on literary cultures in history , modern scholars tend to favour two broad views : integrationist and indigenist . The integrationists , such as L. Basavaraju , trace the source of Vachana poetic tradition to the Sanskrit Upanishad scriptures and the Agama doctrine , though this does not explain why the movement did not blossom earlier or in the neighbouring Telugu @-@ speaking region where radical Shaiva sects were known to be active . The indigenists , such as Chidananda Murthy , M.M. Kalaburgi and G.S. Shivarudrappa , propose a native Karnataka origin of the poetry , though they are yet to fully explain its unique nature .
= = = Other developments = = =
At about this time , adding to pressure from the popularity of the Vachana canon in the northern Kannada @-@ speaking region , the noted Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana ( 1108 – 1152 ) of the southern Kannada @-@ speaking region converted from Jainism to the Hindu sect of Vaishnavism . The popularity of Ramanujacharya 's philosophy had spread in the Hoysala lands and Srivaishnavism , a sub @-@ sect of Vaishnavism , was in the ascendant . By the late 13th century , the Veerashaiva writers , who were by now writing allegorical inscriptions and biographies of famous Vachanakaras of the 12th century , were in stiff competition with the Jains . The earliest attempts by the Jains to veer away from traditional puranic ( philosophical ) themes of renunciation are seen in the writings of Hoysala writers Nemichandra and Andayya . Lilavati Prabhandam , a novel written by Nemichandra ( 1170 ) on the topic of love , erotica , and of the victory of Kamadeva ( god of love ) over his arch @-@ rival Shiva , is the first among such writings . It was followed by Kabbigara Kava ( " Poets defender " , 1215 – 1237 ) by Andayya , also a work depicting a war between Kamadeva and the god Shiva . Despite these efforts , the Jain literary influence was to recede in the coming decades and centuries , being relegated mostly to the coastal Kannada @-@ speaking region . Works of enduring quality were still produced by maverick authors such as Ratnakaravarni ( 1557 ) , though their numbers were fewer .
Contemporaneous to these developments , Nagavarma II wrote his Kannada grammar Karnataka bhashabhushana ( " Ornament of Karnataka language " , 1042 or 1145 ) . A milestone in the history of Kannada literature , it helped consolidate the language as competitor to established languages such as Sanskrit and Prakrit , bringing the local language within the realm of literary cosmopolitanism . Writing a Kannada grammar in Sanskrit language was essential to Nagavarma II , a subtle rebuttal to Sanskritic scholars of the day who may have considered Kannada a language of the common man and its grammar as underdeveloped . In addition to the Chalukya patronage , Kannada poets and writers of this period were popular in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the western Deccan . The Hoysalas , the southern Kalachuris , the Seunas , the Gangas and the Silharas are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature .
= = Kannada writings = =
= = = Jain Court literature = = =
= = = = Age of Ranna = = = =
The late 10th century was a period of consolidation for the fledgling empire . Founding King Tailapa II and his successor , King Satyashraya , warred against their neighbours : the Shilharas of south Konkan , the Chaulukyas of Gujarat , the Paramara of central India and the Chola Dynasty of Tanjore . Unaffected by these political developments , Kannada literature continued to flourish in the royal court . The foremost writer of this period was Ranna , who was born to a family of bangle sellers in the town of Mudhol . Ranna is considered by historians K.A. Nilakanta Sastri and Sailendra Nath Sen as one of the " three gems of Kannada literature " along with his seniors , Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna . Ranna became the court poet of King Tailapa II and King Satyashraya . In his early days , he was also patronised by the well @-@ known Ganga minister Chavundaraya . Ranna is famous for writing Ajitha purana ( 993 ) , which recounts the life of the second Jain tirthankar Ajitanatha . However , it is in his magnum opus , the work Sahasa Bhima Vijaya ( " Victory of bold Bhima " , also called Gada Yudda or " Conflict of Clubs ' " , 982 ) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava prince Duryodhana in his Jain version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata .
Unlike Pampa who glorifies Arjuna and Karna in his writing , Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyashraya and favourably compares him to Bhima , whom he crowns at the end of the Mahabharata war . He calls Bhima 's adversary Duryodhana mahanubhava ( " a great person " ) . The work contains some of the earliest examples of elegiac verses ( called shoka gita or charama gita ) in the Kannada language , noted among which is one piece that describes the heart @-@ rending lamentation ( called karuna rasa or " sentiment of pathos " ) of Duryodhana on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana , his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow , Karna , and Arjuna 's valorous son Abhimanyu . The effect given to the writing , the language , the diction and the style maintained throughout the narration has earned Ranna a place among the most notable authors of Kannada literature . Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest available dictionary in Kannada language called the Rannakanda ( 990 ) , of which only eleven verses still exist . His other notable writings were the Chakeresvaracharita and the Parashuramacharitha . According to historian Suryanath Kamath , the latter work , which is now lost , may have been an eulogy of Chavundaraya , whom the poet admired . For his literary contributions , the title Kavi Chakravathi ( " Emperor among poets " ) was bestowed upon Ranna by his patron king .
Another notable writer from the close of the 10th century , Nemichandra , wrote the Kaviraja kunjara and Lilavati ( c . 990 ) with Prince Kavdarpa Deva of Jayantipura ( modern Banavasi , Karnataka ) and Princess Lilavati as the protagonists of the latter poem . Other writers from the close of the 10th century whose works are now lost but have been praised by the Chalukya minister Durgasimha ( 1031 ) are Kavitavilasa ( patronised by King Jayasimha II ) , Madiraja , Chadrabhatta , Kannamayya and Manasija . Inscriptions such as the Kuppatur and Haveri records eulogize popular writers such as Harivarma ( 1070 ) and Narayana Deva respectively .
= = = = Early secular writings = = = =
According to Kannada scholar R. Narasimhacharya , despite the production of some important secular writings , repeated Chola invasions into Kannada lands in the 11th century may have adversely affected literary production . This situation was brought about by intense competition between the Western Chalukyas and their arch @-@ rivals , the Cholas of Tanjore . Among notable writings , Chandraraja 's Madanatilaka ( " Forehead ornament of passion " , 1025 ) , written in the champu metre , is the earliest available work on erotica in the Kannada language and an adaptation of the Sanskrit Kamasutra by Vatsyayana . The narration is a dialogue between the patron and his wife in posakannada , the most modern Kannada in usage at the time . He was under the patronage of Machiraja , feudatory of King Jayasimha II ( also called Jagadekamalla I ) . Shridharacharya , a Jain Brahmin patronised by King Someshvara I ( also called Ahvamalla or Trailokyamalla ) showed his ability to write on scientific subjects in Jatakatilaka ( 1049 ) , the earliest available writing on astrology in Kannada , citing the Sanskrit astronomer Aryabhata . His other work is the lost Chandraprabha Charite , on belles @-@ lettres .
Chavundaraya II , a Shaiva Brahmin ( Brahmin devotee of the god Shiva ) by faith and a protege of King Jayasimha II , wrote Lokopakara ( c . 1025 ) in the champu metre . It is the earliest available encyclopaedia in the Kannada language , written at times with a poetic touch . It comprises twelve chapters and has found popularity in later references as well . The work is on various topics such as daily life , astronomy , astrology and forecasting of events based on the Indian calendar ( panchanga phala ) , sculpture , construction of buildings ( vastu vichara ) and reservoirs ( udakargala ) , omens , divination of water , preparation of medicine from herbs and plants ( vrikshayurveda ) , general medicine ( vaidya ) , perfumery , cookery and toxicology ( vishavaidya ) . Mentioned in this book is the popular South Indian dish Idli and its preparation by soaking Urad dal ( black gram ) in butter milk , grinding it to a fine paste , and mixing with spices and the clear water of curd .
Durgasimha , the Sandhi Vigrahi ( minister of war and peace ) of King Jayasimha II wrote the well @-@ known Panchatantra ( " The five stratagems " , 1031 ) in champu style , basing it on Gunadhya 's Paishachi language original Brihatkatha . This fable is the first adaptation of the original into a vernacular language of India . Containing sixty fables in all , thirteen of which are original , each is summarised by an ethical moral based on a Jain tenet . Durgasimha also authored the Karnataka Banachatantra , the earliest available commentary in the Kannada language , giving a brief commentary on all the Sanskrit verses he quoted in the Panchatantra . Around this time , Jayakirti ( c . 1000 – 1050 ) , a Kannada language theorist , who considered the rules of prosody to be the same for Sanskrit and Kannada , wrote the Chandonusasana
There were other notable writers from the latter part of 11th century . Shantinatha , patronised by King Someshvara II , wrote the poem Sukumaracharita in c . 1068 . Nagavarmacharya , a Brahmin Advaita saint of Balligavi , who was patronised by King Udayatidya , a vassal of Chalukya King Someshvara II , wrote Chandrachudamani sataka ( c . 1070 ) in the sataka ( hundred @-@ line verse ) metre . In this centum of verses , where each ends with the term " Chandrachudamani " as another name of the god Shiva , the author treats on viragya ( ethics of renunciation ) . Other writers whose works are considered lost but have been referenced in contemporary writings are Gunachandra and Gunavarma . Gunachandra , who was admired by King Someshvara II ( also called Bhuvanaika Malla ) , wrote Parsvabhyudaya and Maghanadisvara . Gunavarma , who earned the honorific Bhuvanaika Vira , a title befitting a warrior rather than a poet , is mentioned by grammarian Keshiraja ( c . 1260 ) as the author of Harivamsa . His title identifies him with a Ganga prince called Udayaditya who was a minister and general under Chalukya King Someshvara II . Other writings ascribed to the author are Pushpadanta Purana and Devachandra Prabha Stotra .
= = = = Vikrama era = = = =
The 12th century heralded an age of peace and prosperity . Cultural and literary developments received impetus during the rule of King Vikramaditya VI , a patron of the fine arts . The king , who ascended the throne in 1076 and ruled for fifty years occupies a pride of place in the history of Karnataka . His reign marks the end of the use of Saka Varsha ( Indian calendar , the " Saka era " ) in Chalukya inscriptions and the start of Vikrama Varsha ( " Vikrama era " ) . His court was adorned with some of the most well @-@ known writers of Kannada and Sanskrit literature . Nayasena , whose writings are dated by the scholars D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock to the 10th century , and by E.P. Rice and R. Narasimhacharya to c . 1112 , wrote the Dharmamritha , a book containing fifteen stories that belong to the genre of fable and parable . Well known among these stories teaching about Jain tenets are " Yajnadatta and the mongoose " , " Kapalika and the young elephant " and " Serpent , tiger , monkey and the goldsmith who had fallen in the old well " . The writing is one of intense self @-@ interrogation where the author criticises the beliefs of all contemporaneous religions while decrying the contamination in the original Jain beliefs due to external cultural influences , such as the practice of violent and bloody rituals and the caste system .
Brahmashiva , the court poet of King Vikramaditya VI , earned the title Kavichakravarti ( " Emperor among poets " ) from his patron for his writing Samayaparikshe ( " Analysis of the doctrine " , c . 1125 ) . In this philosophical writing , containing touches of propagandist satire and humor , the author seeks to prove the virtues of Jainism superior to all other contemporary religions . Brahmashiva portrays contemporary life and beliefs of the people of the Kannada @-@ speaking region . He criticises Hinduism and the conversion of a Jain temple originally dedicated to the Tirthankar Chandrapraba in Kholapur into a Hindu temple deifying the goddess Mahalakshmi . He expresses reservation regarding the existence of religious cosmopolitanism within a household where family members followed multiple faiths . The author is concerned about the eroding popularity of Jainism in southern India due to the rising popularity of the Veerashaiva movement . Prince Kirtivarma , a younger brother of King Vikramaditya VI , wrote Govaidya ( " Cattle Medicine " ) , the earliest available writing in Kannada on veterinary science , which mixes medicine and magic .
After the death of Vikramaditya VI , his successors , Someshvara III and Jagadhekamalla II continued to support poets and writers . Karnaparya 's account of the life of the 22nd tirthankar Neminatha , the Neminathapurana ( c . 1145 ) in champu metre , includes details of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and of the god Krishna from a Jain outlook . Jagaddala Somanatha 's Karnataka Kalyanakaraka ( 1150 ) , a translation of the Sanskrit writing Kalyanakaraka by Pujyapada , is the earliest writing on medicine in Kannada . It prescribes an entirely vegetarian and non @-@ alcoholic diet .
= = = = Consolidation of grammar = = = =
Among available works on Kannada grammar , a part of Kavirajamarga ( 850 ) forms the earliest framework . The occurrence of the term purvacharyar in some contexts of the writing may be a reference to previous grammarians or rhetoricians . Though Nagavarma @-@ II is credited to be the author of the earliest exhaustive Kannada grammar , the author mentions his predecessors , Sankavarma and Nagavarma @-@ I ( the extant Chhandombudhi , " Ocean of Prosody " , c . 984 ) as path @-@ makers of Kannada grammar . The exact time when grammarian Nagavarma @-@ II lived is debated by historians . Until the discovery of Vardhamana Puranam ( " Life of Varadhama " , c . 1042 ) written in Kannada by an author who goes by the same name , it was broadly accepted by scholars including E.P. Rice , R. Narasimhacharya and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri that Nagavarma II lived in the mid @-@ 12th century ( 1145 ) and was also the Katakacharya ( " poet laureate " ) of Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II . However , of late , the Encyclopaedia of Indian literature , published by the Sahitya Akademi ( 1988 ) , and scholars D.R. Nagaraj and Sheldon Pollock concur that Nagavarma II lived in the mid @-@ 11th century and was the poet laureate of Chalukya King Jayasimha II , who had the epithet Jagadekamalla ( " Lord of the world " ) .
Irrespective of when Nagavarma II lived , it is accepted that few scholars in the history of Kannada literature made important contributions in as many subjects as he did . His writings on grammar , poetry , prosody , and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of the Kannada language is well @-@ acknowledged . Among his available writings , the historically important Kavyavalokana ( " Treatise on the art of poetry " ) on grammar , poetics and rhetoric is considered path @-@ breaking and contains all the essentials of Kannada grammar . The first section of the book is called Sabdasmriti and contains five chapters dealing with euphonic combinations , nouns , compounds , nominal derivatives and verbs respectively . It is based on earlier works by the Sanskrit grammarians Dandin and Bhamaha . The Karnataka Bhashabhushana , a consolidated and exhaustive Kannada grammar written by Nagavarma II in the Sanskrit language , follows the fundamental framework of the Katantra school of Sanskrit grammar . For his contribution to Kannada grammar , Nagavarma II earned the honorific Sarvavarma – the name of the noted Sanskrit grammarian of the Satavahana era . His Abhidana Vastukosa ( " Treasury of significations " ) , a lexicon , gives Kannada equivalents of nearly eight thousand Sanskrit words and is considered an achievement which gave Kannada language considerable footing in the world of Sanskrit literary dominance . Modern Kannada poet Govinda Pai proposed that the author of Karnataka Bhashabhushana was a different Nagavarma who belonged to the mid @-@ 12th century .
= = = Bhakti literature = = =
= = = = Early poets = = = =
The meteoric rise of Veerashaivism ( a religious sect which preaches devotion to the god Shiva , also called " Lingayatism " ) in caste @-@ ridden 12th @-@ century Karnataka has historic significance because it involved commoners from the lower strata of society , people who had hitherto been denied access to even basic education . The essence of the movement , also seen in the resulting Vachana poems , was the rejection of temple @-@ based ritual worship and the hegemony of mainstream Sanskritic texts and scriptures . The movement encouraged a monotheistic belief in the god Shiva which , according to Kannada scholar H.S. Shiva Prakash , is a possible influence of the 63 Nayanmars ( poets devoted to the god Shiva , 5th – 10th century ) of the Tamil @-@ speaking region . The followers of the faith prayed not to a conventional image of a God but rather wore a linga ( symbol of the god Shiva ) on their body . The beginnings of the Vachana poetry ( called Vachana Sahitya – " Vachana literature " , or Anubhava Sahitya – " mystic literature " and sometimes Sharana Sahitya – " literature of the devotees " ) , a unique form of expression in the Kannada language , can however be traced back to the 11th century .
Names of three poets from the 11th century and some of their poems are available . Madara Chennaiah , a cobbler turned saint , is considered by H.S. Shiva Prakash as the first Vachana poet , and was held in high esteem by latter day poets of the 12th century , including Basavanna . Only ten of Chennaiah 's poems , expressing his resentment of the caste system in metaphors taken from the cobblers ' trade , are extant today . Dohara Kakkaiah is the second poet . A dalit by birth , his six available poems are confessional in nature , a theme seen in the later poems of Basavanna . Devara Dasimaiah ( or Jedara Dasimaiah , 1040 ) is better known because a hundred and fifty of his poems are available . Written in a deft and concise language of proverbs and metaphors , his poems encourage monotheistic belief in the god Shiva . Dasimaiah 's wife Duggale qualifies as Kannada 's first women poet , though only a few of her poems are available .
= = = = Rebel literature = = = =
In mid @-@ 12th century , the Kalachuris successfully warred against their overlords , the Western Chalukyas , and annexed their capital Kalyani . During this turbulent period lasting three decades ( 1153 – 1183 ) , Veerashaivism gained popularity . According to H.S. Shiva Prakash , the Kalachuri period is one of the high points of medieval Kannada literature . Basavanna ( or Basava ) , a social reformer and the prime minister of Kalachuri King Bijjala II , is generally regarded as the inspiration behind this movement . Allama Prabhu , Chennabasava , Siddharama , Akka Mahadevi , and Kondugoli Keshiraja are other well @-@ known poets among several hundred in this cadre .
A centre of religious discussions called Anubhava Mantapa ( " Hall of experience " ) in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences . Here , they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas . These were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic , epigrammatical and satirical prose emphasising the worthlessness of riches , rituals and book learning . Many of these poems are anonymous , but the authors are identifiable by the unique divine name of the god Shiva that is invoked in the poem .
Basavanna
Born to Brahmin parents in the town of Basavana Bagewadi , Basavanna ( 1106 – 1167 ) rejected the upanayanam ( " ritual thread ceremony " ) and left home for Kudalasangama , a holy place at the confluence of the Krishna and Ghataprabha rivers in Bagalkot district , Karnataka . According to historian P.B. Desai , it was here , during his tutelage under the saint Ishanyaguru , that Basavanna had visions of his life 's purpose . The life of Basavanna marks a milestone in the history of Karnataka state , India . A towering personality , his zeal and socio @-@ cultural achievements in the realm of peace and equality of mankind have brought about enduring changes in society .
Information about his life and achievements come from the many Kannada writings , the earliest of which were written just after his death . Hoysala poet Harihara 's Basavarajadevara ragale is the first known biography on Basavanna . Vijayanagara poet @-@ writer Bhima Kavi 's Basavapurana ( 1369 ) , Singiraja 's Amala Basavacharite ( 1500 ) , Vijayanagara minister Lakkanna Dandesa 's Shiva Tatwachintamani ( 1425 – 1450 ) are some of the important sources . The cornerstone of Basavanna 's philosophy was " work @-@ worship is heaven " , the rejection of mere worship of God and the acceptance of one 's own body as a temple of God . Basavanna strongly advocated a life of complete commitment to work . As a poet , he finds a pride of place in Kannada literature . His deftly written poems end with the word " Kudalasangama " which literally means " God of the confluence of two rivers " , the poet 's version of the god Shiva . About 1 @,@ 300 such poems have survived , and have been described by H.S. Shiva Prakash as lyrical , satirical , deeply contemplative and self @-@ critical .
In one satirical poem , Basavanna decries the hypocrisy of a snake charmer and his wife , who on their way to find a bride for their son cancel the journey when they come across a bad omen – another snake charmer and his wife . Though Basavanna himself was a minister under the patronage of the king , some of his poems betray his contempt towards kingship and deep devotion to the god Shiva . A poem by Basavanna :
Allama Prabhu
Allama , also known as Allama Prabhu ( lit , " Allama the master " ) was a mendicant saint @-@ poet who took to the path of asceticism after the untimely death of his wife Kamalate . He was born into a family of hereditary temple performers and was himself an expert on the drum ( called maddale ) in Balligavi , a town of great antiquity in the Shivamogga district , Karnataka . Wandering around grief @-@ stricken by his wife 's death , he came across a saint called Animisayya who initiated him into asceticism .
Ascribed to Allama are 1 @,@ 321 extant poems , each of which end with the word " Guhesvara " ( lit , " Lord of the Cave " , a form of the god Shiva ) , for it is said Allama found enlightenment in a cave . Allama 's cryptic poems , though full of kindness , are known for their satire , mockery , invective and rejection of siddhis ( occult powers ) . H.S. Shiva Prakash compares Allama 's poems to the Koans in Japanese Zen poetry . According to D.R. Nagaraj , Allama 's mystic poems are in a category all of their own and do not qualify as bhakti poems , which are typically characterised by transparent devotion .
While Basavanna 's zeal and influence led to the formation and popularity of the Veerashaiva movement in Kalyani , it was Allama who was the undisputed spiritual authority presiding over the gatherings of the devotees . Chamarasa , a well @-@ known 15th @-@ century Kannada writer in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II wrote Prabhulinga Lile ( 1430 ) , an account of the preachings and achievements of Allama ; it was translated into the Telugu and Tamil languages at the behest of his patron king , and later into the Sanskrit and Marathi languages . In the story , Allama is considered an incarnation of the Hindu god Ganapathi while Ganapathi 's mother , Parvati ( Shiva 's consort ) , takes the form of a princess of Banavasi . A notable anthology called the Sunyasampadane ( " The achievement of nothingness " , 1400 ) was compiled on the life of Allama and gives details about his interaction with contemporary saints . A poem by Allama Prabhu :
Akka Mahadevi
Prominent among the more than thirty women poets was Akka Mahadevi . Born to a merchant family in the town Udatadi ( or Udugani ) in the Shivamogga district , and possibly married against her wishes to a feudal chief called Kausika , she renounced worldly pleasures , opting for a life of devotion and asceticism . She is often compared to other such notable female saint @-@ poets of Hinduism as Andal , Lalleswari and Meera Bai , and is considered one of the prominent female poets of the Kannada language .
The 430 short poems written by her , in a language that depicts her love for her divine lover " Channa Mallikarjuna " ( lit , " Beautiful Mallikarjuna " , a name for the god Shiva ) , and the 15th @-@ century anthology , the Sunyasampadane , are the main sources of information about her life . Her poetry is characterised by scorn for physical possessions and detachment from worldly affairs . A popular poem written by her describes the life of a silk worm which spins a cocoon , becomes entangled in the threads , and eventually dies because it cannot extricate itself – the silk worm is compared to a person and the silk threads , to worldly desires . In a poem of puns , the poet prays that her god , whom she describes as the " Lord of fragrant Jasmines " , may cut through the cocoon of desires so she may become free like a butterfly .
In addition to poetry , she is credited with two short writings , Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi , the latter written in the native tripadi metre , describing the various stages of spiritual enlightenment . Tradition has it that Akka Mahadevi preferred to wear no clothes , a form of renunciation which in her own words was the " most exalted spiritual state " . She died while still in her twenties in a plantain grove in the holy city of Srisailam . A poem by Akka Mahadevi :
Other poets
Basavanna 's nephew , Chennabasava , is more popular as a strategist and a theologian . Apart from authoring some notable and lengthy Vachana poems , he wrote on yogic experiences in a book called Mantragopya . He is known to have been the manager of the gatherings and the Mahamane ( " great house " ) of Basavanna . Credited to Siddharama , another influential devotee and a native of Sonnalige ( modern Sholapur , Maharashtra ) , are writings in tripadi metre and 1 @,@ 379 extant poems ( though he has claimed authorship of 68 @,@ 000 poems ) . His poems were influenced by Basavanna 's ideology and convey rejection of blind beliefs , the caste system , and sexual discrimination .
Artisan poets included Molige Maraiah , a wood cutter ; Madivala Machayya , a washerman ; Ambigere Chowdiah , a ferryman ; Madara Dhooliah , a cobbler ; Hendada Mariah , a toddy tapper ; Turugahi Ramanna , a cowherd ; Kannadi Remmitande , a mirror maker ; and Revanna Siddha , a shepherd , as but a few in a long list of poets . Poets Dakkeya Bommaiah , Bahuroopi Chowdaiah , Kalaketaiah and Nageya Maritande were ritual street performers and their poems reflect images from their trade .
Several women poets made important contributions including : Basavanna 's sister Nagalambike and his two wives , Gangambike and Neelambike , though Neelambike seems to have been the more prolific . Some female poets were wives of male poets in the Veerashaiva congregation . Notable among them are Satyakka , whose poems compare in quality to those of Akka Mahadevi , Kelavve ( a dalit poet ) , whose poems scorn at the upper caste people , Mahadevi and Lingamma , who wrote poems in a mystic language , Amuge Rayamma and Akkamma , who penned poems on the hypocrisy of religious pretences , Kadire Remavva ( a spinner ) , who employed a cryptic language called bedagu in her poems , and Muktayakka , who is known for her debates with the patron saint Allama himself . Other names worthy of mention are Lakkamma , Ketaladevi , Guddavve and a princess called Bontadevi .
= = = = Decline = = = =
Challenging the very core of the caste @-@ based society , the Veerashaivas conducted a marriage between an upper caste Brahmin bride and a lower caste Shudra groom . The resulting confrontation between rebellious Veerashaivas and the conservative upper classes lead to the assassination of King Bijjala II and the eviction of most devotees , including Basavanna , from Kalyani . The successors of King Bijjala II were weak , prompting Chalukya Someshvara IV , ruling from Annigeri , to attempt rebuilding his empire by invading Kalyani in 1183 . Though his invasion was successful , his overall efforts failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile in Banavasi in 1189 . Though these turbulent events caused a setback to the Veerashaiva gatherings and creation of poems , the movement had set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire .
= = Literature after the Chalukyas = =
The post @-@ Chalukya period is characterised by the popularity of Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional writings , though secular and courtly topics written in native metres continued to flourish . Native metres in vogue were the shatpadi ( six @-@ line verse ) , the tripadi , the ragle ( rhymed couplets ) and the sangatya ( compositions meant to be sung to the accompaniment a musical instrument ) . Overall , Kannada writings began to change from marga ( " formal " , due to Sanskritic influence ) to desi ( " vernacular " ) and become more accessible to the common man .
This change is apparent in the writings of the Hoysala court poets , some of who are noted for pioneering works in native metres . The Veerashiava poet Harihara , one of the most prominent poets of the medieval era , established the ragale tradition with his biography of Basavanna ( Basavaraja Devara ragale , 1160 ) , the earliest available biography of the social reformer and of the Kannada language as well . His nephew Raghavanka established the shatpadi metre in his unique and original narration of the story of King Harishchandra called Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . Sisumayana is credited with introducing a new composition called sangatya ( 1232 ) in his allegorical poems Tripuradahana ( " Burning of the triple fortress " ) and Anjanacharita . Some Jain authors continued the champu tradition , such as Janna , immortalised by his writing Yashodhara Charite ( 1207 ) , a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with sadomasochism and transmigration of the soul . The earliest well @-@ known Brahmin writers also emerged during the late 12th century and wrote on themes ranging from Vaishnava faith ( Rudrabhatta 's Jagannatha Vijaya , 1185 ) to secular treatises on poetics ( Kavi Kama 's Sringara Ratnakara , on poetic sentiment and flavor ) .
After the fall of the Kalachuri empire , the Vachana poetic tradition halted temporarily . However , by the 14th century , the Veerashaivas who held influential positions in the Vijayanagara Empire were exerting their influence , especially during the reign of King Deva Raya II ( or Prouda Deva Raya ) . Although this period is not as famous for the proliferation of the Vachana poems as the 12th century was , contemporary writers adopted the preachings of the saints and devotees of the bygone era and made them the protagonists of their writings . Having found a rallying point to spread their faith , they began an era of commentaries , anthologies and biographies . Famous among biographies were Bhimakavi 's Basavapurana ( 1369 ) , Singiraja 's Mala @-@ Basavapurana ( or Singirajapurana , 1500 ) on the life of Basavanna , Chamarasa 's Prabhulingalile ( 1425 ) on the life of Allama Prabhu and Virupaksha Pandita 's Chenna Basavapurana ( 1584 ) , an account of Chennabasava . Among a long list of anthologies , four versions of the Shunyasampadane are the most well @-@ known . The first version , completed in 1400 by Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah , was written in the form of a dialogue between the protagonist , saint Allama Prabhu , and other well @-@ known
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weight Champion . On 28 March , O 'Shaunessy put an end to his main rivalries when he defeated Vinny and then Vain in the quarter and semi finals , respectively . He met Darren Burridge in the final match and won to become IWW 's first champion , but had to compete again in an evening show in Dublin , defeating Burridge and Vinny once more in a tag match alongside Vain .
O 'Shaunessy 's first successful title defence came against Burridge the following month but Burridge would not let his grudge rest , continuing to attack O 'Shaunessy and finally costing him the title during a match against D 'Lo Brown on 29 May . O 'Shaunessy earned revenge in July by defeating Burridge in a grudge match , though lost to him in an arm wrestling contest the following day . Still , he continued on his quest to regain the title by winning a contendership three way match against Vinny and Red Viper in August setting him up to regain the International Heavyweight Championship in October from Brown in Newcastle upon Tyne in England .
After defending his title against Vampiro and Viper , O 'Shaunessy found himself embroiled in a new feud with rising Scottish wrestling star " Thee " Drew Galloway , whom he later admitted was his toughest opponent . On 28 January 2006 , he received his first championship match , evolving their rivalry from previous non @-@ title contests . The rivalry quickly took on a patriotic flavour , with Galloway 's blue colours of Scotland clashing O 'Shaunnesy 's green colours of Ireland , mirroring the Old Firm football derby between Rangers and Celtic , respectively . This football allusion became particularly prominent when the two met again at Verona Football Club again for the title , though the match changed into a Lumberjack match , the result and champion remained the same .
With Galloway defeated , O 'Shaunessy continued to dominate by again defending his title against Vampiro on 17 March . Galloway earned himself a two out of three falls match against the champion the following day , however , which O 'Shaunessy won two falls to one ; the next day produced the same result in a match O 'Shaunessy claimed was his best on the independent circuit . With Galloway briefly answered , O 'Shaunessy took on the newcomer Pierre Marcaeu and defeated him in two successive title matches only to find Galloway had earned another shot . With their rivalry intensifying , Galloway 's next challenge to O 'Shaunnesy was given the stipulation of a Last Man Standing match . O 'Shaunessy retained the title , as he also did in June with the same stipulation . Finally , on 28 August , O 'Shaunessy lost the IWW International Heavyweight Championship in a singles match to Galloway in what would be his last appearance with the promotion .
= = = British promotions ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = =
As well as wrestling in Ireland , O 'Shaunessy occasionally travelled to Great Britain to make appearances on the British independent circuit . In April 2006 he was brought into Wales ' Celtic Wrestling promotion as a contender for their top title but was defeated by the champion , Chris Recall . Later that year in November , he was employed by London 's LDN Wrestling to appear on their Capital TV show where , after quickly defeating William Hill , he gained an LDN Championship match against Tex Benedict which ended with Benedict winning by disqualification and O 'Shaunessy attacking him after the match .
During his time overseas he worked for Brian Dixon 's All Star Wrestling , which gave him a taste of large audiences that he had not experienced in Ireland , as well as wrestling English veteran Robbie Brookside and other British wrestling luminaries , including Nigel McGuinness and Doug Williams . He also represented the UK in a Battle of the Nations tag team match between the UK and Austria alongside Drew McDonald and The Celtic Warrior in a losing effort against Chris Raaber , Michael Kovac , and Robert Ray Kreuzer at the European Wrestling Association 's Night of Gladiators .
As well as making top contender appearances based on his growing reputation , O 'Shaunessy also brought with him to Britain his long @-@ standing rivalry with Galloway . He had already wrestled in Galloway 's home promotion , British Championship Wrestling ( BCW ) , twice in 2005 , losing to Jay Phoenix on the day before Phoenix lost to Galloway in March , and returning in September to defeat one of BCW 's top stars , Wolfgang , via countout . In the middle of their IWW feud the following year , O 'Shaunessy went back to Scotland to take part in BCW 's Path To Glory tour , defeating Galloway on the first night but conceding a loss to him the next night in May . Though their feud finished in Ireland in August 2006 , it continued on across the Irish Sea when the two wrestled for the umbrella promotion Real Quality Wrestling ( RQW ) the following year . The two first met during April 's Taking On The World show which ended in a double countout . The lack of a decision led to a rematch in June , and one of O 'Shaunessy 's last on the independent circuit , where Galloway picked up the victory in a No Holds Barred match ahead of an RQW Heavyweight Championship match .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Early cameos ( 2006 ) = = = =
On 13 November 2006 , O 'Shaunessy and English wrestler Stu Sanders appeared on the World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) show Raw at the Manchester Evening News Arena as part of the security team ejecting D @-@ Generation X from ringside , only for O 'Shaunessy to later receive a Pedigree from Triple H. The following day , he and Galloway had a tryout match against each other . The following year in April , he received another set of tryout matches in Milan and London against Galloway , as well as Sanders , WWE talent Jimmy Wang Yang , and Monster Factory alumnus Domino . This led to an offer and signing of a developmental contract with WWE , at which point he relocated to the United States .
= = = = Florida Championship Wrestling ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = = =
O 'Shaunessy debuted for the WWE developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling ( FCW ) on 2 October in a double @-@ debut match with a win over Bryan Kelly . While wrestling regularly , he was not part of any long feuds but did wrestle with a number of short @-@ term tag teams alongside Hade Vansen and Jake Hager before teaming with Kafu ( and managed by Dave Taylor ) in the tournament to crown the inaugural FCW Florida Tag Team Champions . They advanced past the first round after defeating The British Lions ( " Thee Superstar " Christopher Gray and " The Rascal " Tommy Taylor ) , but lost to Brad Allen and Nick Nemeth in the second round .
By September , O 'Shaunessy had focused his attention on singles competition and wrestled his way to the top of the card , successfully defeating former partner Hager for the Florida Heavyweight Championship . He defended the title against Hager on 23 October and took on a number of competitors , with Eric Escobar and Joe Hennig consistently earning themselves into contention . Eventually , on 11 December , O 'Shaunessy lost the title to Escobar in a four @-@ way match also involving Hennig and Drew McIntyre ( formerly Drew Galloway ) .
O 'Shaunessy spent 2009 continuing to chase gold , earning two shots in January and February at the Florida Tag Team Champions Johnny Curtis and Tyler Reks , but he and Ryback were unsuccessful in both attempts . In March he challenged the two for the titles again , this time with McIntyre as his partner , but could not defeat them , nor could he defeat McIntyre for the Florida Heavyweight Championship the following month . He received a series of chances throughout the rest of the year , but could not win any more titles before being called up to WWE television , unsuccessfully challenging Justin Angel for the Florida Heavyweight Championship in November .
On 22 July 2008 , O 'Shaunessy worked a dark match at a SmackDown taping , losing to R @-@ Truth . The following year in May , O 'Shaunessy began appearing at the Raw brand 's house shows , and on both 8 and 9 May he defeated Jamie Noble along with another dark match victory over Noble before an episode of Raw .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
On the 30 June 2009 episode of ECW , Farrelly made his unannounced debut as a villain under the shortened ring name of Sheamus , quickly defeating a local competitor . Sheamus soon entered into a critically well @-@ received rivalry with Goldust after defeating him on 29 July . After exchanging victories in the following weeks they competed in a No Disqualification match on 1 September which was won by Sheamus . Sheamus then began a feud with Shelton Benjamin which was hot @-@ shot into a deciding match on 27 October which Sheamus won .
His rivalry with Benjamin ended prematurely when Sheamus was moved to the Raw brand . He made his Raw debut by defeating Jamie Noble on 26 October . In the following weeks , he continued to attack Noble causing him to retire , and , in lieu of competition , assaulted the timekeeper and commentator Jerry Lawler on 16 November . The following week Sheamus appeared on his first WWE pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Survivor Series , when he was part of The Miz 's team in a traditional five @-@ on @-@ five elimination tag team match . He eliminated fellow Irishman Finlay and made the final pinfall to eliminate the opposing captain John Morrison and survive along with The Miz and longtime former rival Drew McIntyre .
The following night on Raw , Sheamus won a " break @-@ through " battle royal for wrestlers who had never won a world championship , to become the number one contender to John Cena 's WWE Championship . At the contract signing immediately afterward , Sheamus put Cena through the table , and the Raw guest host , Jesse Ventura , announced it would be a Tables match . On 13 December at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sheamus defeated Cena to win the WWE Championship , his first championship in WWE , making him the first Irish @-@ born WWE Champion . He also captured the major title in just 166 days since his WWE debut , making it the third shortest time to capture a title since his WWE / ECW debut . The following night on Raw , Sheamus was awarded the 2009 Breakout Superstar of the Year Slammy Award . On 31 January 2010 at the Royal Rumble , Sheamus defeated Randy Orton by disqualification to retain the WWE Championship , following interference from Orton 's teammate Cody Rhodes . On 21 February , Sheamus lost the WWE Championship at the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view in the Elimination Chamber match after he was eliminated by Triple H. During the match , Sheamus suffered a concussion and as a result did not attend Raw the following night . Upon his return , he attacked Triple H in revenge , setting up a match at WrestleMania XXVI , where Sheamus lost . The following month at Extreme Rules , Sheamus attacked Triple H at the beginning of the show and later defeated him in a Street Fight . After a series of kicks to the head to win , he continued his assault after the match finished resulting in Triple H being written off television for ten months .
On 20 June at Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sheamus won a fatal four @-@ way match , following interference from The Nexus that allowed him to pin John Cena , winning the WWE Championship for the second time and being named the one @-@ hundredth WWE Champion in history . He defeated Cena in a steel cage match to retain the championship on 18 July at the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , retained the title Randy Orton on 15 August at SummerSlam by disqualification . On 19 September at Night of Champions , Sheamus lost the WWE Championship to Randy Orton in a six @-@ pack elimination challenge , which also included Chris Jericho , Edge , John Cena , and Wade Barrett . Sheamus received his rematch for the title on 3 October at Hell in a Cell , but was again defeated by Orton in a Hell in a Cell match .
= = = = Championship reigns ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = = =
He bounced back on 29 November , with wins over Kofi Kingston and John Morrison to become King of the Ring , after receiving a bye through the second round . As " King Sheamus " , he faced Morrison again at the TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view for a future WWE Championship match , but lost in a ladder match . Going into 2011 , he continued to lose to Morrison in a mixture of singles and tag team matches . Triple H returned on 28 February and took revenge for his scripted ten @-@ month injury by putting Sheamus through the announce table . On 7 March , after losing a match against Daniel Bryan , Sheamus challenged him to a rematch with his WWE career on the line against Bryan 's United States Championship . He won his match against Bryan the following week , winning his first United States title . The rematch between Sheamus and Bryan took place on 3 April , during the pre @-@ show of WrestleMania XXVII , and ended in a draw after interference from the lumberjacks . The next night on Raw , Sheamus retained the United States Championship against Bryan in a rematch . In the 2011 Supplemental Draft , Sheamus was drafted to the SmackDown brand , and made his SmackDown debut on 29 April , and attacking Kofi Kingston . He brought the United States Championship to SmackDown , but lost it back to the Raw brand at Extreme Rules when Kingston defeated him in a Tables match .
On the 3 June episode of SmackDown , Sheamus lost a World Heavyweight Championship match to Randy Orton due to biased refereeing from Christian . Two weeks later , he lost a match to Christian , ending his chance to compete in the World Heavyweight Championship match at Capitol Punishment . Sheamus turned face for the first time by starting a brief feud with Mark Henry over Henry being a bully , including a loss at SummerSlam , Sheamus went on a fourteen match winning streak that ended after interference from Christian , with whom he had been feuding . During this time , Sheamus defeated Christian in three consecutive matches at Hell in a Cell , Vengeance , and on SmackDown . He then went on a twelve match winning streak building towards winning the 2012 Royal Rumble . He entered the match twenty @-@ second and won by last eliminating Chris Jericho to earn a main event championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII .
On 19 February at Elimination Chamber , Sheamus attacked World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan after the latter retained his title , indicating he would face Bryan at WrestleMania . On 1 April at WrestleMania XXVIII , Sheamus defeated Bryan in a record eighteen seconds to win the World Heavyweight Championship . On the following episode of SmackDown , Sheamus was defeated by Alberto Del Rio in a non @-@ title match via disqualification , thus earning Del Rio a future title match and beginning a feud between the two . On 29 April at Extreme Rules , Sheamus successfully defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Bryan in a two out of three falls match . Sheamus then returned to his rivalry with Del Rio while also starting a feud with Chris Jericho and Randy Orton . The four @-@ way rivalry culminated in a match for the World Heavyweight Championship on 20 May at Over the Limit , where Sheamus pinned Jericho to retain . Del Rio earned another shot at Sheamus ' title on the following episode of SmackDown , but suffered a concussion a week before their match at No Way Out and was subsequently replaced by Dolph Ziggler ; Sheamus retained the championship in their match . Sheamus went on to retain the championship against Del Rio and Ziggler over the next few months , including at the Money in the Bank , SummerSlam , and Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ views . On 28 October at Hell in a Cell , Sheamus lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Big Show , ending his reign , which was the third longest in the title 's history , at 210 days .
Sheamus faced Show for the World Heavyweight Championship on 18 November at Survivor Series , where he defeated Show via disqualification , failing to win the title . Afterward , Sheamus repeatedly hit Show with a steel chair . This led to a Chairs match on 16 December at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , where Sheamus again failed to regain the World Heavyweight Championship . On the 24 December episode of Raw , Sheamus defeated Show in a non @-@ title lumberjack match .
= = = = United States Champion ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
On 27 January 2013 , at the Royal Rumble , Sheamus entered the Royal Rumble at number eleven and eliminated five other competitors before being eliminated by Ryback . After being a frequent target of The Shield , Sheamus gained vengeance on the stable when he united with John Cena and Ryback to attack them . This culminated in a six @-@ man tag team match at Elimination Chamber , where the Shield emerged victorious . In late February , Sheamus aligned himself with Randy Orton to feud with The Shield . Over the next weeks , Sheamus and Orton saved each other from attacks by The Shield and Big Show . On the 15 March episode of SmackDown , Sheamus and Orton were then allowed to pick a third partner to face the Shield in a six @-@ man tag team match at WrestleMania 29 and chose Ryback . Three days later on Raw , however , Ryback was booked for another match at the event , leaving the spot open . Later that night , Big Show saved the two from an attack by The Shield and was recruited as their partner . On 7 April at WrestleMania 29 , Sheamus , Orton and Show were defeated by The Shield , after which both men were knocked out by Show . The following night on Raw , Sheamus and Orton faced off in a match to earn a match with Big Show , however , the match ended in a no contest after Show interfered . Sheamus and Orton then defeated Show in two handicap matches on SmackDown and Raw .
Later that month , Sheamus re @-@ entered a feud with Mark Henry after the two repeatedly attacked each other backstage . Sheamus and Henry then challenged each other in tests of strength , but with Sheamus unable to best Henry , he resorted to attacking Henry . After Sheamus attacked a commentary @-@ bound Henry during a match , Henry whipped Sheamus with a belt , prompting a strap match on 19 May at Extreme Rules , where Sheamus emerged victorious . Sheamus then began feuding with Damien Sandow , when Sandow hosted a series of mental challenges on SmackDown , and Sheamus repeatedly interrupted and tried to solve the challenges . However , when Sheamus failed to solve the puzzles , he instead resorted to physical violence . On 16 June , during the Payback pre @-@ show , Sheamus defeated Sandow in a singles match . The following night on Raw , Sheamus was defeated by Sandow and Cody Rhodes in a handicap match after Sandow pinned him with a roll @-@ up . The rivalry culminated in a Dublin Street Fight on the 28 June episode of SmackDown , where Sheamus emerged victorious . On 14 July at Money in the Bank , Sheamus competed in the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match , but was unsuccessful as the match was won by Randy Orton . During the match , Sheamus suffered a hematoma on his left thigh after being thrown into a horizontal ladder , which prevented him from competing that week . Sheamus returned to in @-@ ring action on the 22 July episode of Raw , losing to World Heavyweight Champion Alberto Del Rio in a non @-@ title match . On 7 August , WWE confirmed Sheamus had suffered a torn labrum in his shoulder that would require surgery , and was expected to miss between four and six months of ring action .
On 26 January 2014 , at the Royal Rumble , Sheamus returned as a surprise entrant in the Royal Rumble match ; he was eliminated by Roman Reigns in the final three . The following night on Raw , Sheamus , Daniel Bryan , and John Cena qualified for the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship ; he was eliminated by Christian in the match . This began a brief feud leading up to WrestleMania , in which Sheamus consistently was victorious . He was part of the final four in the André the Giant Memorial battle royal at WrestleMania XXX , before he and Alberto Del Rio eliminated each other . On 14 April , Sheamus participated in the Intercontinental Championship number one contender tournament , which was held on Raw . He advanced to the next round by defeating Jack Swagger , before losing to Bad News Barrett in the semi @-@ finals on 21 April .
On the 5 May episode of Raw , Sheamus won a 20 @-@ man battle royal to win the United States Championship for the second time , last eliminating the previous champion Dean Ambrose . Sheamus then began feuding with Cesaro and his manager Paul Heyman , culminating in a match between Sheamus and Cesaro for the championship at Payback , which Sheamus won . On 9 June , Sheamus defeated Bad News Barrett to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match for the vacant WWE World Heavyweight Championship ; the match was won by John Cena . Sheamus was in the Intercontinental Championship battle royal at Battleground ; the match was won by The Miz . At Night of Champions , Sheamus successfully defended the title against Cesaro and retained the championship against The Miz at Hell in a Cell . He lost the title to Rusev on 3 November , in a match aired exclusively on the WWE Network .
Following this , Sheamus was written off television when he and Big Show were attacked by Rusev and Mark Henry , allowing Sheamus time off for surgery .
= = = = The League of Nations ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the 30 March episode of Raw , Sheamus returned from injury , having drastically changed his look , including a mohawk and braided beard , appearing to save Daniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler from an attack by Bad News Barrett , but then attacked Bryan and Ziggler instead , turning heel in the process for the first time since 2011 . Sheamus then explained his heel turn and new attitude by claiming that " the era of underdogs is over " , resulting in a feud with Ziggler . On the 16 April episode of SmackDown , Sheamus announced that he would face Ziggler in a Kiss Me Arse match at Extreme Rules , which he lost . However , Sheamus refused to follow the stipulation , and instead made Ziggler kiss his arse , despite losing . At Payback , Sheamus defeated Ziggler in a rematch . At Elimination Chamber , Sheamus participated in the Elimination Chamber match for the vacant Intercontinental Championship , but was unsuccessful as the match was won by Ryback . At Money in the Bank , Sheamus won the Money in the Bank ladder match to earn a WWE World Heavyweight Championship contract . Sheamus then began a feud with Randy Orton , who was also part of the ladder match , with both men attacking each other and facing off in tag @-@ team matches . Sheamus lost to Orton at Battleground , but defeated Orton at SummerSlam .
At Survivor Series , Sheamus cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and defeated newly crowned champion Roman Reigns , after he refused to shake hands with Triple H , to win the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , thus aligning with Triple H and The Authority . On the November 30 episode of Raw , Sheamus announced that he had formed his own stable called The League of Nations with King Barrett , Alberto Del Rio , and Rusev . This new stable , the members of which all have been born outside the U.S. , remained associated with the Authority . In addition , he proclaimed his championship reign as " Sheamus 5 : 15 " , which is a play on Austin 3 : 16 and Reigns ' short @-@ lived tenure as champion for five minutes and 15 seconds .
At the TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sheamus defeated Reigns in a tables , ladders , and chairs match due to interference from The League of Nations . After the match , Reigns snapped and viciously attacked Sheamus as well as Triple H. This resulted in a rematch the following night on Raw for the title with the added stipulation that Reigns would be fired should he lose . Despite interference from chairman Mr. McMahon , Sheamus lost the championship , ending his reign at 22 days . On the January 4 , 2016 episode of Raw , he failed to regain the title from Reigns with McMahon as special guest referee . On January 24 , Sheamus entered the 2016 Royal Rumble at number 29 , where he made to the final four , before being eliminated by Reigns . This loss would end his feud with Reigns .
At Fastlane , WWE Tag Team Champions The New Day began mocking The League of Nations , calling them the " league of booty " . They then continued to mock The League of Nations in various segments and skits while simultaneously feuding with other teams . At Roadblock , Sheamus and Barrett challenged for the WWE Tag Team Championship , but were unsuccessful . The following night on Raw , The New Day defeated Del Rio and Rusev , prompting all four members of The League to attack The New Day after the match . The League of Nations then challenged The New Day to a match at WrestleMania 32 , where they defeated The New Day . After the match , they were confronted and attacked by Mick Foley , Stone Cold Steve Austin , and Shawn Michaels .
On the April 4 episode of Raw , Barrett and Sheamus faced The New Day in another tag team title match , in a losing effort . After the match , the League of Nations blamed Barrett for being the " weak link " and attacked him , ejecting him from the group , before the rest of the team was attacked by The Wyatt Family . The feud was suspended within a month due to Bray Wyatt suffering an injury , which led to Alberto Del Rio commenting that The League might separate soon as a result .
On the April 28 episode of SmackDown , The League would compete in a six @-@ man tag match against Sami Zayn , Kalisto and Cesaro , however , Del Rio and Rusev walked out during the match . Sheamus , who would do the same , confronted Del Rio and Rusev during a brawl , and said that the league is finished , confirming the end of the group . Del Rio would also confirm in an interview that the group was finished .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On the May 2 episode of Raw all three members of the former stable competed in the United States Championship number one contender match . Rusev won the match , and eliminated both Sheamus and Del Rio . On the May 23 episode of Raw , Sami Zayn defeated Sheamus to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match at the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view . At the Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sheamus suffered a loss to Apollo Crews . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE draft , Sheamus was drafted to Raw .
= = Other media = =
Farrelly had a small role in the 2006 Irish film 3 Crosses , and played Two Ton in the 2008 movie The Escapist . He also appeared as a Celtic Warrior Zombie in the opening sequence of the 2009 film Assault of Darkness . He played Rocksteady in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles : Out of the Shadows ( 2016 ) .
He appeared on several episodes of Dustin 's Daily News , where he had a rivalry with Dustin the Turkey , the famous Irish sock puppet ; this ended with Dustin and Farrelly having a " fight " , which Dustin won . Farrelly played a leprechaun wrestler on The Podge and Rodge Show .
In July 2014 , Farrelly was involved in the Royal Pains television series as a guest star .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
As Sheamus
Brogue Kick ( Running bicycle kick ) – 2009 – present
High Cross / Pale Justice / Celtic Cross ( Running crucifix powerbomb ) – 2010 – 2011 ; 2016 ( briefly )
White Noise ( Over @-@ the @-@ shoulder back @-@ to @-@ belly piledriver ) – 2012 – 2014 ; used as a signature move thereafter
As Sheamus O 'Shaunessy
Celtic Slam ( Death Valley driver )
The FRH – The Fiery Red Hand ( Leg trap chokebomb or a chokeslam lifted and dropped into a side slam )
Signature moves
Battering Ram ( Diving shoulder block , sometimes while slingshotting )
Beats of the Bodhrán ( Forearm clubs to a rope hung opponent 's chest )
Cloverleaf
Drop suplex - 2015 @-@ present
Fallaway slam
Front powerslam
Irish Curse Backbreaker ( Side slam backbreaker )
Rolling fireman 's carry slam
Running double axe handle
Running knee lift , sometimes to a rope hung opponent
Running knee strike to the midsection of a cornered opponent
Nicknames
" The Celtic Conqueror / Warrior "
" The Great White "
" The Celtic King "
" The Irish Curse "
" S.O.S. "
" Mr. Money in the Bank "
Entrance themes
" The Irish Curse " by Alan Doyle
" Written in My Face " performed by Sean Jenness and composed by Jim Johnston ( 30 June 2009 – 30 March 2015 )
" Hellfire " by CFO $ ( 2 April 2015 – present )
" A League of Their Own " by Jim Johnston ( December 7 , 2015 – April 26 , 2016 ; used while a part of The League of Nations )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Florida Championship Wrestling
FCW Florida Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Irish Whip Wrestling
IWW International Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him 5 of the top 500 wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2012
Rolling Stone
Lame Duck of the Year ( 2015 )
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE United States Championship ( 2 times )
WWE World Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times ) 1
King of the Ring ( 2010 )
Money in the Bank ( 2015 )
Royal Rumble ( 2012 )
Slammy Awards ( 4 times )
Breakout Star of the Year ( 2009 )
Feat of Strength of the Year ( 2012 ) Delivering " White Noise " to Big Show
Outstanding Achievement in Muppet Resemblance ( 2011 )
Superstar / Diva Most in Need of Make @-@ up ( 2010 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Most Improved ( 2010 )
1 ^ Sheamus ' first two reigns were when the title was known as the WWE Championship .
= = = Lucha de Apuesta record = = =
= Mami Kawada =
Mami Kawada ( 川田 まみ , Kawada Mami , born February 13 ) is a Japanese pop singer who is signed to NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan and is a member of I 've Sound , a musical group which produces soundtracks for eroge ( erotic games ) and anime . Born and raised in Sapporo , Japan , Kawada made her musical debut in 2001 after being discovered by her music teacher Eiko Shimamiya with the release of the song " Kaze to Kimi o Daite " . She released her first single , a split @-@ single with musician Kotoko , in 2002 , and her first solo single was released in 2005 . Her first album , Seed , was released in 2006 . She first performed overseas in Taiwan in 2007 and later appeared at the Bangkok Comic Con in Thailand in 2014 .
Kawada 's songs have been featured as theme music for various anime shows such as the Shakugan no Shana and A Certain Magical Index series . She has performed theme songs for various eroge such as Love , Election and Chocolate and Aokana : Four Rhythm Across the Blue . She has also written songs for other musicians . During the LisAni 2016 event , Kawada announced her retirement from the music industry following a final concert in May 2016 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Debut = = =
Kawada 's vocal talents were first discovered by Eiko Shimamiya , who was her teacher at the Mitsuno Music School in Sapporo , Hokkaido . She was introduced to I 've Sound , a music production group which featured Shimamiya as a member . Kawada joined I 've Sound in 2001 , and in that year released her debut song titled " Kaze to Kimi o Daite " ( 風と君を抱いて , " Embrace You and the Wind " ) , which was used as the opening theme to the eroge Miss You . The song was later compiled on I 've Sound 's fifth compilation album Out Flow ( 2003 ) .
In 2002 , she released her first song associated with an anime , " Sora no Mori de " ( 空の森で , " In the Forest of Sky " ) , the ending theme to the anime Please Teacher ! . The song was released in a split single with singer Kotoko , who performed the series ' opening theme " Shooting Star " . That same year , Kawada and Shimamiya performed a number of theme songs for visual novels as the unit Healing Leaf , although only one of those songs , " Ame ni Utau Ballad " ( 雨に歌う譚詩曲 , " A Ballad Sung in the Rain " ) , was featured in an I 've Sound Compilation . In mid @-@ 2003 , she performed the ending theme to the anime Please Twins ! , " Asu e no Namida " ( 明日への涙 , " Tears for Tomorrow " ) , which was also released in a split single with Kotoko .
= = = 2005 – 06 : Seed = = =
In 2005 , Kawada signed a contract with Geneon Entertainment ( now NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan ) and released her first major single " Radiance " , which was used as the opening theme to the anime Starship Operators . Later that year , she released her second single " Hishoku no Sora " , which was used as the opening theme to the anime series Shakugan no Shana . It became her best @-@ selling single and sold approximately 37 @,@ 000 copies , peaking at number 11 at the Oricon weekly charts .
In March 2006 , Kawada and Kotoko released a split single for the OVA adaptation of the game Baldr Force , with Kawada performing the ending theme " Undelete " and Kotoko performing the opening theme " Face of Fact ( Resolution ver . ) " . Four weeks later , Kawada released her debut album Seed . The album reached number 12 in the Oricon weekly charts and charted for five weeks , selling more than 25 @,@ 000 copies . Later that year , Kawada held her first live tour , where she distributed a pamphlet CD containing the first instance of a song that she both performed and composed by herself , " Carpe Diem " .
= = = 2007 : Savia = = =
After her success with " Hishoku no Sora " , Kawada released " Akai Namida " , an insert song for the Shakugan no Shana movie in May 2007 . She also sang " Tenjō o Kakeru Monotachi " ( 天壌を翔る者たち , " Those Who Scale Heaven and Earth " ) , the movie 's ending theme , together with Kotoko , Shimamiya , Mell and Kaori Utatsuki under the name Love Planet Five . Three months later , she performed the second ending theme to the series Hayate the Combat Butler , " Get My Way ! " . Kawada 's next single , " Joint " , was released on October 31 , 2007 . The titular song was used as the opening theme to the series Shakugan no Shana Second . The single marked her first top 10 single entry as it reached number 9 in its first week on the Oricon weekly charts , eventually selling 37 @,@ 000 copies and charting for 19 weeks . After Kawada 's success with her fifth single , she performed at her first live concert outside Japan on January 19 , 2008 , at the KHS Hall in Taiwan . In late March 2008 , Kawada released her second album Savia . The album included " Sense " , used as the ending theme of episode 24 of Shakugan no Shana Second , as well as " Akai Namida " and " Get My Way ! " . The album also includes the song " Hisui " ( 翡翠 -HISUI- ) , which was used as the ending theme to the 2008 Japanese theatrical film OneeChan Bara . It peaked at number 15 on the weekly charts and charted for five weeks .
= = = 2008 – 10 : Linkage = = =
In 2008 , Kawada released " PSI @-@ Missing " and " Masterpiece " , which were used as opening theme songs to the anime series A Certain Magical Index . The singles ' B @-@ sides , " Ame " ( 雨 , " Rain " ) and " Jellyfish " respectively , were also used as insert songs in the series . In late 2008 , Kawada opened her official website together with her official fan club M.A.L.L. , an acronym that stands for " Mami Artist Lasting Live " .
In June 2009 , Kawada released a single " L 'Oiseau bleu " , which was originally included in the I 've Sound 10th Anniversary 「 Departed to the future 」 Special CD BOX released on March 25 , 2009 . Kawada also performed the opening and ending themes to the original video animation series Shakugan no Shana S. The opening theme " Prophecy " was released on November 18 , 2009 .
On March 24 , 2010 , Kawada released her third album Linkage. containing the singles " PSI @-@ Missing " , " Masterpiece " and " Prophecy " , as well as the ending theme to Shakugan no Shana S , " All in Good Time " , and a cover of the song " Dreams " , originally performed by the Irish rock band The Cranberries . In the same year , she started writing lyrics for other I 've singers , beginning with " Piece of My Heart " , an insert song used in the eroge Love , Election and Chocolate , sung by Nami Maisaki ; Kawada also performed the game 's opening theme " Initiative " .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Square the Circle = = =
In autumn 2010 , Kawada performed the opening theme to the second season of A Certain Magical Index , " No Buts ! " , which eventually became her highest charting single to date , reaching number 6 in its first week in the Oricon weekly charts .
On February 16 , 2011 , she released her 10th single " See Visions " , the second opening theme to the second season of Index . Four months later , she wrote the lyrics for the song " Lead to the Smile " , the solo debut of I 've singer Rin Asami , who started her career that year . In 2012 , she released several songs for the third Shana series Shakugan no Shana Final : " Serment " was the second opening theme song ; " U / N " was used as the ending theme of episode 15 ; and " Kōbō " ( 光芒 , " Beam of Light " ) was used as an ending theme . Later , she released the single " Borderland " , which served as the opening theme to the anime TV series Jormungand , on May 29 , 2012 . She released a new album titled Square the Circle on August 8 , 2012 .
= = = 2013 – 2016 : Parablepsia = = =
Kawada wrote the song " Recall " , which was used as the ending theme to the 2013 anime television series Amnesia ; the song was performed by Ray . She released a greatest hits album titled Mami Kawada Best : Birth on her birthday , February 13 , 2013 , which includes all of her singles except for " Prophecy " . It also includes " Fixed Star " , the ending theme to the movie Toaru Majutsu no Index : Endymion no Kiseki . The album peaked at number 4 on the Oricon daily charts and at 15 on the Oricon weekly charts . " Fixed Star " was released as a single on February 20 , 2013 . She performed the song " Snap Out of It ! ! " together with Maon Kurosaki , which was included on the music collection Toaru Majutsu no TV Songs released on August 28 , 2013 . Kawada released the single " Break a Spell " , which serves as the second ending theme to the anime TV series Tokyo Ravens , on February 26 , 2014 . She wrote the songs " Lull ( Soshite Bokura wa ) " ( lull ～ そして僕らは ～ , " Lull ( And We Are ) " ) and " Ebb and Flow " , which were used as ending themes to the 2013 anime television series Nagi @-@ Asu : A Lull in the Sea ; both songs were sung by Ray .
Kawada made an appearance at the Bangkok Comic Con in Bangkok , Thailand in July 2014 , and the Animao Anime Music Festival event in Shanghai , China in November 2014 . She performed the song " Wings of Courage ( Sora o Koete ) " ( Wings of Courage — 空を超えて — , " Wings of Courage ( Beyond the Sky ) " ) , which is used as the opening theme to the 2014 visual novel Aokana : Four Rhythm Across the Blue , as well as the song " Belief " which is used in the 2014 video game Dengeki Bunko : Fighting Climax . She made an appearance at the Animax Carnival event in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia in 2015 . Kawada released the single " Gardens " , used as the ending theme to the second season of the anime television series To Love @-@ Ru Darkness , on August 5 , 2015 . In August 2015 , her fanclub merged with I 've Sound 's fanclub I 'VEs to form a new fanclub called I 've Members .
Kawada released her fifth album Parablepsia on September 16 , 2015 , which includes her singles " Borderland " and " Break a spell " , as well as the songs " Howl " and " Here " , which were used in the pachinko game Black Lagoon 2 . She released the single " Contrail ( Kiseki ) " ( Contrail ～ 軌跡 ～ ) , which is used as the opening theme of the 2016 anime television series adaptation of Aokana : Four Rhythm Across the Blue , on January 27 , 2016
On January 24 , 2016 , during the anime concert LisAni , Kawada announced her retirement from the music industry after her final concert on May 21 , 2016 at the Tokyo Dome City Hall . Her song " Believe in the sky " , which will be used as the theme song of the 2016 smartphone game Ao no Kanata no Four Rhythm : Eternal Sky , was released in an AoKana vocal album on May 1 , 2016 . A final compilation album has been announced for release , while a video recording of her final concert will made available through streaming on D Anime Store .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Kawada 's musical style mainly fuses rock with trance . When Kawada debuted in 2001 , she originally felt that the music she earned in her career was pocket money . She also felt happy that she could be based in Sapporo where she could be close to her family and friends , as well as to I 've Sound whom she felt was like a second family to her . After Kotoko made her major debut in 2004 , I 've Sound management began discussing the possibility of Kawada making a major debut . At first , she was a bit hesitant because she felt that she would be thrust into the spotlight , but eventually she accepted the idea . For the first ten years of her career , she always felt that she was a beginner , but this began to change when younger singers made their debuts and began to treat her as an older sister .
In an interview with Famitsu , Kawada related her experience writing the lyrics for " Joint " . Kawada said that she was challenged in writing lyrics for the song , since her previous single " Get My Way " was different from her previous singles . Kawada would read the source material of every anime before writing lyrics for its theme songs . She named the song " Joint " because of Shana II 's theme of characters Shana and Yūji Sakai fighting together . In response to comments that the expressions in her voice were very varied , Kawada stated that she simply sings with the music in the way that she most enjoys .
Kawada 's primary producer was I 've producer Tomoyuki Nakazawa , who produced " Radiance " as well as her first three albums . Nakazawa also came up with each album 's concept and title . However , in 2010 , Kawada began to cooperate more with other producers . She also began working more in Tokyo . When producing Square the Circle , Nakazawa asked Kawada what sort of album and what sort of songs did she want . Kawada said that she wanted an album whose songs would be reminiscent of her visual image and stage persona , as opposed to her private self .
In making the album Parablepsia , Kawada describes the concept of the album as " E.M.R. " , which stands for " Electric . Mami Kawada . Rock " . She considers " Borderland " to be most representative of her style , so she wanted to make an album which included songs which sounded similar to it . Originally , she only wanted a single song to convey the theme of the album , but for Parablepsia , several songs do . This includes the title song " Parablepsia " , which she describes as a song about not losing yourself
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in a society which moves around in circles , " Fly Blind " , which is a song about not always allowing yourself to be influenced by society , " Eager Eyes " , which is the song in the album which has the closest style to " Borderland " , " It 's no big deal " , which takes inspiration from a phrase that her father used to say to her , and " Dendritic Quartz " , which is about flowers which constantly bloom and will never wither ; " Dendritic Quartz " takes inspiration from a pendant she owns which has a pattern of trees .
= = Discography = =
The discography of Japanese singer Mami Kawada consists of five studio albums , one compilation albums , two video albums and sixteen singles .
Studio albums
Seed ( 2006 )
Savia ( 2008 )
Linkage ( 2010 )
Square the Circle ( 2012 )
Parablepsia ( 2015 )
= Gargi Vachaknavi =
Gargi Vachaknavi ( born about 700 BC ) was an ancient Indian philosopher . In Vedic Literature , she is honored as a great natural philosopher , renowned expounder of the Vedas , and known as Brahmavadini , a person with knowledge of Brahma Vidya . In the Sixth and the eighth Brahmana of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , her name is prominent as she participates in the brahmayajna , a philosophic debate organized by King Janaka of Videha and challenges the sage Yajnavalkya with perplexing questions on the issue of atman ( soul ) . She is also said to have written many hymns in the Rigveda . She remained a celibate all her life and was held in veneration by the conventional Hindus .
Gargi , the daughter of sage Vachaknu in the lineage of sage Garga ( 800 @-@ 500 BCE ) was named after her father as Gargi Vachaknavi . From a young age she evinced keen interest in Vedic scriptures and became very proficient in fields of philosophy . She became highly knowledgeable in Vedas and Upanishads in the Vedic times and held intellectual debates with the male @-@ philosophers .
= = Early life = =
Gargi was the daughter of sage Vachaknu in the lineage of sage Garga ( 800 @-@ 500 BCE ) and hence named after her father as Gargi Vachaknavi . Right from a young age , Vachaknavi was very intellectual . She acquired knowledge of the Vedas and scriptures and became renowned for her proficiency in these fields of philosophy ; she even surpassed men in her knowledge .
= = Later life = =
Gargi , along with Vadava Pratitheyi and Sulabha Maitreyi are among the prominent females who figure in the Upanishads . She was as knowledgeable in Vedas and Upanishads as men of the Vedic times and could very well contest the male @-@ philosophers in debates.Her name appears in the Grihya Sutras of Asvalayana . She had even awakened her Kundalini ( indwelling spiritual energy ) . In her dialogue with Pandit Mandan Mishra on the subject of sex she had won her arguments as she was a realized soul . She was a leading scholar who also made rich contributions to propagate education .
= = Debate with Yajnavalkya = =
According to Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , King Janaka of Videha Kingdom held a Rajasuya Yagna and invited all the learned sages , kings and princess of India to participate . The yagna lasted for many days . Large quantities of sandalwood , ghee ( clarified butter ) and barley ( cereal grain ) were offered to the Yagna fire creating an atmosphere of spiritual sanctity and aroma . Janaka himself being a scholar was impressed with the large gathering of learned sages . He thought of selecting a scholar from the assembled group of elite scholars , the most accomplished of them all who had maximum knowledge about Brahman . For this purpose , he evolved a plan and offered a prize of 1 @,@ 000 cows with each cow dangled with 10 grams of gold on its horns . The galaxy of scholars , apart from others , included the renowned sage Yajnavalkya and Gargi Vachaknavi . Yajnavalkya , who was aware that he was the most spiritually knowledgeable among the assembled gathering , as he had mastered the art of Kundalini Yoga , ordered his disciple Samsrava to drive away the cow herd to his house . This infuriated the scholars as they felt that he was taking way the prize without contesting in a debate . Some of the local pundits ( scholars ) did not volunteer for debate with him as they were not sure of their knowledge . However , there were eight renowned sages who challenged him for a debate , which included Gargi , the only lady in the assembled gathering of the learned .
Sages like Asvala , the priest in Janaka 's court , Artabhaga , Bhujyu , Ushasta , and Uddalaka debated with him and asked questions philosophical subjects to which Yajnavalkya provided convincing replies and they lost the debate . It was then the turn of Gargi to take up the challenge . Gargi , as one of the disputants in the debate , questioned Yajnavalkya on his claim of superiority among the scholars . She held repeated arguments with him . Gargi and Yajnavalkya 's exchange centered on the ultimate " warp " of reality ( " warp " means " the basic foundation or material of a structure or entity ) . Her initial dialogue with Yajnavalkya tended to be too metaphysical , such as unending status of the soul , away from practical situations . She then changed her approach and asked him pointed questions related to the environment existing in the world , the question of the very origin of all existence . Her question was specific when she asked him " since this whole world is woven back and forth on water , on what then is woven back and forth " , a question that related to the commonly known cosmological metaphor that expressed the unity of the world , its essential interconnectedness . In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ( 3 @.@ 6 ) , the sequence of her posing a bevy of questions to Yajnavalkya and his replies is narrated as :
She continued with an array of questions such as what was the universe of the suns , what were the moon , the stars , the gods , Indra , and Prajapati . Gargi then pressed on with two more questions . Gargi urged Yajnavalkya to enlighten her on the weave of reality and asked :
Gargi was not satisfied and then posed the next question :
Then she asked a final question , on what was Brahman ( world of the imperishable ) ? Yagnavalakya put an end to the debate by telling Gargi not to proceed further as other wise she would lose her mental balance . This riposte put an end to their further dialogue at the conference of the learned . However , at the end of the debate she conceded to the superior knowledge of Yajnavalkya by saying : " venerable Brahmins , you may consider it a great thing if you get off bowing before him . No one , I believe , will defeat him in any argument concerning Brahman . "
Her philosophical views also find mention in the Chandogya Upanishad . Gargi , as Brahmavadini , composed several hymns in Rigveda ( in X 39 . V.28 ) that questioned the origin of all existence . The Yoga Yajnavalkya , a classical text on Yoga is a dialogue between Gargi and sage Yajnavalkya . Gargi was honoured as one of the Navaratnas ( nine gems ) in the court of King Janaka of Mithila .
= He That Believeth in Me =
" He That Believeth in Me " is the third episode in the fourth season ( as the producers regard the two @-@ hour movie special Razor as the first two episodes ) of the reimagined science fiction television series Battlestar Galactica . The episode aired on SCI FI and Space in the United States and Canada respectively on April 4 , 2008 , and aired on Sky1 in the United Kingdom on April 15 , along with the following episode " Six of One " . The episode 's title is a reference to the Book of John , chapter 11 : 25 @-@ 26 in the New Testament of the Bible , which quotes ; " Jesus said unto her , I am the resurrection , and the life : he that believeth in me , though he were dead , yet shall he live ... " The episode was generally well received and also won an Emmy Award .
Following the events in " Crossroads , Part 2 " , the fleet arrive in the Ionian Nebula to find a clue that will lead to Earth , only to have the entire rag tag fleet had mysteriously powered down , and is hopelessly surrounded by Cylons . Lee Adama also encounters Kara Thrace , who was thought to have been killed in " Maelstrom " and claims to know where Earth is . The episode also deals with the aftermath of the identity of four of the five final Cylons , Samuel Anders , Tory Foster , Saul Tigh , and Galen Tyrol . The survivor count shown in the title sequence is 39 @,@ 698 .
= = Plot = =
While Lee Adama ( Jamie Bamber ) and a newly returned Kara Thrace ( Katee Sackhoff ) head to Galactica , the advancing Cylons destroy one ship and damage others , killing at least 600 . After discovering their true identities , Cylons Saul Tigh ( Michael Hogan ) , Tory Foster ( Rekha Sharma ) , Samuel Anders ( Michael Trucco ) , and Galen Tyrol ( Aaron Douglas ) continue their jobs . Tigh is ordered to send every Viper to defend the fleet , but has a vision where he assassinates Admiral Adama ( Edward James Olmos ) before carrying it out . New Viper pilot Anders is sent out , worried a hidden Cylon program would activate and make him turn against the fleet . His guns are unresponsive while targeting a Raider . As Anders and the Raider come face @-@ to @-@ face , the Raider scans Anders , and in doing so , Anders ' iris momentarily glows red . In response to this , the Raider , flips direction and it - along with all the other Raiders - immediately stop the attack and retreat to their basestar and jump away , much to the surprise of the fleet .
Gaius Baltar ( James Callis ) is taken to a monotheistic cult which has erected a shrine to him . One of the members , Jeanne ( Keegan Connor Tracy ) , believes he can save her dying son . Though reluctant at first , Baltar prays and asks " the one true god " to take his life instead , as he caused the genocide of the twelve colonies and the child is innocent . The next day he is escorted to a bathroom to shave . Charlie Connor ( Ryan Robbins ) , whose son was killed on New Caprica , plans to kill him . Instead of begging for his life , Baltar begs Connor to kill him . His escort breaks free and brutally attacks the captors . After the two return to the cult , Baltar is astonished to find Jeanne 's son has been miraculously cured .
Starbuck returns with a seemingly brand new ( Mk II ) Viper . She doesn 't recall being killed and believes she was only gone for six hours . President Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) believes Starbuck is a Cylon , despite her having been cleared by the Cylon detector . Starbuck claims to know the location of Earth and insists that following the clue from the Eye of Jupiter is a mistake . With each FTL jump , her sense of Earth 's location fades a bit more , after experiencing a short headache . Her attempts to convince Roslin fail . After another jump and headache , desperate to stop Roslin before her feeling fades forever , she subdues the Marines guarding Adama 's quarters and holds Roslin at gunpoint .
= = Production = =
Even though " He That Believeth in Me " is the continuation of the season three finale , " Crossroads , Part 2 " , the episode is often referred to as the third episode in the fourth season , since the producers widely regard Razor as the first two episodes in production . In the battle sequence for the teaser of the episode , Ronald D. Moore wanted to keep " the ring ship " ( later known in the series as the Zephyr ) from being destroyed , as he had gotten fond of the ship , and always wanted to have the interior of the ship in some sequences , so the ship was only damaged in the episode instead .
Moore called the battle sequence " remarkable " , even though the series had already included several space battles . Moore felt they were not going to top the previous ones , but the visual effects team were able to pull it off as " the best battle sequence we 've ever done . " A scene cut from the teaser 's battle sequence showed Samuel Anders aiming his Viper 's guns at Diana Seelix 's ship after discovering his Cylon nature . Another Anders cut scene focused on cutting the cast off his leg , due to the absence of his leg injury sustained from " The Son Also Rises " . With Baltar 's storyline , the writers refer to the rooms used by his cult as " Baltar 's lair " . Also , as the writers were aware that Baltar himself was visually similar to Jesus , Moore points out that he is not Jesus , though he admitted that the visual similarities help to " drive some things home " .
Aaron Douglas , who portrays Galen Tyrol , attempted an ad lib on one of his scenes . On that particular scene , Tyrol told the Viper pilots in the hangar , " Let 's go , nuggets ! Your mommas aren 't going to save ya today . " In one take , Douglas replaced this with " drop your dicks and grab your sticks ! " According to Douglas , " five seconds later Harvey [ Frand ] ( producer ) says from video village , ' you can 't say dicks on TV ' . We had to do it again . [ ... ] It 's great to be back but it 's sad to see it go . "
The scene where Saul Tigh has the vision of shooting William Adama was not filmed in one shot , but was edited in such a way that the cut would only become noticeable if one looks at the scene closely . Moore considered cutting the scene despite loving it , but eventually decided to keep it .
= = Reception = =
In the United States , the episode did a 1 @.@ 3 household rating and a 2 @.@ 0 share , with a 1 @.@ 1 household rating and 3 @.@ 0 share in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old target demographic . The episode had 2 @.@ 138 million viewers , making it the third most @-@ watched primetime cable program on Friday , April 4 , 2008 , the fourth most @-@ watched program in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , and the most @-@ watched show in the coveted 25- to 54 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The episode was the show 's best performance in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic since " Resurrection Ship , Part 2 " aired in the United States on January 13 , 2006 . It was the show 's best performance in the 25- to 54 @-@ year @-@ old demographic since " Occupation " aired in the United States on October 6 , 2006 ( the series ' Season 3 premiere ) . Forty @-@ three percent of the episode 's 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 viewership in the U.S. was female .
When viewers watching the show on DVRs over the seven days following the episode 's initial airing were included , the episode 's ratings rose to a 1 @.@ 9 household rating , with 1 @.@ 8 million viewers aged 18 – 49 , 1 @.@ 9 millions viewers aged 25 – 54 , and 2 @.@ 6 million total viewers . This was the series ' best performance in all three key demographic categories since the season two premiere in July 2005 . This also made " He That Believeth in Me " the most @-@ watched cable program for the day in both the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old and 25- to 54 @-@ year @-@ old demographic categories . In 2008 , the visual effects team for the episode won and received the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects .
The SyFy Portal received the episode positively , praising the return of Starbuck , as well as the space battle in the beginning , but criticised the episode that it was generally for the " existing viewer " . IGN rated the episode an " impressive " rating of 8 out of a possible 10 , stating " Galactica is back , about frakking time " and that the episode " quickly reminds us why we love this show , the world it exists in , and the people that populate it . " IGN also praised the episode for Starbuck 's return , as well as James Callis ' portrayal of the several sides of Gaius Baltar .
= Caelum =
Caelum / ˈsiːləm / is a faint constellation in the southern sky , introduced in the 1750s by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille and counted among the 88 modern constellations . Its name means “ chisel ” in Latin , and it was formerly known as Caelum Scalptorium ( “ the engravers ’ chisel ” ) ; It is a rare word , unrelated to the far more common Latin caelum , meaning “ sky , heaven , atmosphere ” . It is the eighth @-@ smallest constellation , and subtends a solid angle of around 0 @.@ 038 steradians , just less than that of Corona Australis .
Due to its small size and location away from the plane of the Milky Way , Caelum is a rather barren constellation , with few objects of interest . The constellation 's brightest star , Alpha Caeli , is only of magnitude 4 @.@ 45 , and only one other star , ( Gamma ) γ 1 Caeli , is brighter than magnitude 5 . Other notable objects in Caelum are RR Caeli , a binary star with one known planet approximately 20 @.@ 13 parsecs ( 65 @.@ 7 ly ) away ; X Caeli , a Delta Scuti variable that forms an optical double with γ 1 Caeli ; and HE0450 @-@ 2958 , a Seyfert galaxy that at first appeared as just a jet , with no host galaxy visible .
= = History = =
Caelum was first introduced in the eighteenth century by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille , a French astronomer who introduced thirteen other southern constellations at the same time . Lacaille gave the constellation the French name Burin , which was originally Latinized to Caelum Scalptorium ( “ The Engravers ’ Chisel ” ) .
Francis Baily shortened this name to Caelum , as suggested by John Herschel . In Lacaille 's original chart , the constellation was shown both as a burin and an échoppe , although it has come to be recognized simply as a chisel . Johann Elert Bode stated the name as plural with a singular possessor , Caela Scalptoris – in German ( die ) Grabstichel ( “ the Engraver ’ s Chisels ” ) – but this did not stick .
= = Characteristics = =
Caelum is bordered by Dorado and Pictor to the south , Horologium and Eridanus to the east , Lepus to the north , and Columba to the west . Covering only 125 square degrees , it ranks 81st of the 88 modern constellations in size . It appears prominently in the southern sky during the Southern Hemisphere 's summer , and the whole constellation is visible for at least part of the year to observers south of latitude 41 ° N. Its main asterism consists of four stars , and twenty stars in total are brighter than magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .
The constellation ’ s boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a 12 @-@ sided polygon . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 04h 19.5m and 05h 05.1m , while the declination coordinates are between − 27 @.@ 02 ° and − 48 @.@ 74 ° . The International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) adopted the three @-@ letter abbreviation “ Cae ” for the constellation in 1922 .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Caelum is a faint constellation : It has no star brighter than magnitude 4 and only two stars brighter than magnitude 5 .
Lacaille gave six stars Bayer designations , labeling them Alpha ( α ) to Zeta ( ζ ) in 1756 , but omitted Epsilon ( ε ) and designated two adjacent stars as Gamma ( γ ) . Bode extended the designations to Rho ( ρ ) for other stars , but most of these have fallen out of use . Caelum is too far south for any of its stars to bear Flamsteed designations .
The brightest star , ( Alpha ) α Caeli , is a double star , containing an F @-@ type main @-@ sequence star of magnitude 4 @.@ 45 and a red dwarf of magnitude 12 @.@ 5 , 20 @.@ 17 parsecs ( 65 @.@ 8 ly ) from Earth . ( Beta ) β Caeli , another F @-@ type star of magnitude 5 @.@ 05 , is further away , being located 28 @.@ 67 parsecs ( 93 @.@ 5 ly ) from Earth . Unlike α , β Caeli is a subgiant star , slightly evolved from the main sequence . ( Delta ) δ Caeli , also of magnitude 5 @.@ 05 , is a B @-@ type subgiant and is much farther from Earth , at 216 parsecs ( 700 ly ) .
( Gamma ) γ 1 Caeli is a double @-@ star with a red giant primary of magnitude 4 @.@ 58 and a secondary of magnitude 8 @.@ 1 . The primary is 55 @.@ 59 parsecs ( 181 @.@ 3 ly ) from Earth . The two components are difficult to resolve with small amateur telescopes because of their difference in visual magnitude and their close separation . This star system forms an optical double with the unrelated X Caeli ( previously named γ 2 Caeli ) , a Delta Scuti variable located 98 @.@ 33 parsecs ( 320 @.@ 7 ly ) from Earth . These are a class of short @-@ period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology . X Caeli itself is also a binary star , specifically a contact binary , meaning that the stars are so close that they share envelopes . The only other variable star in Caelum visible to the naked eye is RV Caeli , a pulsating red giant of spectral type M1III , which varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 44 and 6 @.@ 56 .
Three other stars in Caelum are still occasionally referred to by their Bayer designations , although they are only on the edge of naked @-@ eye visibility . ( Nu ) ν Caeli is another double star , containing a white giant of magnitude 6 @.@ 07 and a star of magnitude 10 @.@ 66 , with unknown spectral type . The system is approximately 52 @.@ 55 parsecs ( 171 @.@ 4 ly ) away . ( Lambda ) λ Caeli , at magnitude 6 @.@ 24 , is much redder and farther away , being a red giant around 227 parsecs ( 740 ly ) from Earth . ( Zeta ) ζ Caeli is even fainter , being only of magnitude 6 @.@ 36 . This star , located 132 parsecs ( 430 ly ) away , is a K @-@ type subgiant of spectral type K1 . The other twelve naked @-@ eye stars in Caelum are not referred to by Bode 's Bayer designations anymore , including RV Caeli .
One of the nearest stars in Caelum is the eclipsing binary star RR Caeli , at a distance of 20 @.@ 13 parsecs ( 65 @.@ 7 ly ) . This star system consists of a dim red dwarf and a white dwarf . Despite its closeness to the Earth , the system 's apparent magnitude is only 14 @.@ 40 due to the faintness of its components , and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment . In 2012 , the system was found to contain a giant planet , and there is evidence for a second substellar body . The system is a post @-@ common @-@ envelope binary and is losing angular momentum over time , which will eventually cause mass transfer from the red dwarf to the white dwarf . In approximately 9 – 20 billion years , this will cause the system to become a cataclysmic variable .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Due to its small size and location away from the plane of the Milky Way , Caelum is rather devoid of deep @-@ sky objects , and contains no Messier objects . The only deep @-@ sky object in Caelum to receive much attention is HE0450 @-@ 2958 , an unusual Seyfert galaxy . Originally , the jet 's host galaxy proved elusive to find , and this jet appeared to be emanating from nothing . Although it has been suggested that the object is an ejected supermassive black hole , the host is now agreed to be a small galaxy that is difficult to see due to light from the jet and a nearby starburst galaxy .
= London Necropolis Railway =
The London Necropolis Railway was a railway line opened in November 1854 by the London Necropolis Company ( LNC ) , to carry cadavers and mourners between London and the LNC 's newly opened Brookwood Cemetery 23 miles ( 37 km ) southwest of London in Brookwood , Surrey . At the time the largest cemetery in the world , Brookwood Cemetery was designed to be large enough to accommodate all the deaths in London for centuries to come , and the LNC hoped to gain a monopoly on London 's burial industry . The cemetery had intentionally been built far enough from London so as never to be affected by urban growth and was dependent on the recently invented railway to connect it to the city .
The railway mostly ran along the existing tracks of the London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) but had its own branches from the main line at both London and Brookwood . Trains carried coffins and passengers from a dedicated station in Waterloo , London , onto the LSWR tracks . On reaching the cemetery , the trains reversed down a dedicated branch line to two stations in the cemetery , one for the burial of Anglicans and one for Nonconformists ( non @-@ Anglicans ) and those who did not want a Church of England funeral . The station waiting rooms and the compartments of the train , both for living and for dead passengers , were partitioned by both religion and class to prevent both mourners and cadavers from different social backgrounds from mixing . As well as the regular funeral traffic , the London Necropolis Railway was used to transport large numbers of exhumed bodies during the mass removal of a number of London graveyards to Brookwood .
The company failed to gain a monopoly of the burial industry , and the scheme was not as successful as its promoters had hoped . While they had planned to carry between 10 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 bodies per year , in 1941 after 87 years of operation , only slightly over 200 @,@ 000 burials had been conducted in Brookwood Cemetery , equalling roughly 2 @,@ 300 bodies per year .
On the night of 16 – 17 April 1941 , the London terminus was badly damaged in an air raid and rendered unusable . Although the LNC continued to operate occasional funeral services from Waterloo station to Brookwood railway station immediately north of the cemetery , the London Necropolis Railway was never used again . Soon after the end of the Second World War the surviving parts of the London station were sold as office space , and the rail tracks in the cemetery were removed . The part of the London building which housed the LNC 's offices survives today . The two stations in the cemetery remained open as refreshment kiosks for some years afterwards but were subsequently demolished . The site of the northern station , serving the Nonconformist cemetery , is now heavily overgrown . The site of the southern , Anglican , station is now the location of a Russian Orthodox monastery and a shrine to King Edward the Martyr , which incorporate the surviving station platform and the former station chapels .
= = London burial crisis = =
London 's dead had traditionally been buried in and around local churches , and with a limited amount of space for burials , the oldest graves were regularly exhumed to free space for new burials . In the first half of the 19th century the population of London more than doubled , from a little under a million people in 1801 to almost two and a half million in 1851 . Despite this rapid growth in population , the amount of land set aside for use as graveyards remained unchanged at approximately 300 acres ( 0 @.@ 5 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) , spread across around 200 small sites . Graveyards became very congested . Decaying corpses contaminated the water supply and the city suffered regular epidemics of cholera , smallpox , measles and typhoid . Public health policy at this time was generally shaped by the miasma theory ( the belief that airborne particles were the primary factor in the spread of contagious disease ) , and the bad smells and risks of disease caused by piled bodies and exhumed rotting corpses caused great public concern . A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London 's burial grounds had become so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one .
In 1848 – 49 a cholera epidemic killed 14 @,@ 601 people in London and overwhelmed the burial system completely . Bodies were left stacked in heaps awaiting burial , and even relatively recent graves were exhumed to make way for new burials .
= = = Proposed solutions = = =
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemics and the findings of the Royal Commission , the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis ( Burials Act ) was passed in 1851 . Under the Burials Act , new burials were prohibited in what were then the built @-@ up areas of London . Seven large cemeteries had recently opened a short distance from London or were in the process of opening , and temporarily became London 's main burial grounds . The government sought a means to prevent the constantly increasing number of deaths in London from overwhelming the new cemeteries in the same manner in which it had overwhelmed the traditional burial grounds . Edwin Chadwick proposed the closure of all existing burial grounds in the vicinity of London other than the privately owned Kensal Green Cemetery northwest of the city , which was to be nationalised and greatly enlarged to provide a single burial ground for west London . A large tract of land on the Thames around 9 miles ( 14 km ) southeast of London in Abbey Wood was to become a single burial ground for east London . The Treasury was sceptical that Chadwick 's scheme would ever be financially viable , and it was widely unpopular . Although the Metropolitan Interments Act 1850 authorised the scheme , it was abandoned in 1852 .
= = London Necropolis Company = =
An alternative proposal was drawn up by Sir Richard Broun and Richard Sprye , who planned to use the emerging technology of mechanised transport to resolve the crisis . The scheme entailed buying a single very large tract of land around 23 miles ( 37 km ) from London in Brookwood near Woking , Surrey , to be called Brookwood Cemetery or the London Necropolis . At this distance , the land would be far beyond the maximum projected size of the city 's growth . The London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) — which had connected London to Woking in 1838 — would enable bodies and mourners to be shipped from London to the site easily and cheaply . Broun envisaged dedicated coffin trains , each carrying 50 – 60 bodies , travelling from London to the new Necropolis in the early morning or late at night , and the coffins being stored on the cemetery site until the time of the funeral . Mourners would then be carried to the appropriate part of the cemetery by a dedicated passenger train during the day .
Broun calculated that a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 3 sq mi ; 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) site would accommodate a total of 5 @,@ 830 @,@ 500 individual graves in a single layer . If the practice of only burying a single family in each grave were abandoned and the traditional practice for pauper burials of ten burials per grave were adopted , the site was capable of accommodating 28 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 bodies . Assuming 50 @,@ 000 deaths per year and presuming that families would often choose to share a grave , Broun calculated that even with the prohibition of mass graves it would take over 350 years to fill a single layer of the cemetery . Although the Brookwood site was a long distance from London , Broun and Sprye argued that the speed of the railway made it both quicker and cheaper to reach than the seven existing cemeteries , all of which required a slow and expensive horse @-@ drawn hearse to carry the body and mourners from London to the burial site .
Shareholders in the LSWR were concerned at the impact the cemetery scheme would have on the normal operations of the railway . At a shareholders ' meeting in August 1852 concerns were raised about the impact of funeral trains on normal traffic and of the secrecy in which negotiations between the LSWR and the promoters of the cemetery were conducted . The LSWR management pledged that no concessions would be made to the cemetery operators , other than promising them the use of one train each day . Charles Blomfield , Bishop of London was hostile in general to railway funeral schemes , arguing that the noise and speed of the railways was incompatible with the solemnity of the Christian burial service . Blomfield also considered it inappropriate that the families of people from very different backgrounds would potentially have to share a train , and felt that it demeaned the dignity of the deceased for the bodies of respectable members of the community to be carried on a train also carrying the bodies and relatives of those who had led immoral lives .
On 30 June 1852 the promoters of the Brookwood scheme were given Parliamentary consent to proceed , and the London Necropolis and National Mausoleum Company ( LNC ) was formed . The former Woking Common near Brookwood , owned by the Earl of Onslow , was chosen as the site for the new cemetery . To prevent the LSWR from exploiting its monopoly on access to the cemetery , the private Act of Parliament authorising the scheme bound the LSWR to carry corpses and mourners to the cemetery in perpetuity and set a maximum tariff which could be levied on funeral traffic , but did not specify detail of how the funeral trains were to operate .
Broun 's scheme had envisaged the cemetery running along both sides of the LSWR main line and divided by religion , with separate private railway halts on the main line , each incorporating a chapel , to serve each religion 's section . The new consulting engineer to the company , William Cubitt , rejected this idea and recommended a single site to the south of the railway line , served by a private branch line through the cemetery . The company also considered Broun 's plan for dedicated coffin trains unrealistic , arguing that relatives would not want the coffins to be shipped separately from the deceased 's family .
Internal disputes within the LNC led to Broun and Sprye losing control of the scheme , and later delays and allegations of mismanagement caused further changes to the scheme 's management . In September 1853 under a new board of trustees work began on the scheme . A site for the London rail terminus was identified and leased , and a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 4 sq mi ; 8 @.@ 9 km2 ) tract of land stretching from Woking to Brookwood was purchased from Lord Onslow . The westernmost 400 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) , at the Brookwood end , were designated the initial cemetery site , and a branch railway line was built from the main line into this section . On 7 November 1854 the new cemetery opened and the southern Anglican section was consecrated by Charles Sumner , Bishop of Winchester . At the time it was the largest cemetery in the world . On 13 November the first scheduled train left the new London Necropolis railway station for the cemetery , and the first burial ( that of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street , Borough ) took place .
= = Cemetery railway branch = =
William Cubitt decided that the terrain of the initial cemetery site was best suited to a railway branch at the west of the cemetery . Work began on the earthworks and rails for the new branch in early September 1854 . The single @-@ track branch was completed in time for the opening two months later , at a total construction cost of £ 1419 17s 6d ( about £ 115 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) . The junction with the LSWR , known as Necropolis Junction , was west @-@ facing , meaning that trains to and from London were obliged to reverse in and out of the branch . No run @-@ around loop was provided at Necropolis Junction , and a single crossover allowed trains from the Necropolis branch to reverse onto the northern ( London @-@ bound ) track of the LSWR .
The new branch ran east from Necropolis Junction on a downhill gradient . After passing through white gates marking the boundary of the cemetery , it curved south into the northern , Nonconformist section of the cemetery , the site of North station . The line straightened and ran southeast over a level crossing across Cemetery Pales , the road dividing the northern and southern halves of the initial cemetery site . After crossing Cemetery Pales the branch turned east and ran through the southern , Anglican , section of the cemetery , terminating at South station near the road from Bagshot to Guildford ( today the A322 ) which marked the eastern boundary of the site . Along with the major roads and paths in the cemetery , the entire branch was lined with giant sequoia trees , the first significant planting of these trees ( only introduced to Europe in 1853 ) in Britain . Aside from a short 100 @-@ yard ( 91 m ) siding just south of Cemetery Pales , built in 1904 – 05 to serve the LNC 's new masonry workshop , the layout of the branch remained unchanged throughout its operation . In 1914 a brick water tower was added near the masonry works siding , to allow the LNC 's locomotives to refill their tanks before returning to London and thus avoid the need to interrupt their journey to refill at Woking .
The poor quality gravel soil , which had been the initial reason for the site 's cheapness and its selection as the site for the cemetery , was poorly suited as a railway trackbed . The LNC 's rails , and in particular its sleepers , deteriorated rapidly and needed constantly to be replaced .
In the early years of the cemetery 's operation , the locomotives hauling the funeral trains from Waterloo would not travel down the branch into the cemetery , as it would leave the engine at the wrong end of the train for the return journey . Instead , the train would stop immediately after passing Necropolis Junction , and the carriages would be uncoupled from the engine . A team of black horses would then haul the carriages down the sloping branch line to the two cemetery stations . While the train was on the branch line the engine would be repositioned so as to be at the front of the train once the horses drew it back out of the branch and onto the main line .
In 1864 Brookwood ( Necropolis ) railway station on the LSWR opened , immediately east of Necropolis Junction . In conjunction with the building of the station a run @-@ around loop was added at Necropolis Junction , allowing locomotives to reposition themselves from the front to the rear of the train . From then on , on arrival at Necropolis Junction from London the engine would not be repositioned , but would push the train into the cemetery from the rear , under the close supervision of LNC staff . This left the engine positioned to pull the train out of the cemetery , after which it would use the run @-@ around loop to move to the other end of the train and pull it back to London . Between 1898 and 1904 the LSWR line through Brookwood was increased from two to four tracks ; a thin slice of the northernmost part of the cemetery was ceded to the LSWR to allow the widening of the line . Brookwood station was rebuilt , and a new junction to the west of the station allowed trains to pass between the cemetery branch and all four of the LSWR lines .
= = Operations = =
The London Necropolis Company offered three classes of funerals , which also determined the type of railway ticket sold to mourners and the deceased . A first class funeral allowed the person buying the funeral to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery ; at the time of opening prices began at £ 2 10s ( about £ 212 in 2016 terms ) for a basic 9 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 1 @.@ 2 m ) plot with no special coffin specifications . It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral . Second class funerals cost £ 1 ( about £ 85 in 2016 terms ) and allowed some control over the burial location . The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings ( about £ 42 in 2016 terms ) ; if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re @-@ use the grave in future . Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals ; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish . Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves ( other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave ) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased , third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site . ( The families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third @-@ class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial , but this practice was rare . )
At the time the service was inaugurated , the LNC 's trains were divided both by class and by religion , with separate Anglican and Nonconformist sections and separate first , second and third class compartments within each . This separation applied to both living and dead passengers . This was to prevent persons from different social background from mixing and potentially distressing mourners and to prevent bodies of persons from different social classes being carried in the same compartment , rather than to provide different levels of facilities for different types of mourner ; the compartments intended for all classes and religions were very similar in design , and the primary difference was different ornamentation on the compartment doors . At 11 @.@ 35 am ( 11 @.@ 20 am on Sundays ) the train would leave London for Brookwood , arriving at Necropolis Junction at 12 @.@ 25 pm ( 12 @.@ 20 pm on Sundays ) .
The LNC 's trains were capable of transporting large numbers of mourners when required ; the funeral of businessman Sir Nowroji Saklatwala on 25 July 1938 saw 155 mourners travelling first class on a dedicated LNC train . For extremely large funerals such as those of major public figures , the LSWR would provide additional trains from Waterloo to Brookwood station on the main line to meet the demand . Charles Bradlaugh , Member of Parliament for Northampton , was a vocal advocate of Indian self @-@ government and a popular figure among the Indian community in London , many of whom attended his funeral on 3 February 1891 . Over 5 @,@ 000 mourners were carried on three long special LSWR trains , one of which was 17 carriages long . The mourners included the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Mohandas Gandhi , who recollected witnessing a loud argument between " a champion atheist " and a clergyman at North station while waiting for the return train .
The return trains to London generally left South station at 2 @.@ 15 pm and Necropolis Junction at 2 @.@ 30 pm ; the return journey initially took around an hour owing to the need to stop to refill the engine with water , but following the construction of the water tower in the cemetery this fell to around 40 minutes . An 1854 agreement between the LNC and LSWR gave consent for the LNC to operate two or three funeral trains each day if demand warranted it , but traffic levels never rose to a sufficient level to activate this clause .
The train only ran if there was a coffin or passengers at the London terminus waiting to use it , and both the journey from London to Brookwood and the later return would be cancelled if nobody was due to leave London that morning . It would not run if there was only a single third or second class coffin to be carried , and in these cases the coffin and funeral party would be held until the next service . Generally the trains ran direct from London to the cemetery , other than occasional stops to take on water . Between 1890 and 1910 the trains also sometimes stopped at Vauxhall and Clapham Junction for the benefit of mourners from south west London who did not want to travel via Waterloo , but these intermediate stops were discontinued and never reinstated . After 1 October 1900 the Sunday trains were discontinued , and from 1902 the daily train service was ended and trains ran only as required .
= = = Fares = = =
The Act of Parliament establishing the LNC had specified maximum ticket prices for the railway , and traffic never rose to the level at which it would have been justified for either the LNC or the LSWR to undertake costly and time consuming lobbying for a change in the legislation . As a consequence , despite the effects of inflation , competition and variable costs the fares of the London Necropolis Railway never changed throughout the first 85 of its 87 years of operation . Live passengers were charged 6s in first class , 3s 6d in second class and 2s in third class ( in 1854 worth about £ 25 , £ 15 and £ 8 respectively in 2016 consumer terms ) for a return ticket , while dead passengers were charged £ 1 in first class , 5s in second class and 2s 6d in third class ( in 1854 worth about £ 85 , £ 21 and £ 11 respectively in 2016 consumer terms ) for a one @-@ way ticket . As the railway was intended only to be used by Londoners visiting the cemetery or attending funerals , the only tickets ever issued to living passengers were returns from London . In 1918 the LSWR ( which provided the LNC 's passenger carriages ) abandoned second class services and the LNC as a consequence discontinued the sale of second class fares to living passengers , but continued to separate coffin tickets into first , second and third class dependent on the type of funeral booked .
Intentionally set at a low level at the time the cemetery and railway opened , in later years the fixed fares offered a very substantial saving over main line tickets to Brookwood ( in 1902 the 4s LSWR third class fare to Brookwood was twice the cost of the LNC 's equivalent ) . Additional LNC traffic was generated by golfers disguised as mourners travelling to the golf course which had been built on those parts of the land bought by the LNC in 1852 which had not yet been incorporated into the cemetery . The fixed fares prompted complaints from other London funeral firms after the opening of Woking Crematorium in 1885 , as rival undertakers were not given access to the LNC 's cheap trains and had to pay the LSWR 's cargo rate ( 24 shillings in 1885 ) to ship a coffin to Brookwood or Woking stations for transfer to the crematorium .
In its last two years of operation , wartime rises in costs made the fixed fare structure untenable , and between July 1939 and January 1941 there were five slight adjustments to the fares . The live passenger rates rose to 7s 5d in first class and 2s 6d in third class , with equivalent changes to the fares for coffins . These fares remained far cheaper than the equivalent fares from Waterloo to Brookwood for both living and dead passengers on the Southern Railway ( SR ) , which had absorbed the LSWR in the 1923 restructuring of Britain 's railways . The fare structure of January 1941 remained in use following the April 1941 suspension of London Necropolis Railway services , for the occasional funerals conducted by the LNC using the SR 's platforms at Waterloo station , but the SR only allowed mourners attending funerals to use these cheap fares and not those visiting the cemetery .
= = = Relocation of London burial grounds = = =
I did it wholesale and had 220 very large cases made each containing 26 human bodies besides children and these weighed 43 ⁄ 4 cwt . There were 1 @,@ 035 cwt of human remains sent in these cases alone . They were conveyed in the night and the Cemetery Company made arrangements for them . Each body has cost us less than three shillings . It was fortunate that such reasonable terms could be made at Woking Cemetery . A more horrible business you can scarcely imagine ; the men could only continue their work by the constant sprinkling of disinfectant powder . Mine was no easy task for the Bishop , the Warden , the parishioners and particularly the relatives have watched the steps taken , and the interviews with people and the correspondence has been great but all are more satisfied than could be expected .
As well as taking over new burials from London 's now @-@ closed burial grounds , the LNC also envisaged the physical relocation of the existing burial grounds to their Necropolis , to provide a final solution to the problems caused by burials in built @-@ up areas . The massive London civil engineering projects of the mid @-@ 19th century — the railways , the sewer system and from the 1860s the precursors to the London Underground — often necessitated the demolition of existing churchyards . The first major relocation took place in 1862 , when the construction of Charing Cross railway station and the railway lines into it necessitated the demolition of the burial ground of Cure 's College in Southwark . Around 5 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 3 @,@ 800 m3 ) of earth was displaced , uncovering at least 7 @,@ 950 bodies . These were packed into 220 large containers , each containing 26 adults plus children , and shipped on the London Necropolis Railway to Brookwood for reburial , along with at least some of the existing headstones from the cemetery , at a cost of around 3 shillings per body . At least 21 London burial grounds were relocated to Brookwood via the railway , along with numerous others relocated by road following the railway 's closure .
= = = Brookwood American Cemetery and Memorial = = =
In 1929 a section of the LNC 's land at Brookwood was set aside as Brookwood American Cemetery and Memorial , the sole burial ground in Britain for US military casualties of the First World War . As most US casualties had occurred in continental Europe and been buried there the number interred at Brookwood was small , with a total of 468 servicemen buried in the cemetery . After the entry of the United States into the Second World War the American cemetery was enlarged , with burials of US servicemen beginning in April 1942 . With large numbers of American personnel based in the west of England , a dedicated rail service for the transport of bodies operated from Devonport to Brookwood . By August 1944 over 3 @,@ 600 bodies had been buried in the American Military Cemetery . At this time burials were discontinued , and US casualties were from then on buried at Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial .
On the authority of Thomas B. Larkin , Quartermaster General of the United States Army , the US servicemen buried at Brookwood during the Second World War were exhumed in January – May 1948 . Those whose next of kin requested it were shipped to the United States for reburial , and the remaining bodies were transferred to the new cemetery outside Cambridge . ( Brookwood American Cemetery had also been the burial site for those US servicemen executed while serving in the United Kingdom , whose bodies had been carried to Brookwood by rail from the American execution facilities at Shepton Mallet . They were not transferred to Cambridge in 1948 , but instead reburied in unmarked graves at Oise @-@ Aisne American Cemetery Plot E , a dedicated site for US servicemen executed during the Second World War . ) The railway service had been suspended in 1941 , and North station ( renamed North Bar after the ending of rail services ) was used as a temporary mortuary to hold these bodies while awaiting shipment to the USA or Cambridge . As the branch line into the cemetery was no longer in use , temporary platforms were built on the branch line serving the National Rifle Association 's shooting range at Bisley , on the opposite side of the LSWR line from the cemetery . Following the removal of the US war graves the site in which they had been buried was divided into cemeteries for the Free French forces and Italian prisoners of war .
= = Rolling stock = =
= = = Locomotives = = =
Under the terms of the 1852 agreement and Act of Parliament establishing the London Necropolis Company , the LSWR ( after 1923 the SR ) provided the locomotives and crew for London Necropolis Railway operations . There was no dedicated LNC locomotive , and the trains were worked by whichever suitable engine happened to be available . ( Before the 1864 improvements to Necropolis Junction , locomotives rarely entered the cemetery branch line itself and the trains were generally hauled along the branch line by horses . ) Towards
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the end of the railway 's operations in the 1930s the route was almost always worked by LSWR M7 class locomotives , usually No. 255 .
= = = Passenger carriages = = =
The passenger carriages used on the London Necropolis Railway were not owned by the LNC , but loaned from the LSWR . A set of carriages was permanently loaned , rather than carriages being lent as needed , as the LSWR was concerned that passengers might be discouraged from using regular LSWR services if they knew that their carriages had potentially carried dead bodies recently .
The original set of carriages , used between 1854 and 1899 , were four @-@ wheeled carriages to a design by Joseph Hamilton Beattie . Little is recorded about the number and specifications of the carriages . The same set of carriages remained in use for over 40 years , prompting increasingly strong complaints from the LNC about their deteriorating quality .
As part of an 1896 agreement by which the LSWR re @-@ equipped the LNC in conjunction with the repositioning of the LNC 's London terminus , the LNC demanded that the new passenger carriages to be supplied by the LSWR be " of a quality and a character not inferior to [ the LSWR 's ] ordinary main line traffic " . These new carriages were supplied late in the 19th century , probably in December 1899 . They were all six @-@ wheeled , and comprised two 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) passenger brake vans each containing three third class compartments , a baggage compartment and the guard 's compartment ; a 34 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) passenger carriage divided into three first class and two second class compartments ; and a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) passenger carriage divided into five third class compartments ( also used as all second class ) . Although not recorded , it is likely that other carriages were also permanently loaned to the LNC for use as needed .
This set of carriages only remained in use for a short period , and in 1907 was replaced by a new set of carriages of which little is known . In 1917 this set was itself replaced by two 51 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) passenger brake vans each containing two first and four third class compartments , a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) carriage with three first and three third class compartments , and a 46 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) carriage with six third class compartments .
This set operated for most of the inter @-@ war period , being withdrawn in April 1938 . It was replaced by a very similar set of coaches at this time , which was withdrawn in September 1939 after the outbreak of hostilities for use in troop trains . The carriages were replaced by the former Royal Train , built 1900 – 04 , of the now @-@ defunct South Eastern and Chatham Railway . These ornately decorated carriages were those destroyed in the 1941 bombing of the London terminus .
= = = Hearse vans = = =
Unlike the loaned locomotives and passenger carriages , the LNC owned its dedicated hearse vans outright . Despite this , they were always painted in whichever colour scheme was currently in use by the LSWR ( SR after 1923 ) , to match the livery of the passenger cars and locomotives loaned to the LNC .
As with the carriages for living passengers , the hearse vans were designed to prevent bodies mixing with those from different backgrounds . Each of the original vans was partitioned into twelve sections in two rows of six , each capable of holding one coffin ; later vans were of a slightly different design and probably carried 14 coffins . The vans were fitted with internal partitions to divide first , second and third class coffins . The LNC intended to use half the hearse vans for Anglican and half for Nonconformist coffins , to prevent Anglicans from sharing a carriage with Nonconformists , but in practice this arrangement was little used . Unlike traditional Victorian funerals , in which the hearse invariably led the funeral procession , photographic evidence shows that the LNC sometimes placed the hearse van at the rear of the train . ( Because trains reversed from Necropolis Junction into the cemetery , no matter which arrangement was used the hearse van would inevitably be at the rear of the train for part of the journey . )
The LNC ordered six hearse vans in 1854 , two of which were operational at the time the cemetery and Necropolis Railway opened . Their origins are not recorded , although they were bought very cheaply suggesting that they were conversions of existing carriages rather than built to order . Many LNC records from this period have been lost and it is not certain how many hearse vans were delivered , and how they were used ; records suggest that anything between three and ten hearse vans were bought or leased by the LNC in the early years of operations . ( As each van carried 12 – 14 coffins and it is known that some funeral trains in the late 19th century carried over 60 coffins , at least six hearse vans must have been in use . )
As part of the settlement during the relocation of the London terminus , two new hearse vans were given to the LNC by the LSWR in 1899 . These new hearse vans were longer , and divided into three levels with compartments for eight coffins on each , for a total of 24 coffins per van . These replaced the existing hearse vans and remained in use until the closure of the Necropolis Railway . One of the vans was destroyed in the 1941 bombing of the London terminus ; the other was transferred to the SR and remained in use until at least 1950 . The former Royal Train brought into passenger service on the London Necropolis Railway in 1939 had a large amount of luggage space , and it is probable that when funeral traffic was light the hearse vans were not used and the coffins carried in the luggage space .
= = Cemetery stations = =
On William Cubitt 's advice the two stations in the cemetery were built as temporary structures , in the expectation that they would need to be rebuilt once the railway was operational and the issues with operating a railway of this unique nature became clearer . Both were designed by Sydney Smirke , who presented his designs to the LNC in March 1854 .
Each station was built as a one @-@ storey building around a square courtyard . The side adjacent to the railway line was left open , and wings extended from the building along the platform on each side . Other than the brick platform faces , chimneys and foundations , the stations were built entirely of wood . Each station held first class and ordinary reception rooms for mourners , a first class and an ordinary refreshment room , and a set of apartments for LNC staff . The refreshment rooms at both stations were licensed ( permitted to sell alcohol ) . The train crews would generally wait in these refreshment rooms until the trains were ready to return to London , and on at least one occasion ( on 12 January 1867 ) the driver became so drunk that the fireman had to drive the train back to London . This incident prompted a complaint from the LSWR and from that time the LNC provided the train crew with a free lunch , provided they drank no more than one pint of beer .
In mid @-@ 1855 cellars were dug beneath the stations , and the coffin reception rooms at each station were converted into " pauper waiting rooms " . Neither station was equipped with gas or electricity ; throughout their existence the buildings were lit by oil lamps and coal ranges were used for heating and cooking . The platform faces themselves incorporated an indentation , one brick @-@ width deep and the width of the courtyard . This indentation facilitated the unloading of coffins from the lower levels of the hearse carriages .
On arrival at the stations coffins would usually be unloaded onto a hand @-@ drawn bier and pulled by LNC staff to the appropriate chapel . While this was taking place the mourners were escorted to the waiting rooms at the station . On arrival at the chapels first and second class funerals would generally have a brief service ( third class funerals had a single service in the appropriate chapel for all those being buried ) . For those burials where the funeral service had already been held at either a parish church or the LNC 's London terminus the coffins would be taken directly from the train to the grave .
= = = North station = = =
North station , serving Roman Catholics , Parsees , Jews and Nonconformist Christians as well as some groups with dedicated plots in the northern cemetery such as actors and Oddfellows , was the first station on the branch . At the time the cemetery opened North station incorporated the lodgings of James Bailey , superintendent of the Nonconformist cemetery . In 1861 Bailey became the sole cemetery superintendent and moved into a cottage elsewhere on the grounds , and his apartment was given to Richard Lee , a cemetery porter . Census records show Lee living at North station , until 1865 with his mother Ann and later with his wife Charlotte , until at least 1871 . A number of cemetery staff lived in the station apartment until the 1950s . By this time the railway itself had closed but the station 's refreshment kiosk remained open . Steps led from the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) long platform to a path leading to a chapel , on a hilltop behind the station .
Between 1942 and 1944 large numbers of Allied service personnel were buried in the military section of Brookwood cemetery . On the authority of Thomas B. Larkin , Quartermaster General of the United States Army , 3 @,@ 600 bodies of US servicemen were exhumed in January – May 1948 and shipped to the United States for reburial . The railway service had been suspended in 1941 , and North station ( renamed North Bar after the ending of rail services ) was used as a temporary mortuary to hold these bodies while awaiting shipment to the USA .
On the retirement in 1956 of a Mr and Mrs Dendy , who operated the refreshment kiosk in the station building from 1948 to 1956 and lived in the station apartment , the building was abandoned . It was demolished in the 1960s owing to dry rot .
= = = South station = = =
The design of South station was broadly similar to that of North station . Unlike the platform steps of North station , the platform of South station had a ramp leading to an Anglican chapel at the northern end of the platform . A shed adjacent to the station held hand @-@ drawn biers , used to transport coffins around the large southern cemetery . At the time the branch line opened the platform of South station was only 128 feet ( 39 m ) long , far shorter than the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) platform of North station . At some point the platform was greatly extended south from the station building to a total length of 256 feet ( 78 m ) , allowing equipment to be unloaded discreetly without disturbing users of the station .
At the time of opening the apartment in the station housed George Bupell , superintendent of the Anglican cemetery . As with the North station , once James Bailey became sole cemetery superintendent in 1861 the use of the apartment was granted to a cemetery porter , and housed a succession of cemetery staff over the years . Following the suspension of railway services in 1941 the building was renamed South Bar , and remained in use as a refreshment kiosk . The last operators of the kiosk , Mr and Mrs Ladd , retired in the late 1960s and from then on the station building was used as a cemetery storeroom . Around half the building was destroyed by fire in September 1972 . The building was popular with railway and architectural enthusiasts as a distinctive piece of Victorian railway architecture , but despite a lobbying campaign to preserve the surviving sections of the station the remaining buildings ( other than the platform itself ) were demolished shortly afterwards . By the time of its demolition the " temporary " structure was 118 years old .
= = = Brookwood station = = =
At the time the cemetery opened , the nearest railway station other than those on the cemetery branch was Woking railway station , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away . As only one train per day ran from London to the cemetery stations and even that ran only when funerals were due to take place , access to the cemetery was difficult for mourners and LNC staff . Although in the negotiations leading to the creation of the cemetery the LSWR had told the LNC that they planned to build a main line station near the cemetery , they had not done so .
In 1863 , with the cemetery fully operational and a planned new lunatic asylum near Brookwood likely to boost traffic , the LSWR agreed to build a mainline station at Brookwood , along with an improved Necropolis Junction and a goods yard , provided the LNC supplied the necessary land and built the approach road and stationmaster 's house for the new station . The new station , called Brookwood ( Necropolis ) railway station ( the suffix was gradually dropped ) , opened on 1 June 1864 . A substantial commuter village grew around the northern ( i.e. non @-@ cemetery ) side of the new station , and the station building ( on the northern side of the tracks ) was enlarged in 1890 . In conjunction with these works , a branch line was added in 1890 from a bay platform to the National Rifle Association 's shooting range at Bisley , running west to the north of the LSWR main line before curving north to Bisley .
In 1903 the quadrupling of the LSWR tracks necessitated a major rebuilding of the station . The down ( westbound ) platform was demolished , and a new 576 @-@ foot ( 176 m ) long down platform was built , along with a second station building facing the cemetery , from which a footpath led across the cemetery branch 's tracks and into the cemetery .
= = London stations = =
A site for the London terminus near Waterloo was suggested by Sir Richard Broun . Its proximity to the Thames meant that bodies could be cheaply transported to the terminus by water from much of London , and the area was easily accessed from both north and south of the river by road . The arches of the huge brick viaduct carrying the LSWR into Waterloo Bridge station ( now London Waterloo station ) were easily converted into mortuaries . Broun also felt that the journey out of London from Waterloo Bridge would be less distressing for mourners ; while most of the rail routes out of London ran through tunnels and deep cuttings or through densely populated areas , at this time the urban development of what is now south London had not taken place and the LSWR route ran almost entirely through parkland and countryside . The LNC also contemplated taking over the LSWR 's former terminus at Nine Elms railway station ( which following the 1848 opening of the much more convenient Waterloo Bridge station was used only for goods traffic , chartered trains taking migrants to North America , and the private trains of the royal family ) as either the main or a secondary terminus . Despite objections from local residents concerned about the effects of potentially large numbers of dead bodies being stored in a largely residential area , in March 1854 the LNC settled on a single terminus in Waterloo and purchased a plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street ( now Leake Street ) for the site . Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station , which was approved in June 1854 .
= = = First London terminus ( 1854 – 1902 ) = = =
Tite and Cubitt 's design was based around a three storey main building , separated from the LSWR 's main viaduct by a private access road beneath the LNC 's twin rail lines , intended to allow mourners to arrive and leave discreetly , and avoid the need for hearses to stop in the public road . The building housed two mortuaries , the LNC 's boardroom and funerary workshops , and a series of separate waiting rooms for those attending first , second and third class funerals . A steam @-@ powered lift carried coffins from the lower floors to the platform level above . Although the original London terminus did not have its own chapel , on some occasions mourners would not be able or willing to make the journey to a ceremony at Brookwood but for personal or religious reasons were unable to hold the funeral service in a London church . On these occasions one of the waiting rooms would be used as a makeshift funeral chapel .
As the site of the station was adjacent to the arches of the LSWR 's viaduct , it blocked any increase in the number of lines serving Waterloo station ( renamed from Waterloo Bridge station in 1886 ) . Urban growth in the area of what is now south west London , through which trains from Waterloo ran , led to congestion at the station and in 1896 the LSWR formally presented the LNC with a proposal to provide the LNC with a new station in return for the site of the existing terminus . The LNC agreed to the proposals , in return for the LSWR granting the LNC control of the design of the new station and leasing the new station to the LNC for a token rent in perpetuity , providing new rolling stock , removing any limit on the number of passengers using the Necropolis service , and providing the free carriage of machinery and equipment to be used in the cemetery . Although the LSWR was extremely unhappy at what they considered excessive demands , in May 1899 the companies signed an agreement , in which the LSWR gave in to every LNC demand . In addition the LSWR paid £ 12 @,@ 000 compensation ( about £ 1 @.@ 22 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) for the inconvenience of relocating the LNC station and offices , and agreed that mourners returning from the cemetery could travel on any LSWR train to Waterloo , Vauxhall or Clapham Junction .
= = = Second London terminus ( 1902 – 1941 ) = = =
A site for the replacement terminus was bought by the LSWR in 1899 , south of the existing site and on the opposite side of Westminster Bridge Road . It was completed on 8 February 1902 , and the LSWR viaduct was widened to serve a greatly enlarged Waterloo station , destroying all traces of the original LNC terminus .
The new building was designed for attractiveness and modernity to contrast with the traditional gloomy decor associated with the funeral industry . A narrow four @-@ storey building on Westminster Bridge Road held the LNC 's offices . Behind it was the main terminal ; this held a communal third @-@ class waiting room , mortuaries and storerooms , the LNC 's workshops , and a sumptuous oak @-@ panelled Chapelle Ardente , intended for mourners unable to make the journey to Brookwood to pay their respects to the deceased . This building led onto the two platforms , lined with waiting rooms and a ticket office .
= = = Destruction = = =
During the Second World War Waterloo station and the nearby Thames bridges were a significant target for Axis bombing , and there were several near @-@ misses on the station during the London Blitz of 1940 – 41 . Although there were several interruptions to the Necropolis train service owing to enemy action elsewhere on the line , the Necropolis station was undamaged during the early stages of the bombing campaign . During the night of 16 – 17 April 1941 , in one of the last major air raids on London , bombs repeatedly fell on the Waterloo area . The rolling stock berthed in the Necropolis siding was burned , and the railway arch connecting the main line to the Necropolis terminus was damaged , but the terminal building itself remained unscathed .
At 10 @.@ 30 pm multiple incendiary devices and high explosive bombs struck the central section of the terminus building . While the office building and platforms survived , the workshops , driveway and Chapelle Ardente were destroyed , along with the third class waiting room . The Southern Railway 's Divisional Engineer inspected the damage at 2 @.@ 00 pm on 17 April , and his report read simply " Necropolis and buildings demolished " . On 11 May 1941 the station was officially declared closed .
The last recorded funeral party carried on the London Necropolis Railway was that of Chelsea Pensioner Edward Irish ( 1868 – 1941 ) , buried on 11 April 1941 . The Southern Railway offered the LNC the temporary use of platform 11 or 12 of Waterloo station to allow the service to be continued , but refused to allow the LNC to continue to sell cheap tickets to visitors travelling to and from the cemetery stations other than those involved in a funeral that day , meaning those visiting the cemetery other than members of funeral parties had little reason to choose the LNC 's irregular and infrequent trains over the SR 's fast and frequent services to Brookwood . The LNC attempted to negotiate a deal by which genuine mourners could still travel cheaply to the cemetery on the 11 @.@ 57 am service to Brookwood ( the SR service closest to the LNC 's traditional departure time ) , but the SR management , themselves under severe financial pressure owing to wartime constraints and damage , refused to entertain any compromise .
= = Closure = =
In September 1945 , following the end of hostilities , the directors of the LNC met to consider whether to rebuild the terminus and reopen the London Necropolis Railway . Although the main line from Waterloo to Brookwood had remained in use throughout the war and was in good condition , the branch line from Brookwood into the cemetery had been almost unused since the destruction of the London terminus . With the soil of the cemetery causing the branch to deteriorate even when it had been in use and regularly maintained , the branch line was in extremely poor condition .
Although the original promoters of the scheme had envisaged Brookwood Cemetery becoming London 's main or only cemetery , the scheme had never been as popular as they had hoped . In the original proposal , Richard Broun had calculated that over its first century of operations the cemetery would have seen around five million burials at a rate of 50 @,@ 000 per year , the great majority of which would have utilised the railway . In reality at the time the last train ran on 11 April 1941 , almost 87 years after opening , only 203 @,@ 041 people had been buried in the cemetery . Before the outbreak of hostilities , increased use of motorised road transport had damaged the profitability of the railway for both the LNC and the Southern Railway . Faced with the costs of rebuilding the cemetery branch line , building a new London terminus and replacing the rolling stock damaged or destroyed in the air raid , the directors concluded that " past experience and present changed conditions made the running of the Necropolis private train obsolete " . In mid @-@ 1946 the LNC formally informed the SR that the Westminster Bridge Road terminus would not be reopened .
The decision prompted complicated negotiations with the SR over the future of the LNC facilities in London . In December 1946 the directors of the two companies finally reached agreement . The railway @-@ related portions of the terminus site ( the waiting rooms , the caretaker 's flat and the platforms themselves ) would pass into the direct ownership of the SR , while the remaining surviving portions of the site ( the office block on Westminster Bridge Road , the driveway and the ruined central portion of the site ) would pass to the LNC to use or dispose of as they saw fit . The LNC sold the site to the British Humane Association in May 1947 for £ 21 @,@ 000 ( about £ 741 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) , and the offices of the LNC were transferred to the Superintendent 's Office at Brookwood . The SR continued to use the surviving sections of the track as occasional sidings into the 1950s , before clearing what remained of their section of the site .
While most of the LNC 's business was now operated by road , an agreement on 13 May 1946 allowed the LNC to make use of SR services from Waterloo to Brookwood station for funerals , subject to the condition that should the service be heavily used the SR ( British Railways after 1948 ) reserved the right to restrict the number of funeral parties on any given train . Although one of the LNC 's hearse carriages had survived the bombing it is unlikely that this was ever used , and coffins were carried in the luggage space of the SR 's coaches . Coffins would either be shipped to Brookwood ahead of the funeral party and transported by road to one of the mortuaries at the disused cemetery stations , or travel on the same SR train as the funeral party to Brookwood and be transported from Brookwood station to the burial site or chapel by road .
Although the LNC proposed to convert the cemetery branch line into a grand avenue running from Brookwood station through the cemetery , this never took place . The rails and sleepers of the branch were removed in around 1947 , and the trackbed became a dirt road and footpath . The run @-@ around loop and stub of the branch line west of Brookwood station remained operational as sidings , before being dismantled on 30 November 1964 . After the closure of the branch line the buildings of the two cemetery stations remained open as refreshment kiosks , and were renamed North Bar and South Bar .
= = After closure = =
Following the 1947 nationalisation of Britain 's railways , the use of the railway to transport coffins to Brookwood went into steep decline . New operating procedures required that coffins be carried in a separate carriage from other cargo ; as regular services to Brookwood station used electric multiple unit trains which did not have goods vans , coffins for Brookwood had to be shipped to Woking and then carried by road for the last part of the journey , or a special train had to be chartered . The last railway funeral to be carried by British Rail anywhere was that of Lord Mountbatten in September 1979 , and from 28 March 1988 British Rail formally ceased to carry coffins altogether . Since Mountbatten , the only railway funeral to be held in the United Kingdom has been that of former National Union of Rail , Maritime and Transport Workers General Secretary Jimmy Knapp , carried from London to Kilmarnock for burial in August 2001 .
= = = Stations = = =
Most of the site of the 1902 London terminus was built over with new office developments in the years following the end of the Second World War , but the office building on Westminster Bridge Road , over the former entrance to the station driveway , remains relatively unaltered externally although the words " London Necropolis " carved into the stone above the driveway have been covered . Refurbishments and cleaning in the 1980s restored the facade of the building to an appearance similar to that of the time of its building . Other than iron columns in Newnham Terrace which once supported the Necropolis Railway tracks , and a surviving section of the internal driveway used as a car park , the Westminster Bridge Road building is the only surviving part of the London Necropolis Railway in London .
Brookwood station on the former LSWR line ( now the South Western Main Line and the Alton Line ) is little changed since the 1903 expansion and rebuilding . It remains in use both by commuters from the village which has grown to the north of the railway line , and by visitors to the cemetery to the south of the line . A small monument to the London Necropolis Railway , consisting of a short length of railway track on the former trackbed , was erected in 2007 outside the southern ( cemetery @-@ side ) entrance to the station .
The site of North station has significantly changed . The ornate mausoleum of Sharif Al @-@ Hussein Ben Ali ( d . 1998 ) stands directly opposite the remains of the platform . The operators of the Shia Islamic section of the cemetery have planted Leylandii along the boundary of their section of the cemetery , which includes the platform of North station . Unless the trees are removed , the remains of the station will ultimately become hidden and destroyed by overgrowth .
The land surrounding the site of South station and the station 's two Anglican chapels were redundant following the closure of the railway . As part of the London Necropolis Act 1956 the LNC obtained Parliamentary consent to convert the disused original Anglican chapel into a crematorium , using the newer chapel for funeral services and the station building for coffin storage and as a refreshment room for those attending cremations . Suffering cash flow problems and distracted by a succession of hostile takeover bids , the LNC management never proceeded with the scheme and the buildings fell into disuse . The station building was demolished after being damaged by a fire in 1972 , although the platform remained intact .
Since 1982 the site of South station has been owned by the St. Edward Brotherhood , and forms part of a Russian Orthodox monastery . The original Anglican chapel is used as a visitor 's centre and living quarters for the monastery , while the larger Anglican chapel built in 1908 – 09 immediately north of the station is now the Russian Orthodox Church of St. Edward the Martyr , and houses the relics and shrine of Edward the Martyr , king of England from 975 – 978 AD . The site of the former station buildings is now the main monastery building , while the platform itself remains intact and now marks the boundary of the monastic enclosure .
= = = Brookwood Cemetery and the LNC = = =
The LNC continued to lobby the SR and its 1948 successor British Railways until the 1950s on the matter of cheap fares for visitors to the cemetery , but were unable to come to any agreement . In 1957 the Southern Region of British Railways considered allowing the LNC to sell discounted fares of 7s 6d ( compared to the standard rate of 9s 4d ) for day return tickets from London to Brookwood . By this time most visitors to the cemetery were travelling by road . The LNC felt that the relatively minor difference between the fares would not be sufficient to attract visitors back to the railway , and the proposal was abandoned .
With the area around Woking by this time heavily populated , the LNC 's land holdings had become an extremely valuable asset , and from 1955 onwards the LNC became a target for repeated hostile takeover bids from property speculators . In January 1959 the Alliance Property Company announced the successful takeover of the London Necropolis Company , bringing over a century of independence to an end . Alliance Property was a property company with little interest in the funeral business , and the income from burials was insufficient to maintain the cemetery grounds . Brookwood Cemetery went into decline and the cemetery began to revert to wilderness . This trend continued under a succession of further owners .
The Brookwood Cemetery Act 1975 authorised the cemetery 's owners ( at that time Maximilian Investments ) to sell surplus land within the cemetery 's boundaries , leading to the construction of a major office development on the site of the former Superintendent 's office , near the former level crossing between the northern and southern cemeteries . The masonry works remained operational until the early 1980s , and were then converted into office buildings and named Stonemason 's Court . In March 1985 the cemetery was bought by Ramadan Güney , whose family still owns the cemetery as of 2011 . The Guney family embarked on a programme of encouraging new burials in the cemetery , and of slowly clearing the overgrown sections of the cemetery .
While it was never as successful as planned , Brookwood Cemetery remains the largest cemetery in the United Kingdom and one of the largest in the world . Although not the world 's only dedicated funeral railway line , the London Necropolis Railway was the first , the longest lasting and by far the best known .
= = In popular culture = =
As well as forming a key element of Basil Copper 's novel Necropolis ( 1980 ) , the railway and cemetery received widespread attention following the 2002 publication of Andrew Martin 's novel The Necropolis Railway ( 2002 ) . Both books were critically acclaimed and led to increased public interest in the London Necropolis Company and its railway operations .
On 31 July 2015 , the opening episode of the third series of the BBC television drama Ripper Street featured a collision between a mainline locomotive and a LNC train which had been diverted by criminals onto the wrong line .
= Sigurd the Stout =
Sigurd Hlodvirsson ( circa 960 – 23 April 1014 ) , popularly known as Sigurd the Stout from the Old Norse Sigurðr digri , was an Earl of Orkney . The main sources for his life are the Norse Sagas , which were first written down some two centuries or more after his death . These engaging stories must therefore be treated with caution rather than as reliable historical documents .
Sigurd was the son of Hlodvir Thorfinnson and ( according to the Norse sagas ) a direct descendent of Torf @-@ Einarr Rognvaldson . Sigurd 's tenure as earl was apparently free of the kin @-@ strife that beset some other incumbents of this title and he was able to pursue his military ambitions over a wide area . He also held lands in the north of mainland Scotland and in the Sudrøyar , and he may have been instrumental in the defeat of Gofraid mac Arailt , King of the Isles . The Annals of Ulster record his death at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 , the earliest known reference to the earldom of Orkney .
The saga tales draw attention to Sigurd 's conversion to Christianity and his use of a totemic raven banner , a symbol of the Norse God Odin . This ambiguous theme and the lack of detailed contemporary records of his life have led to a variety of interpretations of the saga material by modern scholars .
= = Family background = =
The Orkneyinga Saga reports that Sigurd was the son of Hlodvir , one of the five sons of Thorfinn Skull @-@ Splitter , and Eithne . She is said to be a daughter of a " King Kjarvalr " . The period after Earl Thorfinn 's death was one of dynastic strife ; three of Earl Hlodvir 's brothers ruled before him , although he died in his bed before being succeeded by Sigurd , probably in the 980s .
Sigurd 's patronymic is an unusual one and there would appear to be a connection with this name and the early roots of the modern French name " Louis " .
= = Rule = =
Sigurd was in the fortunate position that on his accession to the earldom there seem to have been no other serious contenders . In this respect his rule was unlike that of the earlier generation of the sons of Earl Thorfinn and of the next generation in that it avoided the bitter feuding that beset the earldom during both of those periods .
Sigurd 's great @-@ grandfather , Torf @-@ Einarr , lost the udal rights of the Orkney and Shetland farmers as part of a deal he brokered with the Norwegian crown . These rights were restored by Sigurd . The Burray hoard of silver ring @-@ money has been dated to the period 997 @-@ 1010 , during Earl Sigurd 's reign .
= = = Mainland Scotland = = =
Sigurd 's domain included not just Orkney itself but also Shetland , which formed part of the earldom and also extensive lands on mainland Scotland . For the latter his overlords were the Kings of Scotland rather than of Norway . The extent of these mainland dominions is uncertain . According to the rather dubious source , Njal 's Saga , they included Ross , Moray , Sutherland and the Dales . At the time Moray would have included districts on the west coast including Lochaber . Smyth ( 1984 ) notes the density of dalr placenames on Scotland 's west coast and it has even been suggested that " the Dales " is a reference to Dalriada , although it is more likely that it means Caithness . During Sigurd 's tenure the earldom approached its high point and his influence was perhaps only exceeded by that of his son Thorfinn .
Sigurd 's uncle Ljot had been killed in war against the Scots , and Sigurd soon faced trouble from his southern neighbours . According to the Orkneyinga saga " Earl Finnleik " ( Findláech of Moray ) led an army against him which outnumbered Sigurd 's forces by seven to one . The saga then records Sigurd 's mother 's reply when he went to her for advice :
Had I thought you might live for ever I 'd have reared you in my wool @-@ basket . But lifetimes are shaped by what will be , not by where you are . Now , take this banner . I 've made it for you with all the skill I have , and my belief is this : it will bring victory to the man it 's carried before , but death to the one who carries it .
The Raven banner worked as just Sigurd 's mother said : he was victorious but three standard @-@ bearers in succession were killed .
A battle was fought between Norwegian forces and Malcolm II of Scotland at Mortlach c . 1005 which may have involved or been led by Sigurd . Although victory went to the Scots , the Norwegians had clearly spent some considerable time encamped in Moray and came equipped with a large fleet . However , Orcadian influence in this part of Scotland is likely to have been temporary and on other occasions , such as during his uncle Ljot 's earldom , Scottish forces had pushed north into Caithness .
= = = The Hebrides = = =
Sigurd the Stout also took control of the Hebrides , and placed a jarl called Gilli in charge . Njal 's Saga records an expedition that took place c . 980 in which Kari , Sigurd 's bodyguard , plundered the Hebrides , Kintyre and " Bretland " ( probably Strathclyde ) . On another occasion Kari sailed through The Minch in order to collect tribute from Gilli , whose base may have been either Colonsay or Coll .
The Annals of Ulster record a raid by " the Danes " on Iona on Christmas Night in which the abbot and fifteen of the elders of the monastery were slaughtered and this may have been connected with the successful conquering of the Isle of Man by Sigurd and Gilli between 985 and 989 . Njal 's Saga records a victory for Sigurd over Gofraid mac Arailt , King of the Isles with the former returning to Orkney with the spoils . The contemporary Annals of Ulster record a similar event in 987 although with the reverse outcome . Here it is claimed that 1 @,@ 000 Norsemen were killed , among them the Danes who had plundered Iona . Two years later Njal 's Saga reports a second campaign in the southern Hebrides , Anglesey , Kintyre , Wales and a more decisive victory in Man . Irish sources report only the death of King Gofraid in Dál Riata , an event that Thomson ( 2008 ) ascribes to Earl Gilli 's Gall @-@ Ghàidheil forces .
The Eyrbyggja saga records the payment of silver tribute from Man to Sigurd , and , although this is a rather unreliable source , there is corroboration of such an event occurring in 989 in a Welsh source , with payment being made of a penny each from the local population to " the black host of the Vikings " . It has been suggested that the much later use of ounceland and pennyland assessments in the Gàidhealtachd may date from the time of Earl Sigurd and his sons .
By 1004 the western isles ' independence from Orkney had been re @-@ asserted under Ragnal mac Gofraid , who died in that year . It is possible the rules overlapped , with Gilli 's zone of influence to the north and Ragnal 's to the south . On Ragnal 's death Sigurd re @-@ asserted control , which he held until his own death a decade later after which the islands may have been held by Håkon Eiriksson .
= = = Religion = = =
According to the Orkneyinga saga , the Northern Isles were Christianised by King Olaf Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway . The King summoned jarl Sigurd and said " I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . " Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke .
This tale is repeated in St Olaf 's Saga , ( although here Olaf lands at South Ronaldsay ) as is a brief mention of Sigurd 's son " Hunde or Whelp " who was taken as a hostage to Norway by King Olaf . Hunde was held there for several years before dying there . " After his death Earl Sigurd showed no obedience or fealty to King Olaf . "
= = Death at Clontarf = =
The Orkneyinga Saga blandly reports that " five years after the Battle of Svolder " Earl Sigurd went to Ireland to support Sigtrygg Silkbeard and , after taking up the raven banner , was killed in a battle that took place on Good Friday . ( The chronology is slightly awry in that Sigurd 's death is known to have taken place 14 years after Svolder . )
Njal 's Saga provides a little more detail , alleging that Gormflaith ingen Murchada prompted her son Sigtrygg into getting Sigurd to fight against her former husband , Brian Ború : " She sent him to Earl Sigurd to beg for help ... Then King Sigtrygg fared south to Ireland , and told his mother that the Earl had undertaken to come . "
The 12th @-@ century Irish source , the Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh , records the events of the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 . The " foreigners and Leinstermen " were led by Brodir of the Isle of Man and Sigurd , and the battle lasted all day . Though Brian was killed in the battle , the Irishmen ultimately drove back their enemies into the sea , and Sigurd himself was killed . His death is corroborated by the Annals of Ulster , which record that amongst the dead was " Siuchraid son of Loduir , iarla Innsi Orcc " ( i.e. of Sigurd , son of Hlodvir , Earl of Orkney ) . This is the earliest known contemporary reference to the earldom of Orkney .
= = Succession and other relatives = =
Sigurd left four sons : Brusi , Sumarlidi , Einar and Thorfinn , each of whom would also bear the title Earl of Orkney ; the lands were initially divided amongst the three older brothers , Thorfinn being only five years old at the time . Thorfinn 's mother is specifically stated to be a daughter of Malcolm II , the Norsemen 's foe at Mortlach .
Njal 's Saga provides the names of various other relatives of Sigurd 's . Havard , who was killed at Thraswick ( the modern Freswick in Caithness ) is referred to as his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Sigurd is said to have given his sister Nereida ( also called Swanlauga ) in marriage to Earl Gilli .
= = Interpretations = =
Sigurd 's earldom " exerted a magnetic attraction for high @-@ born Icelanders " and inspired many tales of military prowess in their own family sagas .
" King Kjarvalr " , Sigurd 's supposed grandfather , appears as Kjarvalr Írakonungr in the Landnámabók and has been identified as Cerball mac Dúnlainge , King of Osraige who died in 888 . There is clearly a chronological problem with Sigurd 's mother being the daughter of a king who died more than 70 years before the death of his own grandfather , Earl Thorfinn . Furthermore , Thorstein " the Red " Olafsson ( fl. late 9th century and Hlodvir 's great @-@ grandfather ) was apparently married to a granddaughter of Kjarvalr . Woolf ( 2007 ) concludes that the saga writers may have confused this story about the provenance of Sigurd Hlodvirsson with one about Thorstein , a close ally of Sigurd Eysteinsson .
Drawing on Adam of Bremen 's assertion that Orkney was not conquered until the time of Harald Hardrada , who ruled Norway from 1043 – 66 , Woolf ( 2007 ) speculates that Sigurd may have been the first Earl of Orkney . He also offers the hypothesis that the earldom was a created by the Danish king Harald Bluetooth , circa 980 rather than in the time of Harald Fairhair one hundred years earlier . He concludes that " If there were no earls in Orkney before Sigurð 's time it might help to explain the islands ' low profile in the annals since these , for the most part , record only the deaths of great men . " However , the absence of comment on this subject by Irish sources prior to Sigurd 's death there is hardly surprising . Irish sources of the period were not well informed about and " not much concerned " with Orkney . Smyth ( 1984 ) is more sympathetic to the claims of the sagas and argues that Torf @-@ Einarr " may be regarded as the first historical earl of Orkney " .
The conflict between Sigurd and Olaf Tryggvasson probably predates their chance meeting at Kirk Hope as the latter is known to have been raiding in the Sudrøyar during the period 991 @-@ 94 . His motives for a determined pursuit of Christian obedience are likely to have been essentially political rather than religious . His journey back to Norway was in order to bid for the kingship there , and securing a passive Orkney in advance of this was therefore greatly to his advantage . Although Sigurd 's marriage to an unnamed daughter of Malcolm of Scotland is mentioned in the Orkneyinga
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, 90210 and Home Improvement for the 25th place . The episode was the third highest @-@ rated show ( tied with Beverly Hills , 90210 ) on the Fox network that week , following Ally McBeal and Party of Five .
" The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace " has received generally positive reviews from critics . The Daily Mail cited as a " superb " and " hilarious " episode , and James Plath of DVD Town thought it had strong writing . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " a terrific episode , full of wit and sly digs at our expectations of Homer 's abilities . The fact that he invents things that other people find useful ( and steal the credit for ) is both amusing and a little sad . Poor Homer . " Writing for DVD Movie Guide , Colin Jacobson commented that " though ' Wizard ' borders on ' Homer ’ s wacky scheme ' territory , his attempts to come up with something significant offer amusement . At no point does ' Wizard ' threaten to become a particularly strong episode , but it entertains to a reasonable degree . I do like the ' Everything ’ s Okay Alarm ' and the makeup gun , though . "
Although " Lard of the Dance " aired as a teaser episode a month earlier , " The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace " was the official season premiere of The Simpsons ' tenth season . Don Aucoin of The Boston Globe wrote that " It is gratifying to report that , based on the season premiere , The Simpsons promises to remain the most reliable half @-@ hour of laughs on television . " Similarly , David Bianculli of The New York Daily News reported that " The Simpsons is one series that , year after year , remains fresh and funny and lively and surprising . Based on tonight 's season premiere , that amazing streak is in no danger of ending . " Lauri Githens of The Buffalo News gave the episode a 5 / 5 rating , commenting that it shows that " This cynical , bleak yet somehow still hopeful comedy is nowhere near midlife crisis with Season No. 10 . It 's still fall @-@ down funny . Thank God . " She cited Homer 's line to Marge as he and Bart leave for the Edison Museum , " I 'm @-@ taking @-@ Bart @-@ over @-@ state @-@ lines @-@ back @-@ soon @-@ I @-@ have @-@ your @-@ wallet @-@ bye ! " , as the best line of the episode .
Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's Heather Svokos was not as pleased . She stated that " As always , the show is better written than most anything on TV , but for a 10th season premiere , it didn 't blow me out of the water . " In addition , Phil Kloer of The Atlanta Journal gave the episode a C grade , calling it an " off episode " . He commented that it " doesn 't have the zing that most Simpsons episodes do . " Kloer did , however , enjoy Homer 's inventions such as the hamburger earmuffs and the make @-@ up gun , and Homer 's line to Marge before he shoots her with it : " Try to keep your nostrils closed . " Marge 's response after being shot , " Homer ! You ’ ve got it set on whore ! " , was commended by The Gazette , DVD Verdict , and Ian Jane of DVD Talk , who called the scene the highlight of the episode .
In his 2015 book The Simpsons and their Mathematical Secrets , Dr Simon Singh wrote that in the episode , Homer writes an equation on a chalkboard and “ If you work it out , you get the mass of a Higgs boson that ’ s only a bit larger than the nano @-@ mass of a Higgs boson actually is . It ’ s kind of amazing as Homer makes this prediction 14 years before it was discovered . ” He stated that the mathematical backgrounds of many of the show 's writers made it the " most mathematical TV show on prime @-@ time television in history " , and it could " encourage and nourish " young people with an interest in mathematics .
= CD Projekt =
CD Projekt S.A. ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˌsiːˈdi ˈprɔjɛkt ̪ ˈɛs ˌa : ] , formerly CD Projekt Sp. z.o.o. ) is a Polish video game developer , publisher and distributor based in Warsaw , which was founded in 1994 by Marcin Iwiński and Michał Kiciński . Iwiński and Kiciński were video game retailers before they founded the company . CD Projekt is best known for their The Witcher series of video games and their digital @-@ distribution service GOG.com.
The company began translating major Western video @-@ game releases into Polish , collaborating with Interplay Entertainment for two Baldur 's Gate games . CD Projekt was working on the PC version of Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance when Interplay experienced financial difficulties . The game was cancelled and the company decided to reuse the code for their own video game . It became The Witcher , a video game based on the works of Andrzej Sapkowski .
After the release of The Witcher , CD Projekt worked on a console port called The Witcher : White Wolf ; but development issues and increasing costs almost led the company to the brink of bankruptcy . CD Projekt later released The Witcher 2 : Assassins of Kings and The Witcher 3 : Wild Hunt which received positive critical reviews . The company 's upcoming project is Cyberpunk 2077 , an open @-@ world role @-@ playing game based on the Cyberpunk 2020 tabletop system .
A video game distribution service , GOG.com was established by CD Projekt to help players find old games . Its mission is to offer games free of digital rights management ( DRM ) to players and its service was expanded to cover new AAA and independent games . The company opposes DRM in video games , and hopes that free downloadable content becomes an industry standard . CD Projekt considers maintaining their independence one of their most important strategies . The company currently focuses on the international market , particularly Europe and North America , and spun off its Polish business cdp.pl in 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
CD Projekt was founded in 1994 by Marcin Iwiński and Michal Kiciński . According to Iwiński , although he enjoyed playing video games as a child they were scarce in Poland ( which was in the Soviet Union 's sphere of influence at the time ) . Polish copyright law did not exist and Iwiński , in high school , sold cracked copies of Western video games at a Warsaw marketplace . In high school Iwiński met Kiciński , who became his business partner ; at that time , Kiciński also sold video games .
Wanting to conduct business legitimately , Iwiński and Kiciński began importing games from US retailers and were the first importers of CD @-@ ROM games . After the transition to a primarily market @-@ based economy in the early 90s , they founded their own company . Iwiński and Kiciński founded CD Projekt in the second quarter of 1994 . With only $ 2 @,@ 000 , they used a friend 's flat as a rent @-@ free office .
= = = Localization = = =
When CD Projekt was founded , their biggest challenge was overcoming video game piracy . The company was one of the first in Poland to localize games ; according to Iwiński , most of their products were sold to " mom @-@ and @-@ pop shops " . CD Projekt began partial localization for developers such as Seven Stars and Leryx @-@ LongSoft in 1996 , and full @-@ scale localization a year later . To sell their games , they approached BioWare and Interplay Entertainment for the Polish localization of Baldur 's Gate . They expected the title to become popular in Poland , and no retailer would be able to translate the text from English version to Polish . To increase the title 's popularity in Poland , CD Projekt added items to the game 's packaging and hired well @-@ known Polish actors to voice its characters . Their first attempt was successful , with 18 @,@ 000 units shipped on the game 's release day ( higher than the average shipments of other games at the time ) .
The company continued to work with Interplay after the release of Baldur 's Gate , collaborating on a PC port for the sequel Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance . To develop the port , CD Projekt hired Sebastian Zieliński ( who had developed Mortyr 2093 @-@ 1944 ) and Adam Badowski , who became head of the company 's game @-@ development division CD Projekt RED . Six months after development began , Interplay experienced financial problems and cancelled the PC version . CD Projekt continued to localize other games after Dark Alliance 's cancellation , and received Business Gazelle awards in 2003 and 2004 .
= = = Game development = = =
Enthusiasm for game distribution ebbed , and CD Projekt 's founders wondered if the company should continue as a distributor or a game developer after Dark Alliance 's cancellation . With the game cancelled and its code owned by CD Projekt , the company planned to use them to develop their first original game . They intended to develop a game series based on Andrzej Sapkowski 's Wiedźmin books ( which were popular in Poland ) and the author accepted the company 's development proposal . The franchise rights had been sold to a Polish mobile game studio , but the studio had not worked on anything related to the franchise and CD Projekt acquired the rights to the Wiedźmin franchise . According to Iwiński , he and Kiciński had no idea how to develop a video game at that time .
To develop the game , the company formed a video @-@ game development studio ( CD Projekt RED , headed by Sebastian Zieliński ) in Łódź in 2002 . The studio made a demonstration game , which Adam Badowski called " a piece of crap " in retrospect . The demo was a role @-@ playing game with a top @-@ down perspective , similar to Dark Alliance and Diablo , and used the game engine which powered Mortyr . Iwiński and Kiciński pitched the demo to a number of publishers , without success . The Łódź office closed and the staff , except for Zieliński , moved to the Warsaw headquarters .
Zieliński left the company , and Kiciński headed the project . Although the game 's development continued , the demo was abandoned . According to CD Projekt , the development team had different ideas for the game and lacked overall direction ; as a result , it was returned to the drawing board in 2003 . The team , unfamiliar with video @-@ game development , spent nearly two years organising production . They received assistance from BioWare , who helped promote the game at the 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo by offering CD Projekt space in their booth next to Jade Empire . BioWare also licensed their Aurora game engine to the company .
The game 's budget exceeded expectations . The original 15 @-@ person development team expanded to about 100 , at a cost of 20 million złoty . According to Iwiński , content was removed from the game for budgetary reasons but the characters ' personalities were retained ; however , there was difficulty in translating the game 's Polish text into English . Atari agreed to publish the game . After five years of development , The game would bring Wiedźmin to an international audience , and so the company came up with an English name : The Witcher . The Witcher was released in 2007 to generally positive reviews .
Sales were satisfactory , and the development of sequels began almost immediately after The Witcher 's release . The team began the design work for The Witcher 2 ( again powered by the Aurora Engine ) , and experimented with consoles to develop a new engine for The Witcher 3 . Their development was halted when the team began work on The Witcher : White Wolf , a console version of The Witcher . Although they collaborated with French studio Widescreen Games for the console port , it entered development limbo . Widescreen demanded more manpower , money and time to develop the title , complaining that they were not being paid ; according to Iwiński , CD Projekt paid them more than their own staff members . The team cancelled the project , suspending its development . Unhappy with the decision , Atari demanded that CD Projekt repay them for funding the console port development and Iwiński agreed that Atari would be the North American publisher of the sequel of The Witcher 2 . CD Projekt acquired Metropolis Software in 2008 .
The dispute over White Wolf was costly ; the company faced bankruptcy , with the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 a contributing factor . To stay afloat , the team decided to focus on The Witcher 2 with the Witcher 3 engine . When the engine ( known as REDengine ) was finished , the game could be ported to other consoles . To develop The Witcher 2 , the company suspended development of Metropolis ' first @-@ person shooter They . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of development , The Witcher 2 : Assassins of Kings was released in 2011 to critical praise and sales of more than 1 @.@ 7 million copies .
After The Witcher 2 CD Projekt wanted to develop an open @-@ world game of a quality similar to their other games , and the company wanted to add features to avoid criticism that it was Witcher 2 @.@ 5 . They wanted to push the game 's graphics boundaries , releasing it only for the PC and eighth @-@ generation consoles . This triggered debate on the team , some of whom wanted to release the game for older consoles to maximise profit . The Witcher 3 : Wild Hunt took three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years to develop and cost over $ 81 million . After multiple delays , it was released in May 2015 to critical praise . Wild Hunt was commercially successful , selling six million copies in its first six weeks and giving the studio a profit of 236 million złoty ( $ 62 @.@ 5 million ) in the first half of 2015 . The team released 15 content downloads and two expansion , Hearts of Stone and Blood and Wine . CD Projekt released two other The Witcher games : The Witcher Adventure ( a board game for PC , iOS and Android ) and The Witcher : Battle Arena , a multiplayer online battle arena game for iOS and Android . At E3 2016 , the company announced Gwent : The Witcher Card Game , based on the popular card mini @-@ game Gwent from The Witcher 3 .
In December 2015 , CD Projekt RED won the " Developer of the Year " award at The Game Awards 2015 . In March 2016 , the company announced that they had another role @-@ playing game in development , and that the title is scheduled to be released in the period 2017 to 2021 . They also announced plans for expansion , where the RED division will expand two @-@ fold .
= = = Game distribution = = =
CD Projekt is a game distributor , and their Polish company ( a digital distribution platform focusing on the Polish market ) was renamed Cdp.pl in 2012 . The service , which provided technical assistance , expanded to movies , electronic books and comics . Cdp.pl was later separated , with CD Projekt holding a controlling share . CD Projekt reduced its share to 8 @.@ 29 percent , since the company wanted to aim at the global market rather than the Polish one . The companies would co @-@ operate with each other for the distribution of games .
In 2008 the company introduced Good Old Games , a distribution service with a digital rights management @-@ free strategy . The service aims to help players find " good old games " , preserving old games . To do so , the team needed to unravel licensing issues for defunct developers or negotiate with publishers for distribution rights . To recover old code for conversion to modern platforms , they had to use retail versions or second @-@ hand games . CD Projekt partnered with small developers and large publishers , including Activision , Electronic Arts and Ubisoft , to broaden the service 's portfolio of games to triple @-@ A and independent video games . Despite suspicions that it was a " doomed project " , according to managing director Guillaume Rambourg , it has expanded since its introduction . Income from GOG.com ( known internally as CD Projekt Blue ) accrues to CD Projekt RED .
= = = Future = = =
CD Projekt developed three Witcher titles before deciding that The Witcher 3 : Wild Hunt would be the final game in the series with Geralt . The company 's next project is Cyberpunk 2077 , an open @-@ world role @-@ playing game based on the Cyberpunk 2020 tabletop system created by Mike Pondsmith . Introduced in May 2012 with an international development team , it was described by CD Projekt as " far bigger " than The Witcher III . Another CD Projekt office in Krakow , which had assisted the development of CD Projekt 's previous games , is expected to develop their own games in the future .
Regarding the future of the Witcher series , Konrad Tomaszkiewicz , game director of The Witcher 3 , stated in May 2016 that he hoped to continue working with the series sometime in the future , but had nothing planned at the time .
= = Games developed = =
= = Company philosophy = =
They decided to focus on a few aspects and assess the value of other features . This approach , they hope , helps to maintain the quality of their games . The company focused on the development of role @-@ playing games , with the team working on established franchises with a fan base and introducing lesser @-@ known franchises to a wide audience . When the team develops an open @-@ world game , they prioritise quest design over the size of its world in the belief that having choices to make encourages players to immerse themselves in the game .
The team makes the players their priority ; according to Iwiński , support from players " drives " the company ( which considers themselves " rebels " ) . The team focuses on creative strategy over business strategy . CD Projekt RED opposes the inclusion of digital @-@ rights @-@ management technology in video games and software . The company believes that DRM is ineffective in halting software piracy , based on data from sales of The Witcher 2 : Assassins of Kings . CD Projekt RED found that their initial release ( which included DRM technology ) was pirated over 4 @.@ 5 million times ; their DRM @-@ free re @-@ release was pirated far less , and The Witcher 3 : Wild Hunt was released without DRM technology . The team , believing that free downloadable content should be an industry standard , published 15 free DLC releases for Wild Hunt as an example to others in the industry .
According to Adam Badowski , head of CD Projekt RED , maintaining its independence is a company priority . They avoided becoming a subsidiary of another company for financial and creative freedom and ownership of their projects . Electronic Arts was rumoured to be attempting to acquire CD Projekt . This was quickly denied by Iwiński , who said that maintaining the company 's independence is something he " will be fighting for " .
The company aims to follow the Rockstar Games model , where the company works on a single project with a large team , and avoids working on multiple projects at the same time .
= Dotty Cotton =
Kirsty " Dotty " Cotton is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Molly Conlin . She was introduced on 26 December 2008 as the daughter of established character Nick Cotton ( John Altman ) . Dotty was used as Nick 's partner in crime , as the duo planned to kill her grandmother Dot ( June Brown ) and inherit the money from her will . She and Dot subsequently became friends after Nick 's failed murder attempt , due to Dotty sabotaging their murder plan at the last minute . In her final storyline , airing on 23 February 2010 , she left with her mother Sandy ( Caroline Pegg ) , whom she believed dead .
Critics disliked Dotty , with her accent being criticised by Jane Simon from The Daily Mirror . Critics from The Daily Mirror and The Guardian were glad to see her leave . However , executive producer Diederick Santer praised Conlin for her portrayal of Dotty , whilst both Brown and Altman opined that the storyline was one of their highlights . The Sun described her as " one of the youngest , most wicked female soap villains " .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Dotty , whose real name is Kirsty , was conceived in a one @-@ night stand between Nick Cotton ( John Altman ) and an alcoholic woman named Sandy ( Caroline Pegg ) . While serving time in prison , Nick received a letter from Sandy telling him that she had given birth to their daughter . Upon his early release in April 2008 , Nick took custody of Dotty , telling her that Sandy had died in a car crash .
= = = 2008 – 10 = = =
Dotty arrives in Walford on Christmas Day with Nick , to see her estranged grandmother Dot ( June Brown ) . Nick introduces Dot to Dotty and they quickly bond . Nick lies to Dot that he had promised to send money to Sandy on the condition that she named their daughter Dorothy after her grandmother , so that Dot will trust him and bond with his daughter ; Dot does not know Dotty 's real name . After spending the night , Dotty begs Dot to let them stay longer . Dot soon discovers that Nick is unemployed and he and Dotty have been living rough . Nick says he will either put Dotty into care or sell her to Dot . After serious consideration , she buys Dotty to get her away from Nick . Dotty learns that Dot has left all her money to Dotty in her will , and tells Nick . They plan to kill Dot to inherit the money , and trick her into thinking she is suffering from dementia . Eventually , Dotty is told by Nick to give Dot an overdose of her medication , but , Dotty has had a change of heart and gives the pills to Nick in his beer . When Nick learns of Dotty 's double @-@ crossing , he drags her to the café and holds everyone inside hostage . Dotty escapes along with most of the others , but the café explodes , and in the commotion , Nick escapes . Dot suspects Dotty may be just as evil as Nick , so plants some tablets on the kitchen table whilst Dotty has her back turned . Dot leaves the room and spies on Dotty , who ignores the tablets .
Dot holds a birthday party for Dotty , inviting Tiffany ( Maisie Smith ) and Liam Butcher ( James Forde ) , but they do not want to attend . The next day , Tiffany tells Dotty she is not invited to her birthday party . Dotty tells Dot that Tiffany is not having a party and asks if they can invite her round . When they ask Tiffany 's mother Bianca ( Patsy Palmer ) , Bianca invites them to Tiffany 's party . The next day , Tiffany and Dotty lie so they do not have to go to school . Dotty takes Tiffany 's bridesmaid 's dress and MP3 player , after Tiffany does not allow her to try the dress on , and runs away with them , throwing the MP3 player into a bin . Dotty pushes Tiffany into the bin as she tries to retrieve it . Dotty then runs away to avoid getting in trouble , and when Tiffany is found , Bianca visits Dot , who is unsure about Bianca 's claims . Dotty tells Dot she knows nothing about the dress but Dot then finds it in Dotty 's school bag . Dot returns the dress to Bianca without Dotty 's knowledge . The next day , Dotty is left alone with Dot 's husband Jim ( John Bardon ) who is recovering from a stroke . She pours water on him to make it seem he has wet himself , but Dot catches her . Dotty says she hates them both and wishes that Nick had killed Dot . Dot smacks Dotty across the legs and Dotty manipulates her into letting her stay off school . After Dotty calls the police , Dot is arrested for assault but is released without charge and Dotty apologises .
Dot receives a visit from Dotty 's mother Sandy . Dot assumes she is from Social Services , but Sandy says she is looking for her daughter Kirsty . Dot says she knows nobody of that name , but when she sees a photo she realises that it is Dotty . Dot hides Sandy 's visit from Dotty , but later talks to Sandy about her daughter and her past . She also asks Dotty about the friends and family she used to have , but Dotty says Dot is the only family she needs . However , she soon admits that she misses her mother , and Dot reveals that she is alive and Nick had lied to her . Dotty says she wants to see her mother , so Dot calls her . When Sandy arrives , Dotty is delighted and Dot tells Dotty she should go with Sandy . They say an emotional goodbye , and Dot says she can visit at any time . In May 2012 , Dot and her sister Rose ( Polly Perkins ) go to live with Dotty and Sandy . In January 2013 , it is revealed that Dotty and Sandy are in Florida . In March 2014 , Dot reveals Dotty and Sandy cannot attend Nick 's funeral , because Dotty has a cold .
= = Creation and development = =
= = = Casting , introduction and development = = =
On 2 October 2008 it was reported that Nick Cotton , played by John Altman would return to EastEnders in Christmas 2008 . After spending time in Walsall , Nick would return with an eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Dotty . The part of Dotty was cast to Molly Conlin , speaking of her casting , Conlin said , " I 'm really excited about it because I have always wanted to be in EastEnders . " Conlin was considered too old for the part of Tiffany Dean which she a previously auditioned for but she succeeded in impressing the producers , who offered her the role of Dotty instead . The part of Tiffany went to Maisie Smith . Dotty was originally eleven years old , but on Conlin 's casting , they changed her age to seven . Introduced as a guest character by Santer she made her first appearance on 25 December 2008 .
Starting to appear more frequently , Dotty became a recurring character . Santer told Digital Spy in May 2009 that Dotty 's storyline would go " to a very , very dark place ! " He questioned whether the character was born bad or if her father had made her that way , and if she could be more dangerous than Nick . As the storyline between Dot , Dotty and Nick progressed , Nick 's true agenda was revealed when he blackmailed his mother into giving him money for custody of Dotty . A BBC source told The Sun , " [ Dot 's ] horrified when Nick tells her Dotty is for sale . He shows no emotion and his evil grin sends shivers down her spine . She always knew Nick would sell his soul for the price of some pick ’ n mix but she had no idea he ’ d sell his own daughter . " In a further plot twist , it was revealed to the audience in 2009 , that Dotty was colluding with her father all along . The plot climaxed in June 2009 and marked Altman 's departure from the show for the fourth time . Dotty later left on 23 February 2010 .
= = = Characterisation = = =
Dotty is a seven @-@ year @-@ old child who has pigtails . The EastEnders website describes her as " butter wouldn 't melt when it comes to this cockney sparrow , but underneath she 's a devil in disguise " , as well as conniving , backstabbing and cold @-@ hearted . Altman described Dotty as " a chip off the old block " , as did Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian though the Daily Record described Dotty as " a chip off her grandma 's block " . Charlie Clements , who played Bradley Branning , said that Dotty , being Nick 's daughter , was " bound to be a bit iffy . " He also called her " evil " , as did several critics . Simon called Dotty " [ the ] apple that hasn 't fallen far from the tree . " On Holy Soap , Dotty is called a " demon child " and " sweetness and light " on the surface , " but underneath lurks a devil ! " . Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian described Dotty as " enigmatic " , while Kris Green from Digital Spy compared Dotty 's image to that of Damien Thorn from The Omen and Regan MacNeil from The Exorcist . The Sun said " Dotty is one of the youngest , most wicked female soap villains " .
= = Reception = =
Jane Simon from the Daily Mirror criticised Dotty 's accent and the storyline surrounding poisoning Dot . Stuart Heritage from The Guardian said that Dotty gave him " the willies " . He said , " Technically Dotty has already left EastEnders , but it was an open @-@ ended goodbye and she 's free to return whenever she likes . This must not happen , simply because she gives me the willies more than anything else I 've ever seen " , Simon similarly opined saying that she was glad to see Dotty leave . Brown opined that Dot and Nick 's storyline with Dotty was one of her highlights of the series , as did Altman . Santer praised Conlin for her portrayal of Dotty saying , " I love that little girl because she 's having to play all these layers . Normally , what kids have to do of that age is say lines and be cute . She , though , has to play layers of deception . She has to play a character who 's acting . "
= Otto Frederick Hunziker =
Otto Frederick Hunziker ( 25 December 1873 – 16 November 1959 ) was a pioneer in the American and international dairy industry , as both an educator and a technical innovator . Hunziker was born and raised in Switzerland , emigrated to the U.S. , and studied at Cornell University . He started and developed the dairy program at Purdue University when such programs were at their infancy . At this same time , Hunziker was heavily involved with the development of the American Dairy Science Association ( ADSA ) and the standardization and improvement of many dairy tests and processes . Hunziker wrote several of the leading dairy processing texts , which continue to be cited . After leaving Purdue University , Hunziker managed research and operations at a large , national condensary , continued to drive ADSA 's standardization and publishing efforts , represented the U.S. at international dairy congresses , and facilitated dairy industry improvements across the globe .
= = Early years = =
Otto Frederick Hunziker was born in Zürich , Switzerland , on 25 December 1873 to Karl Otto and Luise ( Pupikofer ) Hunziker . Otto 's siblings were Karl Rudolf ( born 5 February 1870 , Zürich ) , Barbara Luise ( 17 June 1871 – 16 October 1871 ) , and Marie Julie ( 23 July 1872 – 30 June 1938 ) . Hunziker spent many early years in Goldbach , Switzerland , where his father was a pastor , professor , and member of the canton parliament . Otto attended the two @-@ year course of studies at Strickhof Agricultural College in Zürich , graduating at age 19 . In 1893 , Otto Frederick Hunziker emigrated to the United States .
During this time period , significant new development in dairy processing technology was occurring on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean . In 1890 , Stephen Babcock published specifications for the Babcock test for milk fat content . In 1892 , Dr. Niklaus Gerber acquired a Swiss patent on the Gerber method for analyzing fat content in milk . Dr. Gerber was based in Zürich , had studied at the University of Zürich , and worked for two years at the Swiss @-@ American Milk Company in Little Falls , New York . Hunziker would spend a substantial amount of time studying and improving these analytic methods .
In the United States , Hunziker worked for two years as a laborer on a dairy farm near Attleboro , Massachusetts . To improve his English and commercial skills , he studied at Bryant and Stratton Business College ( now Bryant University ) , Providence , Rhode Island in 1896 . He returned to Switzerland briefly in 1898 before returning to receive a B.S. Agriculture in 1900 and M.S.A. in 1901 from Cornell University . He served as an assistant in charge of dairy bacteriology at Cornell University until 1902 , when he equipped and operated a dairy manufacturing research laboratory for the Scranton Condensed Milk Company in Ellicottville , New York . Otto Frederick married Florence Belle Burne on 10 April 1905 in Portville , Cattaraugus County , New York .
= = Professorship at Purdue = =
In 1905 Hunziker accepted a position at Purdue University in West Lafayette , Indiana as head of Purdue 's Dairy Department . Dairy departments were relatively new at American colleges . ( The first dairy school in the U.S. was created at the University of Wisconsin in 1890 . ) Hunziker led Purdue 's dairy department through significant growth .
In the summer of 1906 , Hunziker was among 18 teachers and investigators meeting at the University of Illinois , Urbana , to found what was then known as National Association of Dairy Instructors and Investigators . ( The following year , this association changed its name to " Official Dairy Instructors ' Association " and , in 1916 , changed its name to " American Dairy Science Association " ( ADSA ) . ) From 1910 to 1926 , Hunziker chaired ADSA 's Committee on Official Methods of Testing Milk and Cream for Butterfat . In 1911 , this committee met in Washington , D.C. with the U.S. Bureau of Dairying , the U.S. Bureau of Standards and manufacturers of glassware . Standard specifications for Babcock glassware were published as a result of this meeting . Hunziker actively pursued numerous improvements to the testing methodology , which improved the quality and safety of dairy products . Hunziker was the third president of ADSA from 1910 through 1911 . During Hunziker 's presidency , ADSA also : created a national score card for scoring dairies ; standardized dairy judging contests ; secured scholarships for student contests ; improved national milk standards ; developed ties with breed associations ; and , provided fora for industry discussions on dairy instruction and extension services .
Apart from application of improved pedagogy and scientific methodology , Hunziker oversaw planning and construction of Smith Hall , the building which thereafter housed Purdue 's dairy manufacturing group , extension service , and creamery . While at Purdue , he published over 50 bulletins , leaflets , and scientific treatises addressing dairy farm and plant problems . In 1917 , Hunziker left Purdue to manage manufacturing and research at the Blue Valley Creamery Company in Chicago , Illinois .
= = Professional life = =
Hunziker wrote dairy articles and textbooks used throughout the world , developed dairy curricula , advocated for dairy laws , and developed standard testing methodology . In particular , Hunziker authored The Butter Industry , Prepared for Factory , School and Laboratory , a well @-@ known text in the industry that enjoyed at least three editions ( 1920 , 1927 , 1940 ) . A book that Hunziker originally self @-@ published in 1914 , " Condensed Milk and Milk Powder : Prepared for the Use of Milk Condenseries , Dairy Students and Pure Food Departments " , was republished in a seventh edition in October 2007 by Cartwright Press . According to one book review : " The popularity of this book may be judged by the fact that this is the fourth edition , the three previous editions having long since been exhausted . The book is the most important contribution on the condensed milk and milk powder industry . It should be in the library of the teacher , the student or factory man interested in any phase of the condensed milk and milk powder industry . " Both books are listed by Cornell University as " Core Historical Literature of Agriculture " . In the 1920s , Hunziker initiated a " dairy school over the air " — a radio program on WGN for which dairy experts were invited to discuss various issues . Hunziker was a director of the National Dairy Council and is listed in The Ten Master Minds of Dairying . When the World 's Dairy Congress was held in the U.S. in 1923 , the U.S. Department of Agriculture selected Hunziker to head the industry and economics program . He later represented the United States at World Dairy Congresses in London , 1928 ; Copenhagen , 1931 ; Berlin , 1937 ; Stockholm , 1949 ; and The Hague , 1953 . He obtained several United States patents , including : US 1543853 , Hunziker , O F , " Apparatus for deodorizing cream " , published 1925 @-@ 06 @-@ 30 and US 1723860 , Hunziker , O F , " Process for treating milk and its products " , published 1929 @-@ 08 @-@ 06 . At Blue Valley , Hunziker established a research program for 22 creameries and two milk plants . In 1932 , Purdue University bestowed an honorary doctoral degree in science . He retired from Blue Valley Creamery in 1939 to work as a consultant . In 1942 , O F Hunziker was honored with the first ADSA honorary life membership . Hunziker was awarded numerous international honors for his work , including :
Diploma from Italian government for scientific papers at Milan International Exposition
1927 : Australian Dairy Council
1928 : Swiss gold medal
1934 : A.D.S.A. Distinguished Service Scroll
1942 : " Grande Diploma de Honra " , Brazilian Instituto ― Tecnico Industrial
1950 : Honorary membership in " Tu Sociedad Espanola de Bromatologia " ( Spain )
= = Family life = =
All three of Hunziker 's sons attended Purdue University . Children of Otto and Florence were :
Thelma Belle ( Raymond Alton Tipple ) , born 12 November 1905 , Ellicottville , New York , died 4 February 1995 , Dallas , Texas .
Florence Louise ( Carroll Dunham Galvin ) , born 15 December 1906 in Indiana , died 27 January 1980 , Concord , California .
Karl Otto , born 27 June 1908 , Lafayette , Indiana , died 3 November 1932 , West Lafayette , Indiana , in an automobile accident while a student at Purdue .
Walter Burne ( Mary Ann Murphy Hyer ) , born 1 Aug 1910 , Indiana , died April 1971 , Alexandria , Louisiana , graduated from Purdue in 1931 with a B.S. in mechanical engineering , as business manager of the Purdue Engineer magazine , and as a member in the band , orchestra , and Delta Chi .
Isabelle Mary ( Milton Eugene Kerr ) , born 8 March 1912 , Indiana , died 16 January 1994 in Oakland , California .
Otto Frederick , Jr . , born 5 September 1915 , Lafayette , Indiana , died 19 August 1993 , Osprey , Florida , graduated from Purdue in 1937 with a B.S. in Chemical Engineering and as a member of the Cary Club and Kappa Delta Rho .
Otto ( Sr. ) was on the board of the La Grange First Methodist Church and the La Grange Federal Savings and Loan Association as well as active in the Civic Club , Kiwanis Club , and American @-@ Swiss Chamber of Commerce . Hobbies included water sports , mountain climbing , ice skating and gardening .
= = Death and posthumous honors = =
Otto Frederick Hunziker died on 16 November 1959 in La Grange , Illinois . A portrait of Hunziker and plaque hang in Purdue 's Smith Hall . In 1964 , 283 leaders in the dairy industry were asked to name contributors most significantly shaping the dairy industry . Hunziker was listed third , ahead of such well @-@ known industry luminaries as Gail Borden . He was also inducted into the National Dairy Shrine as a " pioneer " .
= St Ffinan 's Church , Llanffinan =
St Ffinan 's Church , Llanffinan is a small 19th @-@ century parish church built in the Romanesque revival style , in Anglesey , north Wales . There has been a church in this area , even if not on this precise location , since at least 1254 , and 19th @-@ century writers state that St Ffinan established the first church here in the 7th century . The church was rebuilt in 1841 , reusing a 12th @-@ century font and 18th @-@ century memorials , as well as the cross at the eastern end of the roof .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , one of eight in a combined parish , and services are held weekly . It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is considered to be " a good essay in a simple Romanesque revival style " . The church is at the end of a gravel track in the countryside of central Anglesey , about 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) from Llangefni , the county town . It is also on a footpath to Plas Penmynydd , once home to Owen Tudor , founder of the Tudor dynasty .
= = History and location = =
St Ffinan 's Church is in the countryside in the centre of Anglesey , north Wales , near the village of Talwrn , and about 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) away from Llangefni , the county town of Anglesey . The parish church is at the end of a gravelled track , off a country lane between the lower part of Talwrn and the hamlet of Ceint to the south . It can also be accessed by public footpath from Plas Penmynydd , once home to Owen Tudor , grandfather of King Henry VII and founder of the Tudor dynasty . The parish takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , with " -ffinan " denoting the saint .
The date of construction of the first church in this area is uncertain , although a church was recorded here in 1254 during the Norwich Taxation of churches . The 19th @-@ century writers and antiquarians Angharad Llwyd and Samuel Lewis said that St Ffinan , to whom the church is dedicated , established the first church here towards the beginning of the 7th century , possibly around 620 . Llwyd described the old church in 1833 as " a small neat edifice " . The current building was designed by the architect John Welch and erected in 1841 , with the first service held on 6 July of that year . Welch also designed the church of St Nidan , Llanidan , in the south of Anglesey , which was built between 1839 and 1843 .
St Ffinan 's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales . It is one of eight churches in a combined parish called Bro Cadwaladr . It is within the deanery of Synod Ynys Mon , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2016 , the vicar is Emlyn Williams , assisted by an associate priest , E. R. Roberts . Williams was appointed in 2007 ; before that , the position had been vacant for 20 years despite many attempts by the Church in Wales to fill it . Services are held at St Ffinan 's on the first to fourth Sundays of every month , either Cymun Bendigaid ( Welsh : Holy Communion ) or Foreol Weddi ( Morning Prayer ) ; on the fifth Sunday of the month , a service of Holy Communion is held at one of the churches in the parish . There are no midweek services .
John Jones , who was Dean of Bangor Cathedral from 1689 to 1727 , was also rector of St Ffinan 's during that time , as it was one of the benefices attached to the deanery . Jones is commememorated by a stone tablet on the wall of St Mary 's Church , Pentraeth , also in Anglesey . The antiquarian Nicholas Owen was perpetual curate here from 1790 until his death in 1811 ; he is buried at St Tyfrydog 's Church , Llandyfrydog , Anglesey .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is small and rectangular , built from stone with a slate roof ; there is a bellcote at the west end of the roof . There is no internal structural division between the nave and the chancel . The style is Romanesque revival . There is a round @-@ headed window in each of the three bays of the church , and a three @-@ part window in the chancel . The doorway at the west end has small windows on either side , and a window above ; a stone slab between the upper window and the doorway has " 1841 " upon it . Stained glass has been inserted into the windows in memory of parishioners .
A survey in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a number of items that had been preserved from the old church . The circular font , made of gritstone , dates from the 12th @-@ century ; it has a " very crude interlacing strap ornament " , and has been fitted upon a more modern base . There are two memorials from the 18th century , one dated 1705 to " Iohn Lloyd of Hirdre Faig " and one dated 1764 to " Hugh , son of Richard Hugh of Ty @-@ hen " . The churchyard contains one Commonwealth war grave from the First World War , of Private Evan Oswald Thomas , a Royal Welsh Fusiliers soldier from Talwrn .
= = Assessment = =
St Ffinan 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and has been listed because it is considered to be " a good essay in a simple Romanesque revival style " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) describes it as " a small rural church " .
Samuel Lewis said that the new church was " a plain structure in the old English style , with strong buttresses , which have a good effect , being so well suited to the exposed situation of the building . " Writing in 1846 , the priest and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that the church , " a modern erection of the Pseudo @-@ Norman style " , stood in " a highly picturesque situation . " He said that the cross at the east end of the roof came from the old church .
A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region describes the 1841 rebuilding work as " rectangular and harsh " . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that it is " a good example of the small rural church " , set in a " well @-@ maintained churchyard " . It also notes that its style " is quite different to most Anglesey churches " .
= Mississippi Highway 172 =
Mississippi Highway 172 ( MS 172 ) is a state highway located in Tishomingo County , Mississippi . The route runs 12 @.@ 074 mi ( 19 @.@ 431 km ) from U.S. Route 72 ( US 72 ) near Burnsville east to US 72 near Oldham , just west of the Alabama border . The route is a two @-@ lane undivided road its entire length and runs mostly through wooded areas . It also passes through the town of Iuka , where it has an intersection with MS 25 .
What is now MS 172 was originally designated as part of the Lee Highway auto trail in 1920 before becoming part of US 72 when the U.S. Highway System was created in 1926 . The route was briefly US 78 before being redesignated US 72 by 1932 . The route was fully paved by the end of the 1930s and served as a part of US 72 until 1986 , when a new divided highway was built to the south . By 1998 , the former routing of US 72 was designated MS 172 .
= = Route description = =
MS 172 begins at an intersection with US 72 near Burnsville in the western part of Tishomingo County . The route heads to the north of US 72 as a two @-@ lane undivided road before soon turning east @-@ southeast at an intersection with County Road 982 . From this point , the road heads through woodland with some farm fields and homes . Several miles later , the route turns more east and the surroundings become more developed as it becomes Quitman Street and reaches an intersection with MS 25 on the western edge of Iuka .
Past MS 25 , MS 172 passes several businesses in Iuka as it comes to the MS 25 Business junction . The route continues east through wooded residential neighborhoods prior to making a turn to the southeast . MS 172 leaves Iuka and heads back into forests as an unnamed road , running a short distance to the southwest of a Norfolk Southern railroad line . Further southeast , the route draws closer to US 72 and curves to the east , passing a few fields . MS 172 makes a sharp turn south away from the railroad tracks and comes to its eastern terminus at US 72 immediately west of the Alabama border near Oldham . MS 172 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 .
= = History = =
What is now MS 172 was originally designated as a part of the Lee Highway , an auto trail that connected Washington , D.C. with San Diego , in 1920 . With the establishment of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , this route was initially designated as part of US 72 , a U.S. route that was to run from Memphis , Tennessee east to Chattanooga , Tennessee . However , the route was instead designated as part of US 78 by 1928 , at which time it was a gravel road .
By 1932 , US 72 and US 78 switched routes in Mississippi , with the present @-@ day alignment of MS 172 again becoming part of US 72 as initially planned in 1926 . In 1935 , the road was paved to the east of Iuka . The paved portion was extended slightly west of Iuka in 1936 and further west by 1938 . By 1939 , the section of US 72 that would be redesignated as MS 172 was fully paved . In 1986 , US 72 was moved to a new divided highway alignment to the south through Tishomingo County . By 1998 , MS 172 was marked on the former two @-@ lane alignment of US 72 in Tishomingo County .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Tishomingo County .
= Miguel Ángel Mancera =
Miguel Ángel Mancera Espinosa ( Spanish pronunciation : [ miˌɣeˈlaŋxel manˈseɾa ] ; born 16 January 1966 ) is the Mayor of Mexico City , a lawyer and politician who works with the Party of the Democratic Revolution ( PRD ) . Mancera graduated from the Faculty of Law of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) in 1989 , and was awarded the Gabino Barreda Medal two years later , for being the best student of his class . He has a master 's degree from the University of Barcelona and the Metropolitan Autonomous University , and a Juris Doctor from the UNAM .
Mancera has been a professor at multiple universities , including the UNAM , Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico and University of the Valley of Mexico . In 2002 , he began working as bureaucrat when Marcelo Ebrard , then @-@ Secretary of Public Security of Mexico City , invited him to be his adviser . In 2006 , Mancera became Assistant Attorney General , and from 2008 to 2012 he worked as Attorney General of the city . According to official reports , from 2010 to 2011 crime in Mexico City decreased by up to 12 % . Mancera received multiple awards during his management as Attorney General .
In early 2012 , Mancera became the candidate of the Progressive Movement coalition , composed of the political parties PRD , Labor Party and Citizens ' Movement Party , for Head of Government of the Federal District in the July 1 , 2012 elections . On 7 July 2012 , Mancera became Mayor @-@ elect after he won with over 63 % of the vote , and took office on 5 December 2012 .
= = Early life and education = =
Miguel Ángel Mancera Espinosa was born on 16 January 1966 , in colonia Anáhuac , located in Miguel Hidalgo borough , Mexico City . His father is the founder of the restaurant chain Los Bisquets Bisquets Obregón . Mancera has four half @-@ siblings : Ana , Miguel , Jaime and María del Carmen . When he was four , he lived in the Tacuba neighborhood , where he went to kindergarten . Mancera studied at Miguel Alemán Primary School and Secondary School 45 , both located in Benito Juárez borough . He studied high school at Preparatoria 6 , a biochemistry school that belongs to the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . According to Mancera , when he was a teenager he had a car accident , where another car crashed into his , and Mancera was the passenger . The public prosection service asked Mancera to sign a document that exempted the driver of the car that caused the accident from liability . Mancera asked Victoria Adato Green , then @-@ Attorney General of the Federal District , to pursue the case , assisted by consultor Diego Ramudia , and managed to fine the responsible driver .
Mancera decided to change his career to law . He attended the Faculty of Law of the UNAM from 1985 to 1989 . His thesis , " La libertad por desvanecimiento de datos en el Proceso Penal y la Absolución de la Instancia " ( " The progressive release of public data on criminal prosecutions and acquittals " ) won the Diario de México Medal " Los Mejores Estudiantes de México " in November 1990 . In November 1991 , he was awarded the Gabino Barreda Medal by the UNAM Faculty of Law , for being the best of his class of 1989 . Mancera earned his master 's degree from the University of Barcelona and the Metropolitan Autonomous University , Azcapotzalco campus , and his Juris Doctor from UNAM , with honors , with his thesis " El injusto en la tentativa y la graduación de su pena en el derecho penal mexicano " ( " Injustice and disparity in Mexican criminal sentencing " ) . His studies included a specialty in penal law at the University of Salamanca and the University of Castile @-@ La Mancha , Spain , under the auspices of the Panamerican University , Mexico .
= = Career = =
= = = Early political career = = =
Mancera has worked as candidate attorney , lawyer and adviser at several law firms , including García Cordero y Asociados and Grupo de Abogados Consultores . Mancera has been a professor at multiple universities of Mexico , including the UNAM , Autonomous Technological Institute of Mexico , University of the Valley of Mexico , Panamerican University , Autonomous University of Aguascalientes , and Autonomous University of Baja California , among others . In 2002 , Mancera was a review committee member of the Criminal Procedure Code for the Federal District , and near the same time hebegan working in government after Marcelo Ebrard , who was Mexico City Secretary of Public Security , invited him to be his adviser . After Andrés Manuel López Obrador , then @-@ Head of Government of Mexico City , named Ebrard as Social Development Secretary of the city , Mancera was assigned Legal Director of the Social Development Secretariat . In 20
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spicy dish .
Despite her gentle demeanor and small frame , she is incredibly powerful and near indestructible to the point of ejecting bullets out of her wounds during battle . She creates her powers known as " guard skills " via a computer program called Angel Player . Her primary ability is " hand sonic " , a blade on one or both forearms with five forms . Other skills include but are not limited to : " distortion " , an invisible barrier that deflects bullets or other projectiles ; " delay " , which creates an after @-@ image to disorient opponents ; and " harmonics " , where a clone with a consciousness of its own is formed from the original . These abilities are activated at will ; however , her ability " overdrive " , which gives her great physical strength , is always on .
Hideki Hinata ( 日向 秀樹 , Hinata Hideki )
Voiced by : Ryōhei Kimura ( Japanese ) ; David Matranga ( English )
The protagonist of Angel Beats ! Heaven 's Door , Hinata is a bright , dependable guy who is the closest to Otonashi . He always tries to save his friends if he can and is a reliable force in the team . He and Yui constantly irritate one another on a daily basis , but deep down , he cares for Yui , as shown when he helps her pass on by telling her he would marry her . He is a talented baseball player , and his regret in life was his failure to catch a baseball , which cost his team an important baseball game . He nicknamed Yuri as Yurippe when they co @-@ founded the SSS as he did not feel comfortable calling her Yuri , because his mother has the same name . He has shown romantic feelings towards Yuri in Heaven 's Door . He died from getting hit by a truck . He uses an RPK @-@ 74 and an S & W 645 .
= = = Supporting characters = = =
Ayato Naoi ( 直井 文人 , Naoi Ayato )
Voiced by : Megumi Ogata ( Japanese ) ; Greg Ayres ( English )
Naoi is a human originally thought to be a non @-@ player character ( non @-@ human ) . After he died , Naoi developed hypnotic powers that allow him to control others and cause them to enter a dream @-@ like state . In life , he was the son of a famous potter . However , it was his twin brother who had the talent in pottery and as a result , Naoi was ignored by everyone . When his brother died , he was made to replace him by his father and was given strict training in pottery . As a result , he felt as if his own life was fake and all he wanted was to be acknowledged for his own existence . He later befriends Otonashi after he acknowledges him and joins the SSS . As acting student council president for a time and self @-@ proclaimed God , Naoi is strict and arrogant , but this is quick to disperse when Otonashi chastises him . He is affectionate to Otonashi , much to the latter 's chagrin , and always tries to earn his affection . He uses dual USP 45 handguns .
Takamatsu ( 高松 )
Voiced by : Takahiro Mizushima ( Japanese ) ; Kalob Martinez ( eps . 1 – 7 ) , Illich Guardiola ( eps . 8 – 13 ) ( English )
Takamatsu is an honor student who has a polite personality and wears glasses . He mainly contributes to the SSS through intelligence gathering and other affairs but does not actively fight . Yuri herself says to not be fooled by his glasses and that he is actually an idiot . Though appearing to be slender , he works out and is actually well @-@ built muscle @-@ wise . After he first reveals this , he tends to take his shirt off , much to everyone 's discomfort . He is absorbed by a shadow and is turned into an NPC . However , having strong enough feelings ( according to Yuri ) , he is able to regain his senses and manages to disappear like the others . He carries a Desert Eagle as a side @-@ arm , but is also seen using a Sig 552 .
Noda ( 野田 )
Voiced by : Shun Takagi ( Japanese ) ; Leraldo Anzaldua ( English )
Noda is a self @-@ reliant young man who executes the strategies formed by the SSS and fights with a halberd . He does not listen to anyone other than Yuri , for whom he has adoration , and is antagonistic to almost everyone else . He has a one @-@ sided rivalry with Otonashi . He is a complete idiot whose weakness is education ; at one point , Takeyama is able to knock him out by reciting pi . He is not afraid to harm or kill anyone who gets in Yuri 's way . Though he prefers to fight with his halberd , he sometimes uses guns out of necessity , the type of weaponry that he hates .
Eri Shiina ( 椎名 枝里 , Shiina Eri )
Voiced by : Fūko Saitō ( Japanese ) ; Melissa Davis ( English )
Shiina is a female ninja who fights with dual @-@ wielding kodachi and shuriken . She is able to sense when danger is coming and is a highly capable fighter . Despite her serious demeanor , she has a weakness for cute things like stuffed animals . She is strict in her training and is very self @-@ critical when she fails , especially to a newcomer like Otonashi . She decides that her weakness is having little concentration . She is shown balancing a broom and other objects with her fingers for long amounts of time . She rarely speaks but will normally remark " how shallow @-@ minded " or " how foolish " ( " this is so stupid " in the English dub ) whenever the obvious or something stupid is said . As she did not have a name when she arrived in the afterlife , Yuri named her Shiina after her callsign , ' C7 ' ( Shi @-@ nana ) .
Yusa ( 遊佐 )
Voiced by : Yui Makino ( Japanese ) ; Serena Varghese ( eps . 1 – 9 ) , Elizabeth Bunch ( ep . 10 , OVA ) ( English )
Yusa is an operator in the SSS who conveys the state of the battlefield to Yuri . She is a calm and gentle mannered girl with a straightforward character . Much like Angel , she does not express her emotions and is called scary by Otonashi and Hinata . She cannot calm down without her earphone . She rarely talks , and she sometimes hurts others ' feelings even though she does not mean it .
Fujimaki ( 藤巻 )
Voiced by : Yūki Masuda ( Japanese ) ; Andrew Love ( English )
Fujimaki is a delinquent who fights with a long shirasaya , and he is similar in character to Noda . He picks on Otonashi when he initially joins the SSS . He cannot swim . He uses a PPSh @-@ 41 submachine gun .
TK
Voiced by : Michael Rivas ( Japanese ) ; Adam Van Wagoner ( English )
TK is a mysterious character who wears a large bandanna over his eyes and tends to break out in dance every so often . No one knows his real name or past . He speaks in semi @-@ nonsensical English phrases depending on the situation , mainly quoted from pop culture , but apparently does not know English fluently . He saves the team many times and does know some Japanese but rarely speaks it . He carries Browning Hi @-@ Power and LAR Grizzly handguns or a PP @-@ 19 Bizon submachine gun during missions .
Matsushita ( 松下 )
Voiced by : Eiichirō Tokumoto ( Japanese ) ; Rob Mungle ( English )
Matsushita , also known as " Matsushita 5 @-@ dan " ( " Matsushita the Fifth " in the dub ) , has a large build and is a master at judo . He never forgets a debt he owes , especially when it involves food ( specifically niku udon ) . He carries heavy weapons such as rocket launchers or machine guns into battle . He later loses weight after training in the mountains . He uses a H & K P7 and an MG3 light machine gun .
Ōyama ( 大山 )
Voiced by : Yumiko Kobayashi ( Japanese ) ; Corey Hartzog ( English )
Ōyama is an ordinary boy who has no special talents . He does not excel at anything , but is as capable as any normal person ; in other words , he is a Jack of all trades . He is an innocent boy whose feelings are hurt from things like making fake confession or watching his teammates " die " . He carries a Remington 700 sniper rifle or a P226 handgun .
Takeyama ( 竹山 )
Voiced by : Mitsuhiro Ichiki ( Japanese ) ; Dylan Godwin ( English )
Takeyama is an intelligent boy who is good at hacking computers . He wrote the " Briefing Manager " program that Yuri uses to brief the SSS prior to a mission . He insists that he be addressed by his username " Christ , " but no one ever does so . He tries to execute all plans as perfectly as possible . He does not engage in combat or any other physical operations , but rather gathers data and information .
Chaa ( チャー )
Voiced by : Hiroki Tōchi ( Japanese ) ; Illich Guardiola ( English )
Chaa is the leader of the Guild . Despite looking much older , he is about the same age as Otonashi and the others . He is the fourth member to join the SSS , at which time he had no facial hair . He first met Yuri and Hinata by holding the principal of the school hostage at gun point in an attempt to learn more about God , causing him to get stabbed by Kanade .
= = = = Girls Dead Monster = = = =
Masami Iwasawa ( 岩沢 まさみ , Iwasawa Masami )
Voiced by : Miyuki Sawashiro ( Japanese ) ; Luci Christian ( English ) , Marina ( singing )
Masami Iwasawa is the original leader of Girls Dead Monster who is in charge of the vocals and is the rhythm guitarist . She also writes the lyrics and composes the music for the band 's songs . She plays a Sienna Sunburst / Maple Fender Stratocaster guitar . While usually a quiet girl , she is able to fascinate listeners by striving to create music that speaks her thoughts . She used music as an escape from her constantly fighting parents in life , but ended up dying from a brain injury she received . She disappears playing her own song , " My Song " . She accepts that she will use her voice to someday influence others .
Yui ( ユイ )
Voiced by : Eri Kitamura ( Japanese ) ; Hilary Haag ( English ) , LiSA ( singing )
Yui is a big fan and initially an assistant to Girls Dead Monster . She is known to be hyperactive and talks extremely fast . Hinata finds Yui annoying , which results in bouts between the two of them though in truth , they truly care about one another , saying that had they met before they died , they would have fallen in love with one another . She wears a devil tail and shackle bracelets on her wrists , giving her an image of an imp or devil . She also has wings hidden by her hair on her back . After Iwasawa 's departure , Yui becomes the new rhythm guitarist and vocalist of Girls Dead Monster , as well as its leader . Yui plays a Gibson SG Special electric guitar . She later becomes a part of the main SSS , following them along on missions , though she does not contribute much . In life , she was hit by a car and was paralyzed from a young age as a result . Her regret was not being able to do anything with her body . Otonashi helps fulfill most of her wishes that include many things she saw on TV when she was alive .
Hisako ( ひさ子 )
Voiced by : Chie Matsuura ( Japanese ) ; Elizabeth Bunch ( eps . 3 – 4 ) , Jessica Boone ( eps . 5 – 6 , 12 , OVA ) ( English )
Hisako is second @-@ in @-@ command of Girls Dead Monster who plays a Fender Jazzmaster electric guitar as lead guitarist . She has a candid personality and likes to play mahjong , which she has incredible luck with . As noted by Hinata , Hisako is also athletic and is greatly admired by Yui for her guitar riffs . In life , she was a part of a band whose main vocalist ended up committing suicide , but after meeting Iwasawa , she forms Girls Dead Monster with her .
Miyuki Irie ( 入江 みゆき , Irie Miyuki )
Voiced by : Kana Asumi ( Japanese ) ; Luci Christian ( English )
Irie is the drummer of Girls Dead Monster who , despite being dead herself , is bad with hearing stories about ghosts or spirits , which Sekine likes to take advantage of . She is best friends with Sekine and joined Girls Dead Monster at the same time as her .
Shiori Sekine ( 関根 しおり , Sekine Shiori )
Voiced by : Emiri Katō ( Japanese ) ; Serena Varghese ( English )
Sekine plays a G & L L @-@ 2000 bass guitar in Girls Dead Monster . She likes to play pranks on those around her to see the surprised faces of her victims . She also likes to abruptly improvise during performances , much to Hisako 's chagrin . She is privately jealous of the attention Iwasawa gets as the leader and center of the band .
= = Production = =
= = = Creation and conception = = =
The original creators of Angel Beats ! , Jun Maeda and Na @-@ Ga of Key , were interviewed in the July 2009 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . Around the time Key completed the first release of their sixth visual novel Little Busters ! , Hironori Toba of Aniplex ( himself a fan of Key 's works ) approached Maeda around October 2007 about collaborating to produce an original anime series . Maeda began meeting with Toba and Aniplex on a monthly basis and the story started to gradually progress . Aniplex wanted Maeda to write a screenplay that would be very " Key @-@ like , with touching moments of laughter and tears , " but initially Maeda found himself at a loss to write a story more amusing than Little Busters ! , because he thought that he had reached a limit with Little Busters ! in regards to a " Key @-@ like story " . However , one day Maeda was struck by inspiration , where he thought up the initial idea of a story set in the afterlife . Furthermore , with everyone already dead , Maeda conceived of flashy battles where the combatants go all out without fear of death . According to Maeda , the theme of the series is " life " , which in Angel Beats ! is depicted as a precious and wonderful thing , despite the characters in Angel Beats ! who fight against their fate .
Maeda nominated Na @-@ Ga to begin work on the character designs near the beginning of 2008 . Na @-@ Ga was worried that other computer graphics ( CG ) work for Key would get delayed , but he took the position because of his accumulated experience in CG . Maeda nominated Na @-@ Ga because of the popular characters he designed in Little Busters ! , and because of his frankness . Na @-@ Ga designed Yuri based on her personality as a leader , though it was per Maeda 's request that he added the black headband , taken from the character Yukiko Amagi from Persona 4 , who was Maeda 's favorite heroine from that game . The length of Yuri 's hair and the addition of a green ribbon were decided from production committee meetings . Angel 's original concept began with the idea of a brave , fighting girl . Maeda cited that Angel 's image had changed considerably over the development process and that originally she was similar to Shiki Ryōgi from Kara no Kyōkai . Eventually , Angel 's concept changed to being a " silent and mysterious girl " . Before Na @-@ Ga decided on Otonashi 's design , Maeda told him that anything would be fine and to just draw something , and eventually drew up a prototype for Otonashi and Hinata , among others . Some of the characters had vague initial conditions given by Maeda , such as asking Na @-@ Ga to draw an " all female band bass guitarist " in the case of Girls Dead Monster member Sekine and particularly the cryptic " character who speaks in puzzling English phrases " for TK .
= = = Development = = =
The Aniplex producer of Angel Beats ! , Hironori Toba , was interviewed in the November 2009 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , where he commented that a 13 @-@ episode anime with about 21 minutes per episode was not enough to tell the whole story of Angel Beats ! Maeda had envisioned . Therefore , the various additional media , such as the illustrated short stories and manga , contain some of the story that was unable to make it into the anime because of time constraints . Toba wanted fans of the series to be able to enjoy it to the fullest by exploring all of the media types . Maeda found it tiring to go back and forth between Osaka and Tokyo for business meetings when he was in the process of writing the script , and found it difficult to write an entire script by himself , since he had never done that before with any of the games he produced as a member of Key . It was only after the script was done that Maeda was able to work on the music , which he greatly enjoyed and never tired of it . Maeda composed about 15 songs for Girls Dead Monster and spent about two days each composing each song . He made sure to create songs for Girls Dead Monster that high school girls would compose , including the lyrics . Due to this , Maeda pointed out that the opening and ending theme songs for Angel Beats ! , which Maeda also composed , sound like they were composed by a different person compared to the Girls Dead Monster songs .
In regards to bringing in P.A.Works as the animation studio , Toba had taken notice of the company from back when they provided in @-@ between animation and production assistance for Fullmetal Alchemist ( 2003 – 4 ) and Darker than Black ( 2007 ) , respectively ; Aniplex helped produce both series . After watching just the first three episodes of P.A.Works ' True Tears ( 2008 ) , however , he was shocked at the high quality and immediately went to P.A.Works ' studio in Toyama Prefecture to meet with the production staff in the hope that one day Aniplex could collaborate with them on a project together . The following week , Maeda brought up the subject of deciding on an animation studio for Angel Beats ! and mentioned that he too had seen True Tears and had become interested in P.A.Works. Shortly after that , Toba formally made the proposal to P.A.Works to animate the project .
Maeda focused on making jokes an important part of Angel Beats ! , leading Toba to seek out Seiji Kishi to be the director , because of his experience in directing and his pulling power influence on the staff of P.A.Works , where there are many that are still young . Kishi was ultimately approached by P.A.Works representative director Kenji Horikawa about working on a " school comedy written by a game scenario writer " and was shocked after taking the director 's position to discover Maeda was the screenwriter . Kishi commented how , far from just being a comedy , the series contains many different aspects , including flashy action scenes , live musical performances , and drama . Kishi stated that normally he would be hard pressed to cover this range of aspects , but was motivated by Maeda 's uncompromising attitude in regards to the script . The decision to add in the all female band Girls Dead Monster was due to Maeda 's intent to add in many different and interesting elements into the series .
Kishi specifically requested that sound and music director Satoki Iida work on the project , who also helped with the proofreading of the script due to Maeda 's fixation on the music production . Iida was interviewed in the April 2010 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , where it was stated that Maeda and the group Anant @-@ Garde Eyes received Iida 's approval to employ a minimalist approach to the background music ( BGM ) used throughout the anime . Iida admitted that it was uncustomary to use this music genre in anime and that he had to go through various trials and errors with Maeda and Anant @-@ Garde Eyes to get the music right . Maeda and Anant @-@ Garde Eyes strove to create individual quality music tracks , while Iida pursued the goal of having music that would be useful as BGM tracks , which caused problems during the creation process . Iida realized that it was important for the music and the visuals to combine together to create a synchronization between the two . Toba first took notice of Angel Beats ! character designer and chief animator Katsuzō Hirata during the production of Gurren Lagann ( 2007 ) with his skill as an artist and ability to finish work quickly , but thoroughly . It was after Toba saw Hirata 's work as chief animator of Strike Witches ( 2008 ) , however , that he pursued Hirata to join the Angel Beats ! staff ; Maeda also gave his seal of approval for Hirata .
= = Broadcast and distribution = =
The 13 @-@ episode Angel Beats ! anime TV series is directed by Seiji Kishi and produced by P.A.Works and Aniplex . It aired in Japan between April 3 and June 26 , 2010 on the CBC television network . The first episode was previewed on March 22 , 2010 to a selected number of people who participated in a lottery held earlier that month . The screenplay was written by Jun Maeda , who originally conceived the series . Chief animator Katsuzō Hirata based the character design used in the anime on Na @-@ Ga 's original designs . Sound and music direction was headed by Satoki Iida .
The series was released on seven BD / DVD compilation volumes between June 23 and December 22 , 2010 in limited and regular editions . Three drama CDs , written by Maeda and performed by the anime 's cast , were released with the first , fourth and sixth limited edition BD / DVD volumes . The seventh BD / DVD volume featured an original video animation ( OVA ) episode , as well as a bonus short which serves as another epilogue to the series . Each of the BD / DVD volumes contained commentaries by the characters performed by the voice cast and written by Maeda . A BD box set was released in Japan on June 24 , 2015 and also included another OVA episode . Sentai Filmworks licensed the anime , and along with distributor Section23 Films , released the series on BD / DVD on July 26 , 2011 . Siren Visual licensed the anime for Australia and New Zealand . The series has also been licensed in the United Kingdom by Manga Entertainment and released the series on BD / DVD on June 25 , 2012 .
= = = Music = = =
The anime 's music is composed by Maeda and the group Anant @-@ Garde Eyes , who also provided the musical arrangement . The music is released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label . The opening theme is " My Soul , Your Beats ! " sung by Lia and the ending theme is " Brave Song " sung by Aoi Tada . The single containing both songs titled " My Soul , Your Beats ! / Brave Song " was released on May 26 , 2010 in limited ( CD + DVD ) and regular ( CD ) editions ; the limited edition 's DVD contains the opening and ending videos without the credits . The in @-@ story band Girls Dead Monster is made up of the real @-@ life singers Marina and LiSA . Five singles for Girls Dead Monster were released in 2010 . The first , " Crow Song " , was released on April 23 featuring songs sung by Marina . The second and third singles , " Thousand Enemies " and " Little Braver " , followed on May 12 and June 9 , respectively , with songs sung by LiSA . The fourth single was " Last Song " by Marina and the fifth single was " Ichiban no Takaramono ( Yui final ver . ) " ( 一番の宝物 ～ Yui final ver . ～ ) by LiSA ; both singles were released on December 8 . A Girls Dead Monster album titled Keep The Beats ! was released on June 30 , 2010 . A version of Keep The Beats ! containing instrumental tracks was released on July 28 , 2010 bundled with a 256 @-@ page band score book . The anime 's original soundtrack was released on July 28 , 2010 as a two @-@ CD set . A Girls Dead Monster mini @-@ album titled Rare Tracks was released on December 28 , 2014 .
= = = = Events = = = =
There were several live performance events to promote the music from Angel Beats ! . The first was on April 24 , 2010 at the Tower Records in Shibuya , Tokyo where Marina and LiSA performed four songs . The first two , " Crow Song " and " Alchemy " , were duets , while the third song " My Song " was sung by Marina , and LiSA sang " My Soul , Your Beats ! " . On June 5 , 2010 at the same venue , Lia and Aoi Tada sang their songs from " My Soul , Your Beats ! / Brave Song " , Tada and LiSA sang " Crow Song " as a duet , and Lia and LiSA also sang " My Soul , Your Beats ! " as a duet for the encore . An event titled " Angel Beats ! Fes . : Thousand Bravers " was held on August 1 , 2010 at Studio Coast in Shingiba , Koto , Tokyo featuring singers Lia , Tada , Marina , LiSA and Karuta , as well as several voice actors from the anime .
A national concert tour featuring LiSA titled " Girls Dead Monster starring LiSA Tour 2010 : Keep The Angel Beats ! " was held across Japan August 3 and September 2 , 2010 ; all of the venues ultimately sold out . A BD / DVD video album box set titled Girls Dead Monster starring LiSA Tour 2010 Final : Keep The Angel Beats ! of the tour 's final performance was released on June 1 , 2011 by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog numbers KSLV @-@ 0001 – 0003 . The last concert of Girls Dead Monster was held on December 27 , 2010 at an event called " Girls Dead Monster Last Live : Final Operation " featuring Marina and LiSA at the Tokyo International Forum .
= = Related media = =
= = = Internet radio shows = = =
A four @-@ episode Internet radio show to promote Angel Beats ! called Jun Maeda 's Brutal Radio ( 麻枝准の殺伐ラジオ , Maeda Jun no Satsubatsu Rajio ) aired between May 30 , 2009 and March 31 , 2010 . The show was hosted by Jun Maeda , though guests did make appearances , such as Hironori Towa , the producer for Angel Beats ! , and Na @-@ Ga . One month after each regular broadcast , an additional shorter broadcast called Postwar Disposition ( 戦後処理 , Sengo Shori ) was released . Another Internet radio show to promote the series titled Angel Beats ! SSS Radio had a pre @-@ broadcast on March 18 , 2010 , and had 51 regular weekly broadcasts between April 1 , 2010 and March 31 , 2011 . Produced by Hibiki Radio Station , the show was hosted by Harumi Sakurai ( the voice of Yuri ) , Kana Hanazawa ( the voice of Angel ) and Eri Kitamura ( the voice of Yui ) . Seven CD compilation volumes containing all 51 episodes were released between June 23 , 2010 and July 29 , 2011 .
= = = Books and publications = = =
A series of seven illustrated short stories written by Jun Maeda and drawn by GotoP titled Angel Beats ! Track Zero were serialized between the November 2009 and May 2010 issues of ASCII Media Works 's Dengeki G 's Magazine . Track Zero is a prequel to Angel Beats ! featuring Hinata as the main character and tells the story of how the SSS was formed . A special extra chapter focusing on Girls Dead Monster was published in the sixth volume of Dengeki G 's Festival ! Deluxe on March 29 , 2010 . The short stories were collected into a bound volume released on June 23 , 2010 and included an additional chapter along with the other eight chapters . The chapter titles for the stories are taken from song titles from various musical artists . The first chapter was posted online with illustrations by ASCII Media Works . ASCII Media Works published the Angel Beats ! Official Guidebook on December 22 , 2010 . The guidebook contains story summaries of the anime episodes including the OVA , information on the cast of characters , interviews from the voice acting cast and production staff , and illustrations featuring art from the anime .
= = = Manga = = =
A four @-@ panel comic strip manga , illustrated by Haruka Komowata and titled Angel Beats ! The 4 @-@ koma : Bokura no Sensen Kōshinkyoku ( Angel Beats ! The4コマ 僕らの戦線行進曲 ♪ , Angel Beats ! The 4 @-@ koma : Our Battlefront March Song ) , was serialized between the December 2009 and October 2013 issues of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine . Komowata was also in charge of illustrating a manga which showcased the progress of the Angel Beats ! project and was serialized between the September 2009 and July 2010 issues of Dengeki G 's Magazine . Four tankōbon volumes for Angel Beats ! The 4 @-@ koma were released between December 18 , 2010 and November 27 , 2013 under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics EX imprint . Komowata also illustrated the Angel Beats ! The 4 @-@ koma : Osora no Shinda Sekai kara ( Angel Beats ! The4コマ お空の死んだ世界から ) four @-@ panel comic strip manga , which was serialized between the December 2013 and January 2016 issues of Dengeki G 's Magazine . Two volume were released between October 24 , 2014 and April 26 , 2016 .
A manga illustrated by Yuriko Asami , titled Angel Beats ! Heaven 's Door , began serialization in Dengeki G 's Magazine in the May 2010 issue . The manga ended serialization in the magazine 's May 2014 issue and was transferred to Dengeki G 's Comic starting with the June 2014 issue . Heaven 's Door is based on the Angel Beats ! Track Zero short stories . The first volume for Angel Beats ! Heaven 's Door was released on December 18 , 2010 under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint ; 10 volumes have been released as of April 27 , 2016 . Heaven 's Door is available in English on Kadokawa Corporation 's ComicWalker website and app , and is licensed in North America by Seven Seas Entertainment . An anthology titled Angel Beats ! Comic Anthology was published by ASCII Media Works on December 18 , 2010 .
Angel Beats ! The 4 @-@ koma : Bokura no Sensen Kōshinkyoku
Angel Beats ! The 4 @-@ koma : Osora no Shinda Sekai kara
Angel Beats ! Heaven 's Door
= = = Visual novel = = =
It was reported in 2010 that Jun Maeda was writing the scenario for a video game adaptation of Angel Beats ! , and the game was officially announced in September 2013 . Developed by Key , Maeda leads the production team as the designer and one of the scenario writers . Two additional writers include Kai , who previously contributed on the scenario of Clannad , and Leo Kashida , who had worked on the scenario of Tomoyo After : It 's a Wonderful Life and Little Busters ! . The art director and character designer is Na @-@ Ga . Rated for all ages and split into six volumes , the first visual novel volume , titled Angel Beats ! 1st Beat , was released on June 26 , 2015 for Windows PCs . The first volume covers up to the tenth episode of the anime as well as Iwasawa 's , Matsushita 's and Yui 's routes with Otonashi as the main protagonist . The subsequent volumes will cover the rest of the character routes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Angel Beats ! received generally positive reviews . In a review by Anime News Network , reviewer Theron Martin praised the series for integrating individual elements together , including the Girls Dead Monster musical performance scenes , scenes where humor dominates , and action scenes . A common theme in supernatural anime , according to Martin , are souls discontent with their former lives , but the concept of Angel Beats ! is described as " quite unusual " because it features all the main characters as such souls and gathers them in one place . In the series , " maintaining distinctiveness is essential for survival as an individual , " which Martin calls a " sly condemnation of the rigorous conformity impressed upon students by Japanese schooling . " Overall , Angel Beats ! was lauded for " requir [ ing ] no great familiarity with anime to enjoy . "
On the DVD Talk website , reviewer John Sinnott praised the plot for advancing and changing in unexpected ways : " The plot evolves quickly and by the end of the series it 's quite a different show than what it was at the beginning . " Both Martin and Sinnott agree that a major flaw in the anime is that it is too short , and does not go into detail for a large number of characters . Stig Høgset at THEM Anime Reviews , however , panned the series in part because it " overloads the story with too many elements in an attempt to please as many people as possible . " Høgset went on to describe Angel Beats as not having " any compelling characters " and the series ' humor is largely thought to be annoying . However , Høgset praised P.A.Works for the animation of the action sequences , as did Martin , who added that there is " great detail work on the weapons and instruments used . "
The sixth episode of Angel Beats ! , which aired on May 8 , 2010 on Osaka 's MBS station in Japan , achieved a record 4 @.@ 9 % rating for an anime series broadcast during the late @-@ night " Anime Shower " timeslot in the past three years . The Angel Beats ! anime was selected as a recommended work by the awards jury of the 14th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2010 .
= = = Sales = = =
Each of the Angel Beats ! Blu @-@ ray Disc ( BD ) compilation volumes ranked in the top three on Japan 's Oricon weekly BD sales chart . Volumes one and four ranked at No. 1 , volumes two and five ranked at No. 2 , and volumes three , six and seven ranked at No. 3 . The DVD volumes , however , ranked lower than the BDs on Oricon . Volume one ranked at No. 5 , volume two at No. 10 , volume three at No. 13 , volume four at No. 11 , volume five at No. 8 , volume six at No. 12 , and volume seven at No. 15 .
The opening and ending theme song single " My Soul , Your Beats ! / Brave Song " debuted at No. 3 on Japan 's Oricon weekly singles chart , selling about 80 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . " My Soul , Your Beats ! / Brave Song " was awarded a Gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) in May 2010 for shipping over 100 @,@ 000 copies . Girls Dead Monster 's single " Crow Song " debuted at No. 7 on the Oricon singles chart , selling approximately 16 @,@ 400 copies in about four days . " Crow Song " sold over 25 @,@ 000 more copies over the next three weeks after its release . " Crow Song " was awarded a Gold disc by the RIAJ in November 2011 for shipping over 100 @,@ 000 copies . The Girls Dead Monster single " Thousand Enemies " debuted at No. 4 on the Oricon singles chart , selling about 28 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . " Thousand Enemies " sold over 18 @,@ 000 more copies over the next two weeks after its release .
Girls Dead Monster 's third single " Little Braver " debuted at No. 2 on the Oricon singles chart , selling about 38 @,@ 800 copies in its first week of sales . Girls Dead Monster 's fourth and fifth singles , " Last Song " and " Ichiban no Takaramono ( Yui final ver . ) " , ranked at No. 2 and No. 3 on the Oricon singles chart , respectively , both selling about 35 @,@ 000 copies in their first week of sales . The Girls Dead Monster album Keep The Beats ! ranked at No. 6 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 51 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . Keep The Beats ! was awarded a Gold disc by the RIAJ in September 2010 for shipping over 100 @,@ 000 copies . The version of Keep The Beats ! with instrumental tracks and a band score book ranked at No. 14 on the Oricon albums chart , selling just under 9 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The Angel Beats ! Original Soundtrack ranked at No. 9 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 13 @,@ 300 copies in its first week .
= 1740 Batavia massacre =
The 1740 Batavia massacre ( Dutch : Chinezenmoord , literally " Murder of the Chinese " ; Indonesian : Geger Pacinan , meaning " Chinatown Tumult " ) was a pogrom of ethnic Chinese in the port city of Batavia ( present @-@ day Jakarta ) in the Dutch East Indies . The violence inside the city lasted from 9 October 1740 until 22 October , with minor skirmishes outside the walls continuing late into November that year . Historians have estimated that at least 10 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese were massacred ; just 600 to 3 @,@ 000 are believed to have survived .
In September 1740 , as unrest rose among the Chinese population , spurred by government repression and declining sugar prices , Governor @-@ General Adriaan Valckenier declared that any uprising would be met with deadly force . On 7 October , hundreds of ethnic Chinese , many of them sugar mill workers , killed 50 Dutch soldiers , leading Dutch troops to confiscate all weapons from the Chinese populace and to place the Chinese under a curfew . Two days later , rumours of Chinese atrocities led other Batavian ethnic groups to burn Chinese houses along Besar Stream and Dutch soldiers to fire cannon at Chinese homes . The violence soon spread throughout Batavia , killing more Chinese . Although Valckenier declared an amnesty on 11 October , gangs of irregulars continued to hunt and kill Chinese until 22 October , when the governor @-@ general called more forcefully for a cessation of hostilities . Outside the city walls , clashes continued between Dutch troops and rioting sugar mill workers . After several weeks of minor skirmishes , Dutch @-@ led troops assaulted Chinese strongholds in sugar mills throughout the area .
The following year , attacks on ethnic Chinese throughout Java sparked the two @-@ year Java War that pitted ethnic Chinese and Javanese forces against Dutch troops . Valckenier was later recalled to the Netherlands and charged with crimes related to the massacre . The massacre figures heavily in Dutch literature , and is also cited as a possible etymology for the names of several areas in Jakarta .
= = Background = =
During the early years of the Dutch colonisation of the East Indies ( modern @-@ day Indonesia ) , many people of Chinese descent were contracted as skilled artisans in the construction of Batavia on the northwestern coast of Java ; they also served as traders , sugar mill workers , and shopkeepers . The economic boom , precipitated by trade between the East Indies and China via the port of Batavia , increased Chinese immigration to Java . The number of ethnic Chinese in Batavia grew rapidly , reaching a total of 10 @,@ 000 by 1740 . Thousands more lived outside the city walls . The Dutch colonials required them to carry registration papers , and deported those who did not comply to China .
The deportation policy was tightened during the 1730s , after an outbreak of malaria killed thousands , including the Governor @-@ General of the Dutch East Indies , Dirck van Cloon . According to Indonesian historian Benny G. Setiono , the outbreak was followed by increased suspicion and resentment in native Indonesians and the Dutch toward the ethnic Chinese , who were growing in number and whose wealth was increasingly visible . As a result , Commissioner of Native Affairs Roy Ferdinand , under orders of Governor @-@ General Adriaan Valckenier , decreed on 25 July 1740 that Chinese considered suspicious would be deported to Ceylon ( modern day Sri Lanka ) and forced to harvest cinnamon . Wealthy Chinese were extorted by corrupt Dutch officials who threatened them with deportation ; Stamford Raffles , a British explorer and historian of Java , noted in 1830 that in some Javanese accounts , the Dutch were told by the Chinese captain ( the Dutch @-@ appointed leader of the ethnic Chinese ) for Batavia , Ni Hoe Kong , to deport all Chinese wearing black or blue because these were thought to be poor . There were also rumours that deportees were not taken to their destinations but were thrown overboard once out of sight of Java , and in some accounts , they died when rioting on the ships . The deportation of ethnic Chinese caused unrest among the remaining Chinese , leading many Chinese workers to desert their jobs .
At the same time native occupants of Batavia , including the ethnic Betawi servants , became increasingly distrustful of the Chinese . Economic factors played a role : most natives were poor , and perceived the Chinese as occupying some of the most prosperous neighbourhoods in the city . Although the Dutch historian A.N. Paasman notes that at the time the Chinese were the " Jews of Asia " , the actual situation was more complicated . Many poor Chinese living in the area around Batavia were sugar mill workers who felt exploited by the Dutch and Chinese elites equally . Rich Chinese owned the mills and were involved in revenue farming and shipping ; they drew income from milling and the distillation of arak , a molasses and rice @-@ based alcoholic beverage . However , the Dutch overlords set the price for sugar , which itself caused unrest . Because of the decline of worldwide sugar prices that began in the 1720s caused by an increase in exports to Europe and competition from the West Indies , the sugar industry in the East Indies had suffered considerably . By 1740 , worldwide sugar prices had dropped to half the price in 1720 . As sugar was a major export , this caused considerable financial difficulties for the colony .
Initially some members of the Council of the Indies ( Raad van Indië ) believed that the Chinese would never attack Batavia , and stronger measures to control the Chinese were blocked by a faction led by Valckenier 's political opponent , the former governor of Zeylan Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff , who returned to Batavia in 1738 . Large numbers of Chinese arrived outside Batavia from nearby settlements , however , and on 26 September Valckenier called an emergency meeting of the council , during which he gave orders to respond to any ethnic Chinese uprisings with deadly force . This policy continued to be opposed by van Imhoff 's faction ; Vermeulen ( 1938 ) suggested that the tension between the two colonial factions played a role in the ensuing massacre .
On the evening of 1 October Valckenier received reports that a crowd of a thousand Chinese had gathered outside the gate , angered by his statements at the emergency meeting five days earlier . This report was received incredulously by Valckenier and the council . However , after the murder of a Balinese sergeant by the Chinese outside the walls , the council decided to take extraordinary measures and reinforce the guard . Two groups of 50 Europeans and some native porters were sent to outposts on the south and east sides of the city , and a plan of attack was formulated .
= = Incident = =
= = = Massacre = = =
After groups of Chinese sugar mill workers revolted using custom @-@ made weapons to loot and burn mills , hundreds of ethnic Chinese , suspected to have been led by Chinese Captain Ni Hoe Kong , killed 50 Dutch soldiers in Meester Cornelis ( now Jatinegara ) and Tanah Abang on 7 October . In response , the Dutch sent 1 @,@ 800 regular troops , accompanied by schutterij ( militia ) and eleven battalions of conscripts to stop the revolt ; they established a curfew and cancelled plans for a Chinese festival . Fearing that the Chinese would conspire against the colonials by candlelight , those inside the city walls were forbidden to light candles and were forced to surrender everything " down to the smallest kitchen knife " . The following day the Dutch repelled an attack by up to 10 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese , led by groups from nearby Tangerang and Bekasi , at the city 's outer walls ; Raffles wrote that 1 @,@ 789 Chinese died in this attack . In response , Valckenier called another meeting of the council on 9 October .
Meanwhile , rumours spread among the other ethnic groups in Batavia , including slaves from Bali and Sulawesi , Bugis , and Balinese troops , that the Chinese were plotting to kill , rape , or enslave them . These groups pre @-@ emptively burned houses belonging to ethnic Chinese along Besar Stream . The Dutch followed this with an assault on Chinese settlements elsewhere in Batavia in which they burned houses and killed people . The Dutch politician and critic of colonialism W. R. van Hoëvell wrote that " pregnant and nursing women , children , and trembling old men fell on the sword . Defenseless prisoners were slaughtered like sheep " .
Troops under Lieutenant Hermanus van Suchtelen and Captain Jan van Oosten , a survivor from Tanah Abang , took station in the Chinese district : Suchtelen and his men positioned themselves at the poultry market , while van Oosten 's men held a post along the nearby canal . At around 5 : 00 p.m. , the Dutch opened fire on Chinese @-@ occupied houses with cannon , causing them to catch fire . Some Chinese died in the burning houses , while others were shot upon leaving their homes or committed suicide in desperation . Those who reached the canal near the housing district were killed by Dutch troops waiting in small boats , while other troops searched in between the rows of burning houses , killing any survivors they found . These actions later spread throughout the city . Vermeulen notes that many of the perpetrators were sailors and other " irregular and bad elements " of society . During this period there was heavy lootingand seizures of property .
The following day the violence continued to spread , and Chinese patients in a hospital were taken outside and killed . Attempts to extinguish fires in areas devastated the preceding day failed , and the flames increased in vigour , and continued until 12 October . Meanwhile , a group of 800 Dutch soldiers and 2 @,@ 000 natives assaulted Kampung Gading Melati , where a group of Chinese survivors were holding up under the leadership of Khe Pandjang . Although the Chinese evacuated to nearby Paninggaran , they were later driven out of the area by Dutch forces . There were approximately 450 Dutch and 800 Chinese casualties in the two attacks .
= = = Follow @-@ up and further violence = = =
On 11 October Valckenier unsuccessfully requested that officers control their troops and stop the looting . Two days later the council established a reward of two ducats for every Chinese head surrendered to the soldiers as an incentive for the other ethnic groups to assist in the purge . As a result , ethnic Chinese who had survived the initial assault were hunted by gangs of irregulars , who killed those Chinese they found for the reward . The Dutch worked with natives in different parts of Batavia ; ethnic Bugis and Balinese grenadiers were sent to reinforce the Dutch on 14 October . On 22 October Valckenier called for all killings to cease . In a lengthy letter in which he blamed the unrest entirely on the Chinese rebels , Valckenier offered an amnesty to all Chinese , except for the leaders of the unrest , on whose heads he placed a bounty of up to 500 rijksdaalders .
Outside the walls skirmishes between the Chinese rebels and the Dutch continued . On 25 October , after almost two weeks of minor skirmishes , 500 armed Chinese approached Cadouwang ( now Angke ) , but were repelled by cavalry under the command of Ridmeester Christoffel Moll and Cornets Daniel Chits and Pieter Donker . The following day the cavalry , which consisted of 1 @,@ 594 Dutch and native forces , marched on the rebel stronghold at the Salapadjang sugar mill , first gathered in the nearby woods and then set the mill on fire while the rebels were inside ; another mill at Boedjong Renje was taken in the same manner by another group . Fearful of the oncoming Dutch , the Chinese retreated to a sugar mill in Kampung Melayu , four hours from Salapadjang ; this stronghold fell to troops under Captain Jan George Crummel . After defeating the Chinese and retaking Qual , the Dutch returned to Batavia . Meanwhile , the fleeing Chinese , who were blocked to the west by 3 @,@ 000 troops from the Sultanate of Banten , headed east along the north coast of Java ; by 30 October it was reported that the Chinese had reached Tangerang .
A ceasefire order reached Crummel on 2 November , upon which he and his men returned to Batavia after stationing a contingent of 50 men at Cadouwang . When he arrived at noon there were no more Chinese stationed at the walls . On 8 November the Sultanate of Cirebon sent between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 native troops to reinforce the city guard . Looting continued until at least 28 November , and the last native troops stood down at the end of that month .
= = Aftermath = =
Most accounts of the massacre estimate that 10 @,@ 000 Chinese were killed within Batavia 's city walls , while at least another 500 were seriously wounded . Between 600 and 700 Chinese @-@ owned houses were raided and burned . Vermeulen gives a figure of 600 survivors , while the Indonesian scholar A.R.T. Kemasang estimates that 3 @,@ 000 Chinese survived . The Indonesian historian Benny G. Setiono notes that 500 prisoners and hospital patients were killed , and a total of 3 @,@ 431 people survived . The massacre was followed by an " open season " against the ethnic Chinese throughout Java , causing another massacre in 1741 in Semarang , and others later in Surabaya and Gresik .
As part of conditions for the cessation of violence , all of Batavia 's ethnic Chinese were moved to a pecinan , or Chinatown , outside of the city walls , now known as Glodok . This allowed the Dutch to monitor the Chinese more easily . To leave the pecinan , ethnic Chinese required special passes . By 1743 , however , ethnic Chinese had already returned to inner Batavia ; several hundred merchants operated there . Other ethnic Chinese led by Khe Pandjang fled to Central Java where they attacked Dutch trading posts , and were later joined by troops under the command of the Javanese sultan of Mataram , Pakubuwono II . Though this further uprising was quashed in 1743 , conflicts in Java continued almost without interruption for the next 17 years .
On 6 December 1740 van Imhoff and two fellow councillors were arrested on the orders of Valckenier for insubordination , and on 13 January 1741 , they were sent to the Netherlands on separate ships ; they arrived on 19 September 1741 . In the Netherlands , van Imhoff convinced the council that Valckenier was to blame for the massacre and delivered an extensive speech entitled " Consideratiën over den tegenwoordigen staat van de Ned . O.I. Comp . " ( " Considerations on the Current Condition of the Dutch East Indies Company " ) on 24 November . As a result of the speech , the charges against him and the other councillors were dismissed . On 27 October 1742 van Imhoff was sent back to Batavia on the Hersteller as the new governor @-@ general of the East Indies , with high expectations from the Lords XVII , the leadership of the Dutch East India Company . He arrived in the Indies on 26 May 1743 .
Valckenier had asked to be replaced late in 1740 , and in February 1741 had received a reply instructing him to appoint van Imhoff as his successor ; an alternative account indicates that the Lords XVII informed him that he was to be replaced by van Imhoff as punishment for exporting too much sugar and too little coffee in 1739 and thus causing large financial losses . By the time Valckenier received the reply , van Imhoff was already on his way back to the Netherlands . Valckenier left the Indies on 6 November 1741 , after appointing a temporary successor , Johannes Thedens . Taking command of a fleet , Valckenier headed for the Netherlands . On 25 January 1742 he arrived in Cape Town but was detained , and investigated by governor Hendrik Swellengrebel by order of the Lords XVII . In August 1742 Valckenier was sent back to Batavia , where he was imprisoned in Fort Batavia and , three months later , tried on several charges , including his involvement in the massacre . In March 1744 he was convicted and condemned to death , and all his belongings were confiscated . In December 1744 the trial was reopened when Valckenier gave a lengthy statement to defend himself . Valckenier asked for more evidence from the Netherlands , but died in his prison cell on 20 June 1751 , before the investigation was completed . The death penalty was rescinded posthumously in 1755 . Vermeulen characterises the investigation as unfair and fuelled by popular outrage in the Netherlands , and arguably this was officially recognised because in 1760 Valckenier 's son , Adriaan Isaäk Valckenier , received reparations totalling 725 @,@ 000 gulden .
Sugar production in the area suffered greatly after the massacre , as many of the Chinese who had run the industry had been killed or were missing . It began to recover after the new governor @-@ general , van Imhoff , " colonised " Tangerang . He initially intended for men to come from the Netherlands and work the land ; he considered those already settled in the Indies to be lazy . However , he was unable to attract new settlers because of high taxes and thus sold the land to those already in Batavia . As he had expected , the new land @-@ owners were unwilling to " soil their hands " , and quickly rented out the land to ethnic Chinese . Production rose steadily after this , but took until the 1760s to reach pre @-@ 1740 levels , after which it again diminished . The number of mills also declined . In 1710 there had been 131 , but by 1750 the number had fallen to 66 .
= = Legacy = =
Vermeulen described the massacre as " one of the most striking events in 18th @-@ century [ Dutch ] colonialism " . In his doctoral dissertation , W. W. Dharmowijono notes that the attack has figured heavily in Dutch literature , early examples of which include a poem by Willem van Haren that condemned the massacre ( dating from 1742 ) and an anonymous poem , from the same period , critical of the Chinese . Raffles wrote in 1830 that Dutch historical records are " far from complete or satisfactory " .
Dutch historian Leonard Blussé writes that the massacre indirectly led to the rapid expansion of Batavia , and institutionalised a modus vivendi that led to a dichotomy between the ethnic Chinese and other groups which could still be felt in the late 20th century . The massacre may also have been a factor in the naming of numerous areas in Jakarta . One possible etymology for the name of the Tanah Abang district ( meaning " red earth " ) is that it was named for the Chinese blood spilled there ; van Hoëvell suggests that the naming was a compromise to make the Chinese survivors accept amnesty more quickly . The name Rawa Bangke , for a subdistrict of East Jakarta , may be derived from the vulgar Indonesian word for corpse , bangkai , due to the great number of ethnic Chinese killed there ; a similar etymology has been suggested for Angke in Tambora .
= The Million Dollar Homepage =
The Million Dollar Homepage is a website conceived in 2005 by Alex Tew , a student from Wiltshire , England , to raise money for his university education . The home page consists of a million pixels arranged in a 1000 × 1000 pixel grid ; the image @-@ based links on it were sold for $ 1 per pixel in 10 × 10 blocks . The purchasers of these pixel blocks provided tiny images to be displayed on them , a URL to which the images were linked , and a slogan to be displayed when hovering a cursor over the link . The aim of the website was to sell all of the pixels in the image , thus generating a million dollars of income for the creator . The Wall Street Journal has commented that the site inspired other websites that sell pixels .
Launched on 26 August 2005 , the website became an Internet phenomenon . The Alexa ranking of web traffic peaked at around 127 ; as of 9 May 2009 , it is 40 @,@ 044 . On 1 January 2006 , the final 1 @,@ 000 pixels were put up for auction on eBay . The auction closed on 11 January with a winning bid of $ 38 @,@ 100 that brought the final tally to $ 1 @,@ 037 @,@ 100 in gross income .
During the January 2006 auction , the website was subject to a distributed denial @-@ of @-@ service attack and ransom demand , which left it inaccessible to visitors for a week while its security system was upgraded . The Federal Bureau of Investigation and Wiltshire Constabulary investigated the attack and extortion attempt .
= = Development = =
Alex Tew , a student from Cricklade in Wiltshire , England , conceived The Million Dollar Homepage in August 2005 when he was 21 years old . He was about to begin a three @-@ year Business Management course at the University of Nottingham , and was concerned that he would be left with a student loan that could take years to repay . As a money @-@ raising idea , Tew decided to sell a million pixels on a website for $ 1 each ; purchasers would add their own image , logo or advertisement , and have the option of including a hyperlink to their website . Pixels were sold for US dollars rather than UK pounds ; the US has a larger online population than the UK , and Tew believed more people would relate to the concept if the pixels were sold in US currency . In 2005 , the pound was strong against the dollar : £ 1 was worth approximately $ 1 @.@ 80 , and that cost per pixel may have been too expensive for many potential buyers . Tew 's setup costs were € 50 , which paid for the registration of the domain name and a basic web @-@ hosting package . The website went live on 26 August 2005 .
The homepage featured a Web banner with the site 's name and a pixel counter displaying the number of pixels sold , a navigation bar containing nine small links to the site 's internal web pages , and an empty square grid of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pixels divided into 10 @,@ 000 100 @-@ pixel blocks . Tew promised customers that the site would remain online for at least five years – that is , until at least 26 August 2010 .
= = Pixel sales = =
Because individual pixels are too small to be seen easily , Pixels were sold in 100 @-@ pixel " blocks " measuring 10 × 10 pixels ; the minimum price was thus $ 100 . The first sale , three days after the site began operating , was to an online music website operated by a friend of Tew 's . He bought 400 pixels in a 20 × 20 block . After two weeks , Tew 's friends and family members had purchased a total of 4 @,@ 700 pixels . The site was initially marketed only through word of mouth ; however , after the site had made $ 1 @,@ 000 , a press release was sent out that was picked up by the BBC . The technology news website The Register featured two articles on The Million Dollar Homepage in September . By the end of the month , The Million Dollar Homepage had received $ 250 @,@ 000 and was ranked Number 3 on Alexa Internet 's list of " Movers and Shakers " behind the websites for Britney Spears and Photo District News . On 6 October , Tew reported the site received 65 @,@ 000 unique visitors ; it received 1465 Diggs , becoming one of the most Dugg links that week . Eleven days later , the number had increased to 100 @,@ 000 unique visitors . On 26 October , two months after the Million Dollar Homepage was launched , more than 500 @,@ 900 pixels had been sold to 1 @,@ 400 customers . By New Year 's Eve , Tew reported that the site was receiving hits from 25 @,@ 000 unique visitors every hour and had an Alexa Rank of 127 , and that 999 @,@ 000 of the 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pixels had been sold .
On 1 January 2006 , Tew announced that because the demand was so great for the last 1 @,@ 000 pixels , " the most fair and logical thing " to do was auction them on eBay rather than lose " the integrity and degree of exclusivity intrinsic to the million @-@ pixel concept " by launching a second Million Dollar Homepage . The auction lasted ten days and received 99 legitimate bids . Although bids were received for amounts as high as $ 160 @,@ 109 @.@ 99 , many were either retracted by the bidders or cancelled as hoaxes . " I actually contacted the people by phone and turns out they weren 't serious , which is fairly frustrating , so I removed those bidders at the last minute " , said Tew . The winning bid was $ 38 @,@ 100 , placed by MillionDollarWeightLoss.com , an online store selling diet @-@ related products . Tew remarked that he had expected the final bid amount to be higher due to the media attention . The Million Dollar Homepage made a gross total of $ 1 @,@ 037 @,@ 100 in five months . After costs , taxes and a donation to The Prince 's Trust , a charity for young people , Tew expected his net income to be $ 650 @,@ 000 – $ 700 @,@ 000 .
Pixel purchasers included Bonanza Gift Shop , Panda Software , the producers of Wal @-@ Mart : The High Cost of Low Price , British Schools Karting Championship , Book of Cool , Orange , The Times , Cheapflights.com , Schiffer Publishing , Rhapsody , Tenacious D , GoldenPalace.com , 888.com and other online casinos , Independiente Records , Yahoo ! , small privately owned businesses , and companies offering get @-@ rich @-@ quick schemes , online dating services , personal loans , free samples , website designs and holidays .
= = Media attention = =
Following the September press release that first brought attention to the site , The Million Dollar Homepage was featured in articles on BBC Online , The Register , The Daily Telegraph , and PC Pro . Tew also appeared on the national breakfast television programmes Sky News Sunrise and BBC Breakfast to discuss the website .
By November the website was becoming popular around the world , receiving attention from Financial Times Deutschland in Germany , TVNZ in New Zealand , Terra Networks in Latin America , the China Daily , and especially in the United States where it was covered in Adweek , Florida Today , and Wall Street Journal . Tew hired a US @-@
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based publicist to help with the attention from the American media and made a week @-@ long trip to the US , where he was interviewed on ABC News Radio , the Fox News Channel , Attack of the Show ! , and local news programmes .
The concept was described as " simple and brilliant " , " clever " , " ingenious " , and " a unique platform [ for advertising ] which is also a bit of fun " . Professor Martin Binks , director of the Nottingham University Institute for Entrepreneurial Innovation , said , " It is brilliant in its simplicity ... advertisers have been attracted to it by its novelty ... the site has become a phenomenon . " Popular Mechanics said , " There 's no content . No cool graphics , giveaways or steamy Paris Hilton videos for viewers to salivate over . Imagine a TV channel that shows nothing but commercials , a magazine with nothing but ads . That 's The Million Dollar Homepage . An astonishing example of the power of viral marketing " . Don Oldenburg of the Washington Post was one of the few without praise for the site , calling it a " cheap , mind @-@ bogglingly lucrative marketing monstrosity , an advertising badlands of spam , banner ads and pop @-@ ups . " Oldenburg continues , " it looks like a bulletin board on designer steroids , an advertising train wreck you can 't not look at . It 's like getting every pop @-@ up ad you ever got in your life , at once . It 's the Internet equivalent of suddenly feeling like you want to take a shower . "
As the final pixels were being auctioned , Tew was interviewed on Richard & Judy , and profiled in the online BBC News Magazine . The Wall Street Journal wrote about The Million Dollar Homepage and its impact on the Internet community . " Mr. Tew himself has taken on celebrity status in the Internet community ... the creative juice ... paints an interesting picture of online entrepreneurship " .
Tew dropped out of the business degree the site was set up to fund after one term . In 2008 , Tew founded Popjam , an Internet aggregation and social networking business .
= = DDoS attack = =
On 7 January 2006 , three days before the auction of the final 1 @,@ 000 pixels was due to end , Tew received an e @-@ mail from an organisation called " The Dark Group " , and was told The Million Dollar Homepage would become the victim of a distributed denial @-@ of @-@ service attack ( DDoS ) if a ransom of $ 5 @,@ 000 was not paid by 10 January . Believing the threat to be a hoax , he ignored it , but a week later received a second e @-@ mail threat : " Hello u website is under us atack to stop the DDoS send us 50000 $ . " Again , he ignored the threat , and the website was flooded with extra traffic and e @-@ mails , causing it to crash . " I haven 't replied to any of them as I don 't want to give them the satisfaction and I certainly don 't intend to pay them any money . What is happening to my website is like terrorism . If you pay them , new attacks will start , " Tew said .
The website was inaccessible to visitors for a week until the host server upgraded the security system , and filtered traffic through anti @-@ DDoS software . Wiltshire Constabulary 's Hi @-@ Tech Crime Unit and the Federal Bureau of Investigation were called to investigate the extortion and attack ; they believed it originated in Russia .
= = Similar websites = =
Many other sites sell advertising by pixels . Tew said of the sites , " [ they ] popped up almost immediately ; now there are hundreds of Web sites selling pixels . The copycats are all competing with each other . " " ... they have very little ads , therefore I guess it ’ s not going too well for them . The idea only works once and relies on novelty ... any copy @-@ cat sites will only have pure comedy value , whereas mine possibly has a bit of comedy PLUS some actual pull in advertising dollars ... so I say good luck to the imitators ! "
= Animaniacs =
Steven Spielberg Presents Animaniacs is an American animated comedy television series produced by Amblin Television label in collaboration with Warner Bros. Animation . It is the second animated series created by Tom Ruegger , developed during the animation renaissance of the late 1980s and early 1990s . Animaniacs first aired on Fox Kids from 1993 to 1995 and new episodes later appeared on The WB from 1995 to 1998 as part of its Kids ' WB afternoon programming block . The series had a total of 99 episodes and one film , titled Wakko 's Wish .
Animaniacs is a variety show , with short skits featuring a large cast of characters . While the show had no set format , the majority of episodes were composed of three short mini @-@ episodes , each starring a different set of characters , and bridging segments . Hallmarks of the series included its music , character catchphrases , and humor directed at an adult audience .
= = Background = =
= = = Premise = = =
The Warner siblings and the other characters lived in Burbank , California . However , characters from the series had episodes in various places and periods of time . The Animaniacs characters interacted with famous persons and creators of the past and present as well as mythological characters and characters from modern television . Andrea Romano , the casting and recording director of Animaniacs , said that the Warner siblings functioned to " tie the show together , " by appearing in and introducing other characters ' segments . Each Animaniacs episode usually consisted of two or three cartoon shorts . Animaniacs segments ranged in time , from bridging segments less than a minute long to episodes spanning the entire show length ; writer Peter Hastings said that the varying episode lengths gave the show a " sketch comedy " atmosphere .
= = = Characters = = =
Animaniacs had a large cast of characters , separated into individual segments , with each pair or set of characters acting in its own plot . The Warners , Yakko , Wakko , and Dot , were three cartoon stars from the 1930s that were locked away in the Warner Bros. water tower until the 1990s , when they escaped . After their escape , they often interacted with Warner Bros. studio workers , including Ralph , the security guard ; Dr. Otto Scratchansniff , the studio psychiatrist , and his assistant Hello Nurse . Pinky and the Brain are two genetically altered laboratory mice who continuously plot and attempt to take over the world . Slappy Squirrel is an octogenarian cartoon star who can easily outwit antagonists and uses her wiles to educate her nephew , Skippy Squirrel , about cartoon techniques . Additional principal characters included Rita and Runt , Buttons and Mindy , Chicken Boo , Flavio and Marita ( The Hip Hippos ) , Katie Ka @-@ Boom , a trio of pigeons known as The Goodfeathers , and Minerva Mink .
= = = Creation and inspiration = = =
The Animaniacs cast of characters had a variety of inspiration , from celebrities to writers ' family members to other writers . Executive Producer Steven Spielberg said that the irreverence in Looney Tunes cartoons inspired the Animaniacs cast . The general premise of Animaniacs and the Warner siblings were created by Tom Ruegger , who also came up with the concept and characters for Pinky and the Brain . Ruegger was also the senior producer and creative leader of the show . Writer Deanna Oliver contributed The Goodfeathers scripts and the character Chicken Boo . Producer and writer Sherri Stoner contributed heavily to Slappy Squirrel and Pinky and the Brain . Nicholas Hollander based Katie Kaboom on his teenage daughter .
Senior Producer Tom Ruegger modeled the Warners ' personalities heavily after those of his three sons . Because the Warners were portrayed as cartoon stars from the early 1930s , Ruegger and other artists for Animaniacs made the images of the Warners similar to cartoon characters of the early 1930s . Simple black and white drawings were very common in cartoons of the 1920s and 1930s , such as Buddy , Felix the Cat , Oswald the Lucky Rabbit , and the early versions of Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse .
Tom Ruegger created Pinky and the Brain after being inspired by the personalities of two of his Tiny Toon Adventures colleagues , Eddie Fitzgerald and Tom Minton . Ruegger thought of the premise of Pinky and the Brain when he wondered what would happen if Minton and Fitzgerald tried to take over the world .
Sherri Stoner created Slappy the Squirrel when another writer and friend of Stoner , John McCann , made fun of Stoner 's career in TV movies playing troubled teenagers . When McCann joked that Sherri would be playing troubled teenagers when she was fifty years old , Sherri developed the idea of Slappy 's characteristics as an older person acting like a teenager . Sherri Stoner liked the idea of an aged cartoon character because an aged cartoon star would know the secrets of other cartoons and " have the dirt on [ them ] " .
= = Production = =
= = = Producers = = =
Steven Spielberg was the executive producer during the entire run , Tom Ruegger was the senior producer , Jean MacCurdy was the executive in charge of production , and Rich Arons , Sherri Stoner , Peter Hastings , Rusty Mills , and Liz Holzman were producers of the show . The producers of the show usually had other jobs on the series ; Tom Ruegger , Rich Arons , and Sherri Stoner all served as writers , and Spielberg was very involved in the show 's writing , checking every script for the series . Voice director Andrea Romano said that Spielberg also came up with story ideas , read storyboards , and came to recording sessions .
= = = Writers = = =
The Animaniacs writers and animators , led by senior producer Tom Ruegger , used the experience gained from the previous series to create new animated characters that were cast in the mold of Chuck Jones and Tex Avery 's creations . Writers for Animaniacs included writers Tom Ruegger , Sherri Stoner and Paul Rugg , Deanna Oliver , John McCann , Nicholas Hollander , Peter Hastings , Charlie Howell , Gordon Bressack , Jeff Kwitny , Earl Kress , Tom Minton , and Randy Rogel . Writers Hastings , Rugg , Stoner , McCann , Howell , and Bressack were involved in sketch comedy . Other writers for the series came from cartoon backgrounds , including Kress , Minton , and Randy Rogel .
Made @-@ up stories did not exclusively comprise Animaniacs writing , as writer Peter Hastings said : " We weren 't really there to tell compelling stories ... [ As a writer ] you could do a real story , you could recite the Star @-@ Spangled Banner , or you could parody a commercial ... you could do all these kinds of things , and we had this tremendous freedom and a talent to back it up . " Writers for the series wrote into Animaniacs stories that happened to them ; the episodes " Ups and Downs , " " Survey Ladies , " and " I Got Yer Can " were episodes based on true stories that happened to Paul Rugg , Deanna Oliver , and Sherri Stoner , respectively . Another episode , " Bumbi 's Mom , " both parodied the film Bambi and was a story based on Stoner 's childhood reaction to the film .
In an interview , writers for the series said that Animaniacs allowed for non @-@ restrictive and open writing . Writer Peter Hastings said that the format of the series had the atmosphere of a sketch comedy show because Animaniacs segments could widely vary in both time and subject . Writer Sherri Stoner said that the Animaniacs writing staff worked well as a team in that writers could consult other writers on how to write or finish a story , as was the case in the episode " The Three Muska @-@ Warners " . Writers Rugg , Hastings and Stoner said that the Animaniacs writing was free in that the writers were allowed to write about and parody subjects that would not be touched on other series .
= = = Cast = = =
Animaniacs featured Rob Paulsen as Yakko , Pinky and Dr. Otto von Scratchansniff , Tress MacNeille as Dot , Jess Harnell as Wakko , Sherri Stoner as Slappy the Squirrel , Maurice LaMarche as the Brain , Squit and the belching segments " The Great Wakkorotti " ( Harnell said that he himself is commonly mistaken for the role ) , and veteran voice actor Frank Welker as Ralph the Security Guard , Thaddeus Plotz and Runt . Andrea Romano said that the casters wanted Paulsen to play the role of Yakko : " We had worked with Rob Paulsen before on a couple of other series and we wanted him to play Yakko . " Romano said that the casters had " no trouble " choosing the role of Dot , referring to MacNeille as " just hilarious ... And yet [ she had ] that edge . " Before Animaniacs , Harnell had little experience in voice acting other than minor roles for Disney which he " fell into " . Harnell revealed that at the audition for the show , he did a John Lennon impression and the audition " went great " . Stoner commented that when she gave an impression of what the voice would be to Spielberg , he said she should play Slappy . According to Romano , she personally chose Bernadette Peters to play Rita . Other voices were provided by Jim Cummings , Paul Rugg , Vernee Watson @-@ Johnson , Jeff Bennett and Gail Matthius ( from Tiny Toon Adventures ) . Tom Ruegger 's three sons also played roles on the series . Nathan Ruegger voiced Skippy Squirrel , nephew to Slappy , throughout the duration of the series ; Luke Ruegger voiced The Flame in historical segments on Animaniacs ; and Cody Ruegger voiced Birdie from Wild Blue Yonder .
= = = Animation = = =
Animation work on Animaniacs was farmed out to several different studios , both American and international , over the course of the show 's production . The animation companies included Tokyo Movie Shinsha ( now known as TMS Entertainment ) , StarToons , Wang Film Productions , Freelance Animators New Zealand , and AKOM , and most Animaniacs episodes frequently had animation from different companies in each episode 's respective segments .
Animaniacs was made with a higher production value than standard television animation ; the show had a higher cel count than most TV cartoons . The Animaniacs characters often move fluidly , and do not regularly stand still and speak , as in other television cartoons .
= = = Music = = =
Animaniacs utilized a heavy musical score for an animated program , with every episode featuring at least one original score . The idea for an original musical score in every episode came from Steven Spielberg . Animaniacs used a 35 @-@ piece orchestra , and was scored by a team of six composers , led by supervising composer Richard Stone . The composing team included Steve and Julie Bernstein , Carl Johnson , J. Eric Schmidt , Gordon Goodwin and Tim Kelly . The use of the large orchestra in modern Warner Bros. animation began with Animaniacs predecessor , Tiny Toon Adventures , but Spielberg pushed for its use even more in Animaniacs . Although the outcome was a very expensive show to produce , " the sound sets us apart from everyone else in animation , " said Jean MacCurdy , the executive in charge of production for the series . According to Steve and Julie Bernstein , not only was the Animaniacs music written in the same style as that of Looney Tunes composer Carl Stalling , but that the music used the same studio and piano that Stalling used . Senior producer Tom Ruegger said that writers Randy Rogel , Nicholas Hollander , and Deanna Oliver wrote " a lot of music " for the series .
= = Hallmarks and humor = =
The humor of Animaniacs varied in type , ranging from parody to cartoon violence . The series made parodies of television shows and films . In an interview , Spielberg defended the " irreverence " of Animaniacs , saying that the Animaniacs crew has " a point of view " and does not " sit back passively and play both sides equally " . Spielberg also said that Animaniacs ' humor of social commentary and irreverence were inspired by the Marx Brothers and Looney Tunes cartoons . Animaniacs , among other Spielberg @-@ produced shows , had a large amount of cartoon violence . Spielberg defended the violence in Animaniacs by saying that the series had a balance of both violent humor and educational segments , so the series would never become either too violent or " benign " . Animaniacs also made use of catchphrases , recurring jokes and segments , and " adult " humor .
= = = Recurring jokes and catchphrases = = =
Characters on Animaniacs had catchphrases , with some characters having more than one . Notable catchphrases include Yakko 's " Goodnight , everybody ! " often said following adult humor , Wakko 's " Faboo ! " and Dot 's frequent assertions of her cuteness . The most prominent catchphrase that was said by all the Warners was " Hello @-@ o @-@ o , nurse ! " Tom Ruegger said that the " Hello @-@ o @-@ o , Nurse ! " line was intended to be a catchphrase much like Bugs Bunny 's line , " What 's up , doc ? " Before the theme song for each " Pinky and the Brain " segment , Pinky asks , " Gee , Brain , what do you want to do tonight ? " Brain replies , " The same thing we do every night , Pinky : try to take over the world ! " During these episodes , Brain often asks Pinky , " Are you pondering what I 'm pondering ? " and Pinky replies with a silly non sequitur . Writer Peter Hastings said that he unintentionally created these catchphrases when he wrote the episode " Win Big , " and then Producer Sherri Stoner used them and had them put into later episodes .
Running gags and recurring segments were very common in the show . The end of every episode was closed with a water tower gag similar to the The Simpsons couch gag . Director Rusty Mills and senior producer Tom Ruegger said that recurring segments like the water tower gag and another segment titled " The Wheel of Morality " eased the production of episodes because the same animated scenes could be used more than once ( and , in the case of the Wheel segments , enabled the producers to add a segment in where there was not room for anything else in the episode ) .
= = = Humor and content intended for adults = = =
A great deal of Animaniacs ' humor and content was aimed at an adult audience . Animaniacs parodied the film A Hard Day 's Night and the Three Tenors , references that The New York Times wrote were " appealing to older audiences " . The comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan Pirates of Penzance and H.M.S. Pinafore were parodied in episode 3 , " HMS Yakko " . The Warners ' personalities were made similar to those of the Marx Brothers and Jerry Lewis , in that they , according to writer Peter Hastings , " wreak havoc , " in " serious situations " . In addition , the show 's recurring Goodfeathers segment was populated with characters based on characters from The Godfather and Goodfellas , R @-@ rated crime dramas neither marketed nor intended for children . Some content of Animaniacs was not only aimed at an adult audience but was suggestive in nature ; One character , Minerva Mink had episodes that network censors considered too sexually suggestive for the show 's intended audience , for which she was soon de @-@ emphasized as a featured character .
= = = Parodies = = =
Animaniacs parodied popular TV shows and movies and caricatured celebrities . Animaniacs made fun of celebrities , major motion pictures , television shows for adults ( Seinfeld and Friends , among others ) , television shows for children , and trends in the US . One episode even made fun of competing show Power Rangers , and another episode caricatured Animaniacs ' own Internet fans . Animaniacs also made potshots of Disney films , creating parodies of such films as The Lion King , Beauty and the Beast , Pocahontas , Bambi , and others . Animaniacs director Russell Calabrese said that not only did it become a compliment to be parodied on Animaniacs but also that being parodied on the series would be taken as a " badge of honor " .
= = = Songs = = =
Animaniacs had a variety of music types . Many Animaniacs songs were parodies of classical or folk music with educational lyrics . Notable ones include " Yakko 's World " , in which Yakko sings the names of all 200 @-@ some nations of the world to the tune of the Mexican Hat Dance . " Wakko 's America " listed all the United States and their capitals to the tune of Turkey in the Straw . Another song , titled " The Presidents " , named every US president ( up to Bill Clinton , due to production date ) to the tune of the William Tell Overture ( with a very brief usage of the tune Dixie ) . Non @-@ educational songs included parodies , such as the segment " Slippin ' on the Ice " , a parody of " Singin ' in the Rain " . Most of the groups of characters even had their own theme songs for their segment on the show .
The Animaniacs series theme song , performed by the Warners , was a very important part of the show . In the series ' first season , the theme won an Emmy Award for best song . Stone composed the music for the title sequence and Ruegger wrote the lyrics . Several Animaniacs albums and Sing @-@ along VHS tapes were released , including the CDs Animaniacs , Yakko 's World , and Variety Pack , and the tape Animaniacs Sing @-@ Along : Yakko 's World .
Shorts featuring Rita and Runt would also incorporate songs for Bernadette Peters to sing .
= = Response = =
Animaniacs became a very successful show , gathering both child and adult fans . The series received ratings higher than its competitors and won eight Daytime Emmy Awards and one Peabody Award .
= = = Ratings and popularity = = =
During its run , Animaniacs became the second @-@ most popular children 's show in both demographics of children ages 2 – 11 and children ages 6 – 11 ( behind Mighty Morphin Power Rangers ) . Animaniacs , along with other animated series , helped to bring " Fox Kids " ratings much larger than those of the channel 's competitors . In November 1993 , Animaniacs and Tiny Toon Adventures almost doubled the ratings of their rival shows , Darkwing Duck and Goof Troop , in both the 2 – 11 and 6 – 11 demographics that are very important to children 's networks . On Kids ' WB , Animaniacs gathered about one @-@ million children viewers every week .
While Animaniacs was popular among younger viewers ( the target demographic for Warner Bros. ' TV cartoons ) , adults also responded positively to the show ; in 1995 , more than one @-@ fifth of the weekday ( 4 p.m. , Monday through Friday ) and Saturday morning ( 8 a.m. ) audience viewers were 25 years or older . The large adult fanbase even led to one of the first Internet @-@ based fandom cultures . During the show 's prime , the Internet newsgroup alt.tv.animaniacs was an active gathering place for fans of the show ( most of whom were adults ) to post reference guides , fan fiction , and fan @-@ made artwork about Animaniacs . The online popularity of the show did not go unnoticed by the show 's producers , and twenty of the most active participants on the newsgroup were invited to the Warner Bros. Animation studios for a gathering in August 1995 dubbed by those fans Animania IV .
= = = Nominations and awards = = =
Animaniacs ' first major award came in 1993 , when the series won a Peabody Award in its debuting season . In 1994 , Animaniacs was nominated for two Annie Awards , one for " Best Animated Television Program " , and the other for " Best Achievement for Voice Acting " ( Frank Welker ) . Animaniacs also won two Daytime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction and Composition " and " Outstanding Original Song " ( Animaniacs Main Title Theme ) . In 1995 , Animaniacs was nominated four times for the Annie Awards , once for " Best Animated Television Program " , twice for " Voice Acting in the Field of Animation " ( Tress MacNeille and Rob Paulsen ) , and once for " Best Individual Achievement for Music in the Field of Animation " ( Richard Stone ) . In 1996 , Animaniacs won two Daytime Emmy Awards , one for " Outstanding Animated Children 's Program " and the other for " Outstanding Achievement in Animation " . In 1997 , Animaniacs was nominated for an Annie Award for " Best Individual Achievement : Directing in a TV Production " ( Charles Visser for the episode " Noel " ) . Animaniacs also won two more Daytime Emmy Awards , one for " Outstanding Animated Children 's Program " and the other for " Outstanding Music Direction and Composition " . In 1998 , the last year in which new episodes of Animaniacs were produced , Animaniacs was nominated for an Annie Award in " Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Daytime Television Program " . Animaniacs also won a Daytime Emmy Award in " Outstanding Music Direction and Composition " ( for the episode " The Brain 's Apprentice " ) . In 1999 , Animaniacs won a Daytime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction and Composition " . When Animaniacs won this award , it set a record for most Daytime Emmy Awards in the field of " Outstanding Achievement in Music Direction and Composition " for any individual animation studio . In 2009 , IGN named Animaniacs the 17th @-@ best animated television series . On September 24 , 2013 , Animaniacs was listed among TV Guide 's " 60 Greatest TV Cartoons of All Time " .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Before Animaniacs was put into production , various collaboration and brainstorming efforts were thought up to create both the characters and premise of the series . For instance , ideas that were thrown out were Rita and Runt being the hosts of the show and the Warners being duck characters that senior producer Tom Ruegger drew in his college years . After the characters from the series were created , they were all shown to executive producer Steven Spielberg , who would decide which characters would make it into Animaniacs ( the characters Buttons and Mindy were chosen by Spielberg 's daughter ) . The characters ' designs came from various sources , including caricatures of other writers , designs based on early cartoon characters , and characters that simply had a more modern design .
= = = Fox Kids era : Episodes 1 – 69 = = =
Animaniacs premiered on September 13 , 1993 , on the Fox Kids programming block of the Fox network , and ran there until September 8 , 1995 ; new episodes aired from the 1993 through 1994 seasons . Animaniacs aired with a 65 @-@ episode first season because these episodes were ordered by Fox all at once . While on Fox Kids , Animaniacs gained fame for its name and became the second @-@ most popular show among children ages 2 – 11 and children ages 6 – 11 , second to Mighty Morphin Power Rangers ( which began that same year ) . On March 30 , 1994 , Yakko , Wakko , and Dot first theatrically appeared in the animated short , " I 'm Mad " , which opened nationwide alongside the full @-@ length animated feature , Thumbelina . The musical short featured Yakko , Wakko , and Dot bickering during a car trip . Producers Steven Spielberg , Tom Ruegger , and Jean MacCurdy wanted " I 'm Mad " to be the first of a series of shorts to bring Animaniacs to a wider audience . However , " I 'm Mad " was the only Animaniacs theatrical short produced . The short was later incorporated into Animaniacs episode 69 . Following the 65th episode of the series , Animaniacs continued to air in reruns on Fox Kids . The only new episodes during this time included a short , four @-@ episode long second season that was quickly put together from unused scripts . After Fox Kids aired Animaniacs reruns for a year , the series switched to the new Warner Bros. children 's programming block , Kids ' WB .
= = = Kids ' WB era : Episodes 70 – 99 = = =
The series was popular enough for Warner Bros. Animation to invest in additional episodes of Animaniacs past the traditional 65 @-@ episode marker for syndication . Animaniacs premiered on the new Kids ' WB line @-@ up on September 9 , 1995 , with a new season of 13 episodes . At this time , the show 's popular cartoon characters , Pinky and the Brain , were spun off from Animaniacs into their own TV series . Warner Bros. stated in a press release that Animaniacs gathered over one million children viewers every week .
Despite the series ' success on Fox Kids , Animaniacs on Kids ' WB was only successful in an unintended way , bringing in adult viewers and viewers outside the Kids ' WB target demographic of young children . This unintended result of adult viewers and not enough young viewers put pressure on the WB network from advertisers and caused dissatisfaction from the WB network towards Animaniacs . Slowly , orders from the WB for more Animaniacs episodes dwindled and Animaniacs had a couple more short seasons , relying on leftover scripts and storyboards . The fourth season had eight episodes , which was reduced from 18 because of Warner Bros. ' dissatisfaction with Animaniacs . The 99th and final Animaniacs episode was aired on November 14 , 1998 .
The Chicago Tribune reported in 1999 that the production of new Animaniacs episodes ceased and the direct @-@ to @-@ video film Wakko 's Wish was a closer to the series . Animation World Network Reported that Warner Bros. laid off over 100 artists , contributing to the reduced production of original series . Producer Tom Ruegger explained that rather produce new episodes , Warner Bros. instead decided to use the back @-@ catalog of Animaniacs episodes until " someone clamors for more " . Animaniacs segments were shown along with segments from other cartoons as part of The Cat & Birdy Warneroonie PinkyBrainy Big Cartoonie Show . Ruegger said at the time the hiatus was " temporary " . Following the end of the series , the Animaniacs team developed Wakko 's Wish . On December 21 , 1999 , Warner Bros. released Wakko 's Wish . In 2016 , Ruegger said on his Reddit AMA that the decline of Animaniacs and other series was the result of Warner Bros. ' investment in the much cheaper anime series Pokémon . Following Warner Bros. right to distribute the cheaper and successful anime , the network chose to invest less in original programming like Animaniacs .
= = = Aftermath and syndication = = =
After Animaniacs , Spielberg collaborated with Warner Bros. Animation again to produce the short @-@ lived series Steven Spielberg Presents Freakazoid , along with the Animaniacs spin @-@ off series Pinky and the Brain , from which Pinky , Elmyra & the Brain was later spun off . Warner Bros. also produced two other comedy animated series in the later half of the decade titled Histeria ! and Detention , which were short @-@ lived and unsuccessful compared to the earlier series . Later , Warner Bros. cut back the size of its animation studio because the show Histeria ! went over its budget , and most production on further Warner Bros. animated comedy series ceased .
Animaniacs , along with Tiny Toon Adventures , continued to rerun in syndication through the 1990s into the early 2000s after production of new episodes ceased . In the US , Animaniacs aired on Cartoon Network , originally as a one @-@ off airing on January 31 , 1997 , and then on the regular schedule from August 31 , 1998 until the spring of 2001 , when Nickelodeon bought the rights to air the series beginning on September 1 , 2001 . Nickelodeon transferred the series to its newly launched sister channel Nicktoons on May 1 , 2002 , and aired there until July 7 , 2005 . Animaniacs started airing on Hub Network with a 4 @-@ hour marathon on December 24 , 2012 and aired regularly from January 7 , 2013 until October 10 , 2014 before it was rebranded Discovery Family . On April 1 , 2016 , all 99 episodes of Animaniacs were added to Netflix .
Paulsen , Harnell , and MacNeille have announced plans to tour in 2016 to perform songs from Animaniacs ! along with a full orchestra . Among the songs will be an updated version of " Yakko 's World " by Randy Rogel that includes a new verse to include nations that have been formed since the song 's original airing , such as those from the break @-@ up of the Soviet Union .
= = Wakko 's Wish = =
The Warners starred in the feature @-@ length , direct @-@ to @-@ video movie Wakko 's Wish . The movie takes place in the fictional town of Acme Falls , in which the Warners and the rest of the Animaniacs cast are under the rule of a greedy king who counquered their home country from a neighboring country . When the Warners find out about a star that will grant a wish to the first person that touches it , the Warners , the villagers ( the Animaniacs cast ) , and the king race to get to it first . Although children and adults rated Wakko 's Wish highly in test @-@ screenings , Warner Bros. decided to release it direct @-@ to @-@ video , rather than spend money on advertising . Warner Bros. released the movie on VHS on December 21 , 1999 ; the film was then released on DVD on October 7 , 2014 .
= = Merchandise = =
= = = Home video = = =
Episodes of the show have been released on DVD and VHS during and after the series run .
VHS tapes of Animaniacs were released in the United States and in the United Kingdom . All of these tapes are out of production , but are still available at online sellers . The episodes featured are jumbled at random and are in no particular order with the series . Each video featured four to five episodes each and accompanied by a handful of shorter skits , with a running time of about 45 minutes .
Beginning on July 25 , 2006 , Warner Home Video began releasing DVD volume sets of Animaniacs episodes in order of the episodes ' original airdates . Volume one of Animaniacs sold very well ; over half of the product being sold in the first week made it one of the fastest selling animation DVD sets that Warner Home Video ever put out .
= = = Print = = =
An Animaniacs comic book , published by DC Comics , ran from 1995 to 2000 ( 59 regular monthly issues , plus two specials ) . Initially , these featured all the characters except for Pinky and the Brain , who were published in their own comic series , though cameos were possible . The Animaniacs comic series was later renamed Animaniacs ! Featuring Pinky and the Brain . The Animaniacs comic series , like the show , parodied TV and comics standards , such as Pulp Fiction and The X @-@ Files , among others .
= = = Video games = = =
Animaniacs was soon brought into the video game industry to produce games based on the series . Early notable games were Play Zone ! ' s PC game Animaniacs Game Pack ! ( 1997 ) and Konami 's Animaniacs for Super Nintendo ( 1994 ) . More modern games include Animaniacs : The Great Edgar Hunt and Animaniacs : Lights , Camera , Action ! . Other games are Animaniacs for Sega Genesis and Game Boy ; Animaniacs : A Gigantic Adventure for PC ; Animaniacs : Splat Ball ! for PC ; Pinky and the Brain : World Conquest for PC ; Animaniacs : Ten Pin Alley for the PlayStation and Pinky and the Brain : The Master Plan for Game Boy Advance ( Europe only ) .
= = = Musical collections = = =
Because Animaniacs had many songs , record labels Rhino Entertainment and Time Warner Kids produced albums featuring songs from the show . These albums include Animaniacs ( 1993 ) , Yakko 's World ( 1994 ) , A Christmas Plotz ( 1995 ) , Animaniacs Variety Pack ( 1995 ) , A Hip @-@ Opera Christmas ( 1997 ) , The Animaniacs Go Hollywood ( 2003 ) , The Animaniacs Wacky Universe ( 2003 ) , and the compilation album , The Animaniacs Faboo ! Collection ( 1995 ) .
= = Video on Demand = =
The entire series is currently available on Netflix in Italy and the US .
= Russian battleship Sevastopol ( 1895 ) =
Sevastopol ( Russian : Севастополь ) was the last of three ships in the Petropavlovsk class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1890s .
Named for the siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War , the ship was commissioned into the First Pacific Squadron of the Russian Pacific Fleet and was stationed at Port Arthur ( today Lüshunkou District , Dalian , Liaoning , China ) , a Russian naval base acquired from China in 1898 as part of the Kwantung Leased Territory . One of the first ships to use Harvey nickel @-@ steel armor and Popov radios , she displaced 11 @,@ 854 long tons ( 12 @,@ 044 t ) at full load and was 369 feet ( 112 @.@ 5 m ) long overall , and mounted a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in two twin turrets . She was laid down in May 1892 , launched on 1 June 1895 and completed in 1899 . Her sea trials lasted until 1900 .
Sevastopol saw service in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . Slightly damaged during a surprise attack on Port Arthur in early February , the ship later participated in several attempts to break out from the besieged port . The most notable of these was the Battle of the Yellow Sea , where she was damaged by several shells but managed to make it back to port with the remnants of the Russian Fleet , leaving one crewman dead and 62 wounded . Immediately after the surrender of Port Arthur , Sevastopol was scuttled to prevent her capture by the Imperial Japanese Navy . The Japanese never raised her . The remains of the ship still lie outside the entrance to the port .
= = Design = =
The first design for Sevastopol and her sister ships of the Petropavlovsk class was approved in January 1891 . She was to be an improved version of the battleship Imperator Nikolai I , but with most of her armament in barbettes , including four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . The class was designed with a displacement of 10 @,@ 960 long tons ( 11 @,@ 136 t ) at full load . She had a full waterline belt , and the upper hull featured a tumblehome . Imperator Nikolai I was chosen as a starting point for the design because of her good seakeeping and seaworthiness . Some characteristics were also copied from the French battleship Brennus and the American Indiana @-@ class battleships , such as the flush @-@ deck hull and Brennus ' high freeboard .
Following a redesign of the class , Sevastopol ceased to resemble Imperator Nikolai I. The armor plating was changed before construction , and plans for the armament were modified while the ship was being built . The barbettes were replaced with turrets , including wing turrets for some of the secondary 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns modeled after those on Brennus , with electric hoists . The propulsion was based on the machinery on Georgii Pobedonosets . Sevastopol had Harvey nickel @-@ steel armor imported from the United States .
= = Characteristics = =
Sevastopol displaced 11 @,@ 842 long tons ( 12 @,@ 032 t ) and was 376 feet ( 114 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 70 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 m ) and a maximum draft of 28 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 6 m ) . She was powered by 16 cylindrical coal @-@ burning boilers , and could carry 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) of coal . This gave her a range of 3 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 940 km ; 4 @,@ 320 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 662 .
The ship 's main armament consisted of a battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in two twin turrets . This was supplemented by a secondary battery of twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . Sevastopol 's armament was rounded out with ten 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns , twenty @-@ eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ torpedo boat guns , and six 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged .
= = Construction = =
Sevastopol , named for the siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War , was laid down at the Galernii Island shipyard in Saint Petersburg on 7 March 1892 . Construction was led by two engineers , E. P. Andruschenko and N. I. Afanasyev , and began on 7 May 1892 , about the same time as the battleship Sissoi Veliky was laid down . The ceremony was attended by Alexander III of Russia and then @-@ Tsesarevich Nicholas II . Sevastopol was launched on 1 June 1895 and , after the completion of her hull and decks in 1898 , was transferred to Kronstadt where her armor and guns were installed . Sevastopol was finished in 1899 and Nikolai Chernishev became her captain , a post which he would retain until 17 March 1904 , when Nikolai Essen assumed command .
= = Service history = =
Sevastopol began her sea trials on 16 October 1899 , and was commissioned after their conclusion into the Imperial Russian Navy . She and her sister ships were transferred to Port Arthur , which was then the port of the First Squadron of the Russian Pacific Fleet . In September 1900 , Popov radios were installed on Sevastopol and her sister Poltava , the first Russian battleships to have them . They were also painted white , the same color as the other ships in the First Pacific Squadron . She then left for Port Arthur and arrived at on 13 April 1901 . As Russia was not at war with any Far East countries at that time , Sevastopol stayed in port , inactive .
= = = Wartime service = = =
In early February 1904 , the Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur . Sevastopol was hit by one shell , either 6 inches ( 152 mm ) or 8 inches ( 203 mm ) in diameter , that wounded two men on her bridge . She soon turned in pursuit along with other ships of the Russian fleet , all firing their forward guns , but she failed to score any hits . On 26 March 1904 , Sevastopol was accidentally rammed by Peresvet , damaging a propeller . After the attack on Port Arthur , the First Pacific Squadron tried to break out several times . During one attempt on 23 June , Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , commanding the Pacific Fleet , retreated after encountering the Japanese fleet . Approaching the harbor , Sevastopol moved slightly out of formation and hit a mine that killed 11 and caused severe flooding , but managed to get inside the harbor and drop anchor . She was under repair for six weeks , during which time a fire broke out on deck , killing two and wounding 28 . The Russian battleships were too big to fit into the dry dock at Port Arthur , so large caissons were built to provide access to the ships ' hulls . On 9 August , with the Japanese Third Army assaulting the outer defenses of Port Arthur , the First Pacific Squadron sortied from its base . Even though Sevastopol was not fully repaired , she sailed with the rest of the fleet with one gun in her aft turret remaining inoperable . They later engaged the Japanese fleet in what would become the Battle of the Yellow Sea .
Although in the center of the Russian line during the battle , Sevastopol was only slightly damaged during the day . In the evening , the Russians massed their fire on the Japanese flagship Mikasa , at that time 11 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) away . The Japanese battleships returned fire and Sevastopol suffered several shell hits to her superstructure , which killed one man and wounded 62 others . A few minutes later , Mikasa was hit by two 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) shells and one 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) shell from Retvizan and Sevastopol , which caused 40 casualties . Soon after that , when it seemed that the Russians would be able to escape to Vladivostok , two 12 @-@ inch shells from Asahi penetrated the conning tower of the Russian flagship Tsesarevich , killing Vitgeft and the helmsman , severely wounding the captain , and causing the ship to come to a dead stop after executing a sharp turn . Thinking that this was a maneuver planned by Vitgeft , the Russian line started to execute the same turn , causing all of the ships directly behind Tsesarevich , including Sevastopol , to maneuver wildly to avoid hitting the stationary flagship . Prince Pavel Ukhtomski , second in command of the squadron , who was on the Peresvet , proceeded to signal the other Russian ships via semaphore to steam back to Port Arthur , although the signals were only gradually recognized by Pobeda , Poltava , Pallada and Sevastopol . Sevastopol had one 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and two 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns knocked out during the battle .
Returning to Port Arthur on 10 August , the squadron found that the city was already under siege by the Japanese Third Army led by Baron Nogi Maresuke . On 23 August , Sevastopol bombarded a Japanese battery in an effort to escape along with nine smaller ships , but after she neutralized the battery , she returned to port after a Japanese lookout spotted the approaching ships . As she was maneuvering back into Port Arthur , she struck another mine and required repairs . On 5 December the Third Army captured 203 Meter Hill , a crucial position that overlooked the harbor . From there , the Japanese were able to fire on Sevastopol and other ships of the First Pacific Squadron that had survived the Yellow Sea battle . The ships at that time were about 5 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) away from the hill , placing them within range of Japanese shore artillery . By 9 December four battleships and two cruisers had been sunk by the Japanese . Sevastopol , although hit five times by 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) shells , managed to move away from the western harbor and out of range of the guns to the minor harbor of White Wolf , where she could be defended by torpedo nets and booms . Within the defensive surroundings of White Wolf , Essen started to plan a sortie through the blockade to Vladivostok or a rendezvous with the Second Pacific Squadron , at that time coaling at Madagascar . At the same time , the commanding admiral of the Imperial Japanese Navy , Togo Heihachiro , as instructed by Emperor Meiji in Tokyo , ordered the destruction of the battleship by six waves of destroyers , along with some torpedo boats that were launched from the Fuji and Mikasa .
The torpedo boat and destroyer attacks lasted three weeks , during which 80 torpedoes were launched at Sevastopol . Of these , four hit . The four successful torpedoes were launched on 18 December . Three of them hit the torpedo nets that had been placed around the ship , while the other hit one of the ship 's propellers . Although severely damaged , Sevastopol remained afloat and sank two destroyers and damaged six others , killing 35 sailors and five officers . A Japanese cruiser attempting to attack Sevastopol was sunk by a mine in the harbor . When he received news of the surrender of the land fortifications on 2 January 1905 , Essen decided to surrender , but scuttled the ship in 55 meters ( 180 ft ) of water by opening the seacocks on one side so that the ship could not be salvaged by the Japanese . His other option , a run to Vladivostok , had already been eliminated due to the damage to his propellers by the torpedo . For the act of scuttling Sevastopol , Essen was awarded the Order of St. George . Nevertheless , a dispatch from Tokyo reported that it sank as a result of a Japanese torpedo attack .
Due to the depth of water in which she had sunk , and her position , Sevastopol was the only battleship that was not salvaged by the Japanese at Port Arthur . What remains of her is still outside the entrance to Port Arthur . Poltava , one of her sister ships , was also scuttled at Port Arthur and re @-@ floated as the Japanese Tango .
= Starved =
Starved is an FX television situation comedy that aired for one season of seven episodes in 2005 . The series was about four friends who each suffer from eating disorders , who met at a " shame @-@ based " support group called Belt Tighteners . Its characters included those with bulimia , anorexia , and binge eating disorder . Eric Schaeffer created the show as well as writing , starring in and directing it , based upon his own struggle with eating disorders . In addition to his own life experiences , Schaeffer also drew upon the experiences of the other members of the principal cast , each of whom coincidentally had struggled with food issues of their own .
Starved was the lead @-@ in of FX 's hour @-@ long " Other Side of Comedy " block with It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia . FX executives wanted to use the two series to begin building comedy programming and broaden the network 's demographic . The series debuted on August 4 , 2005 to poor critical reviews and was cancelled in October 2005 , when FX picked Sunny over Starved for renewal .
= = Characters = =
Sam ( Eric Schaeffer ) is a commodities trader who suffers from anorexia and compulsive overeating . His interests quickly turn into obsessions . Despite being with several different women during the series , he is secretly in love with Billie .
Billie Frasier ( Laura Benanti ) is an anorexic and bulimic who also has issues with alcohol abuse . Billie is bisexual and was raised by two gay fathers . Formerly a ballerina , the original impetus for her eating disorders , she is now a moderately well @-@ known singer @-@ songwriter .
Dan Roundtree ( Del Pentecost ) is a novelist and compulsive overeater . The only married person among the main characters , he worries that his weight will lead his wife to leave him . He continually schedules and then cancels gastric bypass surgery .
Adam Williams ( Sterling K. Brown ) is a police officer with bulimia . He abuses his authority to extort food from restaurants and delivery people , which eventually costs him his job .
Belt Tighteners Group Leader ( Jackie Hoffman ) leads the support group that the friends attend . Sarcastic and abrasive , she constantly berates the four friends for their failed attempts at dealing with their food issues . Following her tirades , she leads the group in a chant of the support group 's slogan , " It 's not OK ! "
= = Production = =
Series star Eric Schaeffer created Starved . Schaeffer , who is in recovery for alcohol and drug addiction and describes himself as having " anorexic thinking , " drew on his own experiences with eating disorders and the experiences of other people he knew in creating scenarios for the series . Other cast members also struggled with food issues . Benanti spent three years fighting anorexia while she danced on Broadway . Pentecost , who weighed 310 pounds at the time of filming , contributed stories from his own life to the series , including a scene in which his character weighs himself on a postal scale because he is too heavy for a conventional bathroom scale . Brown was heavy as a child and describes himself as being " haunted by the ' heavyset kid mentality ' . " Producers only discovered that each of the principal cast members had food issues after the casting process was completed .
Starved and It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia were developed for FX under the auspices of FX president John Landgraf , who sought to expand the network 's viewership by providing a wider variety of programming . The shows were the network 's first attempts at sitcoms following the short @-@ lived 2003 series Lucky . FX at the time was known primarily for its edgy dramatic series . Bruce Lefkowitz , then executive vice president of Fox Cable Entertainment , outlined the strategy : " We kind of staked out a unique space in dramas that are very different from everybody else ’ s , so the next natural evolution is to do something in the comedy space . " The network ordered seven episodes of each series .
Starved was shot in the spring of 2005 in New York City using a single @-@ camera setup and without a laugh track . It and Sunny were the first shows that FX produced inhouse .
= = Episodes = =
= = Reception = =
Starved generated controversy even before its premiere . A number of specialists in the treatment of eating disorders expressed concern that the program would either make light of or glamorize eating disorders . Others , however , felt that Starved might focus attention on eating disorders as a serious medical condition . The National Eating Disorders Association called for a boycott of the show and claimed that Diageo ( makers of Tanqueray ) and Nautilus agreed to pull their advertising . Schaeffer responded to the controversy , saying " there is some difficult stuff to watch . But I know my spirit and intention are good . "
Starved premiered to an audience of 1 @.@ 54 million viewers , scoring a Neilsen rating of 0 @.@ 8 and a 2 share among adults 18 @-@ 49 , the network 's target demographic . Reviews were unfavorable . Variety echoed the slogan of Belt Tighteners in dismissing the series as " not OK . " Noting the series ' edgy content , Variety allows that " Pushing the envelope in terms of standards is all well and good , assuming that series earn the right to do so . " Starved , it says , did not earn that right . The series ' " stabs at poignancy feel unconvincing and forced " and " from an emotional standpoint there 's seldom a truthful note . "
The Washington Post concurred in this assessment , describing the premise of the show as " Hey , what happens if you take the characters from Seinfeld and give them eating disorders ? " While crediting Starved for " a few inventive laughs , " the language and sexuality of the show are described as " exceptionally coarse " and " outrageous for cable television , even later at night . " Worse than these issues , the Post felt that Schaeffer neglected to develop the characters in favor of coming up with contrived situations for them . " [ T ] his failure to build understanding into the show dooms it to emptiness , with a sour aftertaste . As if you had just , you know , hurled . "
The New York Times credited the series for its bold premise and noted that the show provided some insight into eating disorders while offering " a few flashes of clever dialogue and satire . " Ultimately , however , the Times found that " Starved relies too heavily on sight gags and gross @-@ out farce . " The Los Angeles Times found the show " vexing " for being " at once assured and shallow , accomplished and unconvincing , well @-@ acted and empty . " The review singles out Schaeffer 's character Sam as " especially unappealing " and points to Schaeffer '
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. The net proper motion of Vega is 327 @.@ 78 mas / y , which results in angular movement of a degree every 11 @,@ 000 years .
In the Galactic coordinate system , the space velocity components of Vega are ( U , V , W ) = ( − 16 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 3 , − 6 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 8 , − 7 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 3 ) km / s , for a net space velocity of 19 km / s . The radial component of this velocity — in the direction of the Sun — is − 13 @.@ 9 km / s , while the transverse velocity is 9 @.@ 9 km / s . Although Vega is at present only the fifth @-@ brightest star in the sky , the star is slowly brightening as proper motion causes it to approach the Sun . Vega will make its closest approach in an estimated 264 @,@ 000 years at a perihelion distance of 13 @.@ 2 ly ( 4 @.@ 04 pc ) .
Based on this star 's kinematic properties , it appears to belong to a stellar association called the Castor Moving Group . However , Vega may be much older than this group , so the membership remains uncertain . This group contains about 16 stars , including Alpha Librae , Alpha Cephei , Castor , Fomalhaut and Vega . All members of the group are moving in nearly the same direction with similar space velocities . Membership in a moving group implies a common origin for these stars in an open cluster that has since become gravitationally unbound . The estimated age of this moving group is 200 ± 100 million years , and they have an average space velocity of 16 @.@ 5 km / s .
= = Planetary system = =
= = = Infrared excess = = =
One of the early results from the Infrared Astronomy Satellite ( IRAS ) was the discovery of excess infrared flux coming from Vega , beyond what would be expected from the star alone . This excess was measured at wavelengths of 25 , 60 , and 100 μm , and came from within an angular radius of 10 arcseconds ( 10 ″ ) centered on the star . At the measured distance of Vega , this corresponded to an actual radius of 80 astronomical units ( AU ) , where an AU is the average radius of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . It was proposed that this radiation came from a field of orbiting particles with a dimension on the order of a millimeter , as anything smaller would eventually be removed from the system by radiation pressure or drawn into the star by means of Poynting – Robertson drag . The latter is the result of radiation pressure creating an effective force that opposes the orbital motion of a dust particle , causing it to spiral inward . This effect is most pronounced for tiny particles that are closer to the star .
Subsequent measurements of Vega at 193 μm showed a lower than expected flux for the hypothesized particles , suggesting that they must instead be on the order of 100 μm or less . To maintain this amount of dust in orbit around Vega , a continual source of replenishment would be required . A proposed mechanism for maintaining the dust was a disk of coalesced bodies that were in the process of collapsing to form a planet . Models fitted to the dust distribution around Vega indicate that it is a 120 AU @-@ radius circular disk viewed from nearly pole @-@ on . In addition , there is a hole in the center of the disk with a radius of no less than 80 AU .
Following the discovery of an infrared excess around Vega , other stars have been found that display a similar anomaly that is attributable to dust emission . As of 2002 , about 400 of these stars have been found , and they have come to be termed " Vega @-@ like " or " Vega @-@ excess " stars . It is believed that these may provide clues to the origin of the Solar System .
= = = Debris disks = = =
By 2005 , the Spitzer Space Telescope had produced high @-@ resolution infrared images of the dust around Vega . It was shown to extend out to 43 ″ ( 330 AU ) at a wavelength of 24 μm , 70 ″ ( 543 AU ) at 70 μm and 105 ″ ( 815 AU ) at 160 μm . These much wider disks were found to be circular and free of clumps , with dust particles ranging from 1 – 50 μm in size . The estimated total mass of this dust is 3 × 10 − 3 times the mass of the Earth . Production of the dust would require collisions between asteroids in a population corresponding to the Kuiper Belt around the Sun . Thus the dust is more likely created by a debris disk around Vega , rather than from a protoplanetary disk as was earlier thought .
The inner boundary of the debris disk was estimated at 11 ″ ± 2 ″ , or 70 – 100 AU . The disk of dust is produced as radiation pressure from Vega pushes debris from collisions of larger objects outward . However , continuous production of the amount of dust observed over the course of Vega 's lifetime would require an enormous starting mass — estimated as hundreds of times the mass of Jupiter . Hence it is more likely to have been produced as the result of a relatively recent breakup of a moderate @-@ sized ( or larger ) comet or asteroid , which then further fragmented as the result of collisions between the smaller components and other bodies . This dusty disk would be relatively young on the time scale of the star 's age , and it will eventually be removed unless other collision events supply more dust .
Observations , first with the Palomar Testbed Interferometer by David Ciardi and Gerard van Belle in 2001 and then later confirmed with the CHARA array at Mt . Wilson in 2006 and the Infrared Optical Telescope Array at Mt . Hopkins in 2011 , revealed evidence for an inner dust band around Vega . Originating within 8 AU of the star , this exozodiacal dust may be evidence of dynamical perturbations within the system . This may be caused by an intense bombardment of comets or meteors , and may be evidence for the existence of a planetary system .
= = = Possible planets = = =
Observations from the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in 1997 revealed an " elongated bright central region " that peaked at 9 ″ ( 70 AU ) to the northeast of Vega . This was hypothesized as either a perturbation of the dust disk by a planet or else an orbiting object that was surrounded by dust . However , images by the Keck telescope had ruled out a companion down to magnitude 16 , which would correspond to a body with more than 12 times the mass of Jupiter . Astronomers at the Joint Astronomy Centre in Hawaii and at UCLA suggested that the image may indicate a planetary system still undergoing formation .
Determining the nature of the planet has not been straightforward ; a 2002 paper hypothesizes that the clumps are caused by a roughly Jupiter @-@ mass planet on an eccentric orbit . Dust would collect in orbits that have mean @-@ motion resonances with this planet — where their orbital periods form integer fractions with the period of the planet — producing the resulting clumpiness .
In 2003 it was hypothesized that these clumps could be caused by a roughly Neptune @-@ mass planet having migrated from 40 to 65 AU over 56 million years , an orbit large enough to allow the formation of smaller rocky planets closer to Vega . The migration of this planet would likely require gravitational interaction with a second , higher @-@ mass planet in a smaller orbit .
Using a coronagraph on the Subaru telescope in Hawaii in 2005 , astronomers were able to further constrain the size of a planet orbiting Vega to no more than 5 – 10 times the mass of Jupiter . The issue of possible clumps in the debris disc was revisited in 2007 using newer , more sensitive instrumentation on the Plateau de Bure Interferometer . The observations showed that the debris ring is smooth and symmetric . No evidence was found of the blobs reported earlier , casting doubts on the hypothesized giant planet . The smooth structure has been confirmed in follow @-@ up observations by Hughes et al . ( 2012 ) and the Herschel Space Telescope .
Although a planet has yet to be directly observed around Vega , the presence of a planetary system can not yet be precluded . Thus there could be smaller , terrestrial planets orbiting closer to the star . The inclination of planetary orbits around Vega is likely to be closely aligned to the equatorial plane of this star . From the perspective of an observer on a hypothetical planet around Vega , the Sun would appear as a faint 4 @.@ 3 magnitude star in the Columba constellation .
= = Etymology and cultural significance = =
The name Wega ( later Vega ) comes from a loose transliteration of the Arabic word wāqi ‘ meaning " falling " or " landing " , via the phrase an @-@ nasr al @-@ wāqi ‘ , " the falling eagle " . The term " Al Nesr al Waki " appeared in the Al Achsasi al Mouakket star catalogue and was translated into Latin as Vultur Cadens , " the falling eagle / vulture " . The constellation was represented as a vulture in ancient Egypt , and as an eagle or vulture in ancient India . The Arabic name then appeared in the western world in the Alfonsine Tables , which were drawn up between 1215 and 1270 by order of Alfonso X. Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe used the names Wega and Alvaca , and depicted it and Altair as birds .
Each night the positions of the stars appear to change as the Earth rotates . However , when a star is located along the Earth 's axis of rotation , it will remain in the same position and thus is called a pole star . The direction of the Earth 's axis of rotation gradually changes over time in a process known as the precession of the equinoxes . A complete precession cycle requires 25 @,@ 770 years , during which time the pole of the Earth 's rotation follows a circular path across the celestial sphere that passes near several prominent stars . At present the pole star is Polaris , but around 12 @,@ 000 BC the pole was pointed only five degrees away from Vega . Through precession , the pole will again pass near Vega around AD 14 @,@ 000 . It is the brightest of the successive northern pole stars .
Among the northern Polynesian people , Vega was known as whetu o te tau , the year star . For a period of history it marked the start of their new year when the ground would be prepared for planting . Eventually this function became denoted by the Pleiades .
The Assyrians named this pole star Dayan @-@ same , the " Judge of Heaven " , while in Akkadian it was Tir @-@ anna , " Life of Heaven " . In Babylonian astronomy , Vega may have been one of the stars named Dilgan , " the Messenger of Light " . To the ancient Greeks , the constellation Lyra was formed from the harp of Orpheus , with Vega as its handle . For the Roman Empire , the start of autumn was based upon the hour at which Vega set below the horizon .
In Chinese mythology , there is a love story of Qi Xi ( 七夕 ) in which Niu Lang ( 牛郎 , Altair ) and his two children ( β and γ Aquilae ) are separated from their mother Zhi Nü ( 織女 , lit . " Weaving Girl " , Vega ) who is on the far side of the river , the Milky Way . However , one day per year on the seventh day of the seventh month of the Chinese lunisolar calendar , magpies make a bridge so that Niu Lang and Zhi Nü can be together again for a brief encounter . The Japanese Tanabata festival , in which Vega is known as orihime ( 織姫 ) , is also based on this legend .
In Zoroastrianism , Vega was sometimes associated with Vanant , a minor divinity whose name means " conqueror " .
The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria named it as Neilloan , " the flying Loan " .
In Hindu mythology , Vega is called Abhijit . The author of Mahabharat , Maharshi Vyas , mentions in the chapter Vana Parva ( Chap . 230 , Verses 8 – 11 ) : " Contesting against Abhijit ( Vega ) , the constellation Krittika ( Pleiades ) went to " Vana " the summer solstice to heat the summer . Then the star Abhijit slipped down in the sky . " P. V. Vartak suggests in his book , The Scholarly Dating of Mahabharat , that the " slipping of Abhijit " and ascension of Krittika ( Pleiades ) might refer to the gradual drop of Vega as a pole star since 12 @,@ 000 BC . Vega is expected to become Earth 's pole star by the year 26 @,@ 000 by some estimates .
Medieval astrologers counted Vega as one of the Behenian stars and related it to chrysolite and winter savory . Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic sign under Vultur cadens , a literal Latin translation of the Arabic name . Medieval star charts also listed the alternate names Waghi , Vagieh and Veka for this star .
Vega became the first star to have a car named after it with the French Facel Vega line of cars from 1954 onwards , and later on , in America , Chevrolet launched the Vega in 1971 . Other vehicles named after Vega include the ESA 's Vega launch system and the Lockheed Vega aircraft .
= I See the Light =
" I See the Light " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater for Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) . A duet originally recorded by American recording artist and actress Mandy Moore and American actor Zachary Levi in their respective film roles as main characters Rapunzel and Flynn Rider , the folk @-@ inspired pop ballad serves as both the film 's love and theme song . Lyrically , " I See the Light " describes the developing romantic relationship between Rapunzel and Flynn , and is featured as the seventh track on the film 's soundtrack album .
Tangled was originally conceived by Disney animator Glen Keane . Subsequently , Walt Disney Animation Studios hired veteran Disney composer Alan Menken and lyricist Glenn Slater to write the film 's songs . Initially , Menken and Slater had written a more anthemic version of " I See the Light " before finally re @-@ working it into a gentler , simpler and more folk @-@ oriented song . Menken would later reveal that , out of Tangled 's five songs and musical numbers , he is most proud of " I See the Light " .
" I See the Light " has inspired a generally mixed to positive reception from film and music critics , who were largely ambivalent towards the song 's content , questioning its originality . However , the " lantern sequence " during which " I See the Light " is performed by Rapunzel and Flynn has enjoyed widespread critical acclaim , with journalists and commentators praising its visuals and use of 3D . Critically , both the song and the scene have been compared to similar romantic musical sequences from preceding Disney animated films , including " Kiss the Girl " from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) and " A Whole New World " from Aladdin ( 1992 ) , both of which are love songs also composed by Menken .
In spite of its lukewarm reviews , " I See the Light " has garnered numerous awards and accolades . The song was nominated for the Academy and Golden Globe awards for Best Original Song in 2011 , losing both , the former to " We Belong Together " from Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) and the latter to " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " from Burlesque ( 2010 ) . Subsequently , " I See the Light " won both the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Song and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media . Since its release , the song has been recorded and covered by various musical artists , including musical theatre performers David Harris and Lucy Durack , and classical singer Jackie Evancho .
= = Background = =
The concept of an animated film based on the Brothers Grimm fairy tale " Rapunzel " originated from Disney animator Glen Keane in 1998 . Veteran Disney composer Alan Menken had just recently completed scoring Walt Disney Pictures ' Enchanted ( 2007 ) when he received a telephone call from Walt Disney Animation Studios in 2008 , who invited him to compose the music for the studio 's then @-@ upcoming animated film Tangled . Upon accepting , Menken invited frequent collaborator Glenn Slater , with whom he had previously worked on Disney 's Home on the Range ( 2004 ) and the Broadway musical adaptation of The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , to serve alongside him as his co @-@ writing lyricist once again .
Aware that Tangled would not be " a [ traditional ] musical like Beauty and the Beast or [ The Hunchback of Notre Dame ] " , on both of which Menken worked as a composer , Menken described the film as a " hybrid " because it is " far from [ a ] classic break into song musical . " For Tangled , Menken challenged himself to come up with a different , unique sound that would differ significantly from the musical styles of his previous Broadway musical @-@ influenced film projects and compositions . Inspired by the ongoing motif of Rapunzel 's " long hair and the freedom she wanted " , Menken decided to draw particular influence from the musical genre of 1960s folk rock , citing the musicianship and artistry of Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Joni Mitchell as a major source of musical inspiration .
= = Writing and recording = =
When it came to writing the film 's songs and musical numbers , Menken and Slater " looked for what is going to be an appropriate song moment for the main characters . " In the specific case of " I See the Light " , Menken elaborated , " The lantern song ... flows pretty much out of the sense of completion and [ Rapunzel ] finally sees the lanterns and has this moment . It ’ s more of a montage number . "
Menken and Slater had originally intended for " I See the Light " to sound more " anthem @-@ like " . The songwriters eventually changed their minds , deciding to re @-@ write " I See the Light " into a gentler , more folk @-@ oriented song . Menken spoke of the creative writing process , " we began throwing melodies up , doing songs and riffs and harmonies , and we waited for something to stick " . Additionally , Menken later admitted that , out of Tangled 's five songs and musical numbers , he is most proud of " I See the Light " because it " is a great moment in the film and I am very happy with the beauty and simplicity of the song . "
Similarly , co @-@ director Byron Howard also took an immediate liking towards the song . Hailing " I See the Light " as his favorite of the film 's songs , Howard elaborated , " The moment [ co @-@ director Nathan Greno and I ] heard Alan Menken 's demo we knew that one would be a classic . "
A romantic duet performed during the narrative portion of the film by its two main characters , Rapunzel and Flynn Rider , " I See the Light " was recorded by American recording artist and actress Mandy Moore as the voice of Rapunzel and American actor Zachary Levi as the voice of Flynn Rider . While filming Tangled , Moore and Levi physically encountered and worked with each other only twice , once on two separate occasions , the purpose of one of which was to record the vocals for " I See the Light " . According to Levi , he and Moore first rehearsed the song live accompanied by the film 's 80 @-@ piece orchestra before eventually being divided into separate isolation booths to record their respective lyrics , verses and harmonies individually .
= = Context and scene = =
Occurring towards the end of Tangled , " I See the Light " takes place during the film 's second act soon after Rapunzel and Flynn Rider have finally completed their grueling journey from Mother Gothel 's tower to Corona , arriving in the kingdom just in time to experience its annual lantern @-@ lighting ceremony , which Rapunzel has spent eighteen years – her entire life – observing at a distance from the confinement of Gothel 's tower . There the couple embarks on a boat ride to watch the ceremony as " the night sky [ is ] illuminated with a sea of lanterns . " During the pivotal scene , described by critics as the film 's " emotional peak " because of the fact that " Rapunzel ’ s dream of watching the floating lanterns seems to be reali [ z ] ed " , the musical number both " highlights the ... flight of the lanterns " while essentially triggering Rapunzel and Flynn ’ s " budding romance " , who are gradually beginning to fall in love .
According to Marianne Paluso of the Catholic News Agency , Rapunzel , during the scene , " finally sees for herself the wondrous floating lanterns she ’ s yearned to see her entire life " . Meanwhile , the audience is shown the way in which " love ... has blossomed between " the film 's two main characters . Commonly referred to by critics as one of Tangled 's " showstopping moments " , Rapunzel and Flynn perform the romantic duet while " play [ ing ] off each other " as they continue to fall in love
As a result of " I See the Light " ' s setting , romantic context and lyrical content , several comparisons have been drawn between both the song and its corresponding scene and various romantic musical sequences from a number of preceding Disney animated feature films , the most frequently referenced of which are " Kiss the Girl " from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) and " A Whole New World " from Aladdin ( 1992 ) , both romantic ballads also composed by Menken . One particular reviewer , Steven D. Greydanus of Decent Films Guide , drew comparisons between the scene and the musical " Nutcracker Suite " sequence from Disney 's animated feature film Fantasia ( 1940 ) , describing it as " a moment of visual transcendence . "
Throughout the filmmaking process , Tangled 's co @-@ directors Byron Howard and Nathan Greno continued to hold the scene in particularly high regard , constantly boasting to the production team that " I See the Light " " will be the most spectacular animated sequence you 've ever seen . " According to Greno , the use of 45 @,@ 000 floating lanterns during the scene was directly inspired by traditional Indonesian ceremonies during which people " set up rice paper lanterns and send them into the sky . "
= = Composition = =
A " dreamy " love song that embodies a " classic romantic feel " , " I See the Light " is a " peppy and cheerful " romantic pop ballad accompanied by a " soaring " melody that spans a length of three minutes and forty @-@ four seconds . Stylistically combining both classical and contemporary music with folk influences , the lyrics of the " endearing " romantic duet center around main characters Rapunzel and Flynn while describing their developing romantic relationship , which is finally beginning to allow the couple to " [ see ] life in a whole new way " as they " begin to connect romantically , " ultimately falling in love .
According to the song 's official sheet music , published by Walt Disney Music Publishing at the website Musicnotes.com , " I See the Light " is a mid @-@ tempo pop ballad , written in the key of C major ( later changing to E ♭ major ) at a moderately slow tempo of 104 beats per minute . Combined , Moore and Levi 's vocal ranges span over two octaves , with Levi singing the low note of B ♭ 2 and Moore singing the high note of E ♭ 5 . In addition to vocals , the song 's instrumentation also encompasses harp , acoustic guitar and orchestra .
= = Other languages = =
The movie was officially dubbed into another 40 languages , other than English . Among the artists cast worldwide for the role of Rapunzel , Danna Paola , who dubbed the character in the Latin American Spanish version , was only 15 years old when she took over the role .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
= = = = Song = = = =
Musically , " I See the Light " has received mixed to positive reviews from critics , many of whom were generally underwhelmed by the film 's songs . Catherine Jones of the Liverpool Echo reviewed " I See the Light " positively , hailing the song as a " rousing love ballad " . While Jessica Dawson of Common Sense Media described " I See the Light " as a " sweet duet " , Common Sense Media 's Sandie Angulo Chen called it a " great " love song . Lindsey Ward of Canoe.ca praised both Moore and Levi 's vocal performance , commenting , " their work on the film 's signature love ballad ... is bound to melt some hearts . "
Meanwhile , several critics have reacted much less favorably towards " I See the Light " . Scott Chitwood of ComingSoon.net described the song as nothing more than " pretty good " . Tim McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger reviewed " I See the Light " very negatively , describing it as both " predictable " and " the sort of thing you 'd plug your ears through " . McCall went on to pan Slater 's lyrics , describing them as a " dull ... twenty @-@ car pileup of cliche . " Time 's Richard Corliss described " I See the Light " as a " generically tuneful love ballad " . In another review , Corliss similarly commented , " ' I See the Light ' ... isn 't the most inventive of Menken melodies " . Questioning the song 's originality , Cindy White of IGN described " I See the Light " as " unmemorable " . Filmtracks.com wrote a mixed review , describing Levi 's vocal performance as " conservatively appropriate " while criticizing Moore for " lacking in depth of inflection . "
= = = = Lantern sequence = = = =
Contrastingly , the climactic musical sequence during which " I See the Light " is performed by Rapunzel and Flynn , commonly referred to as the " lantern sequence " , has fared significantly better than the song itself , garnering widespread acclaim from film critics . Keith Uhlich of Time Out described the scene as " especially wonderful " , while Digital Spy 's Simon Reynolds similarly hailed it as one of the film 's most " striking moments " . Although Georgie Hobbs of Little White Lies wrote that , lyrically , " I See the Light " is " nothing special " , she went on to praise the scene , describing it as a " treat ... that will clinch it for romantics and 3D tech @-@ heads alike . " Radio Times ' Alan Jones labeled the sequence one of the film 's " most beautifully uplifting moments " . Similarly , Christian Blauvelt of Slant Magazine highlighted the scene as one of Tangled 's " few moments of otherworldly beauty " . A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote , " A scene of paper lanterns descending through mist onto water is especially breathtaking , partly because it departs from the usual 3 @-@ D insistence on deep focus and sharply defined images , creating an experience that is almost tactile in its dreamy softness . "
The New York Post 's Lou Lumenick , whose response to the film 's use of 3D was generally mixed , described " I See the Light " as " the year ’ s best use of 3 @-@ D " . Likewise , Dan Kois of Westword commented , " while Tangled 's 3 @-@ D is mostly unobtrusive , the lights swooping over the audience might be the most crowd @-@ pleasing three @-@ dimensional filigree I 've seen yet . " Rediff.com 's Sukanya Verma praised both the scene and the song , writing , " it 's the luminous imagery of [ " I See the Light " ] , merging the reach of technology with Menken 's sublime melody that produces a spectacular celluloid moment . " Tasha Robinson of The A. V. Club opined , " even a falling @-@ in @-@ love sequence cribbed in part from The Little Mermaid is overwhelmingly magical . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune wrote , " A romantic boat ride beneath a constellation of floating lanterns is one of the more breathtaking episodes of gratuitous beauty " . MSN Movies ' Glenn Kenny hailed the scene as one of " the most dazzling pieces of moving artwork executed in any animated movie " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences decided to modify the nomination rules pertaining to the Academy Award for Best Original Song after Menken 's Enchanted garnered three separate nominations for the award in 2008 , decreasing the nomination limit from three to only two from any individual film . After the release of Tangled , Menken revealed that the studio will only be submitting one song from the film to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for consideration for the Best Original Song award at the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011 " to avoid songs canceling each other out if nominated . " Menken decided upon " I See the Light " because he considers it " the heart and center of " the film and " seems to be the one that can break out . " Additionally , several critics expected the song to win Best Original Song , including Time 's Richard Corliss .
As widely anticipated , " I See the Light " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011 , becoming Menken 's nineteenth Academy Award nomination . Menken said of the accomplishment , " I don ’ t take it for granted at all " . However , the song ultimately lost to Randy Newman 's " We Belong Together " from Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) , another animated feature film released by Walt Disney Pictures , produced by Pixar Animation Studios . Previously , " I See the Light " had garnered a Golden Globe nomination for Best Original Song at the 68th Golden Globe Awards in 2011 , which it lost to " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " from Burlesque ( 2010 ) , written by Diane Warren and performed by Cher . Lastly , " I See the Light " was nominated for Best Song at the 16th Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards in 2011 , losing to " If I Rise " from 127 Hours ( 2010 ) .
" I See the Light " went on to win the Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Song in 2010 , and the Best Song Written for Visual Media Award at the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012 .
Babble.com ranked " I See the Light " as one of the " Greatest ... Disney Movie Moments " .
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
In celebration of the song 's Best Original Song nomination , Moore and Levi performed " I See the Light " live at the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011 , accompanied by Menken himself on piano . For the performance , Moore asked that she be provided with a " showstopping " dress , specifically requesting that it not resemble a Disney costume . To comply , fashion designer Monique Lhuillier " incorporated elements of three dresses Moore loved " into the final dress , resulting in a full @-@ skirted cobalt blue gown . Moore revealed that she was feeling confident about the performance " until about two minutes before the show " . Moore also said of the performance , " It was the most intimidating audience I performed for ... I made a point not to look at anyone … because I was nervous . "
Australian actor and singer David Harris included his rendition of " I See the Light " on his second studio album At This Stage ( 2011 ) , recording the song as a duet with Australian actress Lucy Durack . Theatre People 's Simon Parris wrote of Harris ' version , " the gorgeous duet .. will have listeners rushing out to watch their Tangled blu @-@ ray again . " American classical singer Jackie Evancho recorded " I See the Light " for her fourth studio album Songs from the Silver Screen ( 2012 ) as a duet with American singer Jacob Evancho , her elder brother . Amazon.com described Evancho 's rendition as a " very special duet . "
= Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor ( 782 ) =
The Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor in 782 was one of the largest operations launched by the Abbasid Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire . The invasion was launched as a display of Abbasid military might in the aftermath of a series of Byzantine successes . Commanded by the Abbasid heir @-@ apparent , the future Harun al @-@ Rashid , the Abbasid army reached as far as Chrysopolis , across the Bosporus from the Byzantine capital , Constantinople , while secondary forces raided western Asia Minor and defeated the Byzantine forces there . As Harun did not intend to assault Constantinople and lacked ships to do so , he turned back .
The Byzantines , who in the meantime had neutralized the detachment left to secure the Abbasid army 's rear in Phrygia , were able to trap Harun 's army between their own converging forces . The defection of the Armenian general Tatzates , however , allowed Harun to regain the upper hand . The Abbasid prince sent for a truce and detained the high @-@ ranking Byzantine envoys , who included Empress Irene 's chief minister , Staurakios . This forced Irene to agree to a three @-@ year truce and pay a heavy annual tribute . Irene then focused her attention to the Balkans , but warfare with the Arabs resumed in 786 , until mounting Arab pressure led to another truce in 798 , on terms similar to those of 782 .
= = Background = =
Taking advantage of the internal difficulties of the Umayyad Caliphate that resulted from the civil wars of the 740s and the subsequent Abbasid Revolution , the Byzantines under Emperor Constantine V ( reigned 741 – 775 ) were able to regain the initiative on their eastern borders from the Arabs , and pursued an aggressive strategy . With the gradual consolidation of the Abbasid regime in the 760s and 770s , the situation became more balanced : the Arabs resumed their large @-@ scale raids deep into Asia Minor , although the Byzantines were still capable of major counterstrikes . Thus in 778 , the Byzantines , under Michael Lachanodrakon , seized the town of Germanikeia ( Ma 'rash ) , where they captured significant amounts of booty and took many Syrian Christians captive , and defeated an army sent against them by the Abbasid general Thumama ibn al @-@ Walid . In the next year , the Byzantines took and razed the fortress city of Hadath , forcing Caliph al @-@ Mahdi ( r . 775 – 785 ) to replace the rather passive Thumama with the veteran al @-@ Hasan ibn Qahtaba . Hasan led over 30 @,@ 000 troops in an invasion of Byzantine territory , but the Byzantines offered no opposition and withdrew to well @-@ fortified towns and refuges , until a lack of supplies forced Hasan to return home without achieving much .
In response to these Byzantine successes , Caliph al @-@ Mahdi now resolved to take the field in person . On 12 March 780 , Mahdi departed Baghdad and via Aleppo marched to Hadath , which he refortified . He then advanced to Arabissus , where he left the army and returned to Baghdad . His son and heir Harun — better known by his laqab , or regnal name , al @-@ Rashid — was left in charge of one half of the army , which raided the Armeniac Theme and took the small fort of Semaluos . Thumama , who had been entrusted with the other half , penetrated deeper into Asia Minor . He marched west as far as the Thracesian Theme , but was heavily defeated there by Lachanodrakon . In June 781 , as the Arab invasion force assembled at Hadath under Abd al @-@ Kabir , a great @-@ great @-@ nephew of the Caliph Umar ( r . 634 – 644 ) , and again prepared to launch their annual raid , Empress Irene called up the thematic armies of Asia Minor and placed them under the eunuch sakellarios John . The Muslims crossed into Byzantine Cappadocia over the Pass of Hadath , and were met near Caesarea by the combined Byzantine forces under Lachanodrakon . The ensuing battle resulted in a costly Arab defeat , forcing Abd al @-@ Kabir to abandon his campaign and retreat to Syria .
This defeat infuriated the Caliph , who prepared a new expedition . Intended as a show of force and a clear display of the Caliphate 's superiority , it was the largest army sent against Byzantium in the second half of the 8th century : it allegedly comprised 95 @,@ 793 men , about twice the total Byzantine military establishment present in Asia Minor , and cost the Abbasid state some 1 @.@ 6 million nomismata , almost as much as the Byzantine Empire 's entire annual income . Harun was the nominal leader , but the Caliph took care to send experienced officers to accompany him .
= = Campaign = =
On 9 February 782 , Harun departed Baghdad ; the Arabs crossed the Taurus Mountains by the Cilician Gates , and swiftly took the border fortress of Magida . They then advanced along the military roads across the plateau into Phrygia . There , Harun left his lieutenant , the hadjib al @-@ Rabi ' ibn Yunus , to besiege Nakoleia and guard his rear , while another force , reportedly 30 @,@ 000 men , under al @-@ Barmaki ( an unspecified member of the powerful Barmakid family , probably Yahya ibn Khalid ) , was sent to raid the rich western coastlands of Asia Minor . Harun himself , with the main army , advanced to the Opsician Theme . The accounts of subsequent events in the primary sources ( Theophanes the Confessor , Michael the Syrian , and al @-@ Tabari ) differ on the details , but the general course of the campaign can be reconstructed .
According to Warren Treadgold , the Byzantine effort seems to have been led by Irene 's chief minister , the eunuch Staurakios , whose strategy was to avoid an immediate confrontation with Harun 's huge army , but wait until it had split up and advanced to meet its various detachments independently . The Thracesians under Lachanodrakon confronted al @-@ Barmaki at a place called Darenos , but were defeated and suffered heavy losses ( 15 @,@ 000 men according to Theophanes , 10 @,@ 000 according to Michael the Syrian ) . The outcome of al @-@ Rabi 's siege of Nakoleia is unclear , but he was probably defeated ; Theophanes 's phrasing may imply that the town was taken , but Michael the Syrian reports that the Arabs suffered great losses and failed to capture it , a version of events confirmed by hagiographic sources . Al @-@ Tabari reports that part of the main army under Yazid ibn Mazyad al @-@ Shaybani met a Byzantine force led by a certain Niketas who was " count of counts " ( perhaps the Count of the Opsician Theme ) , probably somewhere near Nicaea . In the ensuing battle , Niketas was wounded and unhorsed in single combat with the Arab general and forced to retire , probably to Nicomedia , where the imperial tagmata ( professional guard regiments ) under the Domestic of the Schools Anthony were assembled . Harun did not bother with them , and advanced to the town of Chrysopolis , across the Bosporus Strait from Constantinople itself . Lacking ships to cross the Bosporus , and with no intention of assaulting Constantinople in the first place , Harun probably intended this advance only as a show of force .
Furthermore , despite his success so far , Harun 's position was precarious , as the defeat of al @-@ Rabi threatened his lines of communication with the Caliphate . Consequently , after plundering the Byzantine capital 's Asian suburbs , Harun turned his army back , but during his march along the valley of the Sangarius River , east of Nicaea , he was surrounded by the forces of the tagmata under Anthony in his rear and of the Bucellarians under their general Tatzates to his front . Fortunately for him , at this point Tatzates , an Armenian prince who had defected from his Arab @-@ ruled homeland to the Byzantines in 760 and was closely associated with the iconoclast regime of Constantine V , secretly made contact with him . Tatzates offered to aid Harun in exchange for a pardon and a safe return for himself and his family to his native Armenia . Theophanes explains Tatzates 's actions with his hostility towards Irene 's favourite , Staurakios , but this evidently masks a broader dissatisfaction with Irene 's regime . As Ralph @-@ Johannes Lilie writes , " Tatzates did not see any big opportunities for himself under the new regime and indeed used the good chance that the situation offered him . "
Thus , when Harun asked for negotiations , Irene dispatched a delegation of three of her most senior officials : the Domestic Anthony , the magistros Peter , and Staurakios himself . Confident of their military position , they neglected to secure promises for their safety or hostages of their own , so that when they arrived in the Arab camp , they were made prisoners . Coupled with the treachery of Tatzates and the unreliability of the troops under his command , Irene was now forced to negotiate for their release , especially of her trusted aide Staurakios .
The two states concluded a three @-@ year truce in exchange for a heavy annual tribute — the Arab sources mention various amounts between 70 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 gold nomismata , while one also adds 10 @,@ 000 pieces of silk . Tabari 's account records that the tribute amounted to " ninety or seventy thousand dinars " , to be paid " at the beginning of April and in June every year " . In addition , the Byzantines were obliged to provide provisions and guides for Harun 's army on its march home , and to hand over Tatzates 's wife and property . Harun released all his captives ( 5 @,@ 643 according to Tabari ) , but kept the rich plunder he had gathered , and returned to the Caliphate in September 782 . Tabari , in his account of the expedition , says that Harun 's forces captured 194 @,@ 450 dinars in gold and 21 @,@ 414 @,@ 800 dirhams in silver , killed 54 @,@ 000 Byzantines in battle and 2 @,@ 090 in captivity and took over 20 @,@ 000 riding animals captive while slaughtering 100 @,@ 000 cattle and sheep . Tabari also reports that the amount of plunder was such that " a work horse was sold for a dirham and a mule for less than ten dirhams , a coat of mail for less than a dirham , and twenty swords for a dirham " — at a time when one to two dirhams was the usual daily salary of a labourer or soldier .
= = Aftermath = =
The successful Arab invasion had important repercussions in Byzantium . The outcome represented a major blow to Empress Irene 's prestige , while Tatzates , a capable and veteran leader , was lost to the Empire and became the ruler of his native Armenia for the Abbasids . On the other hand , despite the humiliating peace treaty , Byzantium 's losses were not excessive , especially considering the scale of the Arab attack , and Irene used the three years of the truce to strengthen her internal position : she seems to have dismissed most of the " old guard " of Constantine V 's generals , with the long @-@ serving and fanatically iconoclast Michael Lachanodrakon being the most prominent victim of this bloodless purge . In this way , Irene secured control over the military , and was able to refocus its efforts in expanding and consolidating Byzantine control over the Slavs of the Balkans .
Despite the truce , the chronicler Ibn Wadih mentions Arab raids into Asia Minor for the years 783 , 784 and 785 . If true , then these would probably represent only minor affairs , as the main sources agree that the truce was mutually respected until spring 785 . In that year , as Irene had strengthened her hold over the army and was preparing to confront the iconoclasts on the domestic front , she decided to cease payment of the tribute , and hostilities recommenced . In early 786 , the Byzantines scored a major success , sacking and razing to the ground the fortress town of Hadath in Cilicia , which the Abbasids had spent the last five years turning into a major stronghold and military base for their cross @-@ border expeditions . After the accession of Harun al @-@ Rashid to the caliphal throne in the same year , however , the Abbasids regained the initiative . Arab pressure mounted , and in 798 Irene was forced to ask for a peace treaty that repeated the stipulations of the 782 truce .
= European route E751 =
The European route E751 , or E751 , as defined by the Declaration on the Construction of Main International Traffic Arteries of 1975 , and subsequent documents which amended the treaty , is an east @-@ west Class @-@ B branching European road route . Originating in Rijeka , Croatia , where it diverges from European route E61 before passing through the Kanfanar interchange , the route connects Pula , Rovinj , Poreč and Umag in Croatia with Koper in Slovenia . The route provides a high @-@ performance road link in Istria and Slovenian Litt
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decadent . " Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen , however , felt the chorus was " a whisp " and called the song 's beat " generic Eurodisco thump " . Gaga 's faux @-@ German lyrics were criticized by the magazine , which called it " gibberish that sounds German but isn 't . " Caryn Ganz from Spin called the opening lines of the song ( " I don 't speak German , but I can if you like " ) " hilariously ludicrous . "
Tris McCall , in New Jersey On @-@ Line , rewarded " Scheiße " as the " song of the week " and recommended it as Gaga 's next single from Born This Way , noting it to be " no less absurd " than the previous singles . McCall also noted Gaga 's gibberish lyrics and compared them to what a high school student group 's version of Cabaret would sound like . He concluded by praising the song 's production . Prefixmag 's Craig Jenkins said the song " cuts the karaoke crap and kicks ass on the dance floor " and " eschew [ s ] Born This Way ’ s time traveling ethos in favor of a more modern approach . " Ed Commentale from Tinymixtapes gave a mixed review of the German in the song , saying " the singer is not so much speaking the language of the German people , but updating it for the new millennium , enjoining this nation to move beyond its tragic history into a new era of love and dancing ... [ ' Scheiße ' ] reveals a certain disregard for both fact and reality . " Nathan Heller from Slate compared the song to Mediterranean dance tracks , while declaring it as being " custom @-@ tailored to an international audience " .
Despite not having been released as a single , the song entered the charts in different countries . In Germany , " Scheiße " debuted at number 90 , after Gaga had included parts of it in her performance at the Germany 's Next Topmodel TV show . Following the release of Born This Way , " Scheiße " peaked at number 13 on the International Digital Download chart in South Korea , jumping 21 positions from the previous week . It also peaked at number 136 on the UK Singles Chart , for one week . In the United States , the song reached number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart of Billboard . It also charted at number four on the Hot Dance / Electronic Digital Songs , as well as at number 67 on the Canadian Hot Digital Songs chart .
= = Live performances = =
Lady Gaga included the song 's first verse in her performance at the Germany 's Next Topmodel TV show on June 6 , 2011 . She emerged from a well @-@ lit doorway wearing a turquoise wig , a black hat , and a long black dress and walked towards a piano . Only the German lines and the first line of the song were performed , after which Gaga moved to a piano decorated with dollar bills and sang an acoustic version of " Born This Way " . Ray Rodriguez of ImpreMedia , in a review of the performance , stated that " Gaga took over the stage . Gaga always provides material to talk about . And their presentation was no exception and this time she was seen dancing across a row of cutters labeled with the words ' money ' , ' sex ' and ' vanity ' while scantily clad dancers threw her around the stage notes " and Charlie Amter of The Hollywood Reporter stated that " Gaga dazzled German fans " . Becky Bain of Idolator was dismissive , arguing that " She [ Gaga ] Uh , she does know she 's performing on a show featuring models , right ? "
The opening faux @-@ German lines , first verse and chorus opened Gaga 's set at the iHeart Radio music festival in Las Vegas . " Scheiße " is performed on the Born This Way Ball world tour after her 2009 single " Paparazzi " . Gaga , with long blonde pigtails , performs a complex dance routine wearing a black top and pants , described by Miguel Dumaual of CBS News as containing " solid dance @-@ beats " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter and producer
RedOne – songwriter , producer , vocal editing , vocal arrangement , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , and recording at Tour Bus in Europe
Trevor Muzzy – recording , vocal editing , audio engineering , and audio mixing at Larrabee , North Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Halo Wars =
Halo Wars is a real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) video game developed by Ensemble Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360 video game console . It was released in Japan and Australia on February 26 , 2009 ; in Europe on February 27 ; and in North America on March 3 . The game is set in the science fiction universe of the Halo series in the year 2531 , 21 years before the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . The player leads human soldiers aboard the warship Spirit of Fire in an effort to stop an ancient fleet of ships from falling into the hands of the genocidal alien Covenant .
Halo Wars was unveiled at the X06 Xbox show in 2006 . Ensemble designed the game specifically for the Xbox 360 controller , in an attempt to circumvent issues present in previous console RTS . Ensemble was closed by Microsoft before the game 's release , but soon after Robot Entertainment was founded by many of Ensemble 's former employees ; this new company continued to support Halo Wars with updates and downloadable content .
Halo Wars received generally positive reviews . Reviewers lauded the game 's pre @-@ rendered cinematics , attention to detail in replicating the Halo universe , and intuitive control scheme . Complaints against the game included the lack of an option to play as the Covenant faction in campaign mode as well as the lack of strategic options during play . Critics from GameSpot and USA Today wrote that experienced RTS players would find the strategic elements of the title shallow . The game sold one million units worldwide through March 2009 , making it the best @-@ selling console real @-@ time strategy game to date . Halo Wars 2 , a sequel under development by Creative Assembly will be released February 2017 . An enhanced version of the game — Halo Wars : Definitive Edition — will be released for Windows and Xbox One .
= = Gameplay = =
Halo Wars is a real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) video game developed exclusively for the Xbox 360 console , in which players command armies from a bird 's @-@ eye view of the battlefield . The game focuses on military combat , but contains streamlined resource management and base construction elements . It was designed with the Xbox 360 controller in mind ; for example , the A button is used for selecting units . A single tap of the button selects one unit , while a double tap selects all units of the same type . The d @-@ pad navigates to current battles and cycles through bases , while the right analog stick adjusts the camera angle . A radial menu is used for base construction .
Halo Wars features a story @-@ based , military campaign game mode that can be played alone or cooperatively over the Xbox Live service . A plotless multiplayer option , called " skirmish mode " , lets players compete against human or computer @-@ controlled opponents . The game features two factions the players can control : the human United Nations Space Command ( UNSC ) as Captain Cutter , Sergeant Forge , or Professor Anders , and the alien Covenant as Prophet Of Regret , Arbiter , or Brute Chieftain . Each faction has different units , strengths , and special abilities . There are three selectable " Leaders " for each side ; the chosen leader allows the use of specific units and upgrades during play . While Covenant Leaders appear on the battlefield as units , human leaders do not .
Combat in Halo Wars is balanced by a " rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors " system . In general , ground vehicles are effective in combat against infantry , infantry are effective against aircraft , and aircraft are effective against vehicles . Most units have a unique special ability ; for example , human Marines throw grenades , while the " Warthog " vehicle can run over enemies . Humans have access to their ship , the Spirit of Fire , and its special abilities , such as a powerful coilgun called a M.A.C. ( Magnetic Accelerator Cannon ) . Covenant units are generally weaker than their UNSC counterparts , but can use inexpensive and powerful defensive shield generators to add protection to their bases . Players establish their armies by building and expanding bases ; these are used to train units and to allocate resources to the research of upgrades and technologies . There are a limited number of potential locations for bases on each scenario or map , making base fortification and defense a priority . A player is defeated if all his or her bases are destroyed , unless a new base is quickly established . The army of a player must also be destroyed to be defeated .
Units are trained , buildings upgraded , and special abilities activated using resources known as " supplies " . Players can find supplies on the battlefield , or generate them by building supply structures at bases . Greater numbers of these buildings produce more supplies . Some structures and upgrades become available only after the player achieves a certain " tech level " . The UNSC can achieve multiple tech levels through the construction of reactors , with some actions requiring up to level four ; the Covenant builds a single temple that allows three upgrades of tech level . The Covenant has one fewer tech level , and each upgrade is more expensive . Destruction of a temple results in the loss of all tech until the temple is rebuilt . Each base has a limited amount of space , so players must balance their resource buildings with other facilities , such as those used to create military units . The number of units a player can deploy is limited , but certain upgrades ease this limit .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Halo Wars takes place in the science fictional universe of the Halo series , during the 26th century . In 2525 , a collective of alien races known as the Covenant attacked humanity , declaring humans an affront to their gods , the Forerunners . The game takes place in 2531 , roughly 20 years before the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . Six years after the Covenant invaded the colony of Harvest , human UNSC forces are still locked in battle on the planet .
= = = Characters = = =
The commander of the UNSC warship Spirit of Fire is Captain James Cutter ( Gregg Berger ) , a strong leader who has earned the admiration of his subordinates . Cutter 's lack of political ambition prevents him from climbing the ranks further . Serving under Cutter is Sergeant John Forge ( Nolan North ) , a gruff Marine whose devotion to men has caused him to be jailed twice for disobeying orders and engaging in disorderly conduct . Joining the Spirit of Fire 's military expedition is Professor Ellen Anders ( Kim Mai Guest ) , a scientist interested in ancient ruins of the mysterious Forerunners . The Spirit of Fire is operated with help from Serina ( Courtenay Taylor ) , a super @-@ intelligent artificial intelligence ( AI ) with a sardonic sense of humor ; it has been noted that she demonstrates a level of contempt for the humans she assists . Leading the Covenant search for Forerunner technology is a holy warrior known as the Arbiter ( David Sobolov ) , who the Covenant leaders , the Prophet Hierarchs , have tasked with the oversight of humanity 's destruction .
= = = Story = = =
The Spirit of Fire is sent to the ruined planet Harvest to investigate Covenant activity , where Cutter learns that the Covenant has excavated something at the planet 's northern pole . When the UNSC 's main outpost on Harvest is captured , Cutter orders Forge to retake it . Soon after , Forge scouts the Covenant excavation and discovers that they , under the direction of the Arbiter , have discovered a Forerunner facility . Forge 's troops defeat the Covenant forces before they can destroy the installation , and Anders arrives . She determines that the facility is an interstellar map , and recognizes a set of coordinates that points to the human colony of Arcadia .
After repelling a Covenant counterattack on the Forerunner facility , the Spirit of Fire travels to Arcadia , where the Covenant has begun raiding local cities and slaughtering civilians . Forge contacts the local Spartan special forces and assists with the evacuation process . The Covenant builds a giant energy shield to hide the construction of a gigantic Scarab super @-@ weapon , but the UNSC forces use experimental equipment to break through . The Scarab is destroyed , but the Arbiter kidnaps Anders and escapes the planet .
Forge and the Spartans return to the Spirit of Fire and the crew follows Anders ' signal to an uncharted planet in another star system . The planet 's surface is infested by the parasitic Flood , who attack and assimilate any sentient life they encounter . The Spirit of Fire inadvertently activates a Forerunner docking station and enters the planet 's interior . Flood board the ship , and very soon Forerunner Sentinels appear to cleanse the Flood threat and also to destroy all UNSC forces in the process . The crew discovers the planet is actually hollow , with a habitable interior and a miniature sun . The Covenant 's plan is to activate a dormant fleet of highly advanced Forerunner starships inside the planet , and use them to obliterate humanity .
While the Forerunner ships are being activated , Anders escapes through a teleportation device and is rescued . Cutter decides to destroy the Forerunner fleet rather than allow the Covenant to use it . Anders formulates a plan to detonate the ship 's faster @-@ than @-@ light drive in the planet 's sun , as the explosion would cause a supernova . Before they can prepare the reactor , Forge and the Spartans are ambushed by the Arbiter and his Elites . The Spartans dispatch the aliens and Forge kills the Arbiter . The reactor is damaged during the fight , necessitating a manual detonation . Forge volunteers for the suicidal task , telling the Spartans that they will be needed in the coming fight . The Spirit of Fire escapes just as Forge overloads the reactor , destroying the Forerunner fleet . Without its faster @-@ than @-@ light drive , the Spirit of Fire is left drifting in space . The crew enters cryonic sleep for long @-@ term storage as Cutter takes a last look at Forge 's empty cryonic tube . If the game is completed on the " Legendary " difficulty mode , Serina wakes Cutter and tells him that " something has happened " .
= = Development = =
= = = Design = = =
Computer game developer Bungie Studios conceived Halo : Combat Evolved as a real @-@ time strategy game in which players would tactically control units and vehicles in a three @-@ dimensional environment . Microsoft acquired Bungie in 2000 , and the game became a first @-@ person shooter and " killer app " for the Xbox console . Bungie produced two best @-@ selling sequels , Halo 2 in 2004 and Halo 3 in 2007 , before separating from Microsoft and becoming an independent company once more . Although Bungie is free to produce new intellectual property , the rights to Halo remain with Microsoft . Shane Kim , the head of Microsoft Game Studios , said during the split announcement that " our intent is to continue investing in [ Halo ] and growing it . "
In 2004 , the Microsoft @-@ owned Ensemble Studios — developers of the Age of Empires strategy series — began work on the game that would become Halo Wars . The studio confirmed in April 2006 that it was working on a console @-@ based RTS . CEO Tony Goodman said , " We 're giving RTS games on the console a shot . We actually spent a whole year just trying to reconstruct how the controls would work on an RTS game . " Without revealing the title , Goodman described the game as being shorter and more visceral than their previous projects .
Halo Wars was originally not a Halo series title . Ensemble spent 12 to 18 months working on the control scheme , using the Age of Mythology engine . The development team hacked an Age of Mythology expansion , The Titans , and used it as a prototype for control experiments . Ensemble found that managing Age of Mythology 's resources , units , and buildings was too difficult with the console 's controller . " The answer [ to making a PC @-@ style strategy game for a console ] is actually hidden in the question , " Jason Pace , Microsoft Game Studio 's lead producer , told The New Zealand Herald . " It 's something we believe has held strategy games back from succeeding on the console : you can 't effectively bring a PC @-@ style strategy game to the console because the fundamental game mechanic is tied to the mouse and keyboard input devices . It 's not a question of just changing the control scheme to be gamepad friendly — you need to adapt the underlying strategy mechanic to make sense with the new input device . " Senior designer Justin Rouse said that the team kept the controls from the research they had conducted , but scrapped the rest in favor of " build [ ing ] from the floor up what we need [ ed ] : the basics , the core of a strategy game . " With the goal of making " the first great strategy game on the console " , Ensemble streamlined gameplay mechanics ; the game 's single resource is produced at each base site , which allows players to quickly cycle through their bases instead of micromanaging multiple resources at many locations .
Once the developers were satisfied with the controls , they presented their project to Microsoft , who suggested that it be turned into a Halo game . Bungie was reportedly not happy about this development . Ensemble 's Founder , Tony Goodman , stated in a 2012 interview that Bungie saw the move as " the whoring out of our franchise "
Although Ensemble had to re @-@ create all of Bungie 's assets from scratch , Bungie had produced a large amount of reference material for the Halo film adaptation that the Halo Wars team used for inspiration . Another reference point was art from the Halo first @-@ person shooters ; however , as the art was from a forward perspective and Halo Wars takes place from a bird 's @-@ eye view , the team exaggerated shapes to make the units recognizable . Lead designer Graeme Devine noted that the Warthog Jeep is " actually jumping three times as high as it does in Halo , and it goes four times faster than it does in Halo , and all these things — but it looks the same . Very different , between look and accuracy . " To ensure artistic continuity between Halo Wars and previous games in the series , Ensemble created a set of guidelines for their artists to follow ; for example , the Covenant were to retain their curvy , organic look , while the Forerunner and UNSC were to keep the same geometry angles . UNSC structures and units were given a green tint , with gold specular highlights . The Covenant were textured with a repeating honeycomb pattern , with small blue lights against a purple base color .
Devine described the challenge of developing Halo Wars as " getting Halo fans to play a realtime strategy game , and getting realtime strategy fans to play a Halo game . " " Fans of the [ first @-@ person shooter ] series have very strong expectations for how a Halo games looks , feels and plays . Halo is all about heroic action to save humanity , mega @-@ battles across the galaxy , visceral , highly @-@ tuned combat and heart @-@ pounding tension , " Pace said . These themes were considered fundamental to the Halo experience , and so Ensemble tried to replicate them for Halo Wars . Early in play tests , the developers watched devoted Halo fans play the game ; their feedback led to the development of special abilities , which , according to Devine , enhanced the Halo feel . Ensemble initially considered making the Flood a playable race , but this idea did not progress beyond the concept stage . According to Devine , this was largely because the Flood would have needed to be similar to StarCraft 's Zerg , in order to maintain balance with the UNSC and Covenant . This did not match the Flood 's role as " the single scariest thing in the galaxy " .
Because of the Master Chief 's large role in previous games , significant effort was expended on the Spartan units . Lead designer Dave Pottinger said the design team " started out just accepting and embracing the fact that the Spartans have to be the coolest unit in the game . If they 're not , it 's not going to meet the Halo fans ' expectations . " To position the Spartans as " kingmakers " in gameplay , the team gave them what it considered to be the " coolest " unit ability : hijacking enemy vehicles . The developers hoped players would become attached to individual Spartans in the campaign and gave each one an individual name ; skirmish units were left nameless . The character design of the Spartans was meant to emphasize their relative inexperience and the setting of the game , which takes place decades before the events of the main trilogy . Devine commented on the Spartans ' look :
... We felt because it was 20 years earlier , these are much younger Spartans . They aren 't quite as experienced as Master Chief , and we looked a lot at combat infantry going into actual wars , and typically at the beginning of a war , especially the Vietnam War , if you look at the infantry , they 're all loaded up . They have all the backpacks on , they have all the belts on , every single bit of armor is there , and they 're carrying around lots of armor . At the end of the war , they 've lost it all and just carry what they need . This is all they have . So if you look at our Spartans , they have more pieces of armor on going into the war . They have more markings on there , more pieces of armor . They 've still got the belts on , they 're still carrying around everything .
Ensemble expanded the Halo universe during the game 's development , in order to create enough units to give players strategic options . Among the new units was the Gorgon , a biped mech that used weapons called Needlers to destroy light aircraft . However , Ensemble later realized that the Gorgon invalidated a rule they had established : " anything with two legs that walks " was an infantry unit . Instead , the team added a new aircraft called the Vampire . The UNSC , meanwhile , lacked a melee unit to match the Covenant 's hand @-@ to @-@ hand power . Ensemble considered using the original , less advanced Spartan Mark I suits of armor , in keeping with Halo lore , but once added these units were indistinguishable from Spartans in appearance . Instead , they created a lumbering , mechanized unit called the Cyclops , a nod to Age of Mythology .
Time constraints prevented many elements from appearing in the final game . One such missing feature was a fatality system by which Spartans or Covenant leaders could inflict massive damage on large groups of units . Pottinger said that the animations , while interesting , did not mesh with the fast @-@ paced combat of Halo Wars and raised balance concerns . Other elements based on Halo fiction did not work in a strategy game . Although more than 100 people worked on the project , which cost tens of millions of dollars , a Covenant campaign was never realized because of a lack of manpower and money .
= = = Announcements = = =
Halo Wars was officially announced at Microsoft 's X06 media briefing on September 27 , 2006 , with a pre @-@ rendered trailer created by Blur Studio . The trailer depicts a group of Warthog vehicles searching for missing soldiers . Covenant Elites ambush the patrol and a battle ensues involving human and Covenant vehicles and infantry . The trailer ends with the arrival of Spartan reinforcements . GameSpy listed the trailer in its top 25 video game cinematic moments , because it showed " the world of Halo on a much grander scale " .
Halo Wars was exhibited at the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) in 2007 and 2008 . Devine narrated the soundtrack for a video shown at E3 2007 , which was later made available on the Xbox Live Marketplace . This video described the game 's controls , user interface , vehicles , special weapons , and new units . It also showed a UNSC base consisting of an airbase , vehicle depot , missile silo , and other buildings . IGN , Next Generation , and PC World ranked Halo Wars as one of the most anticipated showings at E3 .
On September 10 , 2008 , Ensemble Studios announced that it would close after Halo Wars ' completion . Ensemble founder Tony Goodman and other employees announced the formation of a new studio , Robot Entertainment , shortly before the game 's release ; another group of ex @-@ staff created Bonfire Studios . Robot announced that , while developing new intellectual property , it would support Halo Wars and Age of Empires through a partnership with Microsoft Game Studios .
= = = Audio = = =
Halo Wars ' music was composed by Stephen Rippy , the composer for all of the Age of Empires games . Rippy wanted to write new material while maintaining continuity by reusing iconic elements of the Halo trilogy 's music , written by Martin O 'Donnell and partner Michael Salvatori . Consultation with O 'Donnell and Salvatori finished before Rippy became involved in the project , but the composer sent a compact disc of his work to O 'Donnell halfway through the writing process . Before starting work on Halo Wars , Rippy listened to previous Halo soundtracks and searched for useful material in discarded Ensemble projects ; " I 'm a big fan of both cataloging that stuff and stealing from it without remorse , " Rippy said . " Sometimes you don 't know what you 've got until you really , really need it . " Rippy and audio lead Kevin McMullan examined O 'Donnell 's tracks to identify elements to reuse in Halo Wars . Foregoing his usual method of writing melodies before determining the method of sound production , Rippy built melodies around synthesizer patches or drum loops . He felt that scoring for science fiction was a change of pace from his previous work , which was written for historical settings .
Rippy began writing music for the game in April 2007 . " Some of the plot points of Halo Wars revolve around discovery , and I think that was my favorite idea to write to — that sense of , ' no one 's seen this before , ' " he said . The first two tracks combined repurposed elements from past projects with his efforts to convey the Halo sound . " Flollo " contained musical ideas Rippy had experimented with since his last project , Age of Empires III : The WarChiefs . " Bad Here Day " was the first piece in which he tried to incorporate the " Halo sound " . Rippy felt it important to avoid repeating too many old themes because he wanted the game to have its own identity ; however , he wanted to continue to incorporate choir and piano , elements he believed to be integral to the sound of previous Halo games . In adherence to an Ensemble Studios tradition , the tracks are often named after coined phrases and inside jokes , rather than in @-@ game events .
By the end of 2007 , Rippy had completed all of the gameplay music , including end credits , battle themes , and ambient world tracks . In the game 's skirmish mode , the music reflects the environment rather than the warring factions . To ensure that the character of the music changed depending on the environment , he followed self @-@ imposed rules ; one environment could feature guitars , but not piano , for instance . To musically unify each world , he added a short introductory piece containing common elements . In contrast with the skirmish mode , the campaign mode contains different recurring melodies for each major character and the human ship Spirit of Fire . Rippy 's most intensive work period was January 2008 , when he began writing music for the game 's cinematics ; by this point , he had been working on the score for nine months . Rippy finished the score by February 2008 , and , after three months , all tracks were ready to be recorded .
Although the previous live orchestrations for Halo games were performed by the Northwest Sinfonia in Seattle , Washington , Rippy chose the FILMharmonic Orchestra of Prague to record Halo Wars ' music . Rippy had been in Prague attending recording sessions for Age of Empires III : The Asian Dynasties and loved both the city and the sound the orchestra produced . The lower cost of recording in Eastern Europe was an additional benefit . The March 10 – 15 recording sessions involved 24 vocalists and 45 instrumentalists ; choir and string sections were later overdubbed to enlarge the sound . In all , roughly 65 minutes of Halo Wars ' 75 @-@ minute score were recorded in Prague . The final touches and production took place in Seattle ; O 'Donnell attended one of the mixing sessions .
Rippy used the Audiokinetic Wwise pipeline to create dynamic music that changes with the action in the game . Although Rippy used Wwise 's tools only for dynamic music , they made audio system setup much easier than in previous Ensemble games . For each battle sequence , the musical cue was divided into sections and mixed differently for each section . " When a cue is triggered , an intro plays and then the game randomly picks between all of those elements for as long as the battle continues , " Rippy explained . " Once it 's over , an outro plays and then it 's back to the regular " world " music . It was an interesting way to work , and I 'd like to push it further if there 's an opportunity in the future . "
Four tracks from Halo Wars were included as a preview on a bonus DVD bundled with Halo Trilogy — The Complete Original Soundtracks , a December 2008 compilation of previous Halo music . The tracks were mixed in Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 @-@ channel Surround Sound and packaged with video of recording sessions and the " Five Long Years " trailer . The soundtrack was released on February 17 as a standalone compact disc and as a digital download . AOL Radio secured the exclusive rights to premiere the soundtrack early , playing a new track at the beginning of every hour .
= = Release = =
The pre @-@ release playable demo for Halo Wars was first mentioned in the October 2007 issue of Official Xbox Magazine , and it became available for download on February 5 , 2009 ; redemption codes for early access were given starting January 29 . According to Microsoft , the game demo was downloaded by more than 2 million Xbox Live Gold members in the first five days , and set a record for most demo downloads on the service .
In addition to the standard retail version , a Limited Collector 's Edition of Halo Wars was made available . To attract Halo 3 's player base , Microsoft bundled early access to the Mythic Map Pack , a collection of three Halo 3 multiplayer maps , with the collector 's edition . A 48 @-@ page , half @-@ size hardcover graphic novel was also included ; titled Halo Wars : Genesis , it was created by Phil Noto , Graeme Devine , and Eric Nylund . It explores the background stories of Anders , the Arbiter , Forge and Cutter . Other bonuses included a unique in @-@ game vehicle , trading cards , and a Spirit of Fire patch . Players who pre @-@ ordered the game from certain retailers received a special in @-@ game Warthog vehicle with flame decals . GameStop announced that on February 28 , 2009 , one thousand stores in the United States would hold Halo Wars tournaments , and two thousand GameStop stores held midnight releases for the game . European markets sold a " Best of Halo " bundle of Halo Wars , Halo 3 and an Xbox 360 .
On release , Halo Wars reached second place on the United Kingdom weekly sales charts behind Killzone 2 . Halo Wars reached only 16 @.@ 7 % of Halo 3 's first @-@ week sales , but it outsold Command & Conquer 3 : Tiberium Wars threefold , making it the fastest @-@ selling console strategy game . The following week , Halo Wars 's sales were ranked fifth . In Australia , Halo Wars ' weekly sales ranked highest , ahead of Killzone 2 . By March 12 , the limited edition and standard version were ranked second and third , respectively , on the United States Xbox 360 sales charts , behind Call of Duty : World at War . Gamasutra attributed the surge in Halo 3 sales to the release of Halo Wars ; the former was fourth in the United States and second in Australia in sales of Xbox 360 games , and reappeared on the list of top 20 United States console games for February .
Before the game 's release , industry analyst Michael Pachter estimated that Halo Wars would sell 2 million units . On March 19 , 2009 , Microsoft announced that the game had sold 1 million units and that players had spent 118 total years of time in online skirmish matches . According to NPD Group 's March sales figures , Halo Wars sold 639 @,@ 000 copies in North America through March , making it the third best @-@ selling game in the market .
In June 2016 , Microsoft announced Halo Wars : Definitive Edition — an enhanced version of the game — for Windows and Xbox One . The Definitive Edition will be included with Ultimate Edition version of Halo Wars 2 .
= = Downloadable content = =
After Ensemble 's closing , Robot Entertainment announced that it was developing downloadable content ( DLC ) for Halo Wars . Pottinger described support as ongoing rather than a one @-@ time effort and compared it to Bungie 's post @-@ launch additions to Halo 3 . He stated that Robot would also work on balance issues , bug fixes , and other patches .
The first DLC package , Strategic Options , added three new multiplayer modes . " Keepaway " is similar to capture the flag ; in it , players try to capture and hold Forerunner units . In " Tug @-@ of @-@ war " , players earn points by fielding large armies and destroying enemy units . In " Reinforcement " , players receive units as reinforcements , rather than training them at bases . The amount of available resources and reactors determines which types of units are deployed and the upgrades they can earn . Strategic Options was released on May 19 , 2009 , after a patch that addressed software bugs and game balance issues . The update garnered criticism for its small size ( 2 megabytes ) and high price ( 800 Microsoft Points ) . Pottinger responded on the Halo Wars forums that the game modes were small downloads " because they are rules . There is some new content , but it 's obviously a different type of content compared to a map . " Robot released a second DLC package on July 21 , 2009 . The DLC , dubbed " Historic Battles " , contains four additional maps and four new Xbox Live achievements .
= = Reception = =
Halo Wars garnered generally positive reviews . The game has an average of 82 / 100 on aggregate web site Metacritic . Critics were split on whether Halo Wars was a successful console translation of the RTS genre . GameSpy 's Allen Rausch argued that , as Halo : Combat Evolved showed that first @-@ person shooters could work on consoles , Halo Wars " is an RTS ... on a console ... and it works " . Tom Price of TeamXbox said that gamers have been waiting a long time for a console RTS " to get it right " , and Halo Wars did so ; reviewers for Official Xbox Magazine credited Ensemble with creating a strategy game that felt " absolutely at home on the console " , rather than a " poorly shoehorned ... port " of a PC game with clumsy controls . 1UP 's Thierry Nguyen was neutral about whether it was a good RTS game or Halo title , but called it a " solid beginning towards what could be a really good console RTS " . Digital Trends ' Scott Steinberg said that , while not perfect , Halo Wars made a strong case for the viability of RTS on consoles ; " There 's certainly the potential to have PC holdouts seriously reconsidering hoisting the controller . " Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle offered a dismissive summation of the game as " a remedial game — real @-@ time strategy for dummies " , and stated that the game offered relatively little innovation when compared to other Halo titles .
Reviewers generally praised Halo Wars 's controls . Critics who were less experienced RTS players , such as Darren Zenko of the Toronto Star , appreciated the streamlined RTS experience . In contrast , critics such as Luke Anderson of GameSpot said that the game lacked the depth necessary to attract more seasoned RTS players . Some critics were frustrated by the lack of control features — specifically , the ability to create and manage groups of units , the lack of hotkeys , the inability to set rally points for different units , and the need to return to the base to adjust production . Nguyen wrote that " finesse maneuvers [ ... ] are more difficult to pull off than they should be " . Brett Molina of USA Today said that experts would find the action oversimplified , but that the game " is an excellent choice for fans of the Halo universe and players new to real @-@ time strategy " . Reviewers for GameSpy , G4tv , and Eurogamer stated that the controls worked well mainly because the developers omitted features to make most options quickly available ; for example , limiting base construction to select areas made sure players could easily find their buildings .
Reviewers considered the factions balanced . Eurogamer 's Kieron Gillen commented that the Covenant was harder to master , especially because the campaign served as a tutorial for the UNSC , but no similar introduction was available for the Covenant . However , he said the two sides were " authentically different " , and each offered its own challenges to players . Some critics , such as Nick Cowen of The Daily Telegraph , wished that the Flood was a playable faction ; in contrast , Ryan Geddes of IGN disliked the Flood and appreciated their exclusion . Will Porter of IGN UK enjoyed the rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors RTS mechanics , but said that " since the game is singularly crap at indicating which units are rocks and which scissors , " players had to learn which units were best via trial and error , an issue that was more prevalent with the Covenant .
The game 's plot was well received . Reviewers praised the game 's cinematics and voice acting . Geddes said the story was good , but not on par with those of Bungie 's Halo games , and that most of the characters were stereotypical and somewhat unlikable . Critics noted that for a strategy game , the campaign was rather short , with only 15 missions ; Nate Ralph of Wired completed each in fewer than 40 minutes . Jon Wilcox of Total Video Games wrote " there 's an ebb and flow " to the gameplay , with " lengthy chapters cut with shorter punchy ones or time @-@ based missions , all together creating a surprisingly compelling experience " . Wilcox said the additions of performance @-@ based medals added replay value to the campaign . Price said that , although the story and mission structure of the game was fairly standard , levels that were " rote " in other RTS games seemed more substantial in Halo Wars . Reviewers such as Geddes , Wilcox , and Patrick Kolan of IGN UK said that the lack of a Covenant campaign was an unfortunate omission .
Publications judged the multiplayer aspect of the game well . Wilcox noted that , although the multiplayer mode " added [ nothing ] new [ to RTS games ] , at the very least it 's a solid experience that expands the longevity of Halo Wars . " Adam Biessener of Game Informer wrote that Halo Wars gameplay was better against human players , as campaign " gimmicks " and poor artificial intelligence were not an issue . The Mirror 's Kevin Lynch found fault with the " limited " variety of game modes .
Critics generally agreed that Ensemble re @-@ created the Halo universe 's aesthetic well . Gillen said knowledge of the game universe could alleviate some issues of player ignorance regarding units ' actions : " It 's not just the geek thrill of seeing a Scarab in action — it 's that you understand what the Scarab means on the battlefield ( trouble ) , " he wrote . " We know which characters are best against tanks , and which are probably best in special vehicles . " Nguyen said that , although the core units meshed well , the inclusion of Ensemble @-@ developed units gave Halo Wars the feeling of a generic science @-@ fiction title . While giving the game a mixed review , Anderson said that the authentic @-@ looking units and environments went a long way to integrating the game with the rest of the series . Wilcox commented that with the Halo @-@ inspired menu system and Rippy 's score , " before the campaign even begins , the message is clear : this is still very much a Halo game . " Overall , Halo Wars was judged a fitting final game for Ensemble .
= = Sequel = =
On August 4 , 2015 , Microsoft announced Halo Wars 2 , developed by Creative Assembly with assistance from 343 Industries . The game is set for release in February 2017 for the Xbox One and Windows 10 .
= Jonathan Sánchez =
Jonathan Omar Sánchez ( born November 19 , 1982 ) , nicknamed " The Kid , " or " The Comeback Kid , " is a Puerto Rican professional baseball pitcher who is a free agent . A left @-@ handed starter , Sánchez 's pitching repertoire consists of a low @-@ to @-@ mid 90s mph fastball , a change @-@ up , and a slurve in the 80s .
After being drafted by the San Francisco Giants in 2004 , Sánchez quickly worked his way through the Giants ' minor league system . In 2006 , he was called up to the major leagues and was used mostly in a long relief role . In 2007 , he made the team out of spring training and was again used mostly in long relief , though he spent part of his season in the minors . In 2008 , he made the Giants ' starting rotation and remained in it for the entire year , except for a stint on the disabled list .
Sánchez began 2009 as a starter but was moved to the bullpen during the season . He was returned to the rotation on July 10 because of an injury to fellow starter Randy Johnson , however , and he threw a no @-@ hitter against the San Diego Padres that day . In 2010 , Sánchez struck out 200 batters for the first time and was a member of the Giants team that won the World Series . He was traded to the Kansas City Royals in 2012 , who traded him to the Colorado Rockies after he struggled in the first half of the season . He began 2013 with the Pittsburgh Pirates .
= = High school and college = =
Sánchez attended Blanca Malaret High School in Sabana Grande , Puerto Rico . After graduating in 2000 , Sánchez pitched for four seasons at Ohio Dominican University in Columbus , Ohio . While at the university , Sánchez threw four no @-@ hitters and set school records for most strikeouts in a single game ( sixteen ) , most strikeouts in a single season ( 105 ) , most strikeouts in a career ( 311 ) , and most shutouts in a career ( ten ) . However , his final collegiate appearance was arguably his worst , as he was saddled with the loss in the Panthers ' NAIA regional playoff defeat to Saint Vincent College , going five innings and allowing six runs on six hits .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft and minor leagues = = =
Sánchez was selected by the San Francisco Giants in the twenty @-@ seventh round ( 820th overall ) of the 2004 MLB draft . In his first year of professional ball , he went 7 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 72 ERA in fifteen games ( nine were starts ) with the Rookie league Arizona League Giants and the Single @-@ A ( short @-@ season ) Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes . While pitching in the Arizona League , he tied for third in the league in wins , with five .
Sánchez was promoted to the Single @-@ A Augusta GreenJackets of the South Atlantic League in 2005 . He went 5 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 08 ERA in twenty @-@ five starts , but he led the South Atlantic League in strikeouts with 166 , averaged 11 @.@ 9 in nine innings pitched , and was selected to the league 's All @-@ star team . During the offseason , Sánchez pitched for the Carolina club of the Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League , posting a 2 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 91 ERA in 19 relief appearances .
Coming into 2006 , Sánchez was ranked as the sixth best prospect in the Giants ' organization by Baseball America . He began the 2006 season with the Double @-@ A Connecticut Defenders , where in thirteen appearances ( three starts ) he went 2 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 15 ERA and forty @-@ six strikeouts .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2006 – 2011 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Sánchez was called up to the Giants on May 26 , 2006 , as a reliever . He made his MLB debut two days later on May 28 against the Colorado Rockies . He pitched one inning in relief and retired all three batters he faced ( Todd Helton , Matt Holliday , and Garrett Atkins ) . His performance was overshadowed , however , because Barry Bonds hit his 715th home run in the same game to surpass Babe Ruth for second place on the all @-@ time home run list .
On June 4 , Sánchez picked up his first major league win . With the score tied at six in the eleventh inning against the New York Mets , Sánchez entered the game and pitched a scoreless inning . The Giants won the game 7 – 6 in the twelfth on an RBI single by Pedro Feliz .
Sánchez posted a 2 – 0 record with a 1 @.@ 37 ERA in twenty @-@ two games in his first stint with the team . On July 29 , the Giants sent him to their AAA affiliate , the Fresno Grizzlies , to improve his abilities as a starter . While at Fresno , he went 2 – 2 with a 3 @.@ 80 ERA in six starts . With the expansion of the MLB rosters on September 1 , Sánchez was recalled from Fresno .
Sánchez won his first major league start on September 6 ( in place of Noah Lowry , who was injured ) , giving up one run in 5 ⅔ innings pitched in a 3 – 2 victory over the Cincinnati Reds . After that , Sánchez replaced Brad Hennessey in the rotation . However , Sánchez did not pitch well in his last four appearances of the season ( one came in relief ) , as he had an 11 @.@ 36 ERA in them .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Entering the 2007 season , Sánchez was ranked as the second best prospect in the Giants ' organization ( behind only Tim Lincecum ) by Baseball America . Sánchez made the Giants ' roster out of spring training . He struggled in his first fourteen games , however , and was sent down to Fresno on May 21 when Russ Ortiz came off the disabled list . Sánchez returned to the majors on June 6 when , coincidentally , Ortiz got hurt again . On June 13 , he picked up his first major league hit ( an RBI double ) in a
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write " pop songs " . Townsend utilized clean vocals much more than in his previous albums , and produced and mixed the album in his trademark " wall of sound " style , blending " layers upon layers of guitars , keyboards , and vocals " .
All tracks written by Devin Townsend , with additional arrangements by Brian Waddell , Ryan Van Poederooyen , Dave Young , and Mike Young .
The end of " Traveller " samples " Sister " from Ocean Machine . " Depth Charge " would later be referenced in " Decimator " from SYL 's The New Black .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Devin Townsend .
Inside Out Music 's special edition of Accelerated Evolution included Project EKO , an electronica EP by Townsend .
= = Release = =
Accelerated Evolution was released in March 2003 on Townsend 's independent label , HevyDevy Records . It is distributed in Canada by HevyDevy , in Japan by Sony , and in Europe and North America by InsideOut . The album art was created by Travis Smith , who also did the art for Terria and SYL . InsideOut also released a special edition of the album which contained a 3 @-@ track EP called Project EKO , Townsend 's first foray into electronica . The album reached number 135 on the French albums chart and number 249 on the Japanese albums chart .
Prior to the formation of the Devin Townsend Band , Townsend had represented his solo releases live with the Strapping Young Lad lineup ; the band would play one set of Strapping Young Lad songs and one set of Devin Townsend songs . After the release of Accelerated Evolution , Townsend began touring with The Devin Townsend Band , at times separately from Strapping Young Lad and at times sharing the bill . After playing two release shows in Vancouver in July 2003 , The Devin Townsend Band toured Canada with Strapping Young Lad and Zimmers Hole in October 2003 . This was followed by a North American tour with progressive metal band Symphony X through November and December 2003 .
= = Critical reception = =
Accelerated Evolution was well received by critics . Mike G. of Metal Maniacs called Accelerated Evolution " the album of the year " , praising it for " the hard @-@ to @-@ accomplish trick of being extreme yet accessible , simultaneously heavy ' n ' rockin ' yet majestic and beautiful . " William Hughes of Sputnikmusic called it " amazing " , saying the album " has elements that will appeal to fans of all different genres , from progressive to metal . " Alex Henderson of Allmusic called the album " excellent " , and praised Townsend 's ability to blend genres and influences : " The Canadian rocker provides enough downtuned guitars to put this CD in the alt rock category . And yet Accelerated Evolution has a big sound that suggests the pop @-@ metal , arena rock and hard rock of the ' 70s and ' 80s – big melodies , big harmonies , big guitars , big vocals , big production . " Chris Hawkins of KNAC.com said , " Like always , what Devin manages to do is take the most infectious rhythm , place his stamp upon it , and thus create something completely original . " Xander Hoose of Chronicles of Chaos compared the album favorably to SYL , noting that " there is more variation , and the songs are more memorable and layered than their one @-@ dimensional SYL counterparts . " Hoose added , " For those who thought Terria was going too much in the wrong direction , Accelerated Evolution will probably come as a relief . "
= = Chart performance = =
= = Personnel = =
Devin Townsend – guitar , vocals , ambience
Ryan Van Poederooyen – drums
Mike Young – bass
Brian Waddell – guitar
Dave Young – keyboards
= = = Production = = =
Devin Townsend – production , audio engineering , mixing
Shaun Thingvold – engineering , mixing
Goran Finnberg – mastering
Misha Rajaratnam , Dan Kearley , Carla Levis , Scott Cooke , Jay Van Poederooyen , Lori Bridger , Chris Guy – assistance
= = = Artwork = = =
Omer Cordell – photography ( credited as Omer Shaked )
Travis Smith – graphics , layout
= History of Solidarity =
The history of Solidarity ( Polish : Solidarność , pronounced [ sɔliˈdarnɔɕt ͡ ɕ ] ) , a Polish non @-@ governmental trade union , began on 14 August 1980 , at the Lenin Shipyards ( now Gdańsk Shipyards ) at its founding by Lech Wałęsa and others . In the early 1980s , it became the first independent labor union in a Soviet @-@ bloc country . Solidarity gave rise to a broad , non @-@ violent , anti @-@ communist social movement that , at its height , claimed some 9 @.@ 4 million members . It is considered to have contributed greatly to the fall of communism .
Poland 's communist government attempted to destroy the union by instituting martial law in 1981 , followed by several years of political repression , but in the end was forced into negotiation . The Roundtable Talks between the government and the Solidarity @-@ led opposition resulted in semi @-@ free elections in 1989 . By the end of August 1989 , a Solidarity @-@ led coalition government had been formed , and , in December 1990 , Wałęsa was elected president . This was soon followed by the dismantling of the communist governmental system and by Poland 's transformation into a modern democratic state . Solidarity 's early survival represented a break in the hard @-@ line stance of the communist Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) , and was an unprecedented event ; not only for the People 's Republic of Poland — a satellite of the USSR ruled by a one @-@ party communist regime — but for the whole of the Eastern bloc . Solidarity 's example led to the spread of anti @-@ communist ideas and movements throughout the Eastern Bloc , weakening communist governments . This process later culminated in the Revolutions of 1989 .
In the 1990s , Solidarity 's influence on Poland 's political scene waned . A political arm of the " Solidarity " movement , Solidarity Electoral Action ( AWS ) , was founded in 1996 and would win the Polish parliamentary elections in 1997 , only to lose the subsequent 2001 elections . Thereafter , Solidarity had little influence as a political party , though it did become the largest trade union in Poland .
= = Pre – 1980 roots = =
In the 1970s and 1980s , the initial success of Solidarity in particular , and of dissident movements in general , was fed by a deepening crisis within Soviet @-@ influenced societies . There was declining morale , worsening economic conditions ( a shortage economy ) , and growing stress from the Cold War . After a brief boom period , from 1975 the policies of the Polish government , led by Party First Secretary Edward Gierek , precipitated a slide into increasing depression , as foreign debt mounted . In June 1976 , the first workers ' strikes took place , involving violent incidents at factories in Płock , Radom and Ursus . When these incidents were quelled by the government , the worker 's movement received support from intellectual dissidents , many of them associated with the Committee for Defense of the Workers ( Polish : Komitet Obrony Robotników , abbreviated KOR ) , formed in 1976 . The following year , KOR was renamed the Committee for Social Self @-@ defence ( KSS @-@ KOR ) .
On October 16 , 1978 , the Bishop of Kraków , Karol Wojtyła , was elected Pope John Paul II . A year later , during his first pilgrimage to Poland , his masses were attended by hundreds of thousands of his countrymen . The Pope called for the respecting of national and religious traditions and advocated for freedom and human rights , while denouncing violence . To many Poles , he represented a spiritual and moral force that could be set against brute material forces , he was a bellwether of change , and became an important symbol — and supporter — of changes to come .
= = Early strikes ( 1980 ) = =
Strikes did not occur merely due to problems that had emerged shortly before the labor unrest , but due to governmental and economic difficulties spanning more than a decade . In July 1980 , Edward Gierek 's government , facing economic crisis , decided to raise prices while slowing the growth of wages . At once there ensued a wave of strikes and factory occupations , with the biggest strikes taking place in the area of Lublin . The first strike started on July 8 , 1980 in the State Aviation Works in Świdnik . Although the strike movement had no coordinating center , the workers had developed an information network to spread news of their struggle . A " dissident " group , the Workers ' Defence Committee ( KOR ) , which had originally been set up in 1976 to organize aid for victimized workers , attracted small groups of working @-@ class militants in major industrial centers . At the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk , the firing of Anna Walentynowicz , a popular crane operator and activist , galvanized the outraged workers into action .
On August 14 , the shipyard workers began their strike , organized by the Free Trade Unions of the Coast ( Wolne Związki Zawodowe Wybrzeża ) . The workers were led by electrician Lech Wałęsa , a former shipyard worker who had been dismissed in 1976 , and who arrived at the shipyard late in the morning of August 14 . The strike committee demanded the rehiring of Walentynowicz and Wałęsa , as well as the according of respect to workers ' rights and other social concerns . In addition , they called for the raising of a monument to the shipyard workers who had been killed in 1970 and for the legalization of independent trade unions .
The Polish government enforced censorship , and official media said little about the " sporadic labor disturbances in Gdańsk " ; as a further precaution , all phone connections between the coast and the rest of Poland were soon cut . Nonetheless , the government failed to contain the information : a spreading wave of samizdats ( Polish : bibuła ) , including Robotnik ( The Worker ) , and grapevine gossip , along with Radio Free Europe broadcasts that penetrated the Iron Curtain , ensured that the ideas of the emerging Solidarity movement quickly spread .
On August 16 , delegations from other strike committees arrived at the shipyard . Delegates ( Bogdan Lis , Andrzej Gwiazda and others ) together with shipyard strikers agreed to create an Inter @-@ Enterprise Strike Committee ( Międzyzakładowy Komitet Strajkowy , or MKS ) . On August 17 a priest , Henryk Jankowski , performed a mass outside the shipyard 's gate , at which 21 demands of the MKS were put forward . The list went beyond purely local matters , beginning with a demand for new , independent trade unions and going on to call for a relaxation of the censorship , a right to strike , new rights for the Church , the freeing of political prisoners , and improvements in the national health service .
Next day , a delegation of KOR intelligentsia , including Tadeusz Mazowiecki , arrived to offer their assistance with negotiations . A bibuła news @-@ sheet , Solidarność , produced on the shipyard 's printing press with KOR assistance , reached a daily print run of 30 @,@ 000 copies . Meanwhile , Jacek Kaczmarski 's protest song , Mury ( Walls ) , gained popularity with the workers .
On August 18 , the Szczecin Shipyard joined the strike , under the leadership of Marian Jurczyk . A tidal wave of strikes swept the coast , closing ports and bringing the economy to a halt . With KOR assistance and support from many intellectuals , workers occupying factories , mines and shipyards across Poland joined forces . Within days , over 200 factories and enterprises had joined the strike committee . By August 21 , most of Poland was affected by the strikes , from coastal shipyards to the mines of the Upper Silesian Industrial Area ( in Upper Silesia , the city of Jastrzębie @-@ Zdrój became center of the strikes , with a separate committee organized there , see Jastrzębie @-@ Zdrój 1980 strikes ) . More and more new unions were formed , and joined the federation .
Thanks to popular support within Poland , as well as to international support and media coverage , the Gdańsk workers held out until the government gave in to their demands . On August 21 a Governmental Commission ( Komisja Rządowa ) including Mieczysław Jagielski arrived in Gdańsk , and another one with Kazimierz Barcikowski was dispatched to Szczecin . On August 30 and 31 , and on September 3 , representatives of the workers and the government signed an agreement ratifying many of the workers ' demands , including the right to strike . This agreement came to be known as the August or Gdańsk agreement ( Porozumienia sierpniowe ) . Other agreements were signed in Szczecin ( the Szczecin Agreement of August 30 ) , and Jastrzębie @-@ Zdrój on September 3 . It was called the Jastrzębie Agreement ( Porozumienia jastrzebskie ) and as such is regarded as part of the Gdańsk agreement . Though concerned with labor @-@ union matters , the agreement enabled citizens to introduce democratic changes within the communist political structure and was regarded as a first step toward dismantling the Party 's monopoly of power . The workers ' main concerns were the establishment of a labor union independent of communist @-@ party control , and recognition of a legal right to strike . Workers ' needs would now receive clear representation . Another consequence of the Gdańsk Agreement was the replacement , in September 1980 , of Edward Gierek by Stanisław Kania as Party First Secretary .
= = First Solidarity ( 1980 – 1981 ) = =
Encouraged by the success of the August strikes , on September 17 workers ' representatives , including Lech Wałęsa , formed a nationwide labor union , Solidarity ( Niezależny Samorządny Związek Zawodowy ( NSZZ ) " Solidarność " ) . It was the first independent labor union in a Soviet @-@ bloc country . Its name was suggested by Karol Modzelewski , and its famous logo was conceived by Jerzy Janiszewski , designer of many Solidarity @-@ related posters . The new union 's supreme powers were vested in a legislative body , the Convention of Delegates ( Zjazd Delegatów ) . The executive branch was the National Coordinating Commission ( Krajowa Komisja Porozumiewawcza ) , later renamed the National Commission ( Komisja Krajowa ) . The Union had a regional structure , comprising 38 regions ( region ) and two districts ( okręg ) . On December 16 , 1980 , the Monument to Fallen Shipyard Workers was unveiled in Gdansk , and on June 28 , 1981 , another monument was unveiled in Poznan , which commemorated the Poznań 1956 protests . On January 15 , 1981 , a Solidarity delegation , including Lech Wałęsa , met in Rome with Pope John Paul II . From September 5 to 10 , and from September 26 to October 7 , Solidarity 's first national congress was held , and Lech Wałęsa was elected its president . Last accord of the congress was adoption of republican program " Self @-@ governing Republic " .
Meanwhile , Solidarity had been transforming itself from a trade union into a social movement or more specifically , a revolutionary movement . Over the 500 days following the Gdańsk Agreement , 9 – 10 million workers , intellectuals and students joined it or its suborganizations , such as the Independent Student Union ( Niezależne Zrzeszenie Studentów , created in September 1980 ) , the Independent Farmers ' Trade Union ( NSZZ Rolników Indywidualnych " Solidarność " or Rural Solidarity , created in May 1981 ) and the Independent Craftsmen 's Trade Union . It was the only time in recorded history that a quarter of a country 's population ( some 80 % of the total Polish work force ) had voluntarily joined a single organization . " History has taught us that there is no bread without freedom , " the Solidarity program stated a year later . " What we had in mind was not only bread , butter and sausages , but also justice , democracy , truth , legality , human dignity , freedom of convictions , and the repair of the republic . " Tygodnik Solidarność , a Solidarity @-@ published newspaper , was started in April 1981 .
Using strikes and other protest actions , Solidarity sought to force a change in government policies . In some cases , as in Bielsko @-@ Biała , Solidarity managed to force corrupt officials of the government to lose their jobs . At the same time , it was careful never to use force or violence , so as to avoid giving the government any excuse to bring security forces into play . After 27 Bydgoszcz Solidarity members , including Jan Rulewski , were beaten up on March 19 , a four @-@ hour warning strike on March 27 , involving around twelve million people , paralyzed the country . This was the largest strike in the history of the Eastern bloc , and it forced the government to promise an investigation into the beatings . This concession , and Wałęsa 's agreement to defer further strikes , proved a setback to the movement , as the euphoria that had swept Polish society subsided . Nonetheless the Polish communist party — the Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) — had lost its total control over society .
Yet while Solidarity was ready to take up negotiations with the government , the Polish communists were unsure what to do , as they issued empty declarations and bided their time . Against the background of a deteriorating communist shortage economy and unwillingness to negotiate seriously with Solidarity , it became increasingly clear that the Communist government would eventually have to suppress the Solidarity movement as the only way out of the impasse , or face a truly revolutionary situation . The atmosphere was increasingly tense , with various local chapters conducting a growing number of uncoordinated strikes as well as street protests , such as the Summer 1981 hunger demonstrations in Poland , in response to the worsening economic situation . On December 3 , 1981 , Solidarity announced that a 24 @-@ hour strike would be held if the government were granted additional powers to suppress dissent , and that a general strike would be declared if those powers were used .
= = Martial law ( 1981 – 83 ) = =
After the Gdańsk Agreement , the Polish government was under increasing pressure from the Soviet Union to take action and strengthen its position . Stanisław Kania was viewed by Moscow as too independent , and on October 18 , 1981 , the Party Central Committee put him in the minority . Kania lost his post as First Secretary , and was replaced by Prime Minister ( and Minister of Defence ) Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski , who adopted a strong @-@ arm policy .
On December 13 , 1981 , Jaruzelski began a crack @-@ down on Solidarity , declaring martial law and creating a Military Council of National Salvation ( Wojskowa Rada Ocalenia Narodowego , or WRON ) . Solidarity 's leaders , gathered at Gdańsk , were arrested and isolated in facilities guarded by the Security Service ( Służba Bezpieczeństwa or SB ) , and some 5 @,@ 000 Solidarity supporters were arrested in the middle of the night . Censorship was expanded , and military forces appeared on the streets . A couple of hundred strikes and occupations occurred , chiefly at the largest plants and at several Silesian coal mines , but were broken by ZOMO paramilitary riot police . One of the largest demonstrations , on December 16 , 1981 , took place at the Wujek Coal Mine , where government forces opened fire on demonstrators , killing 9 and seriously injuring 22 . The next day , during protests at Gdańsk , government forces again fired at demonstrators , killing 1 and injuring 2 . By December 28 , 1981 , strikes had ceased , and Solidarity appeared crippled . The last strike in the 1981 Poland , which ended on December 28 , took place in the Piast Coal Mine in the Upper Silesian town of Bieruń . It was the longest underground strike in the history of Poland , lasting 14 days . Some 2000 miners began it on December 14 , going 650 meters underground . Out of the initial 2000 , half remained until the last day . Starving , they gave up after military authorities promised they would not be prosecuted . On October 8 , 1982 , Solidarity was banned .
The range of support for the Solidarity was unique : no other movement in the world was supported by Ronald Reagan and Santiago Carrillo , Enrico Berlinguer and the Pope , Margaret Thatcher and Tony Benn , peace campaigners and NATO spokesman , Christians and Western communists , conservatives , liberals and socialists . The international community outside the Iron Curtain condemned Jaruzelski 's actions and declared support for Solidarity ; dedicated organizations were formed for that purpose ( like Polish Solidarity Campaign in Great Britain ) . US President Ronald Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland , which eventually would force the Polish government into liberalizing its policies . Meanwhile , the CIA together with the Catholic Church and various Western trade unions such as the AFL @-@ CIO provided funds , equipment and advice to the Solidarity underground . The political alliance of Reagan and the Pope would prove important to the future of Solidarity . The Polish public also supported what was left of Solidarity ; a major medium for demonstrating support of Solidarity became masses held by priests such as Jerzy Popiełuszko .
Besides the communist authorities , Solidarity was also opposed by some of the Polish ( émigré ) radical right , believing Solidarity or KOR to be disguised communist groups , dominated by Jewish Trotskyite Zionists .
In July 1983 , martial law was formally lifted , though many heightened controls on civil liberties and political life , as well as food rationing , remained in place through the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s .
= = Underground Solidarity ( 1982 – 88 ) = =
Almost immediately after the legal Solidarity leadership had been arrested , underground structures began to arise . On April 12 , 1982 , Radio Solidarity began broadcasting . On April 22 , Zbigniew Bujak , Bogdan Lis , Władysław Frasyniuk and Władysław Hardek created an Interim Coordinating Commission ( Tymczasowa Komisja Koordynacyjna ) to serve as an underground leadership for Solidarity . On May 6 another underground Solidarity organization , an NSSZ " S " Regional Coordinating Commission ( Regionalna Komisja Koordynacyjna NSZZ " S " ) , was created by Bogdan Borusewicz , Aleksander Hall , Stanisław Jarosz , Bogdan Lis and Marian Świtek . June 1982 saw the creation of a Fighting Solidarity ( Solidarność Walcząca ) organization .
Throughout the mid @-@ 1980s , Solidarity persevered as an exclusively underground organization . Its activists were dogged by the Security Service ( SB ) , but managed to strike back : on May 1 , 1982 , a series of anti @-@ government protests brought out thousands of participants — several dozen thousand in Kraków , Warsaw and Gdańsk . On May 3 more protests took place , during celebrations of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . On that day , communist secret services killed four demonstrators – three in Warsaw and one in Wrocław . Another wave of demonstrations occurred on August 31 , 1982 , on the first anniversary of the Gdańsk Agreement ( see August 31 , 1982 demonstrations in Poland ) . Altogether , on that day six demonstrators were killed – three in Lubin , one in Kielce , one in Wrocław and one in Gdańsk . Another person was killed on the next day , during a demonstration in Częstochowa . Further strikes occurred at Gdańsk and Nowa Huta between October 11 and 13 . In Nowa Huta , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old student Bogdan Wlosik was shot by a secret service officer .
On November 14 , 1982 , Wałęsa was released . However , on December 9 the SB carried out a large anti @-@ Solidarity operation , arresting over 10 @,@ 000 activists . On December 27 Solidarity 's assets were transferred by the authorities to a pro @-@ government trade union , the All @-@ Poland Alliance of Trade Unions ( Ogólnopolskie Porozumienie Związków Zawodowych , or OPZZ ) . Yet Solidarity was far from broken : by early 1983 the underground had over 70 @,@ 000 members , whose activities included publishing over 500 underground newspapers . In the first half of 1983 street protests were frequent ; on May 1 , two persons were killed in Kraków and one in Wrocław . Two days later , two additional demonstrators were killed in Warsaw .
On July 22 , 1983 , martial law was lifted , and amnesty was granted to many imprisoned Solidarity members , who were released . On October 5 , Wałęsa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . The Polish government , however , refused to issue him a passport to travel to Oslo ; Wałęsa 's prize was accepted on his behalf by his wife . It later transpired that the SB had prepared bogus documents , accusing Wałęsa of immoral and illegal activities that had been given to the Nobel committee in an attempt to derail his nomination .
On October 19 , 1984 , three agents of the Ministry of Internal Security murdered a popular pro @-@ Solidarity priest , Jerzy Popiełuszko . As the facts emerged , thousands of people declared their solidarity with the murdered priest by attending his funeral , held on November 3 , 1984 . The government attempted to smooth over the situation by releasing thousands of political prisoners ; a year later , however , there followed a new wave of arrests . Frasyniuk , Lis and Adam Michnik , members of the " S " underground , were arrested on February 13 , 1985 , placed on a show trial , and sentenced to several years ' imprisonment .
= = Second Solidarity ( 1988 – 89 ) = =
On March 11 , 1985 , power in the Soviet Union was assumed by Mikhail Gorbachev . The worsening economic situation in the entire Eastern Bloc , including the Soviet Union , together with other factors , forced Gorbachev to carry out a number of reforms , not only in the field of economics ( uskoreniye ) but in the political and social realms ( glasnost and perestroika ) . Gorbachev 's policies soon caused a corresponding shift in the policies of Soviet satellites , including the People 's Republic of Poland .
On September 11 , 1986 , 225 Polish political prisoners were released — the last of those connected with Solidarity , and arrested during the previous years . Following amnesty on September 30 , Wałęsa created the first public , legal Solidarity entity since the declaration of martial law — the Temporary Council of NSZZ Solidarność ( Tymczasowa Rada NSZZ Solidarność ) — with Bogdan Borusewicz , Zbigniew Bujak , Władysław Frasyniuk , Tadeusz Janusz Jedynak , Bogdan Lis , Janusz Pałubicki and Józef Pinior . Soon afterwards , the new Council was admitted to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions . Many local Solidarity chapters now broke their cover throughout Poland , and on October 25 , 1987 , the National Executive Committee ( Solidarity ) | National Executive Committee of NSZZ Solidarność ( Krajowa Komisja Wykonawcza NSZZ Solidarność ) was created . Nonetheless , Solidarity members and activists continued to be persecuted and discriminated , if less so than during the early 1980s . In the late 1980s , a rift between Wałęsa 's faction and a more radical Fighting Solidarity grew as the former wanted to negotiate with the government , while the latter planned for an anti @-@ communist revolution .
By 1988 , Poland 's economy was in worse condition than it had been eight years earlier . International sanctions , combined with the government 's unwillingness to introduce reforms , intensified the old problems . Inefficient government @-@ run planned @-@ economy enterprises wasted labor and resources , producing substandard goods for which there was little demand . Polish exports were low , both because of the sanctions and because the goods were as unattractive abroad as they were at home . Foreign debt and inflation mounted . There were no funds to modernize factories , and the promised " market socialism " materialized as a shortage economy characterized by long queues and empty shelves . Reforms introduced by Jaruzelski and Mieczysław Rakowski came too little and too late , especially as changes in the Soviet Union had bolstered the public 's expectation that change must come , and the Soviets ceased their efforts to prop up Poland 's failing regime .
In February 1988 , the government hiked food prices by 40 % . On April 21 , a new wave of strikes hit the country . On May 2 , workers at the Gdańsk Shipyard went on strike . That strike was broken by the government between May 5 and May 10 , but only temporarily : on August 15 , a new strike took place at the " July Manifesto " mine in Jastrzębie Zdrój . By August 20 the strike had spread to many other mines , and on August 22 the Gdańsk Shipyard joined the strike . Poland 's communist government then decided to negotiate .
On August 26 , Czesław Kiszczak , the Minister of Internal Affairs , declared on television that the government was willing to negotiate , and five days later he met with Wałęsa . The strikes ended the following day , and on November 30 , during a televised debate between Wałęsa and Alfred Miodowicz ( leader of the pro @-@ government trade union , the All @-@ Poland Alliance of Trade Unions ) , Wałęsa scored a public @-@ relations victory .
On December 18 , a hundred @-@ member Citizens ' Committee ( Komitet Obywatelski ) was formed within Solidarity . It comprised several sections , each responsible for presenting a specific aspect of opposition demands to the government . Wałęsa and the majority of Solidarity leaders supported negotiation , while a minority wanted an anticommunist revolution . Under Wałęsa 's leadership , Solidarity decided to pursue a peaceful solution , and the pro @-@ violence faction never attained any substantial power , nor did it take any action .
On January 27 , 1989 , in a meeting between Wałęsa and Kiszczak , a list was drawn up of members of the main negotiating teams . The conference that began on February 6 would be known as the Polish Round Table Talks . The 56 participants included 20 from " S " , 6 from OPZZ , 14 from the PZPR , 14 " independent authorities " , and two priests . The Polish Round Table Talks took place in Warsaw from February 6 to April 4 , 1989 . The Communists , led by Gen. Jaruzelski , hoped to co @-@ opt prominent opposition leaders into the ruling group without making major changes in the structure of political power . Solidarity , while hopeful , did not anticipate major changes . In fact , the talks would radically alter the shape of the Polish government and society .
On April 17 , 1989 , Solidarity was legalized , and its membership soon reached 1 @.@ 5 million . The Solidarity Citizens ' Committee ( Komitet Obywatelski " Solidarność " ) was given permission to field candidates in the upcoming elections . Election law allowed Solidarity to put forward candidates for only 35 % of the seats in the Sejm , but there were no restrictions in regard to Senat candidates . Agitation and propaganda continued legally up to election day . Despite its shortage of resources , Solidarity managed to carry on an electoral campaign . On May 8 , the first issue of a new pro @-@ Solidarity newspaper , Gazeta Wyborcza ( The Election Gazette ) , was published . Posters of Wałęsa supporting various candidates , appeared throughout the country .
Pre @-@ election public @-@ opinion polls had promised victory to the communists . Thus the total defeat of the PZPR and its satellite parties came as a surprise to all involved : after the first round of elections , it became evident that Solidarity had fared extremely well , capturing 160 of 161 contested Sejm seats , and 92 of 100 Senate seats . After the second round , it had won virtually every seat — all 161 in the Sejm , and 99 in the Senate .
These elections , in which anti @-@ communist candidates won a striking victory , inaugurated a series of peaceful anti @-@ communist revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe that eventually culminated in the fall of communism .
The new Contract Sejm , named for the agreement that had been reached by the communist party and the Solidarity movement during the Polish Round Table Talks , would be dominated by Solidarity . As agreed beforehand , Wojciech Jaruzelski was elected president . However , the communist candidate for Prime Minister , Czesław Kiszczak , who replaced Mieczysław Rakowski , failed to gain enough support to form a government .
On June 23 , a Solidarity Citizens ' Parliamentary Club ( Obywatelski Klub Parliamentarny " Solidarność " ) was formed , led by Bronisław Geremek . It formed a coalition with two ex @-@ satellite parties of the PZPR — United People 's Party and Democratic Party — which had now chosen to " rebel " against the PZPR , which found itself in the minority . On August 24 , the Sejm elected Tadeusz Mazowiecki , a Solidarity representative , to be Prime Minister of Poland . Not only was he a first non @-@ communist Polish Prime Minister since 1945 , he became the first non @-@ Communist prime minister in Eastern Europe for nearly 40 years . In his speech he talked about the " thick line " ( Gruba kreska ) which would separate his government from the communist past By the end of August 1989 , a Solidarity @-@ led coalition government had been formed .
= = Party and trade union ( 1989 to the present ) = =
The fall of the communist regime marked a new chapter in the history of Poland and in the history of Solidarity . Having defeated the communist government , Solidarity found itself in a role it was much less prepared for — that of a political party — and soon began to lose popularity . Conflicts among Solidarity factions intensified . Wałęsa was elected Solidarity chairman , but support for him could be seen to be crumbling . One of his main opponents , Władysław Frasyniuk , withdrew from elections altogether . In September 1990 , Wałęsa declared that Gazeta Wyborcza had no right to use the Solidarity logo .
Later that month , Wałęsa announced his intent to run for president of Poland . In December 1990 , he was elected president . He resigned his Solidarity post and became the first president of Poland ever to be elected by popular vote .
Next year , in February 1991 , Marian Krzaklewski was elected the leader of Solidarity . President Wałęsa 's vision and that of the new Solidarity leadership were diverging . Far from supporting Wałęsa , Solidarity was becoming increasingly critical of the government , and decided to create its own political party for action in the upcoming 1991 parliamentary elections .
The 1991 elections were characterized by a large number of competing parties , many claiming the legacy of anti @-@ communism , and the Solidarity party garnered only 5 % of the votes .
On January 13 , 1992 , Solidarity declared its first strike against the democratically elected government : a one @-@ hour strike against a proposal to raise energy prices . Another , two @-@ hour strike took place on December 14 . On May 19 , 1993 , Solidarity deputies proposed a no @-@ confidence motion — which passed — against the government of Prime Minister Hanna Suchocka . President Wałęsa declined to accept the prime minister 's resignation , and dismissed the parliament .
It was in the ensuing 1993 parliamentary elections that it became evident how much Solidarity 's support had eroded in the previous three years . Even though some Solidarity deputies sought to assume a more left @-@ wing stance and to distance themselves from the right @-@ wing government , Solidarity remained identified in the public mind with that government . Hence it suffered from the growing disillusionment of the populace , as the transition from a communist to a capitalist system failed to generate instant wealth and raise Poland 's living standards to those in the West , and the government 's financial " shock therapy " ( the Balcerowicz Plan ) generated much opposition .
In the elections , Solidarity received only 4 @.@ 9 % of the votes , 0 @.@ 1 % less than the 5 % required in order to enter parliament ( Solidarity still had 9 senators , 2 fewer than in the previous Senate ) . The victorious party was the Democratic Left Alliance ( Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej or SLD ) , a post @-@ communist left @-@ wing party .
Solidarity now joined forces with its erstwhile enemy , the All @-@ Poland Alliance of Trade Unions ( OPZZ ) , and some protests were organized by both trade unions . The following year , Solidarity organized many strikes over the state of the Polish mining industry . In 1995 , a demonstration before the Polish parliament was broken up by the police ( now again known as policja ) using batons and water cannons . Nonetheless , Solidarity decided to support Wałęsa in the 1995 presidential elections .
In a second major defeat for the Polish right wing , the elections were won by an SLD candidate , Aleksander Kwaśniewski , who received 51 @.@ 72 % of votes . A Solidarity call for new elections went unheeded , but the Sejm still managed to pass a resolution condemning the 1981 martial law ( despite the SLD voting against ) . Meanwhile , the left @-@ wing OPZZ trade union had acquired 2 @.@ 5 million members , twice as many as the contemporary Solidarity ( with 1 @.@ 3 million ) .
In June 1996 , Solidarity Electoral Action ( Akcja Wyborcza Solidarność ) was founded as a coalition of over 30 parties , uniting liberal , conservative and Christian @-@ democratic forces . As the public became disillusioned with the SLD and its allies , AWS was victorious in the 1997 parliamentary elections . Jerzy Buzek became the new prime minister .
However , controversies over domestic reforms , Poland 's 1999 entry into NATO , and the accession process to the European Union , combined with AWS ' fights with its political allies ( the Freedom Union — Unia Wolności ) and infighting within AWS itself , as well as corruption , eventually resulted in the loss of much public support . AWS leader Marian Krzaklewski lost the 2000 presidential election , and in the 2001 parliamentary elections AWS failed to elect a single deputy to the parliament . After this debacle , Krzaklewski was replaced by Janusz Śniadek ( in 2002 ) but the union decided to distance itself from politics .
In 2006 , Solidarity had some 1 @.@ 5 million members making it the largest trade union in Poland . Its mission statement declares that Solidarity , " basing its activities on Christian ethics and Catholic social teachings , works to protect workers ' interests and to fulfill their material , social and cultural aspirations . "
The European Solidarity Centre , a museum and library devoted to the history of Solidarity and other opposition movements of the Eastern Bloc , opened in Gdańsk on 31 August 2014 .
= Cherry Springs State Park =
Cherry Springs State Park is a 82 @-@ acre ( 33 ha ) Pennsylvania state park in Potter County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . The park was created from land within the Susquehannock State Forest , and is on Pennsylvania Route 44 in West Branch Township . Cherry Springs , named for a large stand of Black Cherry trees in the park , is atop the dissected Allegheny Plateau at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 701 m ) . It is popular with astronomers and stargazers for having " some of the darkest night skies on the east coast " of the United States , and was chosen by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) and its Bureau of Parks as one of " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " .
The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area were the Susquehannocks , followed by the Seneca nation , who hunted there . The first settlement within the park was a log tavern built in 1818 along a trail ; the trail became a turnpike by 1834 and a hotel replaced the tavern in 1874 , then burned in 1897 . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the old @-@ growth forests were clearcut ; the state forest was established in 1901 and contains second growth woodlands . " Cherry Springs Scenic Drive " was established in 1922 , and the Civilian Conservation Corps built much of Cherry Springs State Park during the Great Depression , including a picnic pavilion listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) . An annual " Woodsmen 's Show " has been held in the park each August since 1952 .
Cherry Springs State Park was named Pennsylvania 's first dark sky park by the DCNR in 2000 . The adjoining Cherry Springs Airport , built in 1935 , was closed and its land was added to the park in 2006 , to expand its stargazing area . On June 11 , 2007 , the International Dark @-@ Sky Association named it the second " International Dark Sky Park " ; under optimum conditions the Milky Way casts a discernible shadow . Cherry Springs has received national press coverage and hosts two star parties a year , which attract hundreds of astronomers . There are regular stargazing and educational programs for the public at the park , and the Woodsmen 's Show attracts thousands each summer . Cherry Springs also offers rustic camping , picnic facilities , and trails for mountain biking , hiking , and snowmobiling . The surrounding state forest and park are home to a variety of flora and fauna .
= = History = =
= = = Native Americans = = =
Archeological evidence shows that humans have lived in what is now Pennsylvania since at least 10 @,@ 000 BC . The first settlers were Paleo @-@ Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools . The hunter @-@ gatherers of the Archaic period , which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC , used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts . The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi @-@ permanent villages and horticulture , between 1000 BC and 1500 AD . Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles , burial mounds , pipes , bows and arrows , and ornaments .
Historical records show that the earliest known inhabitants of the West Branch Susquehanna River drainage basin , which includes Cherry Springs State Park , were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . They were a matriarchal society that lived in large long houses in stockaded villages . Decimated by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes . Another name for the tribe is " Susquehanna " , and both the river and the Susquehannock State Forest which almost completely surrounds the park are named for them .
After the departure of the Susquehannocks , the lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois , who lived in long houses , primarily in what is now upstate New York , and had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . The Seneca , members of the Iroquois Confederacy , hunted in the area of what is now Cherry Springs State Park . Their nearest villages were 51 miles ( 82 km ) to the northeast at modern Painted Post , New York , and 43 miles ( 69 km ) to the southeast at what is now Lock Haven , Pennsylvania . The Seneca had temporary hunting camps to the east in the area of Pine Creek Gorge . To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois also encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the West Branch watershed , including the Lenape ( or Delaware ) and Shawnee .
The Seneca allowed very few travelers to pass through the area and kept non @-@ native settlement to a minimum . The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) led to the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin , and more departed after the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) . The United States acquired the Last Purchase , including what is now Cherry Springs State Park , from the Iroquois in the second Treaty of Fort Stanwix in October 1784 . In the years that followed , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania .
= = = Pioneers and lumber = = =
Potter County was formed from part of Lycoming County on March 26 , 1804 , but the difficult terrain and thick old @-@ growth forest prevented the new county from being settled by European @-@ Americans until 1808 . Prior to the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682 , up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods : more than 31 @,@ 000 square miles ( 80 @,@ 000 km2 ) of eastern white pine , eastern hemlock , and a mix of hardwoods . The forests in and near the three original counties , Philadelphia , Bucks , and Chester , were the first to be harvested , as the early settlers used the readily available timber and cleared land for agriculture . By the time of the American Revolution , logging had reached the interior and mountainous regions , and became a leading industry in Pennsylvania . Trees furnished fuel to heat homes , tannin for the state 's many tanneries , and wood for construction , furniture , and barrel making . Large areas of forest were harvested by colliers to fire iron furnaces . Rifle stocks and shingles were made from Pennsylvania timber , as were a wide variety of household utensils , and the first Conestoga wagons .
The area surrounding Cherry Springs State Park has been a wilderness for much of its history . A bridle path was cut through the woods in 1806 – 1807 , and was widened to accommodate wagons in 1812 . ( Modern Pennsylvania Route 44 , which passes through the park , follows the course of this path between Jersey Shore and Coudersport . ) In 1818 the Ceres Land Company , which owned much of the land in Potter County and sought to open the area to settlement , hired an early settler , Jonathan Edgcomb , to build a tavern or hotel for travelers at the site of the park . The hotel was in a very remote location 16 miles ( 26 km ) south of Coudersport , and its visitors were few , occasional wandering travelers or Native Americans .
Edgcomb and his wife received 100 acres ( 40 ha ) of land in exchange for building the hotel and running it for three years . When the contract expired in 1821 , they sold their land and left the area , but the hotel and land that Edgcomb had cleared became known as " Edgcomb 's Clearing " . The Jersey Shore and Coudersport Turnpike was constructed along the wagon path between 1825 and 1834 , and tolls were collected for travel on the road until 1860 . The park is in West Branch Township , which was incorporated from Eulalia Township in 1856 . A post office was opened at Edgcomb 's Clearing in 1873 ; the locals petitioned the United States Post Office to change the name to " Cherryville " , for a nearby group of Black Cherry trees . However , since there was already a Cherryville , Pennsylvania , post office in Lehigh Township in Northampton County , the name " Cherry Spring " was chosen as a compromise . In time an " s " was added , hence the name " Cherry Springs " . There are also at least two springs in the park .
In 1874 a new , larger hotel was built on the other side of the road from the original tavern . It provided accommodations for wealthy summer visitors from Coudersport . This part of Potter County became known for an abundance of game and fish , and attracted hunters and anglers who also stayed at the Cherry Springs Hotel . This era as a " sportsmen 's paradise " was not to last , as the more profitable lumber industry came to West Branch and surrounding townships , which were home to " some of the tallest , straightest timber left standing " along the East Coast of the United States .
When lumbermen reached the Cherry Springs area in the late 1880s , eastern white pine and eastern hemlock covered the surrounding mountains . Lumberjacks harvested the trees and sent them down the creeks to the West Branch Susquehanna River to the Susquehanna Boom and sawmills at Williamsport . Clearcutting allowed silt to choke the streams , and nothing was left except the dried @-@ out tree tops , which became a fire hazard . As a result , large swaths of land burned and were left barren , and much of the central part of the state became known as the " Pennsylvania Desert " . The Cherry Springs Hotel itself burned in 1897 and the property was abandoned .
= = = Civilian Conservation Corps = = =
As the timber was exhausted and the land burned , many companies simply abandoned their holdings . In 1897 the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed legislation which authorized the purchase of " unseated lands for forest reservations " and the first Pennsylvania state forest lands were acquired the following year . The first land for the Susquehannock State Forest was acquired in 1901 ; the cost for the major acquisitions was an average of $ 2 @.@ 50 per acre ( $ 6 @.@ 18 per ha ) . This is roughly equivalent to $ 48 per acre ( $ 120 per ha ) in 2016 terms . As of 2003 , the Susquehannock State Forest , which almost entirely surrounds the park , covered 265 @,@ 000 acres ( 107 @,@ 000 ha ) , chiefly in Potter County with small tracts in Clinton and McKean counties .
The park traces its existence back to 1922 , when the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry established three scenic areas in state forests as part of a " plan for retaining their natural beauty " . One of these was the 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) " Cherry Springs Scenic Drive " on the old Coudersport @-@ Jersey Shore Turnpike . That same year , one of 16 " Class B " public campgrounds in the state forests was located on Cherry Springs Drive . These campgrounds were free for the public to use and all had potable water , picnic tables , a fireplace , garbage can , and a latrine . The land where the hotel sat was purchased by the state in 1932 .
Like many state parks in north central Pennsylvania , development of the facilities at Cherry Springs was the work of the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , a work relief program for young men from unemployed families . Established in 1933 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal legislation , the CCC was designed to combat unemployment during the Great Depression . It operated in every U.S. state , and established ten CCC camps in the Susquehannock State Forest , of which eight were in Potter County .
Cherry Springs was home to CCC Camp S @-@ 136 @-@ Pa , which was established on May 27 , 1933 . According to the camp 's 1936 History : " Through the efforts of the [ CCC ] enrollees Cherry Springs Park , formerly a clearing , has been transformed into a park of which the people of Potter County can be proud of . " [ sic ] A historic recreation of the original tavern was built , as were a rifle range , picnic tables and shelters , roads , and hiking trails . The young men of the CCC camps worked to clear brush from the woods as a fire prevention measure . After clearing the woods , they planted stands of Norway Spruce and white pine , as well as an apple orchard . Camp @-@ 136 @-@ Pa closed on July 10 , 1937 .
Men from CCC Camp S @-@ 88 @-@ Pa , based at nearby Lyman Run in Potter County , were also active in the park . In 1939 , they built a structure at Cherry Springs which is " the largest and most unique of the CCC @-@ built picnic pavilions " in the state , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The pavilion overlooks PA Route 44 and is shaped like an H , with two partially enclosed structures ( the vertical lines of the H ) connected by a breezeway ( the horizontal bar ) . The breezeway is a roof supported by eight log columns with log railings . The ends of the pavilion are built from log walls with white chinking , like log cabins . Each end has a large opening to the breezeway in one wall , while the other three sides are fully enclosed with a large window in the wall facing the highway , a stone fireplace and chimney on the opposite wall , and a door flanked by windows on the wall opposite the breezeway .
A 1984 survey of Pennsylvania state parks found the " three picnic pavilions , and their associated latrines " at Cherry Springs " typical of the smallest day use areas constructed by the CCC " . These pavilions are examples of the rustic style built by the CCC in state parks throughout the Great Depression . Local materials were used in a way that minimized impact on the natural surroundings , and in a manner that resembled the building style of the pioneer settlements of the Appalachian Mountains .
In addition to the two CCC camps active at the park , Cherry Springs also was home to Camp Elliott , which was run by the Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters ( precursor to the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) ) for college students and other unemployed men . In 1935 they built an airfield , Cherry Springs Intermediate Field , just north of the park . The 40 @-@ acre ( 16 ha ) airfield was originally built for emergency landings and later became a small airport . In 1936 it had a sod runway of dimensions 2 @,@ 400 by 500 feet ( 730 by 150 m ) , and a hangar . The United States ' entry into the Second World War led to the end of the CCC and all its camps were closed by the summer of 1942 .
= = = Modern era = = =
The park has had several names through the years , starting with its 1922 establishment as " Cherry Springs Scenic Drive " and the associated " Cherry Springs ' Class B ' public campground " . The 1941 Pennsylvania Department of Highways official map of Potter County shows it as " Cherry Springs State Park " . On November 11 , 1954 , the Pennsylvania Geographic Board officially named it " Cherry Springs State Forest Picnic Area " . Forrey 's 1984 History of Pennsylvania 's State Parks and the 1986 NRHP nomination form still used this name , but Forrey clarified that it was " under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of State Parks " . Cupper 's 1993 Our Priceless Heritage : Pennsylvania 's State Parks 1893 – 1993 refers to it as " Cherry Springs State Park " , and this remains the official name as of 2009 .
In the post @-@ war era , the park was long known chiefly for its isolated location and primitive camping facilities . In August 1952 it played host to the first Woodsmen 's Carnival , an annual celebration of the lumbering industry , which was again active in the second growth forests in the area . The festival , originally sponsored by the Penn @-@ York Lumbermen 's Club , features lumberjack competitions as a reminder of the past , as well as displays of new equipment . In 1987 the Galeton Rotary Club took over sponsorship , and renamed the event the Woodsmen 's Show in 1990 .
In the 1980s , the CCC and its work in the park were honored . Cherry Springs State Park was one of several to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Civilian Conservation Corps with a CCC reunion in the summer of 1983 . On May 11 , 1987 , the Cherry Springs Picnic Pavilion was listed on the NRHP . None of the other remaining CCC structures in the park had retained its historic integrity sufficiently to be included on the NRHP .
Cherry Springs began attracting stargazers in the early 1990s . In 1999 the " Dark Sky Fund " was established and continues " to enhance the stargazing and astronomy experience " by funding improvements at the park . In 2000 Cherry Springs was officially named a " Dark Sky Park " by the DCNR , and that same year it became part of the Hills Creek State Park complex , an administrative grouping of eight state parks in Potter and Tioga counties . The headquarters for Cherry Springs are at nearby Lyman Run State Park . The National Public Observatory picked it " as the pilot for the Stars @-@ n @-@ Parks program " in April 2001 . The DCNR acquired the Cherry Springs Airport in 2006 " to expand the overall Dark Sky observation area and allow for increased programming opportunities " at the park , and closed it in 2007 . On June 11 , 2008 , the International Dark @-@ Sky Association named Cherry Springs State Park the second " International Dark Sky Park " . ( The first was Natural Bridges National Monument in Utah . )
= = Geology and climate = =
Cherry Springs State Park is at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 701 m ) above sea level , atop the Allegheny Plateau and " near the glaciated boundary " . The plateau and the Appalachian Mountains were all formed in the Alleghenian orogeny some 300 million years ago , when Gondwana ( specifically what became Africa ) and what became North America collided , forming Pangaea . Although the region appears mountainous , these are not true mountains : instead millions of years of erosion have made this a dissected plateau , causing the " mountainous " terrain seen today . The hardest of the ancient rocks are on top of the ridges , while the softer rocks eroded away forming the valleys .
The park is in the West Branch Pine Creek drainage basin , where the underlying rocks are primarily conglomerate , sandstone , and shale . Two major rock formations are present in Cherry Springs State Park , both at least partly from the Carboniferous period . The youngest of these , which forms the highest points in the park , is the early Pennsylvanian Pottsville Formation , a gray conglomerate that may contain sandstone , siltstone , and shale , as well as anthracite coal . The lower formation is the late Devonian and early Mississippian Huntley Mountain Formation , which is made of relatively soft grayish @-@ red shale and olive @-@ gray sandstone . Outside the park the creek has cut down into the Devonian Catskill Formation , a reddish sandstone .
The Allegheny Plateau has a continental climate , with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . The mean annual precipitation for the West Branch Pine Creek watershed is 40 to 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 016 to 1 @,@ 067 mm ) . January is the coldest month at Cherry Springs , July the warmest , and June the wettest . The highest recorded temperature at the park was 94 ° F ( 34 ° C ) in 1966 , and the record low was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) in 1963 .
= = Ecology = =
Cherry Springs State Park and the surrounding Susquehannock State Forest have recovered from the clearcutting of the lumber era . However , the composition of the forests has changed , so that there are now more hardwoods , including sugar maple and black cherry , and fewer eastern white pine and eastern hemlock . The park also has apple trees from the CCC orchard . Over 400 species of birds have been found in Pennsylvania , including 186 that breed in the state . Birds such as ospreys , hawks , owls , nightjars , and bald eagles have returned to the park and state forest , and saw @-@ whet owls have been studied in the park .
Some animals which had been locally extinct have also returned or been reintroduced to the area , including white @-@ tailed deer , elk , fishers ( a type of weasel ) , and otters . Although banned in the park , hunting is allowed in the surrounding state forest , which regained its title as a " sportsmen 's paradise " in the 20th century . Game species include black bears , white @-@ tailed deer , ducks , ruffed grouse , rabbits , gray and red squirrels , and wild turkeys . Other animals present in the park and forest include chipmunks , minks , raccoons , porcupines , groundhogs , and the occasional bobcat , as well as frogs , beetles , and moths .
A branch of Hopper House Run rises within the park , and flows east and then north into the West Branch Pine Creek . West Branch Road ( or Branch Road ) follows the valleys of the run and creek from Pennsylvania Route 44 east 10 miles ( 16 km ) to Galeton . PA 44 roughly follows the line dividing the Pine Creek watershed to the north and the Sinnemahoning Creek watershed to the south . East Fork Road leaves PA 44 in the park and follows the East Fork Sinnemahoning Creek valley southwest 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the village of Conrad . Both creeks are approved trout streams for fishing , which means they are stocked with trout in season .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Dark skies = = =
Astronomers and stargazers appreciate Cherry Springs State Park for the darkness and clarity of its skies , which make it " perhaps the last best refuge of the natural night sky " in the eastern half of the United States . The sky at Cherry Springs has been classified as a 2 on the Bortle Dark @-@ Sky Scale , meaning it has almost no light pollution . Such " truly dark , starry skies are unavailable to two @-@ thirds of the world 's population , including 99 percent of people in the continental U.S. and Western Europe " . With optimum conditions , 10 @,@ 000 stars are visible with the naked eye at the park , clouds appear only as black holes in the starry sky , and the Milky Way is so bright that it casts a discernible shadow . In contrast , big city residents can see a few dozen stars at best , and even those in rural areas can typically only see 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 stars . The Milky Way cannot be seen by most in the eastern US , even when there is no moonlight to obscure it .
The quality of the night skies at the park and its growing popularity for stargazing are the result of several factors . Cherry Springs is in the midst of the largely undeveloped 262 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 106 @,@ 000 ha ) Susquehannock State Forest , and is on a summit 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 701 m ) above sea level . Because it is on the Allegheny Plateau , there are no mountain peaks to block the sky , and the Astronomy Field offers a 360 degree unobstructed view . The closest city is Williamsport , 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the southeast . Surrounding communities sit in deep valleys , so the intervening terrain screens much of the light they produce ; the park has no artificial skyglow in any direction . Cherry Springs is generally fog @-@ free and its latitude puts it in excellent position to observe the Galactic Center of the Milky Way . The remote location also means there is little commercial air traffic to interfere with astrophotography , while PA Route 44 still offers relatively easy access to the park from Interstate 80 .
In addition to these natural factors , much has been done intentionally to make the skies at the park clear and dark and help keep them that way . Within the park , former overhead electrical lines have been buried so they do not obstruct views , all lighting is shielded , and all white lights have been converted to red , which has the least effect on night vision and astrophotography . Light from passing vehicles is blocked by earthen berms covered with grass , or shrubbery and spruce trees ; the Astronomy Field gate has a special light @-@ blocking tarp . The park 's Dark Sky Fund has paid for many of these improvements since 1999 .
Since the 2006 acquisition of the Cherry Springs airport , a new Public Programming field has been established on the former airstrip . This field is northeast of PA Route 44 and is intended for educational programs or stargazing , but not for those who spend the night . Overnight observers and those with large telescopes use the Astronomy Field southwest of the highway . Nighttime visitors may only use flashlights with red filters , and may only point them at the ground . The Astronomy Field has further restrictions on lights , and parts of the park are light @-@ free zones .
To help preserve the dark skies at Cherry Springs State Park , Tri @-@ County Rural Electric company installs light @-@ shielding caps on outdoor lights at local homes for free . In 2001 the Pennsylvania General Assembly passed the " Outdoor Lighting Control Act " , which both established the park as a " Dark Sky Preserve " and required minimal and shielded lighting at all new state facilities to reduce light pollution . A design guide for the Pennsylvania Wilds region , which includes the park , emphasizes the importance of maintaining dark skies . The DCNR spent $ 396 @,@ 000 in June 2007 to buy mineral rights under 1 @,@ 980 acres ( 800 ha ) of the park and state forest to prevent natural gas drilling and associated development there .
A wind farm has been proposed on a site 13 @.@ 7 miles ( 22 @.@ 0 km ) from the park . In 2008 Potter County passed an ordinance that wind turbine lights shall not " interfere with the state @-@ designated Dark Skies Preserve at Cherry Springs State Park " . That same year the DCNR commissioned a study on the wind farm 's impact , which concluded the red warning lights on the wind turbines would not impact the darkness of the sky and would only be directly visible from the Astronomy Field under rare conditions . Others in the astronomy community challenged these conclusions and feared that new lights on " several dozen wind turbines near the park " will degrade observations and astrophotography . The study also recommended that the DCNR shield and redirect lights at the nearby Denton Hill State Park downhill ski area to make the sky even darker at Cherry Springs .
= = = Astronomical observing = = =
The staff at Cherry Springs State Park did not intend for it to become an attraction for amateur astronomers ; the astronomers came to them instead . In 1997 or 1998 Chip Harrison , the park supervisor , noticed a man looking through a telescope at the park at about 1 AM . When Harrison asked why the man had come there , the astronomer said he had noticed an isolated black patch over north central Pennsylvania on nighttime satellite photos . Cherry Springs State Park is in that patch , one of the best locations east of the Mississippi River for stargazing .
An increasing number of astronomers began to come to Cherry Springs , most in the 14 @-@ day dark sky period around the new moon , between the last quarter and first quarter phases . The park is open year @-@ round and between 60 and 85 nights each year have ideal conditions , when the apparent magnitudes of the faintest stars visible can range from 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 5 . The park 's Astronomy Field has been upgraded to accommodate these astronomers . In 2005 a rotating 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) slotted observatory dome , two 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) clamshell domes , and a 10 @-@ by @-@ 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) sky shed were added , as well as a small amphitheater for programs . The four structures protect telescopes from the wind and thermal currents . The next year concrete pads 4 and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 and 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter were placed at random in the field , and electrical pedestals , each with six outlets , were added to power telescopes and computers . In 2009 , Wi @-@ Fi internet access was added to the Astronomy Field .
While a typical clear night might have 50 to
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100 observers , each year the park hosts two major star parties which both attract several hundred astronomers for several nights . The Black Forest Star Party , sponsored by the Central Pennsylvania Observers of State College , has been held each fall since 1999 . The Cherry Springs Star Party , sponsored by the Astronomical Society of Harrisburg , has been held each June since 2005 . There are also free public programs at the amphitheater on the former airport site , some of which are part of the National Public Observatory 's Stars @-@ n @-@ Parks program . Meteor showers will also attract a crowd and the Aurora Borealis can be seen from the park . A stargazing business , " Crystal Spheres " , has been established and presents Music and Stars programs , with an hour @-@ long concert followed by an hour of stargazing . Such " nature tourism " has a positive economic impact for the area .
Awards and press recognition have come to Cherry Springs and its staff . Thom Bemus , who initiated and coordinates the Stars @-@ n @-@ Parks program , was named DCNR 's 2002 Volunteer of the Year . In 2007 the park 's Dark Sky Programming and staff received the Environmental Education Excellence in Programming award from the Pennsylvania Recreation and Parks Society . Operations manager Chip Harrison and his wife Maxine , who directs the Dark Sky Fund , received a 2008 award from the Pennsylvania Outdoor Lighting Council for " steadfast adherence and active promotion of the principles of responsible outdoor lighting at Cherry Springs State Park " . The DCNR has named Cherry Springs one of " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " , specifically for having the " darkest night skies on the east coast " . Cherry Springs State Park was featured in the national press in 2003 when USA Today named it one of " 10 Great Places to get some stars in your eyes " , in 2006 when National Geographic Adventure featured it in " Pennsylvania : The Wild , Wild East " , and in The New York Times in 2007 . All these were before it was named an International Dark Sky Park by the International Dark @-@ Sky Association in 2008 .
= = = Woodsmen 's Show = = =
The Woodsmen 's Show attracts thousands of visitors to Cherry Springs State Park on the first weekend in August . It has been held every year since 1952 , and has been sponsored by the Galeton Rotary Club since 1987 . In 2008 events at the three @-@ day show included tree @-@ felling , cross @-@ cutting , log rolling , axe @-@ throwing , horse pulling , spring board chopping , the standing block chop , and chainsaw competitions and demonstrations . The 2008 show also featured historic recreations of life in a logging camp , musical performances , and vendors selling food , crafts , and equipment related to the lumber industry .
The show and its events , which celebrate Potter County 's lumbering history , have changed with time . In the early years , up to three working sawmills were set up just for the carnival , and there was an associated Woodsmen 's Ball on Saturday evening , after the carnival ended . The Woodsmen 's Show had its first female competitor in 1979 . Some events have been tried and discontinued ; in 1987 one @-@ hour seminars on topics such as " Outdoor Adventures on Mules " and the first " Woodsmen 's Carnival Queen " were introduced , and in 1993 there was tractor pulling with lawn tractors . In 1990 the name was changed from the " Woodsmen 's Carnival " to the " Woodsmen 's Show " , a third day was added , and an ecumenical church service was held Sunday morning in the large picnic pavilion . The next year the show was part of the STIHL Timbersports Series and some of the competition was televised on ESPN . Although it is no longer part of the STIHL series , as of 2008 many of the same athletes competed at the show .
Attendance was 4 @,@ 000 the first year and grew to 12 @,@ 000 three years later in 1955 , then peaked at 33 @,@ 000 in 1962 , with nearly as many in 1965 ( 32 @,@ 000 ) and 1981 ( 30 @,@ 000 ) . In 1983 , 20 @,@ 000 visitors came to the show , 15 @,@ 000 came in 1985 , and by the early 21st century attendance was about 14 @,@ 000 . Admission is charged and cash prizes are awarded in the competitions . Proceeds from the show under the Penn @-@ York Lumbermen 's Club went to promote the lumber industry and support the Pennsylvania Lumber Museum . The Galeton Rotary Club has used the funds to improve the standard of living in and around Galeton , including college scholarships , a new roof for the Community building , support for the local public library , and clean @-@ up and maintenance of the downtown .
= = = Camping , picnicking , and trails = = =
The park has 30 camping sites which can each accommodate a tent , or a recreational vehicle ( RV ) up to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long . The sites all have a fire ring , lantern hanger , and picnic table , and are classified as rustic because they have no running water . The camping area , which is southeast of Pennsylvania Route 44 , is open from April to December and does not accept reservations . The park has two modern latrines , one in the camping area and the other at the Astronomy Field . There is also a holding tank dump station for RVs . Although the Astronomy Field is not an official camping area , overnight observers may set up tents and vehicles there in which to camp . In addition to the picnic tables and small pavilion in the camping area , the main picnic area at Cherry Springs is on the southwest side of Route 44 , in and around the large historic , CCC @-@ built pavilion . The area surrounding the pavilion has many picnic tables situated in an old apple orchard and a stand of huge white pine and Norway spruce trees .
Cherry Springs State Park is at the southern end of a 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) long , single @-@ track mountain bike trail , which begins at Denton Hill State Park and passes through Patterson State Park . In 2005 the snowmobile trailhead at Cherry Springs was moved to the southern end of the park to avoid the Astronomy Field . The snowmobile trail is one of many trails available for cross @-@ country skiing , backpacking , hiking , and all @-@ terrain vehicle and horseback riding in the surrounding Susquehannock State Forest . The 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) long Susquehannock Trail System passes close to the park and loops around it . South of the park the trail passes through the Hammersley Wild Area , which at 30 @,@ 253 acres ( 12 @,@ 243 ha ) without roads is the second largest wild area in Pennsylvania .
= = Nearby state parks = =
Cherry Springs State Park is on Pennsylvania Route 44 in West Branch Township , 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Galeton . The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Cherry Springs State Park :
= Ricardo Arjona =
Edgar R. Arjona Morales ( born 19 January 1964 ) , known as Ricardo Arjona ( Spanish pronunciation : [ riˈkaɾðo arˈxona ] ) , is a Guatemalan singer @-@ songwriter and former basketball player and school teacher . Arjona is one of the most successful Latin American artists of all time , with more than 20 million albums sold . He is often called El Animal Nocturno ( The Nocturnal Animal ) , thanks to his breakthrough success with his fourth studio album which bears the same name . His music ranges from ballads to Latin pop , rock , pop rock , Cuban music , and more recently a cappella performances and a mixture of Tejano music and Norteño music , and other Afro @-@ American and Latin sounds . Arjona is noted for his lyrical style , and often addresses topics such as love , sexuality , violence , racism and immigration .
As of 2014 , Arjona had released fourteen studio albums , one live album , nine compilation albums and forty @-@ three singles . Four Arjona albums reached number one on the Billboard Top Latin Albums , and ten reached number one in Argentina . Four albums had charted on the Billboard 200 . Four singles had reached number one on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and seven had done the same on Latin Pop Songs . His work earned him numerous awards and accolades , including one Grammy Award , one Latin Grammy Award , the " Latin Heritage " Award as well as awards from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ; a silver and golden torch and two silver seagulls from the 2010 Viña del Mar International Song Festival , two Billboard Latin Music Awards , and a " Latin Trajectory of the Year " Award at the Orgullosamente Latino Awards of 2010 .
= = Early years and personal life = =
Edgar Ricardo Arjona Morales was born on 19 January 1964 in Jocotenango , Guatemala , to parents Ricardo Arjona Moscoso and Mimi Morales de Arjona . He spent most of his childhood in Guatemala City , where he began his musical instruction . At age twelve , he participated in the contest " Festival Infantil Juventud 74 " with " Gracias al Mundo " , a song composed by his father , finally winning the event . Although he initially enrolled in architecture and engineering at the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala ( USAC ) , he graduated with a degree from the School of Communication Sciences . In the city of Buenos Aires , Argentina , he met Puerto Rican Leslie Torres and had two children with her : Adria and Ricardo . They separated in 2005 . As of 2010 , Arjona was dating Venezuelan model Daisy Arvelo , with whom he has a child .
= = Sports career = =
Arjona was a talented basketball player who played for Leones de Marte and TRIAS . He toured Central America as a member of the Guatemala national basketball team . Until recently , he held the record for the most points scored ( 78 ) in a single game by a Guatemalan . He also taught at a primary school ( called Santa Elena III ) , where he claimed to have spent six hours giving lessons and the rest of the day playing soccer . This earned him a visit from a Ministry of Education representative , who was sent to evaluate his pupils . The representative found that the students ' education was actually above average . In 1988 , he became the basketball coach of a boys ' school ( called Instituto Don Bosco ) .
= = Music career = =
= = = 1980s : Beginnings and early breakthrough = = =
Arjona began his musical career at age 21 , when he signed with the now defunct , Guatemalan record label , Discos de Centroamerica S.A. and distributed by < PolyGram and released his debut album Déjame Decir Que Te Amo in 1985 . The label attempted to portray Arjona as a stereotypical Latin lover . The title track was released as a single , " Déjame Decir Que Te Amo " . This album failed to chart , but received moderate praise from critics , with Allmusic awarding it three stars out of five . Because of his negative experience recording the album and its commercial failure , he decided to abandon music to teach school . At age 24 , Arjona reversed course and sought the opportunity to represent his country in the OTI Festival with the song " Con Una Estrella En El Vientre " . The sessions immediately following this decision produced the song " S.O.S Rescátame " . His second studio album , Jesús , Verbo No Sustantivo brought him commercial and critical success across Latin America and the U.S. and became a best @-@ seller in many Central American territories .
= = = 1990s : International breakthrough , Si El Norte Fuera El Sur and Sin Daños a Terceros = = =
Arjona started the new decade as a regular in the Mexican telenovela ( soap opera ) " Alcanzar una Estrella " ( English translation : Reaching a Star ) , which assisted him in becoming a known singer throughout Latin America . After joining Sony Music in 1990 he released Del Otro Lado del Sol , one of his least successful albums . That year , he started composing songs for other artists , such as Yuri 's " Detrás de Mi Ventana " , for her album Nueva era ( 1993 ) . The song became a hit , reaching No.1 on the US Hot Latin Songs chart for three weeks in 1994 . He later covered the song in his compilation album , Trópico ( 2009 ) , alongside Melina León . Animal Nocturno , Arjona 's fourth studio album , was released in 1993 . The album contained the hit singles " Mujeres " ( No. 6 on Latin Songs ) and " Primera Vez " ( No. 6 on Latin Songs ) and received thirteen platinum and one diamond certifications . Animal Nocturno sold 500 @,@ 000 copies in 1994 , and carried Arjona to fame along with his work on the Mexican telenovela Alcanzar Una Estrella , which allowed him to showcase his songwriting and singing skills .
He confirmed his reputation with the release of his fifth studio album , Historias . The album sold 2 million copies throughout Latin America and received twenty @-@ seven platinum and two diamond certifications , including quadruple Platinum in Argentina . Historias reached No. 43 on Top Latin Albums and included the hit singles " Te Conozco " ( No. 3 on Billboard Latin Songs ) and " Señora De Las Cuatro Décadas " ( No. 7 on Latin Songs ) . The Allmusic review by Jason Birchmeier awarded the album 4 @.@ 5 stars stating that " If you were to pick only one Arjona album for your collection that wasn 't a greatest @-@ hits compilation , this should be the one . Historias was a career @-@ defining success for Arjona . " His fourth and fifth studio albums were the best @-@ selling of his career .
In 1996 , he released his sixth studio album , Si El Norte Fuera El Sur . This was the first album in which Arjona ventured beyond the theme of love to explore nationalism and globalization , among other sociopolitical topics . Its four singles were " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " ( No. 9 on Latin Pop Songs ) , whose main theme is the relationship between the United States and Latin America , " Tu Reputación " ( No. 18 on Latin Songs , No. 2 on Latin Pop Songs ) , " Me Enseñaste " ( No. 18 on Latin Pop Songs ) , and " Ella y Él " ( No. 24 on Latin Songs , No. 8 on Latin Pop Songs ) . Birchmeier awarded the album 4 @.@ 5 stars stating " All in all , it 's Arjona 's third classic album in a row , each distinct from its predecessor . " Billboard named it the Rock Album of the Year in 1997 . Si El Norte Fuera El Sur received multiple Platinum certifications in the United States and Argentina .
In 1998 , he released his seventh studio album , Sin Daños a Terceros . Terry Jenkins from Allmusic , on his review of the album , awarded it 4 stars , writing that " Sin Daños a Terceros continues Ricardo Arjona 's streak of accomplished , affecting albums that spotlights both his melodic skills and his sharp social consciousness . " His fourth consecutive album to receive critical success , Sin Daños a Terceros also enjoyed commercial success , debuting at No. 6 on Top Latin Albums , the first to reach the top 10 , and reaching No. 3 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart . It contained the hit singles " Dime Que No " ( No. 6 on Latin Songs , No. 3 on Latin Pop Songs ) , and " Mentiroso " ( No. 22 on Latin Songs , No. 5 on Latin Pop Songs ) . The album received multiple Platinum certifications from the United States and Argentina . More than 700 @,@ 000 copies were sold .
On 5 December 1998 and in front of a live audience of more than 100 @,@ 000 people at the Hippodrome of Guatemala City , Arjona recorded his first live album , the 1999 release Vivo . The album was moderately successful , certified Gold in Mexico and Platinum in the United States and Argentina . It produced the hit " Desnuda " , which became his first No. 1 on the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart . As of December 2005 , Vivo had sold 243 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , his best @-@ selling album there as of that date .
= = = 2000 – 2005 : Galería Caribe , world tour , Santo Pecado , hiatus and Adentro = = =
Arjona 's eighth studio album , Galería Caribe was preceded by the single " Cuándo " , which became a commercial success and reached No. 1 on both Top Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs . The singer commented that the album consumed twelve months and that before starting , he " had more friends . " He also mentioned he had " lived in love with Caribbean culture and music since my childhood . " Birchmeier awarded the album 3 stars stating " All in all , Galería Caribe is a curious entry in Arjona 's catalog that most fans can overlook without missing much . " The album became his first to chart on the Billboard 200 , peaking at No. 136 , while charting at No. 1 on Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums . It was awarded Platinum certification in Mexico , Argentina and the US . Its three singles were " Lo Poco Que Queda De Mi " ; " Mesías " , which reached No. 19 on Top Latin Songs and No. 11 on the Latin Pop Songs chart ; and " A Cara O Cruz " , which reached No. 28 on Latin Pop Songs . To promote the album , which sold more than one million copies , Arjona embarked on his Galería Caribe Tour , which began in Mexico in 2000 and finished in 2001 .
On " Mesias " Arjona talks about a character who appears " in the form of a wealthy , well @-@ armed magnate with [ ... ] some sinister plan for the world . " Some critics argued that it was a " metaphorical attack " on capitalism and imperialism , named as " classic Arjona targets . " The song became a subject of some controversy when fans and critics noted connections between its theme and the attacks of September 2001 , months after the song 's release , which resulted in the FBI investigating Arjona . The singer later commented that " Mesías " had no relationship to the attacks , and that the lyrics were pure coincidence . He further stated the FBI had never spoken directly to him , but instead to somebody on his team .
On 19 November 2002 , Arjona released his ninth studio album , Santo Pecado , preceded by singles " El Problema " , which reached No. 1 on both the Billboard Top Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts ; and " Minutos " which reached No. 5 on the Top Latin Songs and No. 3 on the Latin Pop Songs charts . Santo Pecado became a commercial success , selling more than 300 @,@ 000 copies just in Mexico ( double Platinum ) , 160 @,@ 000 in Argentina ( quadruple Platinum ) and 200 @,@ 000 in the United States ( double Platinum ) . In 2003 Arjona released Lados B , his second compilation album , including songs that were " not so commercial " , and that he wanted to give a second chance at radio airplay . The album contained songs from all his past studio albums . Critical reception for the album was mixed . Birchmeier noted that it was " a misleading entry point into Arjona 's catalog . " Despite this , the album received a Gold certification in Mexico .
On 6 December 2005 , Arjona released his tenth studio album , Adentro . This was Arjona 's first collaboration with Tommy Torres . In an interview , the singer commented that he first " tested " Torres by sending him the " hookiest and darkest tracks " on the album , " Acompañame A Estar Solo " and " Iluso " . Torres said that he " went all out on the first demo , hiring a full band that included a string orchestra " , which grabbed Arjona 's attention . The album was critically acclaimed , with Evan C. Gutierrez from Allmusic giving it four stars out of five and commenting that " Be it for the stripped , natural production value , the confident performance of Ricardo Arjona , or his relevant @-@ as @-@ ever lyricism , he 's got both his loyal fans and the execs at Norte smiling . While the instrumentation , performance , and overall sonic palette of this project are minimalist and unassuming , there is a depth and brilliance to them . The listener 's ear does not tire or want for more , humble as Adentro is . " Arjona further commented that Adentro was " a very representative and tremendously complete album , " adding that " having different producers made it rich in possibilities . "
Adentro became Arjona 's second studio album to chart on the Billboard 200 , reaching No. 126 . It reached No. 3 on the Top Latin Albums and No. 2 on the Lain Pop Albums charts . Five singles were released from Adentro : the lead single , " Acompañame A Estar Solo " ( No. 7 on Latin Songs , No. 1 on Latin Pop Songs ) , " Pingüinos En La Cama " featuring Spanish singer Chenoa ( No. 44 on Latin Songs , No. 19 on Latin Pop Songs ) ; " Mojado " , featuring American Tejano / Norteño band Intocable ( No. 34 on Latin Songs , No. 30 on Latin Pop Songs ) , " A Ti " ( No. 14 on Latin Songs , No. 3 on Latin Pop Songs ) and " De Vez En Mes " ( No. 49 on Latin Songs , No. 16 on Latin Pop Songs ) . The album sold more than a million copies worldwide .
= = = 2006 – 2007 : Adentro Tour and Quién Dijo Ayer = = =
In 2006 , Arjona started the first leg of his world tour , named the Adentro Tour . The tour resumed in 2007 for a second leg , in which he visited more countries . Approximately two million people attended the performances . The tour was officially closed on 14 September 2007 on the mainland city of Barquisimeto , Venezuela , during the International Fair , in front of more than 100 @,@ 000 people . On 21 August 2007 , Arjona released his fifth compilation album , Quién Dijo Ayer . The album is a two @-@ disc set which contains , on the first disc , new versions of past hits , some of them including featured artists such as Marta Sánchez on " Tarde ( Sin Daños a Terceros ) " from Sin Daños a Terceros ; Panteón Rococó on " Si El Norte Fuera el Sur " , from the album of the same name ; Marc Anthony on " Historia de Taxi " , from Historias ; Eros Ramazzotti on " A Ti " , from Adentro and Sandro on " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " from Historias , and which was the last song recorded by the singer , who died on 4 January 2010 . Arjona 's manager told Argentinian newspaper Clarín that " [ the singer ] had the idea of inviting Roberto [ Sandro ] for his album , he [ Sandro ] showed enthusiasm and manifested the same degree of appreciation to Arjona . It seemed to him that he [ Arjona ] was an artist who proclaims the same values he proclaimed . " The second disc contained remastered versions of the hits on the first disc , but in their original versions . It was the second time Arjona collaborated with Torres .
The album became a critical and commercial success . Jason Birchmeier commented that " while only a couple of the new versions depart stylistically from the originals , the contemporary productions breathe new life into these songs , which should be well known by longtime fans " ; and reaching double Platinum in Argentina and the United States , and Platinum in Mexico . The record was additionally certified Gold in Colombia , Chile and Venezuela . Two singles were released from the album . The first , " Quién " , a previously unreleased song produced by Torres , failed to reach the top 20 on Latin Songs , standing at No. 21 , but reached No. 4 on the Latin Pop Songs chart . Arjona commented that " ' Quién ' is a story with the hurry of the desperate , is the flashback of those who end up loving alone . " " Quiero " , the second single , reached No.12 on the Latin Songs chart , and No.8 on the Latin Pop Songs chart .
= = = 2008 – 2010 : New label , Quinto Piso , world tour and Poquita Ropa = = =
After spending the majority of his career with Sony , and Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term deal with Warner Music Latina in September 2008 . Iñigo Zabala , chairman of Warner Music Latin America , said " He 's an artist that fits perfectly with our company , " and that " We are a label that has a major catalog of songwriters and quality pop and rock from the likes of Maná , Alejandro Sanz , Laura Pausini , and now , Arjona . " Arjona announced his eleventh studio album , 5to Piso , on 18 November 2008 . The album was preceded by the first single , " Como Duele " on September , which reached No. 2 on Top Latin Songs and No. 1 on Latin Pop Songs . He moved approximately 200 @,@ 000 copies of the album in the first month at retail , and it went Platinum in Mexico , the United States , Spain , Argentina , Venezuela , Colombia , Guatemala , and several other countries . It debuted at No. 1 on Top Latin Albums , becoming his second chart @-@ topper on that list , and sold more than one million copies worldwide . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album and a Latin Grammy Award nomination for Best Singer @-@ Songwriter Album . The album received positive critical response . Birchmeier gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , saying that " More typical than exceptional for Arjona at this point in his career , 5to Piso isn 't as grand an album as his past few ... Yet it 's a great album all the same , particularly the opening run of songs that culminates with ' Cómo Duele ' , and it finds Arjona still at the top of his craft . "
While Warner Music released his new studio album , Sony Music released a compilation album , Simplemente Lo Mejor . This led to speculation that the labels were in a fight to win Arjona 's fanbase and sales . Simplemente Lo Mejor contained hits from past albums , namely Sin Daños a Terceros , Si El Norte Fuera El Sur , among others . This compilation went Gold in Mexico , and Platinum in Argentina . " Sin Ti ... Sin Mi " was released as 5to Piso 's second single , and reached No. 4 on both Top Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts . On 24 April 2009 , Arjona started the Quinto Piso Tour . The tour included 123 shows in the United States , Spain , Argentina , Guatemala , Colombia , Venezuela and Mexico , among many other countries in Latin America , and ended on 18 June 2010 .
The Quinto Piso Tour was one of the most successful tours made by a Latin artist , with more than one million attendees from 19 countries . He received in 2010 the " Latin Tour of the Year " Billboard Latin Music Award for the tour . On 26 February 2010 , he participated in the 2010 Viña del Mar International Song Festival as one of the top performers . His performance was followed by Colombian singer Fanny Lu . One hour after Lu 's performance , a 8 @.@ 8 magnitude massive earthquake affected the south @-@ central regions of Chile . On social networks , Arjona was jokingly blamed , with remarks such as " earthquakes go where he goes " , making reference also to the earthquake felt in Mexico after the singer arrived . After the tour , Arjona announced his twelfth studio album , Poquita Ropa , which was released on 24 August 2010 . It was preceded by the genre @-@ mixing track " Puente " , an ode to Havana , Cuba 's largest and capital city . The song failed to break in the upper tier of Billboard charts , and was reportedly prohibited in Cuba . The album became his third to debut or reach No. 1 on the Top Latin Albums chart . Within two weeks of release , the album received a Gold certification in Chile , United States , Colombia and Puerto Rico ; and Platinum certification in Mexico and Argentina .
The album marked a change in Arjona 's sound , which he called a " stripped @-@ down version " of his music . Birchmeier gave the album a somewhat positive review , saying that it was a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " yet considered it " impressive " . Two more singles were released from Poquita Ropa , " Vida " , a song the singer dedicated to his recently deceased father ; and " Marta " , an autobiographical song whose music video stars Edith González . Both , like the lead single , failed to gain much airplay in the U.S. , and charted poorly .
= = = 2011 – 13 : Independiente , Metamorfosis and world tour = = =
Arjona released his thirteenth studio album , Independiente , on 4 October 2011 . It became his fourth number @-@ one on the Top Latin Albums chart the week ending 22 October 2011 ; and within a week went Gold in Chile , United States and Mexico ; and Platinum in Venezuela and Argentina . Independiente was his first release as an independent artist , appearing on his Metamorfosis label , a company he created to refocus his career . The album was distributed by Warner . Billboard noted that although other groups have decided to go independent after working with major record labels , Arjona was by far the most important artist in Latin pop to do so . By the end of 2012 , the album sold more than 75 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and 400 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
" El Amor " was released in August 2011 as the lead single from Independiente ; it managed to top both the US Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts . It also became a hit in the rest of Latin America , reaching number one in several countries . " Fuiste Tú " , a collaboration with Guatemalan singer Gaby Moreno , followed as second single in February 2013 ; it reached number two on the Latin Songs chart , and topped the Latin Pop Songs chart . On May , Arjona released the music video for " Mi Novia Se Me Está Poniendo Vieja . " However , " Te Quiero " was released as third single in July 2012 , and became the second song off the album to top the Latin Songs chart . This made Independiente Arjona 's first album to ever have two number @-@ one hits on that chart . The song also topped the Latin Pop Songs chart , becoming the third song off the album to do so . " Si Tu No Existieras " was released in November 2012 , and managed to peak at number 14 in Mexico .
To promote the album , Arjona embarked on the Metamorfosis World Tour . The show , his first since 2009 's Quinto Piso Tour , comprised five legs across North and Latin America . It ran from January 2012 until March 2013 and included 102 shows in 18 different countries , with an estimated attendance of over one million people . The tour opened in Toluca , where he had started all of his concert tours , and grossed more than $ 13 @.@ 4 million in the United States .
= = Music and style = =
Arjona 's primary musical style is Latin pop . He usually sings without the help of featured or additional singers . His style varied over the years , as Arjona took risks to keep his music from becoming stale . In contrast to the ballad @-@ laden Déjame Decir Que Te Amo , on the following two albums Arjona experimented with a range of pop / rock styles . Animal Nocturno intersperses energetic rock songs among heartfelt ballads , and the instrumentation is heavy on guitar , synthesizer , and drums . On Historias , each song is stylistically distinct and the instrumentation is varied . Around two dozen instruments were used on the album , including horns , piano and Hammond B @-@ 3 , and strings . On Si El Norte Fuera El Sur , he crafted a relatively low @-@ key effort characterized by intimate songs about love , culture , and politics . Most of the songs were written in 1995 while Arjona was touring and are performed acoustically with Caribbean touches . Besides a couple of rockers , the songs are fairly even in tone and tempo .
In Galería Caribe , Arjona explored Afro @-@ Caribbean sounds , employing traditional rhythms such as guaracha , bachata , merengue , and salsa . On Santo Pecado , Arjona explored the use of symphonic sounds on his ballads , amidst a couple of rock songs stylistically similar to those on Sin Daños a Terceros . This album included the song " La Nena ( Bitácora de un Secuetro ) " , in which Arjona relates the story of a girl who is kidnapped by her uncle . Then , in 2005 , Arjona adopted new sounds in Adentro . Gutierrez considered the instrumentation , performance , and overall sonic palette to be " minimalist " and " unassuming " . On this album , Arjona included more Latin sounds , Mexican and Tejano music on " Mojado " , a song about immigration ; merengue and Colombian tones on " Adiós Melancolía " , and some on " No Te Cambio Por Nada " .
On 2007 's Quién Dijo Ayer , Arjona reworked past songs to fit a new style . For example , he gave " Si El Norte Fuera El Sur " a ska beat , and performed with the aid of Panteón Rococó . He transformed " Historia de Taxi " into a salsa song , with the help of American singer Marc Anthony and pianist Sergio George , who commented that " It 's been interesting to work with two figures from different music worlds on the interest of making good music . " He further stated that " every time a reunion of this kind happens , it 's a reason to celebrate . " Birchmeier commented , " While only a couple of the new versions depart stylistically from the originals , the contemporary productions breathe new life into these songs . " " Realmente No Estoy Tan Solo " was re @-@ recorded with singer Sandro . This turned out to be the last song recorded by the latter , who died 4 January 2010 . This album included three new songs . The lead single , " Quién " was written by Arjona and produced by himself and Torres . " Quiero " and " Espantapájaros " are the other two new songs on the album .
5to Piso is mainly driven by piano and strings . Exceptions are " La Bailarina Vecina " , crafted with pure orchestral arrangements ; and " Ni Tú Ni Yo " , a ranchera style song featuring Paquita la del Barrio . The album also includes a song called " Que Nadie Vea " , in which the artist sings about homosexuality . On 5to Piso , Arjona commented that he tried to recoup the freshness of his first albums , saying that he " tried to reconcile a little with the Ricardo Arjona from the first albums to let out some of that freshness that makes so good to the songs . " Poquita Ropa offered a drastic change in which Arjona minimized the number of instruments . The result was a set of a capella performances . Arjona commented about this album that " music and women look better with little clothes . " Production was handled by Arjona and Dan Warner , who also worked with Shakira , Celine Dion and Christina Aguilera . Birchmeier gave the album a somewhat positive review , saying that it was a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " , considering it " impressive " . He also commented that Poquita Ropa " finds Arjona at his most naked , backed by spare arrangements of acoustic guitar , piano , and Hammond B @-@ 3 along with occasional touches of strings , woodwinds , and chorus vocals . "
" Puente " , the lead single , is the only notable exception . It lasts eight and a half minutes and is divided in three parts . The first is sung mainly with a piano . The second part is a ballad with Caribbean and Latin sounds , with some salsa and Cuban influences . The third mixes salsa and merengue , with Cuban influences . " Puente " resembles Arjona 's work on Galería Caribe . This album was the first since Adentro , that Arjona worked without Torres . In Independiente , Arjona returned to his trademark sound , which Torres helped craft . David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a somewhat positive review . He compared the production values and musical style of Independiente with those of past albums Animal Nocturno and Historias , stating , " Returning fans will revel in this combination of freedom and growth , and appreciate the return of producer Tommy Torres , the man who has been behind the boards for quite a few of Arjona 's most popular releases " , referring precisely to the absence of Torres in the production of Poquita Ropa .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
In 1993 , he received the Rafael Álvarez Ovalle Order from the then President of Guatemala , Ramiro de León Carpio , for his international accomplishments . At USAC a library hall bears his name . His birthplace , Jocotenango , named a street after him .
= Uncle Tom 's Cabin =
Uncle Tom 's Cabin ; or , Life Among the Lowly , is an anti @-@ slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe . Published in 1852 , the novel " helped lay the groundwork for the Civil War " , according to Will Kaufman .
Stowe , a Connecticut @-@ born teacher at the Hartford Female Seminary and an active abolitionist , featured the character of Uncle Tom , a long @-@ suffering black slave around whom the stories of other characters revolve . The sentimental novel depicts the reality of slavery while also asserting that Christian love can overcome something as destructive as enslavement of fellow human beings .
Uncle Tom 's Cabin was the best @-@ selling novel of the 19th century and the second best @-@ selling book of that century , following the Bible . It is credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s . In the first year after it was published , 300 @,@ 000 copies of the book were sold in the United States ; one million copies in Great Britain . In 1855 , three years after it was published , it was called " the most popular novel of our day . " The impact attributed to the book is great , reinforced by a story that when Abraham Lincoln met Stowe at the start of the Civil War , Lincoln declared , " So this is the little lady who started this great war . " The quote is apocryphal ; it did not appear in print until 1896 , and it has been argued that " The long @-@ term durability of Lincoln 's greeting as an anecdote in literary studies and Stowe scholarship can perhaps be explained in part by the desire among many contemporary intellectuals ... to affirm the role of literature as an agent of social change . "
The book and the plays it inspired helped popularize a number of stereotypes about black people . These include the affectionate , dark @-@ skinned " mammy " ; the " pickaninny " stereotype of black children ; and the " Uncle Tom " , or dutiful , long @-@ suffering servant faithful to his white master or mistress . In recent years , the negative associations with Uncle Tom 's Cabin have , to an extent , overshadowed the historical impact of the book as a " vital antislavery tool . "
= = Publication = =
Uncle Tom 's Cabin first appeared as a 40 @-@ week serial in The National Era , an abolitionist periodical , starting with the June 5 , 1851 , issue . It was originally intended as a shorter narrative that would run for only a few weeks . Stowe expanded the story significantly , however , and it was instantly popular , such that several protests were sent to the Era office when she missed an issue . Because of the story 's popularity , the publisher John P. Jewett contacted Stowe about turning the serial into a book . While Stowe questioned if anyone would read Uncle Tom 's Cabin in book form , she eventually consented to the request .
Convinced the book would be popular , Jewett made the unusual decision ( for that time ) to have six full @-@ page illustrations by Hammatt Billings engraved for the first printing . Published in book form on March 20 , 1852 , the novel sold 3 @,@ 000 copies on that day alone. and soon sold out its complete print run . A number of other editions were soon printed ( including a deluxe edition in 1853 , featuring 117 illustrations by Billings ) .
In the first year of publication , 300 @,@ 000 copies of Uncle Tom 's Cabin were sold . At that point , however , " demand came to an unexpected halt .... No more copies were produced for many years , and if , as is claimed , Abraham Lincoln greeted Stowe in 1862 as ' the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war , ' the work had effectively been out of print for many years . " Jewett went out of business , and it was not until Ticknor and Fields put the work back in print in November 1862 that demand began again to increase .
The book was translated into all major languages , and in the United States it became the second best @-@ selling book after the Bible . A number of the early editions carried an introduction by Rev James Sherman , a Congregational minister in London noted for his abolitionist views . Uncle Tom 's Cabin sold equally well in Britain , with the first London edition appearing in May 1852 and selling 200 @,@ 000 copies . In a few years over 1 @.@ 5 million copies of the book were in circulation in Britain , although most of these were infringing copies ( a similar situation occurred in the United States ) .
= = Plot = =
= = = Eliza escapes with her son , Tom sold " down the river " = = =
The book opens with a Kentucky farmer named Arthur Shelby facing the loss of his farm because of debts . Even though he and his wife Emily Shelby believe that they have a benevolent relationship with their slaves , Shelby decides to raise the needed funds by selling two of them — Uncle Tom , a middle @-@ aged man with a wife and children , and Harry , the son of Emily Shelby 's maid Eliza — to a slave trader . Emily Shelby is averse to this idea because she had promised her maid that her child would never be sold ; Emily 's son , George Shelby , hates to see Tom go because he sees the man as his friend and mentor .
When Eliza overhears Mr. and Mrs. Shelby discussing plans to sell Tom and Harry , Eliza determines to run away with her son . The novel states that Eliza made this decision because she fears losing her only surviving child ( she had already miscarried two children ) . Eliza departs that night , leaving a note of apology to her mistress .
Tom is sold and placed on a riverboat which sets sail down the Mississippi River . While on board , Tom meets and befriends a young white girl named Eva . Eva 's father Augustine St. Clare buys Tom from the slave trader and takes him with the family to their home in New Orleans . Tom and Eva begin to relate to one another because of the deep Christian faith they both share .
= = = Eliza 's family hunted , Tom 's life with St. Clare = = =
During Eliza 's escape , she meets up with her husband George Harris , who had run away previously . They decide to attempt to reach Canada . However , they are tracked by a slave hunter named Tom Loker . Eventually Loker and his men trap Eliza and her family , causing Phineas to push Loker down a cliff after George had shot him in the side . Worried that Loker may die , Eliza convinces George to bring the slave hunter to a nearby Quaker settlement for medical treatment .
Back in New Orleans , St. Clare debates slavery with his Northern cousin Ophelia who , while opposing slavery , is prejudiced against black people . St. Clare , however , believes he is not biased , even though he is a slave owner . In an attempt to show Ophelia that her views on blacks are wrong , St. Clare purchases Topsy , a young black slave . St. Clare then asks Ophelia to educate her .
After Tom has lived with the St. Clares for two years , Eva grows very ill . Before she dies she experiences a vision of heaven , which she shares with the people around her . As a result of her death and vision , the other characters resolve to change their lives , with Ophelia promising to throw off her personal prejudices against blacks , Topsy saying she will better herself , and St. Clare pledging to free Tom .
= = = Tom sold to Simon Legree = = =
Before St. Clare can follow through on his pledge , however , he dies after being stabbed outside of a tavern . His wife reneges on her late husband 's vow and sells Tom at auction to a vicious plantation owner named Simon Legree . Legree ( a transplanted northerner ) takes Tom and Emmeline ( whom Legree purchased at the same time ) to rural Louisiana , where they meet Legree 's other slaves .
Legree begins to hate Tom when Tom refuses Legree 's order to whip his fellow slave . Legree beats Tom viciously and resolves to crush his new slave 's faith in God . Despite Legree 's cruelty , however , Tom refuses to stop reading his Bible and comforting the other slaves as best he can . While at the plantation , Tom meets Cassy , another of Legree 's slaves . Cassy was previously separated from her son and daughter when they were sold ; unable to endure the pain of seeing another child sold , she killed her third child .
At this point Tom Loker returns to the story . Loker has changed as the result of being healed by the Quakers . George , Eliza , and Harry have also obtained their freedom after crossing into Canada . In Louisiana , Uncle Tom almost succumbs to hopelessness as his faith in God is tested by the hardships of the plantation . However , he has two visions , one of Jesus and one of Eva , which renew his resolve to remain a faithful Christian , even unto death . He encourages Cassy to escape , which she does , taking Emmeline with her . When Tom refuses to tell Legree where Cassy and Emmeline have gone , Legree orders his overseers to kill Tom . As Tom is dying , he forgives the overseers who savagely beat him . Humbled by the character of the man they have killed , both men become Christians . Very shortly before Tom 's death , George Shelby ( Arthur Shelby 's son ) arrives to buy Tom 's freedom but finds he is too late .
= = = Final section = = =
On their boat ride to freedom , Cassy and Emmeline meet George Harris 's sister and accompany her to Canada . Cassy discovers that Eliza is her long @-@ lost daughter who was sold as a child . Now that their family is together again , they travel to France and eventually Liberia , the African nation created for former American slaves . George Shelby returns to the Kentucky farm and frees all his slaves . George tells them to remember Tom 's sacrifice and his belief in the true meaning of Christianity .
= = Major characters = =
= = = Uncle Tom = = =
Uncle Tom , the title character , was initially seen as a noble , long @-@ suffering Christian slave . In more recent years , however , his name has become an epithet directed towards African @-@ Americans who are accused of selling out to whites . Stowe intended Tom to be a " noble hero " and praiseworthy person . Throughout the book , far from allowing himself to be exploited , Tom stands up for his beliefs and is grudgingly admired even by his enemies .
= = = Eliza = = =
Eliza is a slave and personal maid to Mrs. Shelby who escapes to the North with her five @-@ year @-@ old son Harry after he is sold to Mr. Haley . Her husband , George , eventually finds Eliza and Harry in Ohio and emigrates with them to Canada , then France and finally Liberia .
The character Eliza was inspired by an account given at Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati by John Rankin to Stowe 's husband Calvin , a professor at the school . According to Rankin , in February 1838 a young slave woman , Eliza Harris , had escaped across the frozen Ohio River to the town of Ripley with her child in her arms and stayed at his house on her way further north .
= = = Eva = = =
Evangeline St. Clare is the daughter of Augustine St. Clare . Eva enters the narrative when Uncle Tom is traveling via steamship to New Orleans to be sold , and he rescues the five- or six @-@ year @-@ old girl from drowning . Eva begs her father to buy Tom , and he becomes the head coachman at the St. Clare house . He spends most of his time with the angelic Eva . Eva often talks about love and forgiveness , even convincing the dour slave girl Topsy that she deserves love . She even touches the heart of her Aunt Ophelia .
Eventually Eva falls terminally ill . Before dying , she gives a lock of her hair to each of the slaves , telling them that they must become Christians so that they may see each other in Heaven . On her deathbed , she convinces her father to free Tom , but because of circumstances the promise never materializes .
A similar character , also named Little Eva , later appeared in the children 's novel Little Eva : The Flower of the South by Philip J. Cozans ( although this ironically was an anti @-@ Tom novel ) .
= = = Simon Legree = = =
Simon Legree is a cruel slave owner — a Northerner by birth — whose name has become synonymous with greed . He is arguably the novel 's main antagonist . His goal is to demoralize Tom and break him of his religious faith ; he eventually orders Tom whipped to death out of frustration for his slave 's unbreakable belief in God . The novel reveals that , as a young man , he had abandoned his sickly mother for a life at sea and ignored her letter to see her one last time at her deathbed . He sexually exploits Cassy , who despises him , and later sets his designs on Emmeline .
It is unclear if Legree is based on any actual individuals . Reports surfaced after the 1870s that Stowe had in mind a wealthy cotton and sugar plantation owner named Meredith Calhoun , who settled on the Red River north of Alexandria , Louisiana . Generally , however , the personal characteristics of Calhoun ( " highly educated and refined " ) do not match the uncouthness and brutality of Legree . Calhoun even edited his own newspaper , published in Colfax ( originally " Calhoun 's Landing " ) , which was renamed The National Democrat after Calhoun 's death . However , Calhoun 's overseers may have been in line with the hated Legree 's methods and motivations .
= = Other characters = =
The more notable of the secondary and minor characters in Uncle Tom 's Cabin are :
Arthur Shelby – Tom 's master in Kentucky . Shelby is characterized as a " kind " slaveowner and a stereotypical Southern gentleman .
Emily Shelby – Arthur Shelby 's wife . She is a deeply religious woman who strives to be a kind and moral influence upon her slaves and is appalled when her husband sells his slaves with a slave trader . As a woman , she has no legal way to stop this , as all property belongs to her husband .
George Shelby – Arthur and Emily 's son , who sees Tom as a friend and as the perfect Christian .
Chloe – Tom 's wife and mother of his children .
Augustine St. Clare – Tom 's third owner and father of Eva . St. Clare is complex , often sarcastic , with a ready wit . After a rocky courtship he marries a woman he grows to hold in contempt , though he is too polite to let it show . St. Clare recognizes the evil in chattel slavery but is not willing to relinquish the wealth it brings him . After his daughter 's death he becomes more sincere in his religious thoughts and starts to read the Bible to Tom . He plans on finally taking action against slavery by freeing his slaves , but his good intentions ultimately come to nothing .
Marie St. Clare – Wife of Augustine , she is a self @-@ absorbed woman without a hint of compassion for those around her , including her own family . Given to an unending list of ( apparently imaginary ) physical maladies , she continually complains about the lack of sympathy she is receiving . She has separated her personal maid , Mammy , from her own two children because they would interfere with her duties . As Marie drives Mammy to exhaustion , she criticizes her for selfishly seeking to attend her own family . Upon the unexpected death of Augustine , Marie countermands the legal process that would have given Tom his freedom .
George Harris – Eliza 's husband . An intelligent and clever half @-@ white slave who is fiercely loyal to his family .
Topsy – A young slave girl . When asked if she knows who made her , she professes ignorance of both God and a mother , saying " I s 'pect I growed . Don 't think nobody never made me . " She is transformed by Eva 's love . During the early @-@ to @-@ mid 20th century , several doll manufacturers created Topsy and Topsy @-@ type dolls . The phrase " growed like Topsy " ( later " grew like Topsy " ) passed into the English language , originally with the specific meaning of unplanned growth , later sometimes just meaning enormous growth .
Miss Ophelia – Augustine St. Clare 's pious , hard @-@ working , abolitionist cousin from Vermont . She displays the ambiguities towards African @-@ Americans felt by many Northerners at the time . She argues against the institution of slavery yet , at least initially , feels repulsed by the slaves as individuals .
Prue – A depressed slave who was forced to let her child starve to death . She takes up drinking in her misery , and is ultimately beaten and killed for it .
Quimbo and Sambo – slaves of Simon Legree who act as overseers of the plantation . On orders from Legree , they savagely whip Tom but afterward tearfully repent of their deeds to Tom , who forgives them as he lies dying .
= = Major themes = =
Uncle Tom 's Cabin is dominated by a single theme : the evil and immorality of slavery . While Stowe weaves other subthemes throughout her text , such as the moral authority of motherhood and the redeeming possibilities offered by Christianity , she emphasizes the connections between these and the horrors of slavery . Stowe sometimes changed the story 's voice so she could give a " homily " on the destructive nature of slavery ( such as when a white woman on the steamboat carrying Tom further south states , " The most dreadful part of slavery , to my mind , is its outrages of feelings and affections — the separating of families , for example . " ) . One way Stowe showed the evil of slavery was how this " peculiar institution " forcibly separated families from each other . One of the subthemes presented in the novel is temperance . Stowe made it somewhat subtle and in some cases she weaved it into events that would also support the dominant theme . One example of this is when Augustine St. Clare is killed , he attempted to stop a brawl between two inebriated men in a cafe and was stabbed . One other example is the death of the slave woman Prue who was whipped to death for being drunk on a consistent basis ; however , her reasons for doing so is due to the loss of her baby . In the opening of the novel , the fates of Eliza and her son are being discussed between slave owners over wine . Considering that Stowe intended this to be a subtheme , then this scene could foreshadow future events that puts alcohol in a bad light .
Because Stowe saw motherhood as the " ethical and structural model for all of American life " and also believed that only women had the moral authority to save the United States from the demon of slavery , another major theme of Uncle Tom 's Cabin is the moral power and sanctity of women . Through characters like Eliza , who escapes from slavery to save her young son ( and eventually reunites her entire family ) , or Eva , who is seen as the " ideal Christian " , Stowe shows how she believed women could save those around them from even the worst injustices . While later critics have noted that Stowe 's female characters are often domestic clichés instead of realistic women , Stowe 's novel " reaffirmed the importance of women 's influence " and helped pave the way for the women 's rights movement in the following decades .
Stowe 's puritanical religious beliefs show up in the novel 's final , overarching theme — the exploration of the nature of Christianity and how she feels Christian theology is fundamentally incompatible with slavery . This theme is most evident when Tom urges St. Clare to " look away to Jesus " after the death of St. Clare 's beloved daughter Eva . After Tom dies , George Shelby eulogizes Tom by saying , " What a thing it
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concerns were later addressed in its report on the cyclone 's impact . Due to the severity of the storm 's damage , the name Winifred was retired after the season ended .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cyclone Winifred can be traced to a tropical low first noted approximately 450 mi ( 720 km ) north of Cairns , Queensland on 27 January 1986 . The system initially drifted to the northwest , exhibiting characteristics indicating gradual organization . On the morning of 29 January , it curved southward while slowly strengthening . Observations gathered by the Geostationary Meteorological Satellite ( GMS ) on 30 January evidenced that the low had developed into a tropical cyclone while maintaining a minimum atmospheric pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) . As a result , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) subsequently designated the disturbance the name Winifred at 1400 UTC as it meandered southward , the sixth named storm of the 1985 – 86 Australian region cyclone season . The cyclone continued to steadily intensify , attaining Category 1 @-@ equivalent intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale during the morning of 1 February , with winds of 118 km / h ( 73 mph ) . Forecasting of Winifred 's track was impeded by the presence of a canopy of persistent high @-@ level cirrus clouds shielding the eye and rainbands of the cyclone throughout its course , leading to inaccuracies in locating the cyclone 's centre through satellite observations .
Forecasts initially projected the cyclone recurving southeastward late on 30 January before tracing southwestward during the evening of 31 January . Maintaining a relatively large eye with a width of about 51 km ( 32 mi ) , the cyclone intensified while nearing the shoreline of northern Queensland ; by 0300 UTC the following day , though , a slight reduction in its size was noticeable , and by the time the cyclone made landfall , its eye was merely 41 km ( 25 mi ) in diameter . In conjunction , the storm 's minimum atmospheric pressure sank to 957 mbar ( 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) by the time the cyclone made landfall near Silkwood at 0445 UTC , indicative of the storm 's peak intensity ; the low pressure , coinciding with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , placed Winifred as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent storm on the Saffir – Simpson scale , or a Category 3 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian scale . Drifting father inland , Winifred 's radar features became distorted as it weakened ; despite this , it lingered overland as a tropical depression for another five days before finally dissipating . Although official best track data recorded the storm dissipated on 5 February , Winifred was operationally declared dissipated on 6 February . The cyclone was the first in 14 years to significantly impact the northeastern coast of Australia .
= = Preparations = =
Numerous warnings were issued throughout the course of the cyclone . The first cyclone watch related to Cyclone Winifred was declared by the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) on 29 January for various locations in Queensland , spanning from Thursday Island to Cooktown , and was adjusted as Winifred approached . The initial cyclone warning was issued on the morning of 30 January , stretching between Cape Flattery and Townsville , while the previous cyclone watch was expanded to cover areas from Lockhart River to St Lawrence . The warning was later extended to reach Cooktown and Bowen , and was further lengthened to span regions from Cairns to St Lawrence . On the morning of 1 February , observations indicated that the cyclone had suddenly veered toward the coast , and a Flash Tropical Cyclone Advice was subsequently released , noting the potential for powerful winds between Fitzroy Island and Innisfail . In conjunction , the Queensland Flood Warning Centre initiated flood warnings along the Tully , Herbert , Bulloo , Barcoo , Thomson , Diamantina , and Cooper waterways . The BoM also imposed a gale warning stretching from Cooktown to Cardwell , accompanied a strong wind warning between Cape Melville and Gladstone .
Winifred forced many to flee from hotels in northern Queensland , and at Cairns , boats were ordered to be docked at harbor . State Emergency Service ( SES ) members and other individuals worked to evacuate dozens of people in Ingham , as well as along the Tully , Burdekin , and Herbert rivers . Inhabitants of caravan parks were forced to vacate their residences in Innisfail and helicopter crews cleared residents from Ingham and Babinda . Meanwhile , many at Minnamoolka along the banks of the Burdekin River left their homes as a cautionary measure. and 47 citizens of Mourilyan evacuated to a club lodge .
= = Impact = =
Offshore impacts were significant ; on 30 January , the yacht Darkie washed ashore at South Brook Island , its crew of four surviving . Throughout Queensland , the cyclone isolated small towns , cut off telephone service , inflicted severe damage to crops , and generated widespread flooding . Between Cairns and Ingham , Winifred obliterated structures , toppled power lines , uprooted trees , wrecked 1000 homes , and damaged hundreds of others . Service of the Sunlander between Gordonvale and Babinda was interrupted after tracks were inundated , and travelers were forced to travel by bus instead . At the latter city , approximately 500 homes suffered significant damage , and at Innisfail , 200 residences were destroyed . Several individuals were recovered safely from wreckage of a building collapse in each city . At Babinda , sixteen other structures were wrecked , with the cyclone unroofing an additional 50 houses and flattening 40 sheds . Five individuals were badly injured , two of them impaled by flying glass and other debris . Officials noted that the cyclone tore off the police station door and unroofed a Uniting Church . Helicopter reconnaissance indicated severe damage to sugarcane and banana crops as well as a critical electrical power tower , with considerable damage observed in the town proper .
At Innisfail , Winifred damaged 190 houses , downed electrical wires , overturned trees , and flooded lowlands , with reports of over 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in rainfall . Innisfail Hospital , meanwhile , suffered the loss of several windows , inciting the evacuation of patients to the first floor . The cyclone drove a small vessel ashore at nearby Banana Island ; in addition , a teenage girl was severely impaled by a flying slab of iron in downtown Innisfail , later dying as a result of her injuries . Meanwhile , at Malanda , a man was knocked off a shed roof by a strong gust and was subsequently declared dead . Winds leveled dozens of structures at Mission Beach , Tully , Silkwood , Kurrimine Beach , Cardwell , El Arish , South Johnstone , and Mourilyan . At Mourilyan , 12 boats sank in the town harbor , and all structures were damaged to some extent , with 20 houses roofless and one flattened . At Tully , the capacity of the Kareeya Hydro Power Station was slightly reduced after rubbish became stuck in its components , and at Ingham , the Herbert River peaked at a height of 15 @.@ 8 m ( 52 ft ) , overflowing its barriers by 10 m ( 33 ft ) . Cyclone Winifred inundated the main street of Ingham with flood waters , completely obstructed numerous north @-@ to @-@ south streets , flooded stores , and cut off electricity from Avergowie College . A 35 @-@ year @-@ old man was discovered dead down a storm water drain , having drowned in the storm 's flood waters . Debris and flooding also impeded and obstructed of parts of the Bruce , Gillies , and Palmerston highways .
Rescue and relief work was impeded by overloaded telephone communications , and consequentially , Telecom ceased telephone service between Townsville and Ingham . Nearly 400 mm ( 16 in ) of rainfall was measured at Cardstone along the Tully River , and flooding was noted along the boundaries of both the Tully and Herbert rivers , of which the prior had receded from its peak level to 9 @.@ 09 m ( 29 @.@ 8 ft ) by the afternoon of 3 February . The city of Cairns and its outskirts experienced power outages , and high tides nearby compelled ship owners to seek refuge at ports . Blackouts rendered chlorination facilities and water treatment plants useless , and residents were subsequently advised to boil water . Damage to three roofs was reported at Bingal Beach north of Cairns , and in Cairns proper , damaged ten houses , with five of them unroofed , toppled trees , and knocked down power lines . The storm delivered similarly severe damage along Marlin Beach within the vicinity of Cairns , washing away stretches of its coastline , unroofing two residences , damaging 13 other structures , and overturning power lines . The loss of electricity at one building in the Cairns Base Hospital complex , which was also unroofed , left it running on emergency power .
One person was struck and injured by an uprooted tree at Atherton , which suffered the loss of one house . All residences in Cardwell endured some degree of damage , with six unroofed , and the town itself was without power . Roads in Charters Towers were obstructed , and minor damage was observed at Cowley Beach , Dunk Island , and East Russell . Nearly all buildings in El Arish were damaged , and at Gordonvale , flooding inflicted widespread crop damage and winds toppled trees and power lines . Flood waters cut off the town of Halifax and inundated local businesses . Although no structural damage was recorded in Herberton , the cyclone uprooted trees , crippled Archer Bridge above Kennedy Creek , and halted electrical and telephone service . Mena Creek was completely cut off , and at Malanda , 30 homes experienced damage and 20 farms were wrecked . At Millaa Millaa , the cyclone damaged 12 dwellings , and hundreds of barns , also impeding access to power and water supplies . Meanwhile , at Miriwinni , winds damaged 50 houses , toppled electrical wires , and strewed roads with debris . Despite the fact that flooding was less serious at Kurrimine Beach , the storm still damaged dozens of houses and toppled electrical poles , with the towns of Ravenshoe and Silkwood experiencing power outages following the disturbance 's passage . Although only inconsequential residential damage occurred at Woopen Creek and Yungaburra , damage at Tully was more serious , with considerable flooding , destruction to six houses , damage to a police station , and a localized blackout .
The cyclone caused $ 50 million in damage to the banana crop and $ 3 million to papaws between Ingham to Cairns alone . Agricultural impairment was not limited to Babinda ; throughout northern Queensland , the storm devastated banana and papaw crops . Avocado farms at Atherton and pineapple farms in Rollingstone and Mutarnee experienced considerable losses ; in addition , $ 35 million in sugar cane crops near Innisfail were destroyed , with 60 – 70 percent of the entire year 's harvest ruined . Within the vicinity of Tully , the storm ruined 30 percent of the crop , causing $ 10 million in losses . In general , the sugar industry , already economically weak , bore the brunt of the system 's impact . Overall , Winifred caused $ 86 @.@ 4 million in agricultural losses ; the cyclone ruined 1 @.@ 5 million tones of sugar , costing $ 40 million , 3 @.@ 7 million cases of bananas , costing $ 34 @.@ 6 million , and 15 percent of the maize crop , costing $ 500 @,@ 000 . Winifred also damaged $ 4 @.@ 9 million in papaws , and $ 3 @.@ 8 million in avocados , lychees , custard apples , flowers , and chokos , as well . Effects to dairy and poultry industries were less severe , with losses reported at $ 2 million and $ 600 @,@ 000 , respectively . Winds uprooted large swaths of forest , with $ 1 million in damage at government @-@ owned forests alone .
Ecological damage was widespread but generally mild . Although damage to mangroves was minor , the cyclone defoliated swaths of many coastal and island forests . For the most part , cays and reefs were unharmed , with no visible change in the general appearance or shape of reefs and little underwater change as well . It was noted , however , that water clarity surrounding certain reefs was poor . River plumes of the Herbert , Tully , Murray , Hull , Johnstone , and Mulgrave / Russell rivers were noticeably changed , with some paths diverted . The Herbert River plume expanded to encompass areas near the Greater Palm group of islands , the Mulgrave / Russell around the Frankland Islands . In addition , the loss of a raft system utilized for farming of giant clams was noted near Fitzroy Island . Tourist operations experienced little damage from Winifred , with only minimal damage on Dunk Island , Bedarra Island , and Mission Beach . Overall , Winifred caused three deaths and $ 130 million ( 1986 AUD ) in damage , and was described by the Bureau of Meteorology as the worst cyclone to strike Queensland since Cyclone Althea in 1971 .
= = Aftermath = =
On 3 February , the head of the State Emergency Service ( SES ) and then @-@ Premier Joh Bjelke @-@ Petersen toured northern Queensland to inspect damage . The government of Australia vowed to assist by providing financial and emergency services , also offering to provide aid to banana and sugar cane farmers who suffered losses as a result of Winifred . Two government helicopters were sent shortly thereafter , assessing the severity of damage , evacuating residents , and delivering food . Bjelke @-@ Petersen later expressed anger at the federal government for having increased the threshold for disaster relief before raising loans , and also stated that the Federal Minister for Primary Industry , John Kerin , had no right to accompany him on his visit to northern Queensland , only offering to discuss an offer provided that the federal government was willing to provide financial assistance . Approximately 500 volunteers for the SES were deployed the same day , reinstating electrical and other essential services , evacuating regional citizens , delivering bread to numerous towns , and sending 700 tarpaulins to shield roofless houses . Rescue and relief work was hindered by high traffic on telephone networks , forcing Telecom to cease calls between Townsville and Ingham .
Emergency crews of the government 's Department of Social Security ( DSS ) visited locations throughout the region , receiving damage claims , requests for monetary aid , and filings for unemployment benefits . The Commonwealth pledged to provide $ 150 million in relief over a three @-@ year period to the government of Queensland in exchange for deregulation ; however , its offer was initially rejected . Planes flew claims adjusters and other officials to Innisfail , establishing an insurance emergency service in the city hall , while the Insurance Council of Queensland deployed its special emergency service employees for the first time . As a result of severe damage , a disaster declaration for northern regions was issued by Queensland Government on 4 February . The first $ 10 million in aid from the state government , paid by the federal government , was supplied the same day . Meanwhile , the SES continued its cleanup efforts , removing debris and repairing structures . Looters took advantage of confusion in the days following the cyclone , striking residences throughout Innisfail . By the end of the day , 2200 tarpaulins had been distributed ; however , the previously @-@ smooth relief efforts were impeded by thunderstorms in Cairns .
The Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) was subject to scrutiny in the aftermath of Winifred , and was criticized for its lack of advance warning . Advices and warnings were received by regional television and radio stations up to 15 minutes late following issuance . Winifred 's sudden and unexpected turn was little @-@ anticipated by BoM meteorologists , with employees unable to verify the cyclone 's centre from the Cairns radar until only about 9 : 30 a.m. on 1 February , with radar error of up to 44 km ( 27 mi ) observed . However , a Flash Tropical Cyclone Advice was immediately issued shortly thereafter , reaching media outlets near noon that day . Media outlets went suggested the creation of a new Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre ( TCWC ) in Townsville as a result , but the suggestion was dismissed , with a centre already established in Brisbane . A spokesman for the SES stated that no warning was given by the BoM at 9 a.m. , with the storm 's alarming approach ; the Service had initially been anticipating the storm 's recurvature out to sea , only to receive a flash warning hours later . Months after Winifred , a Commonwealth inquiry sought to investigate misuse of National Disaster Relief Scheme funds related to Winifred , with a $ 145 @,@ 000 payment to a National Party official , Mike Behan , one of several abuses . Due to the severity of the storm 's damage , the name Winifred was retired after the season ended .
= Tyrant ( Resident Evil ) =
Tyrant is the code name of a series of boss characters in the Resident Evil horror video game series by Capcom , introduced in the original Resident Evil in 1996 . Tyrants are towering , biologically engineered undead supersoldiers created and used by the sinister Umbrella Corporation . Tyrant creatures make appearances as boss characters in most Resident Evil games and the desire to create an obedient bioweapon lies at the core of the series ' storyline . Tyrants also appear in other media and merchandise of the Resident Evil franchise , as well as in some unrelated games .
Since their debut , the Tyrant series became one of the most recognisable and popular characters of the franchise and even gaming in general . A particularly notable Tyrant is Nemesis , the title character of the video game Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis .
= = Character design = =
Capcom artists went through a trial @-@ and @-@ error process designing the Tyrant creatures and their transformations . For example , the T @-@ 103 ( more popularly known as " Mr. X " and sometimes also as " Trenchcoat " ) was originally envisioned as armed with firearms ; in some sketches it can be seen wearing a respirator and various armored outfits instead of a trenchcoat ( there were also other types of coats , including a labcoat ) , and even its overall physical build has varied greatly ( from very slim to extremely muscular ) .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
The game series features many types of Tyrants as the result of several different experiments . Following the discovery of the Progenitor virus , the Umbrella Corporation ’ s founders become eager to create a Bio @-@ Organic Weapon ( BOW ) that is both powerful and capable of following orders . Prior to the events of Resident Evil Zero , Umbrella used the Progenitor virus to create the Tyrant virus ( T @-@ virus ) , which they believe can be used to manufacture powerful organisms . A problem with the virus ’ compatibility with humans set the project back , as only humans with a very rare genetic makeup are capable of mutating into potent and manageable life forms . Umbrella eventually overcame this setback by resorting to using clones of Sergei Vladimir , one of their executives who happens to be genetically compatible .
The events of Resident Evil Zero and Resident Evil chronicle the Umbrella Corporation 's development of the Tyrant prototypes , the T @-@ 001 ( the Proto @-@ Tyrant ) and T @-@ 002 . Though the early Tyrants are defeated in their first encounters , Umbrella manages to use the battle data from those defeats to produce other , more efficient Tyrants in the later installments of Resident Evil . Numerous Tyrants have been created throughout the game series ' storyline , such as Tyrant T @-@ 078 and the mass @-@ produced Bandersnatches from Resident Evil Code : Veronica , Hypnos from Resident Evil Survivor and Thanatos from Resident Evil Outbreak , each with its own defining characteristics . A revamped version of Tyrant also existed in Resident Evil 5 during the game 's development , but not in the finished product .
Tyrants have been consistently depicted as grotesque and brutally violent creatures , but their intelligence has varied . The first two Tyrants in Resident Evil Zero and Resident Evil are depicted as unintelligent , while the T @-@ 103 ( Mr. X ) in Resident Evil 2 and the titular Nemesis T @-@ Type in Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis are shown to possess limited intelligence and the ability to carry out specific instructions . Both Nemesis and the T @-@ 103 series ( two more T @-@ 103 Tyrants , code @-@ named Ivan , appear in Resident Evil : The Umbrella Chronicles ) are prone to uncontrolled mutation when damaged . Alexia Ashford in Code Veronica retains her full intelligence after being exposed to the T @-@ Veronica virus and gains psychic abilities , including pyrokinesis ; similarly , the TG @-@ virus mutated Morpheus D. Duvall in Resident Evil : Dead Aim ( Tyrant T @-@ 092 ) gains bio @-@ electric abilities . The weapons used by Tyrants have also varied ; while most Tyrants in the Resident Evil series rely on sheer physical force to subdue opponents , Nemesis , retaining some intelligence due to the Nemesis parasite , is able to use a shoulder @-@ fired hand @-@ held rocket launcher ( and a minigun in Resident Evil : Operation Raccoon City ) and T @-@ ALOS ( Tyrant @-@ Armored Lethal Organic System ) in The Umbrella Chronicles is equipped with a shoulder @-@ mounted multiple rocket launcher .
Outside of the Resident Evil franchise , there is a Tyrant card in the NDS version of SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters Clash . In Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , Jill Valentine has a special move that calls forth a Tyrant . A prototype Tyrant appears in the background of the Tricell Laboratory stage in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds ; Tyrant was considered for addition as a playable character , but was rejected over concerns about the game 's ESRB rating . The Nemesis T @-@ Type was later added as a playable character in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 .
= = = In other media = = =
The Tyrant Fossil appears only in the novel Resident Evil : Underworld . In the third Resident Evil live @-@ action film , Resident Evil : Extinction ( and its novelization ) , Umbrella 's researcher Dr. Sam Isaacs tries to subdue his mutation after being bitten by an enhanced zombie with Anti @-@ Virus , but he is shot for insubordination by an executive , Alexander Slater , and immediately revives as a Tyrant ; compared to most of the Tyrants from the games , Isaacs retains his mental faculties and personality even after his mutation . A new version of Tyrant resembling the T @-@ 078 with the power limiter appears in the CG film Resident Evil : Damnation .
= = = In merchandise = = =
Several Tyrant action figures were released by various manufacturers , including these by Toy Biz in 1998 ( T @-@ 002 and T @-@ 103 ) , Moby Dick Toys in 2001 ( four T @-@ 103 Tyrants ) , Palisades Toys in 2001 ( T @-@ 103 ) and 2002 ( T @-@ 002 ) , and NECA in 2007 ( T @-@ 002 ) . A 1 : 6 scale ( 35 cm ) resin figure of T @-@ 002 in Umbrella Chronicles was also released by Gaya Entertainment and a PVC stauette was released by Organic , both in 2008 . Since 2011 , various Tyrant " infected " cards were featured in Bandai 's Resident Evil Deck Building Game . In 2012 , Resident Evil theme restaurant Biohazard Cafe & Grill S.T.A.R.S. in Tokyo was furnished with one @-@ to @-@ one scale Tyrant prop made by the special effects studio creating costumes for Toei Company 's tokusatsu heroes ; the exposition is a central part of the restaurant .
= = Reception = =
In 2009 , IGN featured the Tyrants in the lists of the best Resident Evil bosses and the series ' best villains ( readers ' choice ) . That same year , the Tyrant was included among the 12 characters and creatures that the staff of IGN would like see to return in Resident Evil 6 , commenting that " almost as much a hallmark of the RE franchise as the zombie , the Tyrant is a recurring favorite . " IGN added : " Resident Evil is supposed to be a terrifying experience , and much of the terror stems from pitting players against foes who completely outmatch them . That 's the Tyrant in a nutshell . " IGN also included an " any type of Tyrant " in their dream roster for Marvel vs. Capcom 3 . In 2012 , PlayStation Official Magazine ranked Tyrant as the seventh top Resident Evil monster ( in addition to Nemesis placing fifth ) . That same year , IGN ranked the T @-@ 002 as the best boss in the series , adding that " even 15 years later , Resident Evil games continue to use this formula ( and its finish ) as a blueprint for bosses . "
In 2000 , GameSpot ranked Tyrant as the tenth best villain in video gaming . In 2013 , Complex ranked the original Tyrant as the 13th greatest soldier in video games , the encounter with it as the 25th best boss battle of all time , and the second Tyrant fight in Code : Veronica as the 46th hardest boss battle in video game history . Some publications also singled out the Tyrant T @-@ 103 model ( Mr. X ) for a special acclaim . In 2010 , PSU.com included the scene of Mr. X suddenly busting through a brick wall in Resident Evil 2 on the list of ten " pant @-@ wetting PlayStation moments " . PSU.com also featured Mr. X , along with the T @-@ 002 and Nemesis , on their 2011 list of the " seven badass bosses " in the 15 years of Resident Evil . That same year , Empire ranked it as the 39th greatest video game character overall , adding that " Nemesis never quite captured the silent dread of Mr. X. "
= Tromsø Satellite Station =
Tromsø Satellite Station ( Norwegian : Tromsø Satellittstasjon , TSS ) , until 1988 known as Tromsø Telemetry Station ( Norwegian : Tromsø telemetristasjon ) , is a satellite earth station located in Tromsø , Norway . The facility is owned by Kongsberg Satellite Services ( KSAT ) , a joint venture between the Kongsberg Group and the Norwegian Space Centre ( NSC ) . In addition to hosting its own antennas serving thirty satellites , TSS acts as the center @-@ point of KSAT 's operations and provides backbone services for the high Arctic Svalbard Satellite Station ( SvalSat ) and the Antarctic Troll Satellite Station ( TrollSat ) .
Originally proposed in 1965 , the station was established by the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ( NTNF ) in 1967 in close cooperation with the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment ( NDRE ) and located adjacent to Tromsø Geophysical Observatory . From its inception until 1974 , it served low @-@ Earth orbit ( LEO ) satellites operated by the European Space Research Organization ( ESRO ) . To a lesser extent it was also used by Canadian Space Agency and National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) LEO satellites . Norway 's non @-@ membership in ESRO and later the European Space Agency ( ESA ) caused Tromsø to not become a ground station for Landsat . A gradual increase in operations occurred from 1982 , such as for the International Cospas @-@ Sarsat Programme and the European Remote @-@ Sensing Satellite . TSS became part of NSC in 1990 , although it was partially sold to the Swedish Space Corporation ( SSC ) in 1995 . SvalSat merged with TSS in 2002 to form KSAT .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment and use by ESRO = = =
The first proposals for a telemetry station in Tromsø were made in early 1964 . The concept was to build a real @-@ time telemetry station which would allow for simultaneous observations of the ionosphere from both satellites and sounding rockets . The idea was backed by Norway 's Space Research Committee . Ideas for a real @-@ time telemetry station also arose in ESRO and NTNF included the project in its five @-@ year space program in 1965 . Similar proposals were made in northern Sweden and a race started between Norwegian and Swedish interests to gain ESRO 's support for a station . Norway had budgetary limitations prohibiting a full @-@ scale station , and instead support was gained from the United States and Canada . The project was also backed by NDRE .
The choice of Tromsø as a location for a telemetry stations was in part tied to the Tromsø Geophysical Observatory — which had been located in Tromsø since 1928 — and the planned University of Tromsø . The Canadian Space Agency was at the time working on the Alouette 2 program and were seen by NDRE as a natural cooperation partner . The NASA 's International Satellite for Ionospheric Studies was also being designed and NASA therefore decided to supply equipment for a telemetry station in Tromsø to be operational by August 1966 .
Parallel to NDRE 's work , NTNF was working with ESRO to gain support for a telemetry station . There was a degree of urgency as ESRO wanted the facility completed by 1967 in time for the launch of the spacecraft ESRO @-@ 2 . NTNF and ESRO were also working on the establishment of Kongsfjord Telemetry Station in Ny @-@ Ålesund . The agreement to build the station was approved by the Parliament of Norway in mid 1966 . Part of the reason for the Norwegian support was the opportunity of training Norwegians in pulse @-@ code modulation and digital computing . For NDRE the station was a chance to apply its latest minicomputer , the Simulation for Automatic Machinery ( SAM ) .
A major planning issue was the need for a minicomputer at the station . NDRE argued that it was fully capable of delivering such a system , but NTNF instead wanted to minimize risk by buying the PDP @-@ 8 from Digital Equipment Corporation in the United States . However , NDRE was awarded the contract , in part because of NTNF 's obligation to support Norwegian technology and in part because NDRE agreed to purchase a suitable foreign computer if they could not successfully manufacture one themselves . A new minicomputer , SAM @-@ 2 , was built at NDRE and completed in April 1967 . It was the first computer built in Europe and among the first three in the world which used integrated circuits . SAM @-@ 2 was so successful that the developers established Norsk Data to commercialize the technology .
The contract with ESRO resulted in TSS providing telemetry for ESRO @-@ IA , ESRO @-@ IB , ESRO @-@ 2B , HEOS @-@ 1 , HEOS @-@ 2 , TD @-@ 1A and ESRO @-@ 4 , all of which had low @-@ Earth orbits . The two telemetry stations used a large portion of the Norwegian space budget , but became platforms which allowed for development of technology . Tromsø Satellite Station worked well in tandem with Andøya Rocket Range and became an international center for study of the auroral zone . The University of Tromsø was established in 1968 and started teaching in 1972 . The same year , it took over the geophysical observatory and cosmic geophysics became one of the university 's fields of excellence .
The original contract with ESRO lasted until 1 July 1974 , when their low @-@ Earth orbit program terminated . NTNF proposed closing Tromsø Telemetry Station as the remaining customers did not provide sufficient revenue to keep operations viable . Norway also declined to join the European Space Agency ( ESA ) , which resulted in little hope in ESA choosing to cooperate with a Norwegian earth station . NTNF also looked into outright selling the station to ESA , but the offer was turned down . Kongsfjord Telemetry Station was closed in 1974 .
= = = Commercialization = = =
In 1973 NTNF started planning to use the station for downloading from NASA 's Landsat program . Sufficient funding from the government was secured in mid 1976 , after a successful lobby operation which emphasized the possibility of environmental observation in Norway 's territorial waters . 7 @.@ 5 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) was granted for upgrades in 1977 . Norway entered negotiations with the US , but soon ESA and NASA started discussions regarding two European telemetry stations for Landsat to serve all ESA members . ESA and Sweden pushed for Kiruna , Sweden , to be the location of ESA 's northern telemetry station and Tromsø was discarded because of Norway 's decision to not join ESA .
Norway expanded its exclusive economic zone to 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) in 1977 , increasing the country 's land and sea area by more than one million square kilometers ( 400 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Because of the reserves of fish and oil it became imperative for the Norwegian government to conduct surveillance . NTNF therefore commenced work to establish an earth station for NASA 's Seasat , which was approved by Parliament in early 1977 . A processing computer was developed as a cooperation between the Norwegian Institute of Technology , NDRE , NTNF and Norsk Data , which was tailored to analyze Seasat 's synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) and named Computer of Experimental SAR . Seasat A failed after 104 days and Tromsø had by that time been used for telemetry for two minutes .
TSS did not became operational again until 1982 , when the International Cospas @-@ Sarsat Programme made use of the station . The Ministry of Trade and Industry took a renewed interest in the satellite station in the early in 1980s and proposed in 1982 that Norway join ESA 's European Remote @-@ Sensing Satellite ( ERS ) program . This started the process of Norway becoming a full member of ESA in 1987 . The telemetry station received investments of NOK 100 million during the 1980s and was organized as a foundation in 1984 . It took the name Tromsø Satellite Station in 1988 . Part of the goal of the project was to create technical spin @-@ offs ; the one successful company was Spacetec , which had 45 employees at the time it was bought by Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace in 1994 . By then it had become a global manufacturer of Earth observation ground stations .
The Norwegian Space Centre was established as a foundation on 5 July 1987 , under the protection of the Ministry of Trade and Industry . It immediately took over Andøya Rocket Range and TSS followed suit in 1990 . TSS was upgraded in 1991 to be able to operate with ERS @-@ 1 . In 1995 NRS established a subsidiary , Norwegian Space Centre Property , to own the facilities in Tromsø and Longyearbyen . The same year , TSS was converted to a limited company , of which half was sold to the Swedish Space Corporation ( SSC ) . The aim was that TSS would operate as a fully commercial enterprise . Its first major contract was with the Canadian Radarsat .
After Rolf Skår was appointed director of NSC , plans were launched to try to win the ground station contract for NASA 's planned Earth Observing System ( EOS ) . NASA was considering locating the ground station in Greenland , at McMurdo Station in Antarctica or at Esrange in Sweden . Skår invited a NASA delegation to visit Svalbard , and from 1996 NSC and NASA started negotiating a contract to establish a ground station at Longyearbyen . The first satellite to use SvalSat was Landsat 7 , which was launched on 15 April 1999 . NSC bought SSC 's ownership in TSS and Lockheed Martin 's ownership in SvalSat in 2001 . On 1 February 2002 , NSC and Kongsberg Spacetec merged their interests in satellite technology and operations into Kongsberg Satellite Station , which became the sole owner of both SvalSat and TSS . Legally , Kongsberg Satellite Services is a continuation of the operating company of TSS . KSAT opened Troll Satellite Station in 2007 .
= = Operations = =
TSS is owned and operated by Kongsberg Satellite Services ( KSAT ) , which is again equally owned by Kongsberg Defence and Aerospace and the Norwegian Space Centre , the latter which is an agency of the Ministry of Trade and Industry . KSAT is not tied to a particular operator of satellites and the antennas communicate with multiple satellites , thus reducing costs compared to dedicated ground stations . For a typical satellite , data is delivered to the end customer no more than thirty minutes after downloading .
The site is only able to communicate with LEO satellites in ten of their fourteen orbits , unlike SvalSat and TrollSat which can communicate in all orbits . All three stations are interconnected and communicate with the Tromsø Network Operations Center , which is part of the TSS complex . This allows for redundancy as TSS , SvalSat and TrollSat can be used to communicate with all satellites connected to the system . The operation center is responsible for backup , scheduling and conflict resolution , in addition to network planning , customer support and ground station control . The facilities use interoperability and shared ground services , such as a common protocol for communication and similar design of the antennas , to increase flexibility and reduce costs and risk .
The antennas at TSS serve more than thirty missions and contain both a multi @-@ frequency uplink and L , S and X band downlink . In addition there are customer @-@ owned reception , telemetry , tracking and control systems . TSS acts as a local user terminal for the Cospas @-@ Sarsat system used for search and rescue . By using a combination of SvalSat and TrollSat , customers can download data twice per orbit , twenty @-@ six times per day , with only a forty @-@ minute maximum delay . These are the only two ground stations able to communicate with all orbits of LEO satellites . Tromsø is connected to SvalSat via the Svalbard Undersea Cable System .
= 10th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 10th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army that served as part of the Australian Imperial Force during World War I. Among the first units raised in Australia during the war , the battalion was recruited from South Australia in August 1914 and along with the 9th , 11th and 12th Battalions , it formed part of the 3rd Brigade , 1st Division . After its personnel completed basic training , the battalion embarked for the Middle East , where further training was undertaken in Egypt before the battalion was committed to the Gallipoli Campaign . On 25 April 1915 , the 10th Battalion took part in the Landing at Anzac Cove , coming ashore during the initial stages of the operation as part of the covering force . Members from the 10th Battalion penetrated the furthest inland of any Australian troops during the initial fighting , before the Allied advance inland was checked . After this , the battalion helped defend the beachhead against a Turkish counter @-@ attack in May , before joining the August Offensive , a failed Allied effort to break the deadlock . Casualties were heavy throughout the campaign and in November 1915 , the surviving members were withdrawn from the peninsula and in early 1916 the battalion was reformed in Egypt . After a period of reorganisation , during which the 10th provided a cadre staff to the newly formed 50th Battalion , it was transferred to the Western Front in March 1916 , and for the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years took part in trench warfare in France and Belgium until the Armistice in 1918 . The last detachment of men from the 10th Battalion returned to Australia in September 1919 .
Following the war , the battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit based in South Australia , drawing personnel and lineage from a number of previously existing militia units . The unit served briefly during the inter @-@ war years , before being merged with the 50th Battalion in 1930 as the size of Australia 's part @-@ time military forces was decreased following the conclusion of the compulsory service scheme . It was later re @-@ raised in its own right in the mid @-@ 1930s as the Australian military was reorganised as part of the country 's war preparations and later , during World War II , the 10th was mobilised for full @-@ time service . Following Japan 's entry into the war , the battalion was assigned to defend the New South Wales southern coast before being reassigned to the defence of Darwin and being amalgamated with the 48th Battalion in August 1942 . In the post @-@ war period , the 10th Battalion was re @-@ raised in 1948 as part of the Citizens Military Force and throughout the 1950s provided training to national servicemen . In 1960 , it became part of the Royal South Australia Regiment ( RSAR ) and was reduced to a several company @-@ sized elements within that regiment 's 1st Battalion , before being reformed as a full battalion within the RSAR in 1965 . It remained on the Australian Army 's order of battle until 1987 , when it was amalgamated with the 27th Battalion to form the 10th / 27th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 10th Battalion was raised shortly after the outbreak of World War I as part of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , an all @-@ volunteer force raised for overseas service . Recruited in South Australia , the battalion came into being on 17 August 1914 at the Morphettville Racecourse in Adelaide , drawing volunteers mainly from the local population as well as some from Broken Hill in outback New South Wales . Volunteers included men who had previously served in the part @-@ time forces before the war , coming from a variety of units including the 10th Australian Infantry Regiment , which had formerly been known as the " Adelaide Rifles " . Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Price Weir , after formation the battalion was attached to the 3rd Brigade , 1st Division , along with the 9th , 11th and 12th Battalions , and was one of the first units of the AIF raised for the war . With an establishment of 31 officers and 974 other ranks spread across eight companies , the battalion 's personnel received a short period of individual basic training , culminating in the presentation of the regimental colours on 17 September and a march past the state Parliament House on 21 September . The following month , collective training at company and battalion level took place at Belair National Park and at Glenelg , South Australia . On 20 October , the battalion embarked on the ex @-@ passenger liner , HMAT Ascanius , bound for the Middle East ; it was the first South Australian infantry unit to leave Australia during the war .
After briefly stopping in Albany , where its convoy was delayed due to concerns over the presence of German warships en route , the 10th Battalion departed Australian waters in November and proceeded towards Egypt . Initially , the plan had been for the battalion to continue on the United Kingdom from where it would subsequently move to the Western Front . Poor conditions and overcrowding in training camps in the United Kingdom resulted in the decision to disembark the Australians in Alexandria instead . Arriving there on 4 December 1914 , the battalion was sent into camp at Mena , near Cairo .
The 10th Battalion underwent desert training in January and February 1915 , during which time it was reorganised around the four @-@ company structure that had been adopted by the British . Designated ' A ' to ' D ' , each company consisted of 228 men that were spread across four platoons . In late February , the 3rd Brigade received orders that it was being committed to an operation in the Dardanelles and , after moving by rail to Alexandria , boarded Ionian , a Greek steamer , on 1 March . After reaching Lemnos , a shortage of fresh water on the island meant that the battalion was housed on the ship for the next seven weeks , although this was spent ashore conducting exercises and mounting guard duty . Planning for a landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula began in early April ; while this proceeded , on 15 April the battalion was issued its distinctive blue and purple unit colour patch .
On 24 April 1915 , the 10th Battalion embarked for Gallipoli . Two companies and the battalion headquarters were allocated to the battleship HMS Prince of Wales , while the other two companies embarked on two destroyers , Scourge and Foxhound . At approximately 4 : 30 am on 25 April 1915 , the 10th Battalion was one of the first units to come ashore at Anzac Cove as part of the covering force – drawn from Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan 's 3rd Brigade – for the main Anzac landing . Troops from the battalion landed near the centre of the cove and , ascending the Ariburnu Ridge , attempted to push inland towards the Sari Bair Range . According to the Australian War Memorial they are " believed to have penetrated further inland " than any other Australian unit . Casualties in the first weeks of the campaign were heavy , with the battalion losing 397 men killed or wounded between 25 April and 9 May . The advance stalled as Turkish resistance grew , and the Turks launched a heavy counter @-@ attack on 19 May . By this time , the 3rd Brigade was located around Bolton 's Ridge , with the brigade 's four battalions occupying the line abreast ; the 10th Battalion occupying a position south of Lone Pine , overlooking a wheat field through which the Turkish attack came . Caught in heavy crossfire , the attack was turned back with heavy losses . Following this , as both sides dug in , the campaign ground to a stalemate , and the battalion undertook mainly defensive duties along the perimeter around Anzac Cove . On 8 July , the remnants of the battalion , which now consisted of just over 500 personnel , was withdrawn to Imbros Island for a brief rest period out of the line , before returning to Anzac on 11 July ; after this , the 10th Battalion relieved the 11th , occupying a position around Silt Spur , opposite Lone Pine .
In early August , the Allies attempted to break out from the beach , launching an offensive around Suvla , Cape Helles and Anzac ; the 10th Battalion played a support role during the offensive , providing reinforcement parties and machine gun crews to support the 1st Brigade during the Battle of Lone Pine . The offensive was a costly failure and afterwards stalemate returned to the battlefield . As winter approached , conditions on the peninsula grew harsher and a large number of personnel had to be evacuated sick as a wave of dysentery swept through the battalion . In September , the 2nd Division arrived as reinforcements . In mid @-@ November , as the Allied commanders debated the future of the campaign , the 3rd Brigade received orders to pull back from the frontline , so that it could be withdrawn to Lemnos Island for rest . On 16 November , the 10th Battalion took up reserve positions on the beach , before embarking upon the transport Princess Ena . It landed at Mudros , and spent the rest of November and December there . Meanwhile , the main Allied force was evacuated from the peninsula , with the last Australian troops withdrawing on 20 December . On Boxing Day 1915 , the 10th Battalion sailed for Egypt , arriving in Alexandria just before New Years . Losses on Gallipoli had been heavy – 711 casualties were reported in the battalion between April and September 1915 – and the AIF underwent a period of reorganisation as it was expanded in preparation for its deployment to the European battlefield . As a part of this process , the 10th Battalion provided a cadre of experienced personnel to the newly raised 50th Battalion , which was assigned to the 13th Brigade , 4th Division , and was brought up to strength with fresh recruits from Australia .
In March 1916 , the 10th Battalion sailed to France along with the rest of the 1st Division and deployed to the Somme . The battalion 's first significant action on the Western Front came in July 1916 when it was involved in the Battle of Pozières , an effort to secure the village of Pozières and the high ground beyond it as part of the wider Battle of the Somme . For his actions during this battle , Second Lieutenant Arthur Blackburn , an original member of the battalion who had served with it during the Gallipoli campaign , was awarded the Victoria Cross . Later , the 10th Battalion fought around Ypres , in Belgium , before being transferred back to the Somme in the winter and deploying to defend the trenches . In 1917 , after the German withdrawal towards the Hindenburg Line , the battalion was again moved to Belgium to take part in the Third Battle of Ypres , where it was committed to fighting around the Menin Road in September . During an attack around Polygon Wood , Private Roy Inwood 's actions resulted in him being awarded the battalion 's second Victoria Cross . The battalion suffered heavily during its early involvement in the Ypres fighting and was briefly withdrawn before being recommitted to support operations around Broodseinde at the beginning of October . In the early hours of 9 October 1917 , a force of 88 men from the 10th Battalion carried out a raid on German positions in what became known as the " Mystery of Celtic Wood " ; 32 men were killed during the raid , and a further 37 were wounded .
In early 1918 , following the collapse of Russia , the Germans were able to transfer many troops to the Western Front . In March , they launched the Spring Offensive , attacking the southern part of the British sector in the Somme . As the Allies were pushed back towards Amiens , the Australian divisions were brought south to help blunt the attack . Throughout late March and into April 1918 , the 10th Battalion took part in a series of defensive actions , including fighting around Hazebrouck , as the German offensive was turned back , before joining in the preliminary operations before the Allied Hundred Days Offensive that ultimately brought about an end to the war . It was at this stage in the fighting , in June , during fighting around Merris in France , that Corporal Phillip Davey earned the battalion 's third Victoria Cross . The attack so impressed the British Inspector General that he described it as " the best show ever done by a battalion in France " .
On 8 August 1918 , when the Allies launched the Hundred Days Offensive , the battalion participated in an attack on Amiens that has since been described as one of the most successful for the Allies on the Western Front and , in the words of Erich Ludendorff , the " ... blackest day for the German Army " . The battalion remained at the front until late September 1918 ; its last battle took place at Jeancourt , during which it suffered a further 140 casualties . Later in the month , the Australian Corps , having been severely depleted due to heavy casualties and the dwindling supply of reinforcements from Australia , was withdrawn from the line for rest and re @-@ organisation . As a result , the battalion took no further part in the fighting and when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 it was still out of the line . Over 9 @,@ 000 men served in the battalion 's ranks during the war , including over 25 full drafts of reinforcements , and miscellaneous transfers from other units and general service reinforcements . Casualties totalled 1 @,@ 015 men killed and 2 @,@ 136 wounded . In addition to the three Victoria Crosses , members of the battalion were awarded one CMG , one Bar to the DSO and nine DSOs , four Bars to the MC and thirty @-@ four MCs , sixteen Distinguished Conduct Medals , one Military Medal with two Bars , eleven MMs with one Bar , one hundred and forty @-@ nine MMs , and nine MSMs . In 1927 , the battalion was awarded a total of 24 battle honours for its war service .
Following the cessation of hostilities , the Australian government decided that it would not contribute to the proposed Allied occupation force in Germany and would begin the process of demobilisation of the AIF as soon as possible . Owing to the large number of soldiers deployed overseas , this process took some time , and it was decided to progressively return men from each battalion , rather than send them home as a formed unit . As numbers dwindled , units were amalgamated for administrative purposes , and as a consequence the 9th and 10th Battalions were merged on 5 February 1919 ; the final contingent of troops from the 10th Battalion did not return home until September 1919 when they disembarked in Adelaide from the transport Takada .
= = = = Commanding officers = = = =
The 10th Battalion 's commanding officers during World War I , listed in chronological order of the date they first commanded the battalion , were as follows :
Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Price Weir ;
Major Frederick William Hurcombe ;
Major George Dorricutt Shaw ;
Lieutenant Colonel Miles Fitzroy Beevor ;
Lieutenant Colonel Maurice Wilder @-@ Neligan ;
Lieutenant Colonel George Ernest Redburg ;
Lieutenant Colonel James Samuel Denton ;
Major Felix Gordon Giles ; ( son of explorer Alfred Giles )
Major Rupert Anstice Rafferty ;
Lieutenant Colonel Ross Blyth Jacob ;
Major Alexander Steele ;
Captain Gordon Cathcart Campbell ( nephew of Chief Justice of South Australia Sir Samuel Way ) ;
Major Clarence Rumball ;
Captain Roy Kintore Hurcombe ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Newman ;
Major William Francis James McCann .
= = = = Battalion song = = = =
The words to the battalion song were written by C.R. Beresford and the music by H. Brewster @-@ Jones :
'Twas not within a barrack yard they put us through our drill ,
They licked us into soldier shape in camp at Morphettville ;
So khaki @-@ clad and Enfield @-@ armed , we 'll fight at Tommy 's side ,
To hold secure the fields of France against the German tide .
Chorus
Left , right , left , right ; keep the column swinging ;
Every step our destination nears ;
Long , long miles we 'll shorten by our singing ,
Kits are heavy but a chorus cheers —
All our help old Mother England 's needing —
Soon we 'll have to prove that we are men ,
And the 10th Battalion will be leading ;
We 're Australians in Old Ten .
We hail from busy Rundle Street and north of Goyder 's line ;
But far from there , beneath strange skies , our glinting bayonets shine .
For half the world is now between us and the crowded quay
Where to the strains of " Auld Lang Syne " our troopship puts to sea .
We long to hear the maxim 's purr and smell the cordite strong ,
Across the busy firing line the crowded trench along ;
The chatter that our rifles make , as down the line it runs
To swell that wartime music grand , the chorus of the guns .
The magic of the new lands we see won 't banish from our mind
Those bright @-@ eyed , dear Australian maids , the best of all girlkind ;
The grand old Jack , wind @-@ blown , above , with all its colours bright ,
Means them and home , and all we love ; so we march out to fight .
= = = Inter @-@ war years and World War II = = =
The 10th Battalion was disbanded shortly after its return to Australia , although some of its personnel were used to raise the Adelaide @-@ based 1st Battalion , 10th Infantry Regiment , a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Force ( later known as the Militia ) . This unit drew its lineage from the 78th Infantry Regiment , which could trace its history back to 1854 , when two battalions of the Adelaide Rifles had been formed . The act of merging these units was part of a larger Army @-@ wide reorganisation that created a convoluted lineage in many units , which according to historian Peter Stanley has resulted in confusion among military historians . In 1921 , when the AIF was officially disbanded and the part @-@ time military forces were reorganised to perpetuate the AIF 's numerical designations , the 10th Battalion was re @-@ raised in its own right in Adelaide , drawing personnel from the 2nd Battalions of the 10th , 32nd and 50th Infantry Regiments . Through these links , the 10th Battalion inherited a battle honour from the Boer War . At this time it was allocated to the 3rd Brigade , which was part of the 4th Military District .
The battalion received a King 's Colour in 1925 in recognition of its service during World War I. Two years later , in 1927 , territorial titles were introduced and the battalion assumed the designation of " The Adelaide Rifles " . The motto Pro Patria was adopted at this time . In 1930 , amid the austerity of the Great Depression and following the election of the Scullin Labor government and the subsequent suspension of the compulsory training scheme , the decision was made to amalgamate the battalion due to a decline in the numbers of volunteers . It was merged with the 50th Battalion , with whom it shared history , to become the 10th / 50th Battalion . Again the unit was assigned to the 3rd Brigade .
The 10th and 50th remained linked until 1936 ; at that time , in response to fears of a possible war in Europe following the reoccupation of the Rhineland , it was decided to expand the size of the Militia . As a result , on 1 October 1936 , the 10th / 50th Battalion was split and the 10th Battalion was re @-@ raised as a separate unit , and was once again assigned to the 3rd Brigade . After Japan 's entry into World War II in December 1941 , the 10th Battalion mobilised at Warradale to undertake garrison duties in Australia . While the 3rd Brigade 's two other battalions – the 27th and 43rd – were sent to Darwin , the 10th was initially deployed to Warrawong on the New South Wales south coast , defending the strategically important industrial area around Wollongong , but in August it was ordered to join Northern Territory Force and moved to Darwin to defend the port against a possible Japanese invasion . Before it arrived , though , an Army @-@ wide reorganisation resulted in the 10th being amalgamated with the 48th Battalion , to form the 10th / 48th Battalion on 27 August 1942 . The reorganisation was the result of personnel shortages that had come about due to an over @-@ mobilisation of the Australian military , and resulted in the amalgamation of several Militia units . In 1943 , the 10th / 48th Australian Infantry Battalion was gazetted as an " AIF " unit , which meant that its members could be deployed outside Australian territory , but was disbanded in August 1945 , never having served outside Australia .
During the war , another battalion with a similar designation , the 2 / 10th Battalion , was raised as part of the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) . Although many members of the Militia volunteered to join the 2nd AIF , the units of the 2nd AIF were considered separate from those of the Militia and many existed at the same time . Recruited from South Australians , the 2 / 10th was raised in mid @-@ October 1939 and formed part of the 18th Brigade that was initially assigned to the 6th Division before being transferred to the 7th . Over the course of the war it served in the United Kingdom , North Africa , New Guinea and Borneo before being disbanded in December 1945 .
= = = After World War II = = =
In 1948 , when Australia 's part @-@ time military force was re @-@ raised as the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , the
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@ pound ( 11 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 370 ft / s ( 700 – 720 m / s ) ; at 20 ° , this provided a maximum range of 9 @,@ 600 yd ( 8 @,@ 800 m ) using Common pointed shells . Their rate of fire was 8 – 10 rounds per minute .
These guns were replaced by twelve 4 @-@ inch BL MK IX guns on CPI mountings on Inflexible during 1917 . They could depress 10 ° and elevate to 30 ° . They fired 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 625 ft / s ( 800 m / s ) to a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 yd ( 12 @,@ 300 m ) at a rate of fire of 10 – 12 rounds per minute .
The QF Mk III guns were replaced by twelve 4 @-@ inch BL MK VII guns on PVI mountings on Indomitable during 1917 . These guns could depress 7 ° and elevate to 15 ° . They fired 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 864 ft / s ( 873 m / s ) which gave a maximum range of 11 @,@ 600 yd ( 10 @,@ 600 m ) . Their rate of fire was 6 – 8 rounds per minute . An additional gun was fitted on Indomitable in April 1917 as an anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun . It was mounted on a MK II high @-@ angle mounting with a maximum elevation of 60 ° . It had a reduced propellant charge with a muzzle velocity of only 2 @,@ 864 ft / s ( 873 m / s ) .
Earlier anti @-@ aircraft guns included a 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun on a high @-@ angle Mk Ic mounting with a maximum elevation of 60 ° . Both Invincible and Indomitable carried theirs from November 1914 to August 1917 . It fired 3 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 873 ft / s ( 571 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute . This provided a maximum range of 7 @,@ 600 yd ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at 45 ° , but the maximum effective anti @-@ aircraft range was only 1 @,@ 200 yd ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) .
Each of the Invincibles was also fitted with a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun on a high @-@ angle MKII mount at the aft end of the superstructure . This had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . It fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) at a rate of fire of 12 – 14 rounds per minute . They had a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) .
Gardiner and Gray quote an additional seven Maxim guns , but this cannot be confirmed . Five 18 @-@ inch ( 450 @-@ mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted on the Invincibles , two on each side and one in the stern and fourteen torpedoes were carried .
= = = Fire control = = =
The spotting tops at the head of the fore and main masts controlled the fire of the Invincibles ' main guns . Data from a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) Barr and Stroud rangefinder was input into a Dumaresq mechanical computer and electrically transmitted to Vickers range clocks located in the Transmitting Station located beneath each spotting top where it was converted into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . Each gun turret had its own transmission equipment and the turrets , Transmitting Stations , and spotting tops could be connected in almost any combination . Firing trials against Hero in 1907 revealed this system 's vulnerability to gunfire as the spotting top was hit twice and a large splinter severed the voice pipe and all wiring running along the mast . To guard against this possibility ' A ' turret was fitted with a 9 @-@ foot rangefinder at the rear of the turret roof and it was equipped to control the entire main armament during refits between 1911 and 1914 .
Fire control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding World War I and the development of the Dreyer Fire Control Table was one such advance . It combined the functions of the Dumaresq and the range clock and a simplified version , the Mk I , was fitted to the Invincibles during refits in 1915 – 16 . The more important development was the director firing system . This consisted of a fire control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided gun data to the turrets via pointers , which the turret crewmen only had to follow . The director officer fired the guns simultaneously which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimised the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells . Invincible was the first battlecruiser to receive this system during her refit from April to August 1914 , but its installation was interrupted by the outbreak of the war and it was not fully working until after the Battle of the Falkland Islands in November . Indomitable and Inflexible didn 't receive their systems until May 1916 , immediately before the Battle of Jutland .
= = = Protection = = =
The armour protection given to the Invincibles the waterline belt measured 6 inches ( 152 mm ) amidships was only slightly more than half the thickness of Dreadnought 's 11 inches ( 279 mm ) . The belt was six inches thick roughly between the fore and aft twelve @-@ inch gun turrets , but was reduced to four inches from the fore turret to the bow , but did not extend aft of the rear turret . A six @-@ inch bulkhead met the barbette of X turret to fully enclose the armoured citadel . The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 7 in ( 178 mm ) of armour , except for the turret roofs which used 3 in ( 76 mm ) of Krupp non @-@ cemented armour ( KNC ) . The thickness of the main deck was 1 in ( 25 mm ) around the base of barbettes and the crown of the base of the rear conning tower . It was 2 in ( 51 mm ) over the crown of the base of the forward conning tower . The lower deck armour was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) on the flat and two inches thick on the slope , except aft of the rear turret where it was increased to 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) to protect the steering gear . The front and sides of the forward conning tower were 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick while its rear was 7 in ( 178 mm ) . The walls of the rear conning tower were six inches thick . The roof and floor of both conning towers were KNC armour 2 inches thick while their communication tubes were 3 in ( 76 mm ) of KNC . The signal tower immediately aft of the forward conning tower also had three inches of KNC . Mild steel torpedo bulkheads of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thickness were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms . Krupp cemented armour was used throughout , unless otherwise mentioned .
= = = Aircraft = = =
By 1918 the two surviving Invincibles carried a Sopwith Pup and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on flying @-@ off ramps fitted on top of ' P ' and ' Q ' turrets . Each platform had a canvas hangar to protect the aircraft during inclement weather .
= = Construction = =
The three Invincibles were ordered at the same time as Dreadnought as part of the 1905 – 06 Naval Programme . The following table gives the build details and purchase cost of the members of the Invincible class . Whilst standard British practice at that time was for these costs to exclude armament and stores , for some reason the cost quoted in The Naval Annual for this class includes armament .
* = estimated cost , including guns
= = Early career = =
All three ships entered service from the second half of 1908 . Initially , Invincible and Inflexible were assigned to the Home Fleet , while Indomitable took the Prince of Wales ( later King George V ) to the tercentennial celebrations in Canada , before also joining the Home Fleet . Invincible 's electrically driven turrets proved to be a failure despite two lengthy refits in 1909 and 1911 and were converted to hydraulic power during her refit in early 1914 at the enormous cost of £ 151 @,@ 200 . The situation was so bad during her gunnery trials in October 1908 that the captain of HMS Excellent , the Royal Navy 's gunnery school described their operation thusly : " When the order was given to train the turret , elevate or run a gun in or out , it was only necessary to push a button , or move a switch , but the result was often a flash of blue flame which seemed to fill the turret . "
In 1914 , Invincible was refitting in England , while Inflexible and Indomitable , together with the newer Indefatigable formed the nucleus of the Mediterranean Fleet , where Inflexible served as flagship from November 1912 . It was in the Mediterranean that the first naval action of the First World War took place , when the British pursued the German warships Goeben and Breslau upon the outbreak of war .
= = World War I = =
= = = Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau = = =
Indomitable , accompanied by Indefatigable , under the command of Admiral Sir Archibald Berkeley Milne encountered the battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau on the morning of 4 August 1914 headed east after a cursory bombardment of the French Algerian port of Philippeville , but Britain and Germany were not yet at war so Milne turned to shadow the Germans as they headed back to Messina to recoal . All three battlecruisers had problems with their boilers , but Goeben and Breslau were able to break contact and reached Messina by the morning of the 5th . By this time war had been declared , after the German invasion of Belgium , but an Admiralty order to respect Italian neutrality and stay outside a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) limit from the Italian coast precluded entrance into the passage of the Strait of Messina where they could observe the port directly . Therefore , Milne stationed Inflexible and Indefatigable at the northern exit of the Straits of Messina , still expecting the Germans to break out to the west where they could attack French troop transports , the light cruiser Gloucester at the southern exit and sent Indomitable to recoal at Bizerte where she was better positioned to react to a German sortie into the Western Mediterranean .
The Germans sortied from Messina on 6 August and headed east , towards Constantinople , trailed by Gloucester . Milne , still expecting Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon to turn west , kept the battlecruisers at Malta until shortly after midnight on 8 August when he set sail for Cape Matapan at a leisurely 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , where Goeben had been spotted eight hours earlier . At 2 : 30 p.m. he received an incorrect signal from the Admiralty stating that Britain was at war with Austria – war would not be declared until 12 August and the order was countermanded four hours later , but Milne followed his standing orders to guard the Adriatic against an Austrian break @-@ out attempt , rather than seek Goeben . Finally on 9 August Milne was given clear orders to " chase Goeben which had passed Cape Matapan on the 7th steering north @-@ east . " Milne still did not believe that Souchon was heading for the Dardanelles , and so he resolved to guard the exit from the Aegean , unaware that the Goeben did not intend to come out . Indomitable remained in the Mediterranean to blockade the Dardanelles , but Inflexible was ordered home on 18 August .
On 3 November 1914 , Churchill ordered the first British attack on the Dardanelles following the opening of hostilities between Turkey and Russia . The attack was carried out by Indomitable and Indefatigable , as well as the French pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Suffren and Vérité . The intention of the attack was to test the fortifications and measure the Turkish response . The results were deceptively encouraging . In a twenty @-@ minute bombardment , a single shell struck the magazine of the fort at Sedd el Bahr at the tip of the Gallipoli peninsula , displacing ( but not destroying ) 10 guns and killing 86 Turkish soldiers . The most significant consequence was that the attention of the Turks was drawn to strengthening their defences , and they set about expanding the mine field . This attack actually took place before a formal declaration of war had been made by Britain against the Ottoman Empire which didn 't happen until 6 November . Indomitable was ordered to return to England in December where she joined the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) .
= = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =
Invincible 's first action was as part of the battlecruiser force under the command of Admiral Beatty during the Battle of Heligoland Bight operation on 28 August 1914 . Beatty 's ships had originally been intended as distant support of the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast in case large units of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks . They turned south at full speed at 11 : 35 am when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule and the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade estuary . The brand @-@ new light cruiser Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the light cruisers Strassburg and Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12 : 37 pm . Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire , but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by fire from the squadron . But Beatty was distracted from the task of finishing her off by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser Ariadne directly to his front . He turned in pursuit , but reduced her to a flaming hulk in only three salvos at a range under 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) . At 1 : 10 pm Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire . At this time , Invincible , trailing the main body of battlecruisers , opened fire on Cöln . She fired 18 rounds , all misses , before Beatty 's main body encountered the crippled Cöln shortly after turning north and she was sunk by two salvos from Lion .
= = = Battle of the Falklands = = =
The West Indies Squadron of Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock was destroyed by the German German East Asia Squadron commanded by Admiral Graf von Spee during the Battle of Coronel on 1 November 1914 . In response , the Admiralty ordered that a squadron be sent to destroy the Germans . The squadron , under the command of Admiral Sir Doveton Sturdee , consisted of Invincible ( flag ) and Inflexible . They departed on 11 November and rendezvoused with several other cruisers under Rear Admiral Stoddard at Abrolhos Rocks , off the coast of Brazil on the 26th . They departed the following day and reached Port Stanley on the morning of 7 December .
Spee , making a leisurely voyage back to the Atlantic , wished to destroy the radio station at Port Stanley and sent the armoured cruiser SMS Gneisenau and the light cruiser Nürnberg to see if the harbour was clear of British warships on the morning of 8 December . They were spotted at 7 : 30 am , although the pre @-@ dreadnought Canopus , grounded in Stanley Harbour to defend the town and its wireless station , didn 't receive the signal until 7 : 45 . It mattered little because Sturdee was not expecting an engagement and most of his ships were coaling . Furthermore , the armoured cruiser Cornwall and the light cruiser Bristol had one or both of their engines under repair . The armed merchant cruiser Macedonian was patrolling the outer harbour entrance while the armoured cruiser Kent was anchored in the outer harbour , scheduled to relieve the Macedonian at 8 : 00 am . The Germans weren 't expecting any resistance and the first salvo from Canopus 's guns at 9 : 20 caused them to sheer off from their planned bombardment of the wireless station and fall back on Spee 's main body .
Sturdee 's ships didn 't sortie from the harbour until 9 : 50 , but they could see the retreating German ships on the southwest horizon . The Invincibles , fresh out of dry dock , had a 5 knots ( 5 @.@ 8 mph ; 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) advantage over Spee 's ships which all had fouled bottoms that limited their speeds to 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) at best . The light cruiser SMS Leipzig was lagging behind the other ships and Inflexible opened fire on her when the range dropped to 17 @,@ 500 yards ( 16 @.@ 0 km ) at 12 : 55 pm . Invincible opened fire shortly afterwards and both ships began straddling Leipzig as the range closed to 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 km ) . At 1 : 20 Spee ordered his squadron to separate and ordered his light cruisers to turn to the southwest while his armoured cruisers turned to the north east to cover their retreat . The German ships opened fire first at 1 : 30 and scored their first hit at 1 : 44 when SMS Scharnhorst hit Invincible , although the shell burst harmlessly on the belt armour . Both sides fired rapidly during the first half @-@ hour of the engagement before Sturdee opened up the range a little to put his ships outside the effective range of the German guns . British gunnery was very poor during this period , scoring only four hits out of 210 rounds fired . The primary cause was the smoke from the guns and funnels as the British were downwind of the Germans , although one gun of Invincible 's ' A ' turret jammed at 1 : 42 and was out of action for thirty minutes .
Spee turned to the south in the hope of disengaging while the British had their vision obscured , but only opened the range to 17 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 km ) before the British saw his course change . This was futile as the British battlecruisers gave chase at 24 knots ( 28 mph ; 44 km / h ) . Forty minutes later the British opened fire again at 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 km ) . Eight minutes later Spee turned again to the east to give battle . This time his strategy was to close the range on the British ships so he could bring his 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) secondary armament into play . In this he was successful and the 15 cm guns were able to open fire at 3 : 00 at maximum elevation . On this course the smoke bothered both sides , but multiple hits were made regardless . Those made by the Germans either failed to detonate or hit in some insignificant area . On the contrary Geneisenau had her starboard engine room put out of action . Sturdee ordered his ships at 3 : 15 back across their own wakes to gain the windward advantage . Spee turned to the northwest , as if to attempt to cross the British T , but actually to bring Scharnhorst 's undamaged starboard guns to bear as most of those on his port side were out of action . The British continued to hit Scharnhorst and Gneisenau regularly during this time and Scharnhorst ceased fire at 4 : 00 before capsizing at 4 : 17 with no survivors . Gneisenau had been slowed by earlier damage and was battered for another hour and a half by Inflexible and Invincible at ranges down to 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) . Despite the damage her crew continued to fire back until she ceased firing at 4 : 47 . Sturdee was ready to order ' Cease fire ' at 5 : 15 when an ammunition hoist was freed up and she made her last shot . The British continued to pound her until 5 : 50 , after her captain had given the order to scuttle her at 5 : 40 . She slowly capsized at 6 : 00 and the British were able to rescue 176 men . Invincible and Inflexible fired 513 and 661 12 @-@ inch shells respectively during the battle , but Inflexible had been hit only three times and Invincible had been hit twenty @-@ two times . Two of her bow compartments were flooded and one hit on her waterline abreast ' P ' turret had flooded a coal bunker and temporarily given her a 15 ° list . Only one man was killed and five wounded aboard the battlecruisers during the battle .
= = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = =
On 23 January 1915 , a force of German battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Franz von Hipper sortied to clear the Dogger Bank of any British fishing boats or small craft that might be there to collect intelligence on German movements . But the British were reading their coded messages and sailed to intercept them with a larger force of British battlecruisers under the command of Admiral Beatty , which included Indomitable . Contact was initiated at 7 : 20 am on the 24th when the British light cruiser Arethusa spotted the German light cruiser SMS Kolberg . By 7 : 35 the Germans had spotted Beatty 's force and Hipper ordered a turn to the south at 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , believing that this would suffice if the ships that he saw to his northwest were British battleships and that he could always increased speed to Blücher 's maximum speed of 23 knots ( 26 mph ; 43 km / h ) if they were British battlecruisers .
Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to make all practicable speed to catch the Germans before they could escape . Indomitable managed to exceed 26 knots ( 30 mph ; 48 km / h ) and Beatty recognised her performance with a signal at 8 : 55 " Well done , Indomitable " Despite this achievement Indomitable was the slowest of Beatty 's ships and gradually fell behind the newer and faster battlecruisers . By 10 : 48 Blücher had been heavily damaged by fire from all the other battlecruisers and her speed had dropped to 17 knots ( 20 mph ; 31 km / h ) and her steering gear had been jammed ; Beatty ordered Indomitable to attack her . But due to a combination of a mistake by Beatty 's flag lieutenant in signalling , and heavy damage to Beatty 's flagship Lion which had knocked out her radio and caused enough smoke to obscure her signal halyards so that Beatty couldn 't communicate with his ships , the rest of the battlecruisers turned away from Hipper 's main body and engaged Blücher . Indomitable fired 134 shells at Blücher before she capsized and sank at 12 : 07 pm . After the end of the battle Indomitable was ordered to tow Lion back to port as one of her engines had been knocked out , the other was failing and she 'd been hulled a number of times beneath the waterline . It took over a day and a half at speeds of 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ) .
= = = Dardanelles Campaign = = =
After the Battle of the Falklands Invincible and Inflexible were repaired and refitted at Gibraltar . Invincible sailed to England and joined the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron while Inflexible arrived at the Dardanelles on 24 January 1915 where she replaced Indefatigable as the flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet . She bombarded Turkish fortifications on 19 February , the start of the Battle of Gallipoli , to little effect , and again on 15 March , with the same results . She was part of the first line of British ships on 18 March as they attempted to suppress the Turkish guns so the minefields could be swept . She was moderately damaged by Turkish gunfire , but was seriously damaged by a mine , probably about 100 kg ( 220 lb ) in size , that blew a large hole in her starboard bow and flooded the forward torpedo flat , drowning 39 men . She had to be beached at the island of Bozcaada ( Tenedos ) to prevent her sinking , as she 'd taken in some 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) of water , but she was temporarily repaired with a cofferdam over the 30 by 26 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m × 7 @.@ 9 m ) hole . She sailed to Malta , escorted by Canopus and Talbot on 6 April . She nearly foundered when her cofferdam worked loose in heavy weather en route and had to be towed stern @-@ first by Canopus for six hours while the cofferdam was repaired . She was under repair at Malta until early June before she sailed for home . She reached the UK on 19 June where she joined the 3rd BCS .
Towards the end of the year , the British battlecruiser force was organised into three squadrons , with the 3rd BCS consisting of the three Invincible @-@ class ships under the command of Rear Admiral H.L.A. Hood in Invincible . The 1st and 3rd BCS had sortied in response to the German bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April 1916 , but failed to locate the German ships in heavy weather . During the return home , Invincible was rammed by the patrol yacht Goissa at 11 : 07 pm . Goissa 's bow was embedded in Invincible 's side which partially stoved @-@ in . Invincible 's speed was reduced to 12 knots ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) through flooding and she was forced to haul out of line and proceed independently to Rosyth for repairs which lasted until 22 May 1916 .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
At the end of May 1916 , the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron was temporarily assigned to the Grand Fleet for gunnery practice . On 30 May , the entire Grand Fleet , along with Admiral Beatty 's battlecruisers , had been ordered to sea to prepare for an excursion by the German High Seas Fleet . To support Beatty , Rear Admiral Hood took his three battlecruisers ahead of the Grand Fleet . At about 2 : 30 pm Invincible intercepted a radio message from the British light cruiser Galatea , attached to Beatty 's Battlecruiser Force , reporting the sighting of two enemy cruisers . This was amplified by other reports of seven enemy ships steering north . Hood interpreted this as an attempt to escape through the Skagerrak and ordered an increase in speed to 22 kn ( 41 km / h ) at 3 : 11 and steered East @-@ Southeast to cut off the fleeing ships . Twenty minutes later Invincible intercepted a message from Beatty reporting five enemy battlecruisers in sight and later signals reporting that he was engaging the enemy on a south @-@ easterly course . At 4 : 06 Hood ordered full speed and a course of south @-@ southeast in an attempt to converge on Beatty . At 4 : 56 , with no British ships in sight , Hood requested Beatty 's course , position and speed , but never received a reply .
Hood continued on course until 5 : 40 when gunfire was spotted in the direction to which his light cruiser Chester had been dispatched to investigate other gunfire flashes . Chester encountered four light cruisers of Hipper 's 2nd Scouting Group and was badly damaged before Hood turned to investigate and was able to drive the German cruisers away from Chester . At 5 : 53 Invincible opened fire on Wiesbaden and the other two Invincibles followed two minutes later . The German ships turned for the south after fruitlessly firing torpedoes at 6 : 00 and attempted to find shelter in the mist . As they turned Invincible hit Wiesbaden in the engine room and knocked out her engines while Inflexible hit Pillau once . The 2nd Scouting Group was escorted by the light cruiser Regensburg and 31 destroyers of the 2nd and 9th Flotillas and the 12th Half @-@ Flotilla which attacked the 3rd BCS in succession . They were driven off by Hood 's remaining light cruiser Canterbury and the five destroyers of his escort . In a confused action the Germans only launched 12 torpedoes and disabled the destroyer Shark with gunfire . Having turned due west to close on Beatty 's ships , the Invincibles were broadside to the oncoming torpedoes , but Invincible turned north , while Inflexible and Indomitable turned south to present their narrowest profile to the torpedoes . All the torpedoes missed although one passed underneath Inflexible without detonating . As Invincible turned north , her helm jammed and she had to come to a stop to fix the problem , but this was quickly done and the squadron reformed heading west .
At 6 : 21 , with both Beatty and the Grand Fleet converging on him , Hood turned south to lead Beatty 's battlecruisers . Hipper 's battlecruisers were 9 @,@ 000 yards ( 8 @.@ 2 km ) away and the Invincibles almost immediately opened fire on Hipper 's flagship Lützow and Derfflinger . Indomitable hit Derfflinger three times and Seydlitz once , while the Lützow quickly took 10 hits from Lion , Inflexible and Invincible , including two hits below the waterline forward by Invincible that would ultimately doom her . But at 6 : 30 Invincible abruptly appeared as a clear target before Lützow and Derfflinger . The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at Invincible , and sank her in 90 seconds . A 305 mm ( 12 @-@ inch ) shell from the third salvo struck Invincible 's midships ' Q ' turret , flash detonated the magazines below , and the ship blew up and broke in two , killing all but six of her crew of 1 @,@ 032 officers and men , including Rear @-@ Admiral Hood .
Inflexible and Indomitable remained in company with Beatty for the rest of the battle . They encountered Hipper 's battlecruisers only 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 km ) away as the sun was setting about 8 : 19 and opened fire . Seydlitz was hit five times before the battlecruisers were rescued by the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of Rear Admiral Mauve and the British shifted fire to the new threat . Three of the predreadnoughts were hit before they too were able to turn into the gloom .
= = = Post @-@ Jutland career = = =
The loss of three battlecruisers at Jutland ( the others were Queen Mary and Indefatigable ) led to the force being reorganised into two squadrons , with Inflexible and Indomitable in the 2nd BCS . However , after Jutland there was little significant naval activity , for the Invincibles , other than routine patrolling , thanks to the Kaiser 's order that his ships should not be allowed to go to sea unless assured of victory . The end of the war saw the end for many of the older vessels , not least the two remaining Invincible @-@ class ships . Both were sent to the Reserve Fleet in 1919 , and were paid off in March 1920 .
After the end of the war , Chile began seeking additional ships for its navy . In April 1920 , Chile bought Canada and four destroyers , all of which had been ordered by Chile prior to the war 's outbreak and requisitioned by the British for the war . Further planned expansion included Inflexible and Indomitable , but when the secret negotiations to acquire them were leaked to the press , a major uproar erupted in Chile . The most visible dissension came from a block of officers in the navy , who publicly opposed any possible purchase and instead promoted a " New Navy " which would acquire submarines and aircraft . They argued that these weapons would cost less and give the country , and its lengthy coastline , better protection from external threats . The ships were not bought for reasons of cost , but neither were the aircraft its supporters had been hoping for . Both were sold for scrap on 1 December 1921 .
= Crawley =
Crawley ( pronunciation ) is a town and borough in West Sussex , England . It is 28 miles ( 45 km ) south of Charing Cross ( London ) , 18 miles ( 29 km ) north of Brighton and Hove , and 32 miles ( 51 km ) northeast of the county town of Chichester , covers an area of 17 @.@ 36 square miles ( 44 @.@ 96 km2 ) and had a population of 106 @,@ 597 at the time of the 2011 Census .
The area has been inhabited since the Stone Age , and was a centre of ironworking in Roman times . Crawley developed slowly as a market town from the 13th century , serving the surrounding villages in the Weald ; its location on the main road from London to Brighton brought a passing trade , encouraging the development of coaching inns . It was connected to London by the railway in 1841 .
Gatwick Airport , now one of Britain 's busiest international airports , opened on the edge of the town in the 1940s , encouraging commercial and industrial growth . After the Second World War , the British Government planned to move large numbers of people and jobs out of London and into new towns around South East England . The New Towns Act 1946 designated Crawley as the site of one of these . A master plan was developed for the establishment of new residential , commercial , industrial and civic areas , and rapid development greatly increased the size and population of the town in a few decades .
The town comprises thirteen residential neighbourhoods radiating out from the core of the old market town , and separated by main roads and railway lines . The nearby communities of Ifield , Pound Hill and Three Bridges were absorbed into the new town at different stages of its development . As of 2009 , expansion is planned in the west and northwest of the town , in co @-@ operation with Horsham District Council . Economically , the town has developed into the main centre of industry and employment between London and the south coast of England . A large industrial area supports industries and services , many of which are connected with the airport , and the commercial and retail sectors continue to expand .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The area may have been settled during the Mesolithic period : locally manufactured flints of the Horsham Culture type have been found to the southwest of the town . Tools and burial mounds from the Neolithic period , and burial mounds and a sword from the Bronze Age , have also been discovered . Crawley is on the western edge of the High Weald , which produced iron for more than 2 @,@ 000 years from the Iron Age onwards . Goffs Park — now a recreational area in the south of the town — was the site of two late Iron Age furnaces . Ironworking and mineral extraction continued throughout Roman times , particularly in the Broadfield area where many furnaces were built .
In the 5th century , Saxon settlers named the area Crow 's Leah — meaning a crow @-@ infested clearing , or Crow 's Wood . This name evolved over time , and the present spelling appeared by the early 14th century . By this time , nearby settlements were more established : the Saxon church at Worth , for example , dates from between 950 and 1050 AD .
Although Crawley itself is not mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 , the nearby settlements of Ifield and Worth are recorded . The first written record of Crawley dates from 1202 , when a licence was issued by King John for a weekly market on Wednesdays . Crawley grew slowly in importance over the next few centuries , but was boosted in the 18th century by the construction of the turnpike road between London and Brighton . When this was completed in 1770 , travel between the newly fashionable seaside resort and London became safer and quicker , and Crawley ( located approximately halfway between the two ) prospered as a coaching halt .
By 1839 it offered almost an hourly service to both destinations . The George , a timber @-@ framed house dating from the 15th century , expanded to become a large coaching inn , taking over adjacent buildings . Eventually an annexe had to be built in the middle of the wide High Street ; this survived until the 1930s . The original building has become the George Hotel , with conference facilities and 84 bedrooms ; it retains many period features including an iron fireback .
Crawley 's oldest church is St John the Baptist 's , between the High Street and the Broadway . It is said to have 13th @-@ century origins , but there has been much rebuilding ( especially in the 19th century ) and the oldest part remaining is the south wall of the nave , which is believed to be 14th century . The church has a 15th @-@ century tower ( rebuilt in 1804 ) which originally contained four bells cast in 1724 . Two were replaced by Thomas Lester of London in 1742 ; but in 1880 a new set of eight bells were cast and installed by the Croydon @-@ based firm Gillett , Bland & Company .
= = = Railway age and Victorian era = = =
The Brighton Main Line was the first railway line to serve the Crawley area . A station was opened at Three Bridges ( originally known as East Crawley ) in the summer of 1841 . Crawley railway station , at the southern end of the High Street , was built in 1848 when the Horsham branch was opened from Three Bridges to Horsham . A line was built eastwards from Three Bridges to East Grinstead in 1855 . Three Bridges had become the hub of transport in the area by this stage : one @-@ quarter of its population was employed in railway jobs by 1861 ( mainly at the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway 's railway works near the station ) . The Longley company — one of South East England 's largest building firms in the late 19th century , responsible for buildings including Christ 's Hospital school and the King Edward VII Sanatorium in Midhurst — moved to a site next to Crawley station in 1881 . In 1898 more than 700 people were employed at the site .
There was a major expansion in housebuilding in the late 19th century . An area known as " New Town " ( unrelated to the postwar developments ) was created around the railway level crossing and down the Brighton Road ; the West Green area , west of the High Street on the way to Ifield , was built up ; and housing spread south of the Horsham line for the first time , into what is now Southgate . The population reached 4 @,@ 433 in 1901 , compared to 1 @,@ 357 a century earlier . In 1891 , a racecourse was opened on farmland at Gatwick . Built to replace a steeplechase course at Waddon near Croydon in Surrey , it was used for both steeplechase and flat racing , and held the Grand National during the years of the First World War . The course had its own railway station on the Brighton Main Line .
In the early 20th century , many of the large country estates in the area , with their mansions and associated grounds and outbuildings , were split up into smaller plots of land , attracting haphazard housing development and small farms . By the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 Crawley had grown into a small but prosperous town , serving a wide rural area and those passing through on the A23 London – Brighton road . Three @-@ quarters of the population had piped water supplies , all businesses and homes had electricity , and piped gas and street lighting had been in place for 50 years . An airfield was opened in 1930 on land near the racecourse . This was a private concern until the Second World War when it was claimed by the Royal Air Force .
= = = New Town = = =
In May 1946 , the New Towns Act of 1946 identified Crawley as a suitable location for a New Town ; but it was not officially designated as such until 9 January 1947 . The 5 @,@ 920 acres ( 2 @,@ 396 ha ) of land set aside for the new town were split across the county borders between East Sussex , West Sussex and Surrey . Architect Thomas Bennett was appointed chairman of Crawley Development Corporation . A court challenge to the designation order meant that plans were not officially confirmed until December 1947 . By this time , an initial plan for the development of the area had been drawn up by Anthony Minoprio . This proposed filling in the gaps between the villages of Crawley , Ifield and Three Bridges . Bennett estimated that planning , designing and building the town , and increasing its population from the existing 9 @,@ 500 to 40 @,@ 000 , would take 15 years .
Work began almost immediately to prepare for the expansion of the town . A full master plan was in place by 1949 . This envisaged an increase in the population of the town to 50 @,@ 000 , residential properties in nine neighbourhoods radiating from the town centre , and a separate industrial area to the north . The neighbourhoods would consist mainly of three @-@ bedroom family homes , with a number of smaller and larger properties . Each would be built around a centre with shops , a church , a public house , a primary school and a community centre . Secondary education was to be provided at campuses at Ifield Green , Three Bridges and Tilgate . Later , a fourth campus , in Southgate , was added to the plans .
At first , little development took place in the town centre , and residents relied on the shops and services in the existing high street . The earliest progress was in West Green , where new residents moved in during the late 1940s . In 1950 the town was visited by the then heir to the throne , Princess Elizabeth , when she officially opened the Manor Royal industrial area . Building work continued throughout the 1950s in West Green , Northgate and Three Bridges , and later in Langley Green , Pound Hill and Ifield . In 1956 , land at " Tilgate East " was allocated for housing use , eventually becoming the new neighbourhood of Furnace Green .
Expectations of the eventual population of the town were revised upwards several times . The 1949 master plan had allowed for 50 @,@ 000 people , but this was amended to 55 @,@ 000 in 1956 after the Development Corporation had successfully resisted pressure from the Minister for Town and Country Planning to accommodate 60 @,@ 000 . Nevertheless , plans dated 1961 anticipated growth to 70 @,@ 000 by 1980 , and by 1969 consideration was given to an eventual expansion of up to 120 @,@ 000 .
Extended shopping facilities to the east of the existing high street were provided . The first stage to open was The Broadwalk in 1954 , following by the opening of the Queen 's Square development by Her Majesty The Queen in 1958 . Crawley railway station was moved eastwards towards the new development .
By April 1960 , when Thomas Bennett made his last presentation as chairman of the Development Corporation , the town 's population had reached 51 @,@ 700 ; 2 @,@ 289 @,@ 000 square feet ( 212 @,@ 700 m2 ) of factory and other industrial space had been provided ; 21 @,@ 800 people were employed , nearly 60 % of whom worked in manufacturing industry ; and only seventy people were registered as unemployed . The corporation had built 10 @,@ 254 houses , and private builders provided around 1 @,@ 500 more . Tenants were by then permitted to buy their houses , and 440 householders had chosen to do so by April 1960 .
A new plan was put forward by West Sussex County Council in 1961 . This proposed new neighbourhoods at Broadfield and Bewbush , both of which extended outside the administrative area of the then Urban District Council . Detailed plans were made for Broadfield in the late 1960s ; by the early 1970s building work had begun . Further expansion at Bewbush was begun in 1974 , although development there was slow . The two neighbourhoods were both larger than the original nine : together , their proposed population was 23 @,@ 000 . Work also took place in the area now known as Ifield West on the western fringes of the town .
By 1980 , the council identified land at Maidenbower , south of the Pound Hill neighbourhood , as being suitable for another new neighbourhood , and work began in 1986 . However , all of this development was undertaken privately , unlike the earlier neighbourhoods in which most of the housing was owned by the council .
In 1999 , plans were announced to develop a 14th neighbourhood on land at Tinsley Green to the northeast of the town . However , these were halted when proposals for possible expansion at Gatwick Airport were announced . As of 2008 , discussions were underway with Horsham District Council concerning the possible future provision of new housing on Crawley 's western fringes , to be named Kilnwood vale ; much of the land proposed for development currently lies within Horsham 's administrative boundaries . Development of the neighbourhood began in 2012 .
= = Governance = =
= = = Local government = = =
Crawley Urban District Council was formed in May 1956 from the part of the Horsham Rural District which covered the new town . The Local Government Act 1972 led to the district being reformed as a borough in April 1974 , gaining a mayor for the first time .
The Urban District Council received its coat of arms from the College of Heralds in 1957 . After the change to borough status a modified coat of arms , based on the original , was awarded in 1976 , and presented to the council on 24 March 1977 . It features a central cross on a shield , representing the town 's location at the meeting point of north – south and east – west roads . The shield bears nine martlets representing both the county of Sussex and the new town 's original nine neighbourhoods . Supporters , of an eagle and a winged lion , relate to the significance of the airport to the locality . The motto featured is I Grow and I Rejoice — a translation of a phrase from the Epistulae of Seneca the Younger .
Initially the district ( and then borough ) council worked with the Commission for New Towns on many aspects of development ; but in 1978 many of the commission 's assets , such as housing and parks , were surrendered to the council . The authority 's boundaries were extended in 1983 to accommodate the Bewbush and Broadfield neighbourhoods .
The borough remains part of the local two @-@ tier arrangements , with services shared with West Sussex County Council . The authority is divided into 15 wards , each of which is represented by two or three local councillors , forming a total council of 37 members . Most wards are coterminous with the borough 's neighbourhoods , but two neighbourhoods are divided : Broadfield into North and South wards , and Pound Hill into " Pound Hill North " and " Pound Hill South and Worth " . The council is elected in thirds .
As of the May 2016 local elections , the authority is Labour @-@ controlled , with seats allocated as follows :
The Conservative party gained control in May 2006 for the first time since the borough was created . Previously the authority had always been Labour controlled .
= = = United Kingdom government = = =
Crawley Borough is coterminous with the parliamentary constituency of Crawley . Henry Smith won the seat at the 2010 general election and was re @-@ elected at the 2015 general election . Laura Moffatt , a member of the Labour Party , was the MP for Crawley from 1997 to 2010 ; she was the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Secretary of State for Health , Alan Johnson . In the 2005 general election , the winning margin was the slimmest of any UK constituency : Moffatt won by just 37 votes .
Brook House and Tinsley House Immigration Removal Centres , operated by UK Visas and Immigration , are within the grounds of Gatwick Airport in Crawley .
Data from the Home Office 's national identity database at Doncaster , South Yorkshire , was backed up to servers in Crawley for disaster recovery and business continuity purposes . The Identity Documents Bill 2010 , proposed in May 2010 and passed in September 2010 , authorised the destruction of all data stored for the identity card scheme brought about by the Identity Cards Act 2006 .
= = Geography = =
At 51 ° 6 ′ 33 ″ N 0 ° 11 ′ 14 ″ W ( 51 @.@ 1092 , − 0 @.@ 1872 ) , Crawley is in the northeastern corner of West Sussex in South East England , 28 miles ( 45 km ) south of London and 18 miles ( 29 km ) north of Brighton and Hove . It is surrounded by smaller towns including Horley , Redhill , Reigate , Dorking , Horsham , Haywards Heath and East Grinstead . The borough of Crawley is bordered by the West Sussex local government areas of Mid Sussex and Horsham districts , and the Mole Valley and Tandridge districts and the Borough of Reigate and Banstead in the county of Surrey .
Crawley lies in the Weald between the North and South Downs . Two beds of sedimentary rock meet beneath the town : the eastern neighbourhoods and the town centre lie largely on the sandstone Hastings Beds , while the rest of the town is based on Weald Clay . A geological fault running from east to west has left an area of Weald Clay ( with a ridge of limestone ) jutting into the Hastings Beds around Tilgate . The highest point in the borough is 486 feet ( 148 m ) above sea level . The town has no major waterways , although a number of smaller brooks and streams are tributaries for the River Mole which rises near Gatwick Airport and flows northwards to the River Thames near Hampton Court Palace . There are several lakes at Tilgate Park and a mill pond at Ifield which was stopped to feed the Ifield Water Mill .
In 1822 Gideon Mantell , an amateur fossil collector and palaeontologist , discovered teeth , bones and other remains of what he described as " an animal of the lizard tribe of enormous magnitude " , in Tilgate Forest on the edge of Crawley . He announced his discovery in an 1825 scientific paper , giving the creature the name Iguanodon . In 1832 he discovered and named the Hylaeosaurus genus of dinosaurs after finding a fossil in the same forest .
= = = Climate = = =
Crawley lies within the Sussex Weald , an area of highly variable terrain , so that many microclimates of frost hollows , sun traps and windswept hilltops will be encountered over a short distance . During calm , clear periods of weather this allows for some interesting temperature variations , although most of the time , when mobile westerly airstreams persist , the weather is typically Oceanic like the rest of the British Isles . Gatwick is the nearest weather station that publishes long @-@ term averages that give an accurate description of the climate of the Crawley area , although more recently the Met Office has also published data for its nearby weather station at Charlwood . Both weather stations are about 3 miles north of Crawley town centre and at similar altitudes .
Generally , Crawley 's inland and southerly position within the UK means temperatures in summer are amongst the highest in the British Isles , Charlwood recording 36.3C ( 97.3F ) and Gatwick recording 36.4C ( 97.5F ) on 19 July 2006 , just 0.2C and 0.1C lower , respectively , than the UK monthly record for that day set at Wisley , 20 miles to the west . The overall maximum stands at 36.5C ( 97.7F ) at Charlwood , set on 10 August 2003 . The absolute record for Gatwick is the aforementioned 36.4C. Before this , the highest temperature recorded at Gatwick was 35.6C ( 96.1F ) , also in August 2003 . The maximum temperature was 25.1C ( 77.2F ) or higher on 15 @.@ 9 days of the year on average ( 1971 @-@ 00 ) and the warmest day will typically rise to 29.4c ( 84.9f ) .
The overall minimum for Gatwick Airport for the period from 1960 is − 16.7C ( 1.9F ) , set in January 1963 . More recently , Charlwood fell to − 11.2C ( 11.8F ) and Gatwick − 11.1C ( 12.0F ) on 20 December 2010 . Typically the coldest night at Gatwick will fall to − 8.9C ( 16.0F ) . Air frost is recorded on 58 @.@ 2 nights at Gatwick ( 1971 @-@ 00 )
Sunshine totals in Crawley are higher than many inland areas due to its southerly location : Gatwick averaged 1 @,@ 574 hours per year over 1961 – 90 . No data is available for 1971 @-@ 00 , but given increases at comparable sites nearby , annual averages are likely to be over 1 @,@ 600 hours .
Snowfall is often heavier in the Sussex Weald than in many other low @-@ lying parts of central and southern England due to the proximity of moisture @-@ laden southerly tracking low pressure systems bringing easterly winds and snow to areas from South London southwards . However , again due to the southerly location of the area , with warmer air from the nearby English Channel , the snow is often temporary as low pressure systems track north bringing in milder air ; areas immediately north of London tend to have less accumulation , but lying for a longer duration .
Rainfall is lower than the English average , but higher than many other areas of the South East . 1mm of rain or more falls on 116 @.@ 7 days of the year .
= = = Neighbourhoods and areas = = =
There are 13 residential neighbourhoods , each with a variety of housing types : terraced , semi @-@ detached and detached houses , low @-@ rise flats and bungalows . There are no residential tower blocks , apart from the 8 storey Milton Mount Flats at the North end of Pound Hill . Many houses have their own gardens and are set back from roads . The hub of each neighbourhood is a shopping parade , community centre and church , and each has a school and recreational open spaces as well . Crawley Development Corporation 's intention was for neighbourhood shops to cater only to basic needs , and for the town centre to be used for most shopping requirements . The number of shop units provided in the neighbourhood parades reflected this : despite the master plan making provision for at least 20 shops in each neighbourhood , the number actually built ranged from 19 in the outlying Langley Green neighbourhood to just seven in West Green , close to the town centre .
Each of the 13 residential neighbourhoods is identified by a colour , which is shown on street name signs in a standard format throughout the town : below the street name , the neighbourhood name is shown in white text on a coloured background .
There are areas which are not defined as neighbourhoods but which are closely associated with Crawley :
The Manor Royal industrial estate is in the north of the town . Although it is part of the Northgate ward , it is allocated a colour : its street name signs feature the word " Industrial " on a black background .
Crawley 's town centre is in the southernmost part of Northgate . Its street name signs do not follow the standard format of the neighbourhood signs , but display only the street name .
Gatwick Airport was built on the site of a manor house , Gatwick Manor , close to the village of Lowfield Heath . Most of the village was demolished when the airport expanded , but the Grade II * -listed St Michael and All Angels Church , remains . The site of Lowfield Heath village , now occupied by warehouses and light industrial units , is on the airport 's southern boundary , between the perimeter road and the A23 close to Manor Royal .
Worth was originally a village with its own civil parish , lying just beyond the eastern edge of the Crawley urban area and borough boundary ; but development of the Pound Hill and Maidenbower neighbourhoods has filled in the gaps , and the borough boundary has been extended to include the whole of the village . The civil parish of Worth remains , albeit reduced in size , as part of the Mid Sussex district .
Tinsley Green , a hamlet in Worth parish , is now within the Pound Hill neighbourhood . Its houses , farms and public house , the Greyhound ( at which the British and World Marbles Championship has been held annually since 1932 ) , lie on or around an east – west minor road running from the main Balcombe – Horley road to the Manor Royal estate .
The hamlet of Fernhill is 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Gatwick Airport and the same distance south of Horley . It has been wholly within the borough since 1990 , when the borough and county boundary was moved eastwards to align exactly with the M23 motorway . Until then , its houses and farms straddled the boundary . Fernhill was the site of a fatal aeroplane crash in 1969 : 50 people ( including two residents ) died when Ariana Afghan Airlines Flight 701 crashed into a house on Fernhill Road .
= = = Proposed neighbourhoods = = =
Since the completion of Maidenbower , Crawley 's thirteenth neighbourhood , two other sites in the borough have been considered as potential sites for new residential areas . A proposal to build a neighbourhood in the Tinsley Green area was first made in January 1998 , and in December 2009 the Government allowed an appeal to be heard against the latest refusal of planning permission . A new planning application was registered in July 2012 , and in November of that year details of the proposals were published . Forge Wood is intended to have 1 @,@ 900 houses , commercial and industrial buildings , a shopping area , a community centre and hall , a primary school and areas of " recreational open space " . Pegasus Planning Group Ltd presented the application on behalf of housebuilders Persimmon Homes and Taylor Wimpey . The application proposes 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of commercial and industrial floorspace and 2 @,@ 500 square metres ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floorspace for retail use as well as the housing . It was reported in 2012 , before it was approved , that the four @-@ phase " North East Sector " development was expected to start in 2013 and last for 12 years . The name Forge Wood was decided upon in December 2013 . Work on the first phase was scheduled to start in 2014 , and the first houses are due to be completed by the end of that year .
Meanwhile , Crawley Borough Council began discussions with neighbouring Horsham District Council in 2006 in connection with a proposed neighbourhood west of Bewbush ; such development would straddle the boundary of the two local authorities . Planning permission was granted in March 2011 , the name Kilnwood Vale was adopted , and in October 2011 Crawley Borough Council sold for £ 3 million some areas of land required for the construction of access roads . Work on the five @-@ phase scheme started in October 2012 . Up to 2 @,@ 500 houses , a school , library , supermarket and other facilities will be provided .
= = Demography = =
At the census in 2001 the population of Crawley was recorded as 99 @,@ 744 . This accounted for 13 @.@ 2 % of the population of the county of West Sussex . The growth in population of the new town — around 1 @,@ 000 % between 1951 and 2001 — has outstripped that of most similar @-@ sized settlements . For example , in the same period , the population of the neighbouring district of Horsham grew by just 99 % .
Approximately 64 @.@ 5 % of the population is aged below 45 , compared to 55 % of the population of West Sussex . White British account for 84 @.@ 5 % of the population and 15 @.@ 5 % of people are from other ethnic backgrounds . People of Indian and Pakistani origin account for 4 @.@ 5 % and 3 % of the population respectively . Many inhabitants of Crawley work locally at Gatwick Airport as either air or ground crew .
The borough has a population density of around 22 persons per hectare ( 54 persons per acre ) , making it the second most densely populated district in West Sussex , after Worthing . The social mix is similar to the national norm : around 50 % are in the ABC1 social category , although this varies by ward , with just 44 % in Broadfield North compared to 75 % in Maidenbower .
The proportion of people in the borough with higher education qualifications is lower than the national average . Around 14 % have a qualification at level 4 or above , compared to 20 % nationally .
= = Economy = =
Crawley originally traded as a market town . The Development Corporation intended to develop it as a centre for manufacturing and light engineering , with an industrial zone . The rapid growth of Gatwick Airport provided opportunities for businesses in the aviation , transport , warehousing and distribution industries . The significance of the airport to local employment and enterprise was reflected by the formation of the Gatwick Diamond partnership . This venture , supported by local businesses , local government and SEEDA , South East England 's Regional Development Agency , aims to maintain and improve the Crawley and Gatwick area 's status as a region of national and international economic importance .
Since the Second World War , unemployment in Crawley has been low : the rate was 1 @.@ 47 % of the working @-@ age population in 2003 . During the boom of the 1980s the town boasted the lowest level of unemployment in the UK . Continuous growth and investment have made Crawley one of the most important business and employment centres in the South East England region .
= = = Manufacturing industry = = =
Crawley was already a modest industrial centre by the end of the Second World War . Building was an important trade : 800 people were employed by building and joinery firms , and two — Longley 's and Cook 's — were large enough to have their own factories . In 1949 , 1 @,@ 529 people worked in manufacturing : the main industries were light and precision engineering and aircraft repair . Many of the jobs in these industries were highly skilled .
Industrial development had to take place relatively soon after the new town was established because part of the Corporation 's remit was to move people and jobs out of an overcrowded and war @-@ damaged London . Industrial jobs were needed as well as houses and shops to create a balanced community where people could settle . The Development Corporation wanted the new town to support a large and mixed industrial base , with factories and other buildings based in a single zone rather than spread throughout the town . A 267 @-@ acre ( 108 ha ) site in the northeastern part of the development area was chosen . Its advantages included flat land with no existing development ; proximity to the London – Brighton railway line , the A23 and the planned M23 ; space for railway sidings ( which were eventually built on a much smaller scale than envisaged ) ; and an adjacent 44 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) site reserved for future expansion , on the other side of the railway line ( again , not used for this purpose in the end ) . Princess Elizabeth ( later Queen Elizabeth II ) opened the first part of the industrial area on 25 January 1950 ; its main road was named Manor Royal , and this name eventually came to refer to the whole estate .
The Corporation stipulated that several manufacturing industries should be developed , rather than allowing one sector or firm to dominate . It did not seek to attract companies by offering financial or other incentives ; instead , it set out to create the ideal conditions for industrial development to arise naturally , by providing large plots of land with room for expansion , allowing firms to build their own premises or rent ready @-@ made buildings , and constructing a wide range of building types and sizes .
Despite the lack of direct incentives , many firms applied to move to the Manor Royal estate : it was considered such an attractive place to relocate to that the Development Corporation was able to choose between applicants to achieve the ideal mix of firms , and little advertising or promotion had to be undertaken . One year after Manor Royal was opened , eighteen firms were trading there , including four with more than 100 employees and one with more than 1 @,@ 000 . By 1964 , businesses which had moved to the town since 1950 employed 16 @,@ 000 people ; the master plan had anticipated between 8 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 500 . In 1978 there were 105 such firms , employing nearly 20 @,@ 000 people .
The Thales Group opened a new manufacturing and office complex in Crawley in 2009 . The site consolidated manufacturing and offices in the Crawley area and the south @-@ east of England .
= = = Service industry and commerce = = =
While most of the jobs created in the new town 's early years were in manufacturing , the tertiary sector developed strongly from the 1960s . The Manor Royal estate , with its space , proximity to Gatwick and good transport links , attracted airport @-@ related services such as logistics , catering , distribution and warehousing ; and the Corporation and private companies built offices throughout the town . Office floorspace in the town increased from 55 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 100 m2 ) in 1965 to a conservative estimate of 453 @,@ 000 square feet ( 42 @,@ 100 m2 ) in 1984 . Major schemes during that period included premises for the Westminster Bank ( later part of NatWest ) , British Caledonian , and The Office of the Paymaster @-@ General — a government ministry within the remit of HM Treasury . The five @-@ storey Overline House above the railway station , completed in 1968 , is used by Crawley 's NHS Primary Care Trust and various other companies .
Companies headquartered in Crawley include Doosan Babcock Energy , WesternGeco , Virgin Atlantic Airways , Virgin Atlantic 's associated travel agency Virgin Holidays , William Reed Business Media , Dualit and the Office of the Paymaster @-@ General . Danish company Novo Nordisk , which manufactures much of the world 's insulin supply , has its UK headquarters at the Broadfield Business Park , and BDO International has an office in Crawley . In addition the registered offices of TUI UK and Thomson Airways are located in Crawley .
British Airways took over British Caledonian 's former headquarters near the Manor Royal estate , renamed it " Astral Towers " and based its British Airways Holidays and AIRMILES divisions there . Other companies formerly headquartered in Crawley include Astraeus Airlines , British United Airways , CityFlyer Express , CP Ships , First Choice Airways , GB Airways , Laker Airways , Tradewinds Airways , and Air Europe .
Crawley has numerous hotels , including The George Hotel , dated to 1615 . It is reputedly haunted .
= = = Shopping and retail = = =
Even before the new town was planned , Crawley was a retail centre for the surrounding area : there were 177 shops in the town in 1948 , 99 of which were on the High Street . Early new town residents relied on these shopping facilities until the Corporation implemented the master plan 's designs for a new shopping area on the mostly undeveloped land east of the High Street and north of the railway line . The Broadwalk and its 23 shops were built in 1954 , followed by the Queen 's Square complex and surrounding streets in the mid @-@ 1950s . Queen 's Square , a pedestrianised plaza surrounded by large shops and linked to the High Street by The Broadwalk , was officially opened in 1958 by Queen Elizabeth II . The town centre was completed by 1960 , by which time Crawley was already recognised as an important regional , rather than merely local , shopping centre .
In the 1960s and 1970s , large branches of Tesco , Sainsbury 's and Marks & Spencer were opened ( the Tes
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anti @-@ Chandler faction was unable to unite behind either former candidate Bert T. Combs or former Louisville mayor Wilson Wyatt . Clements united the faction behind Combs , making Wilson Wyatt their candidate for lieutenant governor and promising him support for later races . Combs defeated the Chandler candidate , Harry Lee Waterfield in the Democratic primary and went on to win the general election .
In 1960 , Combs appointed Clements as state highway commissioner . Some state newspapers charged that Clements had demanded this post at the head of the state 's largest executive department in exchange for supporting Combs , a charge Combs denied . Others wondered if Clements took the post in order to organize the state political machinery for his friend Lyndon Johnson , who was rumored to be considering a run for president . Still others believed that , from his powerful post , Clements would be the real governor and Combs only a puppet .
Scandal continued to plague Clements as highway commissioner . In March 1960 , news broke that the highway department was about to lease 34 used dump trucks at a very favorable price from Louisville Ford dealer Thurston Cooke , who had served as finance chairman for Combs ' gubernatorial campaign . Some charged that this amounted to a political payoff by Clements . Combs , already under fire for appointing Clements , canceled the lease bid on April 19 . Clements was offended by this action and considered it a public rebuke . The incident caused a rift between Combs and Clements that never fully healed , although Clements did not resign immediately .
In August 1960 , Clements met with Combs and told him he wanted to resign to work for the vice @-@ presidential campaign of Lyndon Johnson . Combs called a press conference and announced that Clements ' resignation would be effective September 1 and that he would be replaced by Henry Ward . The resignation was the end of the Clements faction of the state Democratic party . His split with Combs was so severe that he allied with his longtime foe , Happy Chandler , against the new Combs faction of the party . In the 1962 senatorial race , Clements opposed Wilson Wyatt 's challenge to Senator Thruston Morton . Morton won re @-@ election , ending Wyatt 's political career . Chandler again sought the Democratic gubernatorial nomination in 1963 . Clements appeared on stage with Chandler at a rally where Chandler claimed that Combs had arranged the truck deal to discredit Clements . Chandler hoped to damage Combs ' reputation and , by extension , that of his hand @-@ picked successor Edward T. Breathitt . His strategy was unsuccessful ; Breathitt carried the primary and went on to win the general election . Clements ' waning influence was evidenced by the fact that Breathitt carried Union County by a vote of 2 @,@ 528 to 1 @,@ 913 .
From 1961 to 1963 , Clements was a consultant for the American Merchant Marine Institute . He then returned to Washington as a lobbyist and as an executive with the Tobacco Institute . In 1981 , he retired to his hometown of Morganfield . After several years of illness , he died March 12 , 1985 and was buried at the Odd Fellows Cemetery in Morganfield . In 1980 , the Breckinridge Job Corps Center in Morganfield was renamed the Earle C. Clements Job Corps Center .
= Ryugyong Hotel =
The Ryugyong Hotel ( Chosŏn 'gŭl : 류경려관 ; sometimes anglicised as Ryu @-@ Gyong Hotel or Yu @-@ Kyung Hotel ) is an unfinished 105 @-@ story pyramid @-@ shaped skyscraper in Pyongyang , North Korea . Its name ( " capital of willows " ) is also one of the historical names for Pyongyang . The building is also known as the 105 Building , a reference to its number of floors . The building has been planned as a mixed @-@ use development , which would include a hotel .
Construction began in 1987 but was halted in 1992 as North Korea entered a period of economic crisis after the fall of the Soviet Union . After 1992 the building stood topped out , but without any windows or interior fittings . In 2008 construction resumed , and the exterior was completed in 2011 . It was planned to open the hotel in 2012 , the centenary of Kim Il @-@ sung 's birth , but this did not happen . A partial opening was announced for 2013 , but this was also cancelled . As of 2016 , the building remains unopened .
= = Architecture = =
The Ryugyong Hotel has a height of 330 metres ( 1 @,@ 080 ft ) , making it the most prominent feature of Pyongyang 's skyline and by far the tallest structure in North Korea . Construction of the Ryugyong Hotel was intended to be completed in time for the 13th World Festival of Youth and Students in June 1989 ; had this been achieved , it would have held the title of world 's tallest hotel . The unfinished building was not surpassed in height by any new hotel until the 2009 completion of the spire atop the Rose Tower in Dubai , United Arab Emirates . The Ryugyong Hotel is the world 's 49th tallest building ( tied with the China World Trade Center Tower III ) in terms of total height and has the seventh most floors . It is also the tallest unoccupied building in the world .
The building consists of three wings , each measuring 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long , 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wide , and sloped at a 75 ‑ degree angle , which converge at a common point to form a pinnacle . The building is topped by a truncated cone 40 metres ( 130 ft ) wide , consisting of eight floors that are intended to rotate , topped by a further six static floors . The structure was originally intended to house five revolving restaurants , and either 3 @,@ 000 or 7 @,@ 665 guest rooms , according to different sources . According to Orascom 's Khaled Bichara in 2009 , the Ryugyong will not be just a hotel , but rather a mixed @-@ use development , including " revolving restaurant " facilities along with a " mixture of hotel accommodation , apartments and business facilities " .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
= = = = First start = = = =
The plan for a large hotel was reportedly a Cold War response to the completion of the world 's tallest hotel , the Westin Stamford Hotel in Singapore , in 1986 by the South Korean company SsangYong Group . North Korean leadership envisioned the project as a channel for Western investors to step into the marketplace . A firm , the Ryugyong Hotel Investment and Management , was established to attract a hoped @-@ for $ 230 million in foreign investment . A representative for the North Korean government promised relaxed oversight , allowing " foreign investors [ to ] operate casinos , nightclubs or Japanese lounges " . North Korean construction firm Baikdoosan Architects & Engineers ( also known as Baekdu Mountain Architects and Engineers ) began construction on a pyramid ‑ shaped hotel in 1987 .
= = = = First halt = = = =
The hotel was scheduled to open in June 1989 for the 13th World Festival of Youth and Students , but problems with building methods and materials delayed completion . Had it opened on schedule , it would have surpassed the Westin Stamford Hotel to become the world 's tallest hotel , and would have been the seventh @-@ tallest building in the world .
In 1992 , after the building had reached its full architectural height , work was halted due to the economic crisis in North Korea following the collapse of the Soviet bloc . Japanese newspapers estimated the cost of construction was $ 750 million , consuming 2 percent of North Korea ’ s GDP . For over a decade , the unfinished building sat vacant and without windows , fixtures , or fittings , appearing as a massive concrete shell . A rusting construction crane remained at the top , which the BBC called " a reminder of the totalitarian state 's thwarted ambition " . According to Marcus Noland , in the late 1990s , the European Union Chamber of Commerce in Korea inspected the building and concluded that the structure was irreparable . Questions were raised regarding the quality of the building 's concrete and the alignment of its elevator shafts , which some sources said were " crooked " .
In a 2006 article , ABC News questioned whether North Korea had sufficient raw materials or energy for such a massive project . A North Korean government official told the Los Angeles Times in 2008 that construction was not completed " because [ North Korea ] ran out of money " .
The halt in construction , the rumours of problems and the mystery about its future led foreign media sources to dub it " the worst building in the world " , " Hotel of Doom " and " Phantom Hotel " .
= = = = Second start = = = =
In April 2008 , after 16 years of inactivity , work on the building was restarted by the Egyptian company Orascom Group . Orascom , which has entered into a US $ 400 million deal with the North Korean government to build and run a 3G mobile phone network , said that their telecommunications deal was not directly related to the Ryugyong Hotel work . In 2008 North Korean officials stated that the hotel would be completed by 2012 , coinciding with the 100th anniversary of the birth of the " Eternal President " , Kim Il @-@ sung . In 2009 , Orascom 's Chief Operating Officer Khaled Bichara noted that they " had not had too many problems " resolving the reported structural issues of the building , and that a revolving restaurant will be located at the top of the building .
In July 2011 , it was reported that the exterior work was complete . Features that Orascom has installed include exterior glass panels and telecommunications antennas . In 2012 , photographs taken by Koryo Tours were released , showing the interior for the first time . There were few fixtures or furnishings . In November 2012 , international hotel operator Kempinski announced it would be running the hotel which was expected to partially open in mid ‑ 2013 .
= = = = Second halt = = = =
In March 2013 , plans to reopen the hotel were suspended . Kempinski clarified its earlier statements saying that only “ initial discussions ” had ever occurred , but that no agreement had been signed because “ market entry is not currently possible ” . Kempinski gave no reasons , but commentators suggested that international tensions related to the 2013 North Korean nuclear test , economic risks , and delays in construction probably played a part .
= = = Progression of construction work = = =
= Who Killed Archie ? =
" Who Killed Archie ? " is a storyline from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , which began on 25 December 2009 , Christmas Day , when the character Archie Mitchell , played by Larry Lamb , was murdered by an unseen person . Events leading up to and following the murder put several characters in the frame , in the style of a whodunnit mystery . The culprit was kept a tight secret within the production crew as well , with only seven people knowing the identity of the killer . The murderer was revealed as Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) during a live episode titled " EastEnders Live " , broadcast on 19 February 2010 , the show 's 25th anniversary . Turner was told thirty minutes before the broadcast that Stacey was the killer , and actors rehearsed several possible endings . Finally , a two @-@ hander episode between Stacey and Max on 26 March 2010 explained how she killed Archie .
= = Storyline creation and development = =
The storyline was created in spring 2009 during a story conference , where executive producer Diederick Santer , storyliner Dominic Treadwell @-@ Collins , series consultant and lead writer Simon Ashdown , series producer Lorraine Newman , script producer Sharon Batten , and Controller of BBC Drama Production John Yorke were considering what to do for the Christmas Day 2009 and 25th anniversary episodes . They discussed the character Archie Mitchell and how everyone hated him , and decided on a storyline with characters ' hatred and anger towards Archie building up before Christmas , with a peak on Christmas Day when he is killed and another for the reveal on the 19 February 2010 anniversary . They decided to keep the killer 's identity a secret within the small group and decided to reveal it during a live episode so that the secret could be kept for as long as possible , and managed the story on a need @-@ to @-@ know basis . The live episode 's director , Clive Arnold , became the seventh person to discover the identity of the murderer . They went through the characters to decide who would create a " shiver " moment , and decided against Janine , even though she could have done it , because she has killed before . The killer was going to be Archie 's wife Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , until producers discovered Windsor had planned to leave the show , so they decided on Stacey . Although scripts initially diverted attention away from Stacey , Santer realised that drawing attention away from her too much might make it more apparent .
Santer said there were three big clues to the killer 's identity , " one in the Christmas Day episode , one more recently than Christmas and there 's another one that , if I were to tell you where it was , would perhaps give it away too easily , " however , in a chat with Sharon Marshall shown on This Morning on 18 February 2010 , he said the second clue was about halfway through the investigation and the third was " on screen but not necessarily in the programme " . He also said that the outcome would be " surprising " , " satisfying " and " in retrospect , inevitable " , adding that " it makes sense " . Santer confirmed the clues in an interview on the EastEnders website : on Christmas Day Stacey disappears and it is never explained why , and then reappears on Boxing Day appearing " not quite with it " ; Stacey is the only character still sufficiently angry enough to spit on Archie 's grave at his funeral ; and Stacey is the first character to feature in the Christmas Day trailers .
Plans to broadcast the first ever live episode of EastEnders were announced by the BBC on 15 September 2009 . Santer initially refrained from discussing the episode 's plot , but commented that it would resolve a " big storyline " which would " keep the audience ( as well as the cast and crew ) guessing until the very last moment . " Santer confirmed that Archie 's killer would be revealed in the live episode , and that their identity would be kept secret until the night of broadcast , even from the cast member playing them . The EastEnders cast and crew had two weeks to rehearse the episode prior to its live transmission . The script was issued on the afternoon of 5 February 2010 , written by Simon Ashdown . The first read @-@ through took place on 8 February 2010 , though producers held back the part of the script revealing Archie 's true killer . Ten different possible endings were scripted and rehearsed , each showing one character confessing to the murder . The ten characters were Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) , Jack Branning ( Scott Maslen ) , Ronnie Mitchell ( Samantha Womack ) , Max Branning ( Jake Wood ) , Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) , Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) , Billy Mitchell ( Perry Fenwick ) , Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) , Peggy and Stacey . Santer reiterated that the actor playing the killer would only be told so thirty minutes before the broadcast . He explained that the killer " may be revealed to the audience rather than the Square " , preserving secrecy as the crew began filming episodes to be transmitted after the live broadcast . Brooks , who plays Archie 's former lover Janine , found the secrecy difficult to work with , explaining : " In the episodes to be shown afterwards , you 're being told to look or speak a certain way , but not why . " Santer confirmed that the cast found the episode challenging , stating : " They are as desperate to know who did it as the viewers . " Actor Charlie Clements , who played Bradley Branning , announced in November 2009 that he would be leaving the soap in 2010 . It was later revealed that Bradley would make his last appearance in " EastEnders Live " , urged to flee Walford by his father Max and uncle Jack after becoming the prime suspect in the investigation into Archie 's murder .
The moment Turner was told Stacey was the killer was filmed for a live reaction show broadcast immediately after " EastEnders Live " on BBC Three , though it was not broadcast . EastEnders Live : The Aftermath was presented by Lamb 's son George and included other behind @-@ the @-@ scenes material . Turner received a call to see Santer about 20 minutes before the broadcast , where she was told that Stacey was the killer . She explained that she had no idea her character was the murderer , even after receiving the call . She hoped viewers would sympathise with the character as she not only has to deal with the guilt of killing Archie but was also inadvertently responsible for Bradley 's death . Wood was also told as he supported Turner in the final scene in which she was revealed as the killer . Santer also brought in Maslen and McDermott as decoys in case other cast and crew members realised . Following the live episode , a two @-@ hander episode featuring Max and Stacey was announced . The episode , broadcast on 26 March 2010 , explains how and why Stacey killed Archie .
= = = Later development = = =
Although the true identity of Archie 's killer is kept a secret between Max and Stacey for several months , Max 's daughter Lauren Branning ( Jacqueline Jossa ) becomes suspicious in November 2010 when Max tells her Bradley was innocent . Lauren suspects Max killed Archie as she becomes paranoid about his anger . Jossa said in an interview with website Digital Spy : " [ Lauren ] ' s thinking about Archie 's murder and realising that if Bradley didn 't do it , it must have been someone else . As far as she knows , her dad is the only person who knows that Bradley didn 't do it , so she 's trying to put this puzzle together and it 's all adding up to Max being the killer , because everything he does seems to lead to a lot of aggression . " However , Lauren soon works out that Stacey is the murderer after speaking to her . Jossa said she was excited that her character was one of only a select few to know the true identity of Archie 's killer .
= = Suspects and motives = =
There were officially ten suspects for the murder , though the ten were not known to viewers or cast members , who speculated about the identity of the killer . On Christmas Eve , storylines showed Archie evicting his wife Peggy , daughters Ronnie and Roxy , Peggy 's son Phil and Phil 's son Ben ( Charlie Jones ) from their home , The Queen Victoria public house , after he became the landlord . Ronnie had a further motive as Archie had caused her to suffer a miscarriage and she blamed him for the death of her daughter Danielle Jones ( Lauren Crace ) earlier in 2009 . Peggy discovered that Archie had paid her daughter Sam Mitchell ( Danniella Westbrook ) to skip bail , thus plunging the Mitchells into debt , and Sam returned on Christmas Day to discover she had been manipulated . Phil was also a suspect after failing to kill Archie on Peggy 's request earlier in 2009 . Simons explained that the killer was likely to be the most unsuspecting person , and stated that Roxy was " pretty much the only non @-@ suspect , " but said she felt the character would not go so far as to kill her father , even though she had seen his true colours . Woodyatt said his character , Ian Beale , would have done anything to stop his wife Jane ( Laurie Brett ) from finding out that he had sex with Janine , so it would be plausible if it turned out that Ian had killed Archie . Archie had a laptop recording of Ian and Janine together that he had threatened to give to Jane . Janine , who was engaged to Archie , also had a motive as Archie had been using her to gain ownership of The Queen Victoria and threw her out on Christmas Day . She was seen holding a knife before Archie was killed .
McDermott said his character , Ryan Malloy , " probably would have the balls to kill Archie " and it would be a possibility due to the character 's past , although he accused Janine of the murder , making it unlikely unless he was " quite conniving . " He stated Ryan 's only motive would be out of love for Janine . Glynis Barber , who plays Archie 's first wife Glenda Mitchell and was not seen in the programme until after the murder , said her instinct was that Glenda did not kill Archie , even though she had been told it was possible . Bradley Branning 's motive came from the discovery that Archie raped his partner Stacey , and Clements said that if other characters knew , it would give Bradley a motive and the fact that Bradley punched Archie would make him a prime suspect . He stated that he hoped Bradley was not the killer , though in an interview with daytime television show This Morning , he stated it would be " quite historical to go down as the one who killed Archie Mitchell " . The rape also gave Stacey a motive , and before she was sectioned in 2009 for bipolar disorder she accused Archie of trying to kill her . Jack Branning 's motive came from his love for Ronnie and hatred of Archie , and he threatened Archie on Christmas Day . Maslen said it would be " great " if Jack was the murderer , but added that he may have taken the blame if Ronnie was guilty . Other possible suspects included Peggy 's son Grant Mitchell ( Ross Kemp ) , Billy Mitchell and Tracey the barmaid ( Jane Slaughter ) . Slaughter said Tracey 's only motive would be to protect The Queen Victoria or one of the Mitchells .
Odds on the killer 's identity changed frequently in the fortnight preceding the transmission of " EastEnders Live " . On 5 February , the clear favourite was Stacey Slater , with odds at Bodog of 2 / 1 . By 9 February , Stacey 's odds had shortened to 6 / 4 , though the character dropped into third place by 12 February , usurped by her brother Sean Slater ( Robert Kazinsky ) , who was last seen in the soap on 1 January 2009 , at odds of 9 / 4 , and Ben Mitchell at 7 / 2 . On 14 February , the unlikely favourite became Tracey the barmaid , a background character whose odds shortened considerably from 40 / 1 to 11 / 4 . Sean moved back into first place on 16 February , with odds of 2 / 1 , and remained there until the eve of broadcast . Stacey Slater 's odds fell to 16 / 1 . William Hill had Sean as the favourite on 18 February with odds of 4 / 7 , though on the morning of 19 February , Ben became the bookmakers ' favourite . Polls on both the BBC website and on Digital Spy that ran in the week leading up to the live episode showed Bradley Branning as the person viewers most expected to be the killer , followed by Jack Branning , Ben Mitchell , Sean Slater and Sam Mitchell .
= = Plot = =
= = = Events leading up to the murder = = =
On Archie Mitchell ( Larry Lamb ) and Peggy Mitchell 's ( Barbara Windsor ) wedding day , the true identity of Danielle Jones ( Lauren Crace ) as Ronnie Mitchell 's ( Samantha Womack ) daughter is revealed . Archie has told Ronnie that her daughter , whom he gave up for adoption as a baby , has died . Moments after Ronnie realises the truth , Danielle is hit by a car and passes away .
Peggy throws Archie out and asks her son Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) to kill him , but Phil just forces him to leave . The Mitchells also form a new rivalry with Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) , as she was the one responsible for hitting Danielle with her car and causing her death .
Ronnie is the most hurt about this and struggles to cope . She starts another relationship with Jack Branning ( Scott Maslen ) , leading to their engagement . However , upon realising she wants another baby , she leaves Walford for a while , selling her portion of the club to Jack , who in turn gives it to Archie . After returning , Ronnie sleeps with Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) and Owen Turner ( Lee Ross ) , and becomes pregnant with Owen 's child .
Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) , Danielle 's best friend in Walford , is also deeply affected by the incident , which triggers her bipolar disorder . She becomes non @-@ compliant with her medication , has sex with Ryan , and is raped and attacked by Archie at the launderette . She believes both men are planning to kill her and is involuntarily committed to hospital , where she befriends Becca Swanson ( Simone James ) . Upon her return to Walford along with Becca , Stacey restarts a relationship with Bradley Branning ( Charlie Clements ) when he rejects his girlfriend Syd Chambers ( Nina Toussaint @-@ White ) for her .
When Archie returns , he attempts to reconcile with Peggy , but comes up with a plan to steal the Mitchells ' business , The Queen Victoria public house , with Janine 's help . However , Janine , along with Ryan , whom she is dating , plans to steal it from Archie at the last minute . Peggy 's daughter Sam Mitchell ( Danniella Westbrook ) , who has been in Brazil on the run from police due to her involvement in the murder of Den Watts ( Leslie Grantham ) , returns to Walford , thinking the charges have been dropped . She is subsequently arrested , and the Mitchells put up £ 250 @,@ 000 bail to have her released . Archie convinces Sam to leave again , paying for her to go . Phil is then forced to take out a loan from Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) . Ian accepts , on the condition that if the loan is not paid back within a certain time , he becomes owner of The Queen Victoria . Archie and Janine learn of this and try to get Ian to sell the loan to them . When Ian 's wife Jane Beale ( Laurie Brett ) leaves him , Janine gets him drunk and has sex with him , making an audio recording of them together . Archie and Janine blackmail Ian into selling them the loan and Archie tells the Mitchells they are trespassing . Once Archie finds out that Janine plans to fleece him , he proposes to her to keep her from going astray . Ryan is hurt by this setback and ends his relationship with her . Ronnie stands up to Archie and he pushes her into the bar , not knowing she is pregnant , though Roxy Mitchell ( Rita Simons ) then reveals it . Ronnie has a miscarriage and Peggy tells Archie he has killed another of Ronnie 's children , warning him to stay away from her . Peggy eventually hands over the keys and the family of Peggy , Phil , Ronnie , Roxy , Ben Mitchell ( Charlie Jones ) and Roxy 's baby Amy Mitchell leave on 24 December 2009 . They end up being taken in by Jack , who vows revenge on Archie .
On Christmas Day , Archie tells Ian the CD of the recording is under Ian 's Christmas tree for Jane , but Ian fails to find it . Archie tells Janine that they should skip Christmas dinner as he has made a surprise treasure hunt for her . Janine eventually finds an envelope containing a one @-@ way ticket to Poland and Archie throws her out onto the street telling her he knows how she and Ryan tried to double @-@ cross him . Archie is visited by Jack who threatens to kill him if he hurts Ronnie again . Archie finds Ian searching his living room for the CD and Archie says it is on his laptop and he can make copies at any time , threatening Ian with a phone call to Jane , before ejecting him from the pub . Sam returns and attempts to confront Archie but he shuts the door on her . Ronnie then arrives and tells him with no emotion that he will not make her care for him and she would not care if he died . Archie throws her out onto the street reminding her that it was the exact spot she pushed Danielle onto the night she died .
Archie is visited by Peggy and he pleads with her to come home to him as she is the woman he loves . Peggy says she is not just a sweet and innocent old lady and that he has no idea whom he is messing with . She tells Archie if he does not leave the pub that night he will regret every cruel and evil act he has ever done . He tells her that unless she returns he will have the pub converted to flats . He then becomes emotional as he tells Peggy that he will be waiting for her as she walks out on him . Bradley walks in and punches Archie in the face twice but accidentally punches the bar as well , cutting his hand . He tells Archie to stay away from his girlfriend Stacey because she has said Archie raped her three months previously , and Bradley leaves . As Archie picks up his snowglobe from the floor , the bust of Queen Victoria is pushed from the bar and hits him over the head .
= = = After the murder = = =
Ronnie finds Archie on the floor of The Queen Victoria and he apologises to her before he dies . When the police are notified of the death they arrest Ronnie , but later release her without charge . DCI Jill Marsden ( Sophie Stanton ) investigates the rest of the Mitchell family . Phil is given a false alibi by his friend Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) , who finds a blood @-@ stained shirt amongst his belongings . Phil explains that he found Archie dead and lost his balance , falling into the blood , but did not call the police because he panicked . They burn the shirt , and when Marsden visits them again , asking to see the clothes Phil was wearing at Christmas , Shirley produces a freshly laundered one . Shirley 's flatmate Heather Trott ( Cheryl Fergison ) reveals that Phil was not really with Shirley on Christmas Day , prompting Shirley to make an anonymous call stating she saw Janine enter The Queen Victoria on the day of the murder , deflecting suspicion from Phil . Peggy and Phil attempt to pin the murder on Sam , who retaliates by blaming Peggy . Both are questioned by Marsden at the police station , and though Peggy is released without charge , Sam is arrested for breaking her bail .
Ian has Archie 's laptop , and though he deletes the audio file of him and Janine from it , it later comes to light , and he and Jane throw the laptop into the canal . Janine attempts to blackmail Ian , and when he rebuffs her , she tells the police about the recording and the laptop , leading to his arrest . Ian admits to stealing the laptop from The Queen Victoria on Christmas Day , but denies murder . The police charge him with murder , but when Janine admits the truth , the charges are dropped .
Marsden and her colleague DC Wayne Hughes ( Jamie Treacher ) attend Archie 's funeral , but do not see Stacey spit on Archie 's grave . Jack , a former police officer , tells Hughes he can help out with any " local information " they might need . After the funeral , Bradley proposes to Stacey at the car lot , and she accepts . Jack later learns that Archie raped Stacey , that she is now pregnant with what she believes is Archie 's baby , and that Bradley punched him on Christmas Day . Jack urges Bradley to tell the police what he did , desiring to keep Ronnie out of trouble . Marsden reveals she has a new forensic profile and a DNA screening process will begin . She asks all white males to volunteer for DNA screening , and when Bradley complies , Jack bribes Hughes to make the samples disappear .
A ring Roxy inherited from Archie , which went missing at Christmas , is planted in Janine 's flat . Marsden receives an anonymous tip @-@ off and Janine is arrested after the ring is found in her teapot . She is interviewed , but is released due to lack of evidence . She realises that Peggy planted the ring in an attempt to frame her . When Shirley thinks Phil is seeing another woman , she accuses him of only being interested in her for her alibi . He says it is not true , but she drunkenly threatens to withdraw the alibi , and walks to the police station .
Becca becomes hurt upon realising that Bradley and Stacey are getting married . While they are away at their own wedding , Becca steals a hairbrush with Archie 's hair from The Queen Victoria , intending to have a DNA test done on Stacey 's baby to prove if it is really Archie 's . However , she has doubts and goes back with Stacey to return the brush , but is caught by Ronnie . Becca coerces Stacey to confess Archie raped her and the baby is his . However , Ronnie tells Stacey that Archie underwent an operation a few years back that left him infertile , meaning that Stacey 's baby isn 't his . Roxy accuses Ronnie of murdering Archie . Ronnie denies it , but tells her she found out about the rape , and that Archie once raped her . Peggy tells the two of them that when Archie was murdered , she found him lying on the floor , took her divorce papers from the bar and left him to die . Phil tells Peggy about his alibi , the shirt and that he found Archie dead on Christmas Day . Shirley then returns and says Phil has got away with it as she has not told the police anything . Meanwhile , Becca anonymously reports to the police that Bradley had a motive for the murder .
Jack receives a call from Hughes to say that Bradley is about to be arrested and urges Bradley to leave Walford as quickly as possible . Bradley and Stacey quickly pack their bags at home . Max Branning ( Jake Wood ) says an emotional goodbye to his son and Jack agrees to help them escape . They leave via the back door as Max delays the police at the front , and hide a few streets away . Jack also leaves by the back door but Marsden sees him and he is unable to meet Bradley and Stacey , who are nervously waiting . Bradley says they should go without Jack , but when they go to get a taxi , Bradley realises he has left the passports at home and goes back to get them , leaving Stacey to wait . However , Stacey grows impatient and phones him . The police notice him when his phone rings , and in a bid to escape them , he runs up a fire escape and crawls across the roof of The Queen Victoria with an officer following him . He shouts at Stacey to run , but stumbles and falls backwards from the roof to his death . Max and Stacey are devastated , and he pulls her away from the body . She tells him it is her fault , as Bradley did not kill Archie , she did . The following day , Marsden says the police will no longer be pursuing the investigation . Stacey then goes missing , and on the day of Bradley 's funeral , Jack receives news that a court has found Bradley guilty of Archie 's murder .
Max tracks down Stacey to a flat where Stacey explains that she was angry at Archie and was worried about what Bradley would do to him after he found out about the baby . A minute after Bradley confronted Archie , she found Archie on the floor and pushed the bust onto his head , but ran after his fingers twitched , fearing he would call the police . Max eventually tells Stacey that nobody else needs to know that she killed Archie and sends her home . Becca continues to live with Stacey , and tries to exclude Stacey 's mother Jean Slater ( Gillian Wright ) from her life . However , when Jean reveals Becca 's involvement in Bradley 's death , Stacey slaps Becca , which causes her to have a meltdown leading to getting kicked out by Jean as Stacey tells her mother she can trust her again . Later , Stacey figures out that Ryan must be her baby 's father but decides not to tell him so as to not complicate his rekindled relationship with Janine , even when he is with her in the hospital as she gives birth to her daughter Lily . Several months later , at Janine and Ryan 's wedding reception , Stacey confesses her fear about Archie still being alive to Peggy , who tells Stacey that Archie is dead and that Bradley killed him , accidentally causing Stacey to confess the truth to her . Peggy wants to call the police but after a fire at The Queen Victoria , Peggy tries to convince Stacey to admit to arson as the sentence would be a lot less than that for murder . She leaves Walford while letting Stacey take care of Lily who needs her . Stacey also tells Ryan that he is Lily 's father , and although he initially refuses to acknowledge her , he later bonds with her and gets used to the idea of being a father while Janine and Stacey are arrested on a night out . Upset with this , Janine attempts to sabotage his relationship with Stacey , but her actions inadvertently cause them to realise their growing attraction to each other .
Max 's daughter Lauren Branning ( Jacqueline Jossa ) becomes angry at Max for never mentioning Bradley , leading to his confessing that he knows Bradley did not kill Archie . Lauren starts to suspect Max as he has become violent towards other people , but he tells her he promised to look after the real killer , who is no longer a danger . When Lauren sees Stacey dancing with Max , she accuses her of trying flirting with Max , but Stacey says they are just friends and he promised he would always look out for her . Lauren realises that Stacey is the killer and tells Max she knows this . She confronts Stacey , who confesses , and Lauren records it on her mobile phone . Lauren later hands the recording to Janine as Stacey and Ryan have begun having an affair . Max wipes the recording so on Christmas Eve , Janine publicly announces in the pub after trying to play the recording that Stacey killed Archie . Outside , Stacey privately tells Ryan that Janine is telling the truth .
As Christmas Day runs through , Stacey experiences numerous upsetting thoughts about her role in Archie 's death , and tells Jean about this . Upset , Jean takes Lily away from her , and things are made worse when Janine attempts to frame Stacey by stabbing herself while placing the knife in Stacey 's hands and convincing Jean to call the police . Stacey considers suicide , but Max offers to help her flee the country . On the way , Stacey convinces Jean that Janine has framed her for the stabbing , and breaks off her romance with Ryan when he offers to come with her . Stacey and Max are left to leave Walford with Lily , not before Ronnie and Roxy confront Stacey about the truth . Although Roxy wants her jailed , Ronnie quickly tells Stacey to go , feeling that she has suffered enough . Max drives Stacey to the airport , and tells her that he still loves her , offering to leave the country with her . Stacey tells him that the only man she 's ever loved is Bradley . They share a teary and emotional goodbye with each other as Max watches Stacey leave for her flight . Stacey is last seen holding Lily in her arms while on the plane .
In 2014 , Stacey is found living in London using a false name . Her cousin Kat Moon ( Jessie Wallace ) brings her back to Walford . Stacey is wanted by the police for stabbing Janine , though in fact Janine had stabbed herself in order to frame Stacey . She is eventually seen by Ronnie and Roxy . Roxy threatens to call the police but Ronnie convinces her not to . However , after Janine drops the charges , Stacey decides that she needs to clear Bradley 's name , so tells the police she killed Archie . She is subsequently sentenced to five years in prison , but she decides to appeal the sentence , taking her bipolar disorder into account . The appeal is successful and Stacey is released .
= = Reception = =
Overnight figures showed that Archie 's murder on 25 December 2009 was watched by 45 @.@ 9 % of the viewing audience for that time , an average of 10 @.@ 9 million and a peak of 11 @.@ 9 million . It was the most watched TV show on Christmas Day 2009 in the UK . The following episode where the murder was discovered was also the most watched show of the day , with overnight ratings of 8 @.@ 1 million , representing a 37 @.@ 9 % audience share . The investigation storyline helped EastEnders become the most watched soap opera on British television for the first time in three years , with average viewing figures for January 2010 of 10 @.@ 8 million ( 40 @.@ 4 % audience share ) compared to Coronation Street 's 10 @.@ 4 million ( 38 @.@ 2 % ) . Overnight figures for the live episode indicated that it averaged 14 @.@ 91 million viewers and a 54 @.@ 6 % audience share , peaking at 16 @.@ 58 million with a 59 @.@ 4 % share in the final five minutes of broadcast when Stacey was revealed as the killer . The 10 : 30 pm repeat of the episode on BBC Three drew a further 1 @.@ 42 million viewers , attaining a 7 @.@ 7 % share . EastEnders Live : The Aftermath drew 4 @.@ 3 million viewers and a 15 @.@ 9 % audience share , becoming BBC Three 's highest rated programme ever , as well as the most @-@ watched multichannel programme of the day . The documentary attained a further 1 @.@ 21 million viewers and a 9 @.@ 4 % share upon its repeat at 11 pm . Santer was delighted by the viewing figures , stating : " To get this incredible response from the audience is truly remarkable – these numbers go far beyond what we ever hoped for . I am so proud of our cast and crew for their incredible performance last night . This rating is the icing on our silver anniversary cake . " Jay Hunt , controller of BBC One commented : " [ The ] extraordinary live episode was a fitting celebration of 25 magnificent years for EastEnders . The audience were clearly gripped by one of the greatest soap whodunnits ever . " Discussing the ratings for EastEnders Live : The Aftermath , controller of BBC Three Danny Cohen appraised : " It is an amazing testament to the EastEnders team and the brave and brilliant drama they provided . "
Archie 's murder was compared to that of Den Watts in EastEnders in 2005 by Polly Hudson of the Daily Mirror , while Nancy Banks @-@ Smith of The Guardian called it a rip @-@ off of Citizen Kane . Andrew Grimes from Manchester Evening News said the Christmas Day episode was " in every sense compelling , and to my utter astonishment , a complete and utter joy " , and John Gibson of Edinburgh Evening News gave the murder discovery episode on 26 December 2009 a negative review , saying " Hard to tell what was most horrific ... the murder , which was bloody , the acting , which was dire , or the script , which was torture . " Tim Teeman of The Times called the revelation of Stacey as Archie 's killer a " genuine surprise " , while Pat Stacey of the Evening Herald felt that revealing Stacey as Archie 's killer was " a slight let @-@ down " and " a little bit predictable " . The storyline was nominated in the Killer Secret category at the 2010 All About Soap Bubble Awards . It also received a nomination in the Best Storyline category at the 2010 British Soap Awards and the Best Soap Storyline category at the 2010 TVChoice Awards . Real life police detectives criticised the portrayal of detectives in the show , saying that viewers who see them talking to residents about the case and accepting bribes may believe they operate that way in reality . The BBC insisted that a police consultant was used , adding that " this is heightened fiction and all the things that we show might not always represent real life . " The storyline was referenced by Prime Minister Gordon Brown when referring to allegations of bullying , saying " The only thing I haven 't been accused of is murdering that guy Archie Mitchell in EastEnders . "
Bookmakers estimated that over £ 1 million would be spent gambling on the outcome of the storyline . Ladbrokes experienced its busiest ever 24 hours of gambling on a television series ahead of the episode 's transmission , taking £ 100 @,@ 000 in bets on 30 different characters , while William Hill took £ 500 @,@ 000 , surpassing the amount placed on Dallas 's Who shot J. R. ? storyline in 1980 . Spokesman Rupert Adams commented : " The BBC were amazing keeping this quiet . We have broken even which in a market like this is amazing . We have had a roller @-@ coaster but have enjoyed every minute . "
= Albert Kesselring =
Albert Kesselring ( 30 November 1885 – 16 July 1960 ) was a German Luftwaffe Generalfeldmarschall during World War II . In a military career that spanned both World Wars , Kesselring became one of Nazi Germany 's most skilful commanders , and one of the most highly decorated , being one of 27 soldiers awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds . Nicknamed " Smiling Albert " by the Allies and " Uncle Albert " by his troops , he was one of the most popular generals of World War II with the rank and file .
Kesselring joined the Bavarian Army as an officer cadet in 1904 , and served in the artillery branch . He completed training as a balloon observer in 1912 . During World War I , he served on both the Western and Eastern fronts and was posted to the General Staff , despite not having attended the War Academy . Kesselring remained in the Army after the war but was discharged in 1933 to become head of the Department of Administration at the Reich Commissariat for Aviation , where he was involved in the re @-@ establishment of the aviation industry and the laying of the foundations for the Luftwaffe , serving as its chief of staff from 1936 to 1938 .
During World War II he commanded air forces in the invasions of Poland and France , the Battle of Britain and Operation Barbarossa . As Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief South , he was overall German commander in the Mediterranean theatre , which included the operations in North Africa . Kesselring conducted an uncompromising defensive campaign against the Allied forces in Italy until he was injured in an accident in October 1944 . In the final campaign of the war , he commanded German forces on the Western Front . He won the respect of his Allied opponents for his military accomplishments , but his record was marred by massacres committed by troops under his command in Italy .
After the war , Kesselring was tried for war crimes and sentenced to death . The sentence was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment . A political and media campaign resulted in his release in 1952 , ostensibly on health grounds . He was one of only three Generalfeldmarschalls to publish his memoirs , entitled Soldat bis zum letzten Tag ( A Soldier to the Last Day ) .
= = Early life = =
Albert Kesselring was born in Marktsteft , Bavaria , on 30 November 1885 , the son of Carl Adolf Kesselring , a schoolmaster and town councillor , and his wife Rosina , who was born a Kesselring , being Carl 's second cousin . Albert 's early years were spent in Marktsteft , where relatives had operated a brewery since 1688 .
Matriculating from the Christian Ernestinum Secondary School in Bayreuth in 1904 , Kesselring joined the German Army as an Fahnenjunker ( officer cadet ) in the 2nd Bavarian Foot Artillery Regiment . The regiment was based at Metz and was responsible for maintaining its forts . He remained with the regiment until 1915 , except for periods at the Military Academy from 1905 to 1906 , at the conclusion of which he received his commission as a Leutnant ( lieutenant ) , and at the School of Artillery and Engineering in Munich from 1909 to 1910 .
Kesselring married Luise Anna Pauline ( Liny ) Keyssler , the daughter of an apothecary from Bayreuth , in 1910 . The couple honeymooned in Italy . Their marriage was childless , but in 1913 they adopted Rainer , the son of Albert 's second cousin Kurt Kesselring . In 1912 , Kesselring completed training as a balloon observer in a dirigible section – an early sign of an interest in aviation . Kesselring 's superiors considered posting him to the School of Artillery and Engineering as an instructor because of his expertise in " the interplay between tactics and technology " .
= = World War I = =
During World War I , Kesselring served with his regiment in Lorraine until the end of 1914 , when he was transferred to the 1st Bavarian Foot Artillery , which formed part of the Sixth Army . On 19 May 1916 , he was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) . In 1916 he was transferred again , to the 3rd Bavarian Foot Artillery . He distinguished himself in the Battle of Arras , using his tactical acumen to halt a British advance . For his services on the Western Front , he was decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd Class and 1st Class .
In 1917 , he was posted to the General Staff , despite having not attended the Bavarian War Academy . He served on the Eastern Front on the staff of the 1st Bavarian Landwehr Division . In January 1918 , he returned to the Western Front as a staff officer with the II and III Bavarian Corps .
= = Between the wars = =
At the conclusion of the war , Kesselring was involved in the demobilisation ( as mandated by the Treaty of Versailles ) of III Bavarian Corps in the Nuremberg area . A dispute with the leader of the local Freikorps led to the issuance of an arrest warrant for his alleged involvement in a putsch against the command of III Bavarian Corps and Kesselring was thrown into prison . He was soon released but his superior , Major Hans Seyler , censured him for having " failed to display the requisite discretion " .
From 1919 to 1922 , Kesselring served as a battery commander with the 24th Artillery Regiment . He joined the Reichswehr on 1 October 1922 and was posted to the Military Training Department at the Reichswehr Ministry in Berlin . He remained at this post until 1929 , when he returned to Bavaria as commander of Wehrkreis VII in Munich . In his time with the Reichswehr Ministry , Kesselring was involved in
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appearance on World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) programming on the March 11 , 1996 episode of Monday Night Raw , where he press slammed Jerry Lawler , who was ridiculing Henry while interviewing him in the ring . After Henry competed in the 1996 Summer Olympics , the WWF signed him to a ten @-@ year contract . Trained by professional wrestler Leo Burke , his first feud in the WWF was with Lawler . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , SummerSlam in August 1996 , Henry came to the aid of Jake Roberts who was suffering indignity at the hands of Lawler . His debut wrestling match was at In Your House : Mind Games on September 22 , 1996 , where he defeated Lawler . The feud continued on the live circuit during subsequent weeks . On the November 4 episode of Raw , Henry served as a cornerman for Barry Windham in a match against Goldust . He was set to team with Windham , Marc Mero and Rocky Maivia to take on the team of Lawler , Goldust , Hunter Hearst Helmsley and Crush at Survivor Series , but was replaced by Jake Roberts when he was forced to withdraw from the event due to injury . On the November 17 episode of Superstars , Henry defeated Hunter Hearst Helmsley , Crush and Goldust in a tug of war contest . Henry 's career was then stalled as , over the next year , he took time off to heal injuries and engage in further training . In November 1997 , he returned to the ring , making his televised return the following month . By the end of the year , he was a regular fixture on WWF programming , defeating Steve Lombardi on the December 15 episode of Raw , and beating The Sultan on the December 27 episode of Shotgun .
= = = = Nation of Domination and Sexual Chocolate ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = = =
Henry joined the faction with Farooq , The Rock , Kama Mustafa , and D 'Lo Brown on January 12 , 1998 . After The Rock usurped Farooq 's position as leader , Henry switched loyalties to The Rock . He also competed at WrestleMania XIV in a tag team Battle Royal with Brown as his partner , but they did not win . After The Nation disbanded , he engaged in a short feud with The Rock , defeating him at Judgment Day : In Your House with help from Brown , and then forming a permanent team with Brown , gaining Ivory as a manager .
During the next year , Henry gave himself the nickname Sexual Chocolate , and was involved in controversial angles with Chyna and a transvestite . During a match at the August 1999 SummerSlam pay @-@ per @-@ view between Brown and Jeff Jarrett for the WWF Intercontinental and WWF European Championships ( both held at the time by Brown ) , Henry turned on Brown and helped Jarrett win the match and the titles . The next night , Henry was awarded the European title by Jarrett in return for his help . Henry lost the title one month later to Brown at the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view .
The night after he tried to make up with Brown and later in the week claimed to be a sex addict resulting in him attending a sex therapy session a week later where he claimed that he lost his virginity at eight years old to his sister , and had just slept with her two days ago .
After this , Henry turned into a fan favorite , and was seen on television romancing WWF women from Chyna to Mae Young as part of the " Sexual Chocolate " character . He feuded with Viscera during this time , as part of a storyline where Viscera splashed Mae Young while she was carrying Henry 's child . Young later gave birth to a hand . Henry was part of various other embarrassing and infamous storylines , including one about him overcoming sex addiction .
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling and strongman competitions ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
In 2000 , Henry was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) to improve his conditioning and wrestling skills . In OVW , he teamed with Nick Dinsmore to compete in a tournament for the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship in mid @-@ 2001 . Later that year , Henry 's mother died , causing him to go on hiatus from wrestling . He felt he had to compete in the " Super Bowl of weight lifting " — the Arnold Strongman Classic — in honor of his mother , who gave him his first weight set when he was a child . Four months prior to the contest , Henry began lifting the heaviest of weights and trained for the first time since 1997 for a major lifting competition . He had never been a professional strongman before , but in the coming contest he was to face the very best of the best of professional strongmen , such as the # 1 ranked strongman in the world , and defending World 's Strongest Man competition winner of 2001 Svend Karlsen , World 's Strongest Man winner of 2006 Phil Pfister , World Powerlifting Champion of 2001 and equipped deadlift world record holder Andy Bolton , World Muscle Power Champion , Olympic weightlifting Champion Raimonds Bergmanis , and reigning America 's Strongest Man of 2001 Brian Schoonveld . Then on 22 , February 2002 in Columbus , Ohio the competition , consisting of four events , designed to determine the lifter with the greatest overall body power , began . Henry surprised everybody when he won the first event , setting a world record in the process by lifting the Apollon 's Axle three times overhead . Only three men in history had ever been able to press it at all . By deadlifting 885 lbs for two reps in the second event and easily pushing a 5 @.@ 000 + lbs Hummer with nearly flat tires in the third event , Henry kept his lead continuously throughout the competition and never gave it up again . In the final " Farmer 's Walk " -event Henry quickly carried the roughly 850 lbs of railroad ties up an incline , winning the whole competition convincingly to capture the winning prize — a US $ 75 @,@ 000 Hummer , a vacation cruise and 10.000US $ cash . Since Mark had only trained for four months and defeated the crème @-@ de @-@ là @-@ crème of worldwide strongmen , who had been practicing for years , his win was a shock for strongman experts worldwide , but remained basically unnoticed by the wrestling audience . Henry proved to be worthy of the title " World 's Strongest Man " not only by winning the contest , but also by achieving it in record time . By doing so he was again seen as the legit " strongest man in the world " by many lifting experts for a second time since 1996 .
= = = = Brand switches ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
Henry returned to the WWE the next month and was sent to the SmackDown ! brand , where he developed an in @-@ ring persona of performing " tests of strength " while other wrestlers took bets on the tests , but the gimmick met with little success . During this time he competed against such superstars as Chris Jericho and Christian . After being used sporadically on WWE ( formerly WWF ) television during 2002 , as he was training for a weightlifting contest , and suffering a knee injury , Henry was sent back to OVW for more training .
In August 2003 , Henry returned to WWE television on the Raw roster as a heel where he found some success as a member of " Thuggin ' And Buggin ' Enterprises " , a group of African Americans led by Theodore Long who worked a race angle in which they felt they were victims of racism and were being held down by the " white man " . During that time , Henry was involved in a brief program with World Heavyweight Champion Goldberg when former champion , Triple H , put a bounty on Goldberg . This was followed by a brief rivalry with Shawn Michaels , before he engaged in a rivalry with Booker T. After defeating Booker T twice , once in a street fight and once in a six @-@ man tag team match , he lost to Booker T at the Armageddon pay @-@ per @-@ view in December 2003 . At a practice session in OVW in February 2004 , Henry tore his quadriceps muscle , and was out for over a year after undergoing surgery . Henry was then utilized by WWE as a public relations figure during his recovery , before returning to OVW to finish out 2005 .
= = = = Pursuit of the World Heavyweight Championship ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
During the December 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Henry made his return to television , as he interfered in a WWE Tag Team Championship match , joining with MNM ( Joey Mercury , Johnny Nitro , and Melina ) , to help them defeat Rey Mysterio and Batista for the championship . A week later on SmackDown ! , Henry got in a confrontation with the World Heavyweight Champion , Batista , and went on to interfere in a steel cage match between MNM and the team of Mysterio and Batista , helping MNM to retain their titles . Henry then had another match with Batista at a live event where Batista received a severely torn triceps that required surgery , forcing him to vacate his title . On the January 10 , 2006 episode of SmackDown ! , Henry was involved in a Battle Royal for the vacant World Heavyweight Championship . He was finally eliminated by Kurt Angle , who won the title .
A week later , Henry received assistance from Daivari , who turned on Angle and announced that he was the manager of Henry . With Daivari at his side , Henry faced Angle for the World Heavyweight Championship at the 2006 Royal Rumble in January , losing when Angle hit him with a chair ( without the referee seeing ) and pinned him with a roll @-@ up .
On the March 10 episode of SmackDown ! , Henry interfered in a World Heavyweight Championship match between Angle and The Undertaker , attacking the latter when he was seconds from possibly winning the title . Henry then performed a diving splash on Undertaker , driving him through the announcer 's table . Henry was then challenged to a casket match by Undertaker at WrestleMania 22 . Henry vowed to defeat The Undertaker and end his undefeated streak at WrestleMania , but The Undertaker defeated him . Henry had a rematch against The Undertaker on the April 7 episode of SmackDown ! . It ended in a no @-@ contest when Daivari introduced his debuting client , The Great Khali . Khali went to the ring and attacked The Undertaker , starting a new feud and ending Henry 's .
During the rest of April and May , Henry gained a pinfall victory over the World Heavyweight Champion , Rey Mysterio in a non @-@ title match . Henry entered the King of the Ring Tournament , and lost to Bobby Lashley in the first round . He later cost Kurt Angle his World Heavyweight Championship opportunity against Mysterio , when he jumped off the top rope and crushed Angle through a table . Henry was then challenged by Angle to face off at Judgment Day , Henry then sent a " message " to Angle by defeating Paul Burchill . At Judgment Day , Henry defeated Angle by countout . Although winning , Angle got his revenge after the match by hitting Henry with a chair and putting him through a table .
Henry later went on what was referred to as a " path of destruction " , causing injuries to numerous superstars . Henry " took out " Chris Benoit and Paul Burchill on this path of destruction , and attacked Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero . These events led up to a feud with the returning Batista , whom Henry had put out of action with a legitimate injury several months beforehand . When Batista returned he and Henry were scheduled to face one another at The Great American Bash in July . Weeks before that event , however , on the July 15 , 2006 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , Henry was involved in a six @-@ man tag team match with King Booker and Finlay against Batista , Rey Mysterio , and Bobby Lashley . During the match , Henry was injured , canceling the scheduled match at The Great American Bash , as Henry needed surgery . Doctors later found that Henry completely tore his patella tendon off the bone and split his patella completely in two .
= = = = Return from injury ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
Henry returned on the May 11 , 2007 episode of SmackDown ! , after weeks of vignettes hyping his return . He attacked The Undertaker after a World Heavyweight Championship steel cage match with Batista , allowing Edge to take advantage of the situation and use his Money in the Bank contract . Henry then began a short feud with Kane , defeating him in a Lumberjack Match at One Night Stand . Shortly after , Henry made an open challenge to the SmackDown ! locker room , which nobody ever accepted . In the coming weeks he faced various jobbers — wrestlers who consistently lose to make their opponents look stronger — and quickly defeated them all . On August 3 , he claimed that nobody accepted the open challenge to step into the ring with him because of what he had done to The Undertaker , presenting footage of his assault on The Undertaker . The Undertaker responded over the following weeks , playing various mind games with Henry . Henry finally faced The Undertaker again at Unforgiven in September , losing to him after being given a Last Ride . Following an unscripted backstage interview , Henry burst into tears and fled from the arena . Two weeks later , Henry lost a rematch to The Undertaker after The Undertaker performed a chokeslam on Henry .
After a short hiatus , Henry returned to WWE programming on the October 23 episode of ECW , attacking Kane , along with The Great Khali and Big Daddy V. Henry then began teaming with Big Daddy V against Kane and CM Punk , and was briefly managed by Big Daddy V 's manager , Matt Striker . At Armageddon , Henry and Big Daddy V defeated Kane and Punk . Before WrestleMania XXIV aired , Henry participated in a 24 @-@ man battle royal to determine the number one contender for the ECW Championship , but failed to win .
= = = = ECW Champion ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft , Henry was drafted to the ECW brand . At Night of Champions , Henry defeated Kane and Big Show in a Triple Threat match to capture the ECW Championship in his debut match as an ECW superstar . Upon winning the title , it was made exclusive to the ECW brand once again . Henry 's title win came nearly a full decade after he was awarded the European Championship , which was back in 1999 and the only title he held in WWE . A few weeks later , Hall of Famer Tony Atlas returned to WWE to act as Henry 's manager . A month after Henry 's title win , ECW General Manager , Theodore Long , unveiled a new , entirely platinum ECW Championship belt design . Henry lost the title to Matt Hardy at Unforgiven in the Championship Scramble match .
Henry attempted to regain the championship throughout the end of 2008 , and had a match against Hardy at No Mercy , but failed as he was unsuccessful . Henry and Atlas then engaged in a scripted rivalry against Finlay and Hornswoggle , which included Henry losing a Belfast Brawl at Armageddon . At the start of 2009 , Henry qualified for the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania XXV , and was involved in a series of matches with the other competitors on Raw , SmackDown , and ECW . He was unsuccessful at WrestleMania , however , as CM Punk won the match . In May , Henry began a rivalry with Evan Bourne , which began after Bourne defeated Henry by countout on the May 26 episode of ECW .
= = = = Tag title pursuits ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
On June 29 , Henry was traded to the Raw brand and redebuted for the brand that night as the third opponent in a three @-@ on @-@ one gauntlet match against WWE Champion Randy Orton , which he won , turning Henry into a face in the process . In August 2009 , Henry formed a tag team with Montel Vontavious Porter and the two challenged the Unified WWE Tag Team Champions Jeri @-@ Show ( Chris Jericho and The Big Show ) for the title at Breaking Point , but were unsuccessful . They stopped teaming afterwards , becoming involved in separate storylines , until the February 15 , 2010 episode of Raw in which they defeated the Unified WWE Tag Team Champions The Big Show and The Miz in a non @-@ title match . The next week they challenged The Big Show and The Miz in a title match but were unsuccessful . At Extreme Rules , Henry and MVP fought for a chance to become number one contenders to the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship , but were the second team eliminated in a gauntlet match by The Big Show and The Miz . Ultimately , The Hart Dynasty ( Tyson Kidd and David Hart Smith ) won the match .
Henry mentored Lucky Cannon in the second season of WWE NXT . Cannon was eliminated on the August 10 episode of NXT . In September , Henry began teaming with Evan Bourne , starting at the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view , where they entered a Tag Team Turmoil for the WWE Tag Team Championship . They made it to the final two before being defeated by Cody Rhodes and Drew McIntyre . The team came to an end in October when Bourne suffered an injury and was taken out of action . Henry then formed a team with Yoshi Tatsu on the November 29 episode of Raw , defeating WWE Tag Team Champions Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater , after a distraction by John Cena . They received a shot at the championship the next week , in a fatal four @-@ way elimination tag team match , which also included The Usos and Santino Marella and Vladimir Kozlov . Henry and Tatsu were the first team eliminated in the match .
= = = = Hall of Pain ; World Heavyweight Champion ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
In 2011 , on the April 25 episode of Raw , Henry was drafted back to SmackDown as part of the 2011 WWE Draft . In the main event of the night , Henry sparked a heel turn for his character when he attacked his teammates , John Cena and Christian . On the May 27 episode of SmackDown , Henry participated in a Triple Threat match against Sheamus and Christian to decide the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship , which was won by Sheamus . On the June 17 episode of SmackDown , Henry was scheduled to face an angry and emotionally unstable Big Show , who warned Henry not to get into the ring ; Henry ignored the warning and Big Show assaulted him before the match could begin . This act ignited a feud between the two ; Henry attacked Big Show both backstage and during matches while on the July 1 episode of SmackDown , Big Show 's music played during Henry 's match against Randy Orton , causing Henry to be counted out and costing him a shot at the World Heavyweight Championship . Henry reacted by destroying the audio equipment and manhandling a technician . Henry faced Big Show in a singles match at Money in the Bank and won . After the match , Henry crushed Show 's leg with a chair , ( kayfabe ) injuring him , an act Henry later referenced as an induction into the " Hall of Pain " . Henry did the same to Kane on the next episode of SmackDown , and in the months ahead , Vladimir Kozlov and The Great Khali suffered the same fate .
On the July 29 episode of SmackDown , Henry was informed that he could no longer compete as no one dared to fight him , but Sheamus interrupted , saying that he wasn 't afraid of Henry before slapping him . At SummerSlam , Henry defeated Sheamus by count @-@ out after slamming him through a ring barricade . On the August 19 episode of SmackDown , Henry won a 20 @-@ man Battle Royal to become the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship to face Randy Orton at Night of Champions , and throughout weeks on SmackDown and Raw , Henry regularly attacked Orton , getting an advantage over him . At Night of Champions , Henry defeated Orton to become World Heavyweight Champion for the first time in his 15 years with WWE and became the fifth African American to win a World Heavyweight title . Henry successfully defended the title against Orton at Hell in a Cell in a Hell in a Cell match .
On the October 7 episode of Smackdown , Big Show returned and chokeslammed Henry through the announce table , thus earning a title shot against Henry at Vengeance . During the match , Henry superplexed Big Show from the top rope , causing the ring to collapse from the impact and the match to be ruled a no contest . Henry began a feud with the Money in the Bank briefcase holder Daniel Bryan on the November 4 episode of SmackDown , challenging Bryan to a non @-@ title match to prove that Bryan could not become champion . During the match , Big Show knocked out Henry , making him win by disqualification . Show then urged Bryan to cash in his contract , but Henry recovered and attacked both Bryan and Big Show before the match could start . At Survivor Series , Henry retained the World Heavyweight Championship against Big Show after a low blow that disqualified Henry . Angered by Henry 's cowardice , Big Show crushed Henry 's ankle with a steel chair . On November 25 , Henry was knocked out again by Big Show , at which point Bryan cashed in his briefcase for a title match and quickly pinned Henry . However , SmackDown authority figure Theodore Long revealed that Henry was not medically cleared to compete and voided the match , so Henry remained champion and the briefcase was returned to Bryan . Later that night , Bryan won a fatal @-@ four way match to face Henry for the World Heavyweight Championship in a steel cage . On the November 29 of SmackDown , Henry defeated Bryan to retain his championship .
At TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs , Henry lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Big Show in a chairs match . After the match , Henry knocked Big Show out , resulting in Daniel Bryan cashing in his Money in the Bank to win his first World Heavyweight Championship . On the January 20 episode of SmackDown , Bryan retained the championship against Henry in a lumberjack match after Bryan provoked the lumberjacks to come in and attack them to cause a no contest . At the 2012 Royal Rumble event , Henry faced Bryan and Show in a triple threat steel cage match for the World Heavyweight Championship ; Bryan escaped the cage to retain the title . On the February 3 episode of SmackDown , Henry was suspended indefinitely ( in storyline ) by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long , after Henry physically accosted Long as he demanded a one @-@ on @-@ one rematch that night with Bryan . In reality , Henry had suffered a hyper @-@ extended knee the previous week . Henry returned to in @-@ ring action on the February 20 episode of Raw , losing to Sheamus . On the April 2 and 9 episodes of Raw , Henry faced CM Punk for the WWE Championship which he won by count @-@ out and disqualification ; as a result , Punk retained his title . On the April 16 episode of Raw , Punk defeated Henry in a no @-@ disqualification , no count @-@ out match to retain the WWE Championship . On May 14 , Henry announced he was going under a career @-@ threatening surgery for an injury .
= = = = Championship Pursuits ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = =
After a nine @-@ month absence , Henry made his return on the February 4 , 2013 episode of Raw , brutally attacking Daniel Bryan , Rey Mysterio and Sin Cara . Four days later on SmackDown , Henry defeated Randy Orton to earn a spot in the number one contenders ' Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Elimination Chamber . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view on February 17 , Henry eliminated Daniel Bryan and Kane before being eliminated by Randy Orton . After his elimination , Henry attacked the three remaining participants before being escorted out by WWE officials . Henry then began a feud with Ryback after several non @-@ verbal confrontations led to them attacking Drew McIntyre with their finishers , attempting to one @-@ up each other . On the March 15 episode of SmackDown , Henry was defeated by Ryback via disqualification , following interference from The Shield . Afterward , Henry delivered the World 's Strongest Slam to Ryback three times in a row . On April 7 at Wrestlemania 29 , Henry defeated Ryback in a singles match . Later that month , Henry reignited a feud with Sheamus by repeatedly attacking Sheamus backstage . Henry and Sheamus then challenged each other in tests of strength , but with Sheamus unable to best Henry , he resorted to attacking Henry with Brogue Kicks . After Sheamus ( during his match ) Brogue Kicked Henry ( who was on commentary ) , Henry snapped and brutally whipped Sheamus with a belt . This led to a strap match on May 19 at Extreme Rules , where Sheamus emerged victorious . With the loss to Sheamus , Henry declared that he was " going home " .
After being absent from television due to injuries , Henry used social media to tease his retirement . On the June 17 episode of Raw , Henry returned , interrupting WWE Champion John Cena and delivering an emotional retirement speech , which was revealed as a ruse when Henry gave Cena a World 's Strongest Slam after concluding his speech . The segment was highly praised by fans and critics . With Henry stating his intent to challenge for the " only title he 's never held " , he was granted a WWE Championship match against Cena at Money in the Bank . On July 14 at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Henry failed in his title challenge against Cena after submitting to the STF . The following night on Raw , Henry cut a promo to congratulate Cena on his win and asked for a rematch for SummerSlam , but was ultimately attacked by The Shield , turning face in the process for the first time since 2011 . Henry continued his face turn the following week , by confronting The Shield and teaming together with The Usos to fend them off . Henry and the Usos went on to lose to The Shield in two six @-@ man tag team matches , the first on the July 29 episode of Raw , and the second on the August 7 episode of Main Event . On the August 12 Raw , Henry competed in a 20 @-@ man Battle Royal to determine the number one contender for the United States Championship , but was the last man eliminated by Rob Van Dam . After the match , Henry and Van Dam were confronted by The Shield , before the returning Big Show came to their aid . Four days later on SmackDown , Henry , Show , and Van Dam defeated the Shield in a six @-@ man tag team match . After a suspected hamstring injury on August 31 at the TD Garden in Boston Massachusetts , Henry was cleared to compete . Henry , however , took time off and during his time off , he dropped down to 405 lbs and shaved his head bald .
Henry returned to in @-@ ring action on November 24 at Survivor Series , answering Ryback 's open challenge and defeating him in a single match . Henry tried to confront Brock Lesnar during separate encounters after Lesnar 's return , resulting in Henry receiving an F @-@ 5 the first time and then Lesnar injured Henry 's arm after getting it in a kimura lock hold , causing Henry to wail in pain and be absent . He returned on February 10 , 2014 and answered Dean Ambrose 's open challenge for the United States Championship , but was unable to win the title due to interference by the rest of The Shield . In March , Henry suffered another attack from Lesnar , this time resulting in Henry receiving an F @-@ 5 through the announcing table . Henry soon recovered and had another match with Ambrose for the U.S. Championship , but was again unsuccessful . On August 4 he defeated Damien Sandow after a few months absence . At Night of Champions , Henry lost to Rusev via submission .
The following night on Raw , he lost to Rusev again by knockout via submission . On the October 27 episode of Raw , Henry attacked Big Show during their tag team match against Gold and Stardust , and turning heel in the process for the first time since 2013 . On the November 3 Raw , Henry lost to Big Show via disqualification and slammed Big Show onto the steel steps . On the November 10 Raw , he joined The Authority 's team to face John Cena 's team at Survivor Series . On November 23 at Survivor Series , Henry was the first to be eliminated from Team Authority 50 seconds into the match after being knocked out by The Big Show . Ironically however , Big Show turned heel and aligned with The Authority during the match . Henry then took another hiatus due to an unspecified injury .
= = = = Later career ( 2015 – Present ) = = = =
Henry returned on the March 12 , 2015 , episode of SmackDown , confronting Roman Reigns for having a lack of identity and for not being respected , ultimately resulting in Reigns attacking Henry . The attack caused Henry to become a " believer " in Reigns and turned face again in the process . Henry was unsuccessful in the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship at the Elimination Chamber show replacing Rusev who was injured.On the June 8 episode of Raw , Henry became a heel once again when he faced Reigns for his Money in the Bank spot , in which he was unsuccessful . After the match , Henry attacked Reigns . However , on July 13 episode of Raw , The Prime Time Players revealed their tag team partner to be Henry against the heel tag team The New Day , seemingly turning Henry face again . Henry spent the remainder of 2015 suffering back to back loses in singles matches , losing to the likes of , Big Show , Sheamus and Neville while constantly switching between face and heel .
At the 2016 Royal Rumble kickoff , Henry teamed with Jack Swagger to win a Fatal 4 @-@ Way tag team match to earn their spots in the Royal Rumble match . Despite this victory , Henry entered the Rumble Match at # 22 and lasted only 47 seconds when he was quickly eliminated by The Wyatt Family . On the February 8 episode of Raw , Henry walked out on The New Day during an 8 @-@ Man Tag Team Tables Match against The Usos and The Dudley Boyz . On the February 15 episode of Raw , Henry lost to Big E , during the match Henry ( kayfabe ) suffered broken ribs leading to a botched ( unplanned ) ending . At WrestleMania 32 , Henry entered his third André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal , he eliminated Tyler Breeze and made it to the final six competitors until being eliminated by Kane and Darren Young .
On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , Henry was drafted to Raw .
= = Personal life = =
Henry is the cousin of former Pittsburgh Steelers defensive end Kevin Henry . He has an older brother named Pat . Henry lives in Austin , Texas with his wife Jana , son Jacob , and daughter Joanna . He also has a two @-@ foot ferret named Pipe . He drives a Hummer that he won in the 2002 Arnold Strongman Classic . On September 10 , 2012 , Henry served as one of the pallbearers for actor Michael Clarke Duncan 's funeral .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
World 's Strongest Slam ( Falling powerslam ) – 2003 – present
World 's Strongest Splash ( Running splash )
Signature moves
Bearhug
Big boot
Body avalanche
Corner slingshot seated senton to the opponent 's back – 2003 – 2006
Corner slingshot splash – 2006 – present
Headbutt
Headbutting opponent while crawling – adopted from and used as a tribute to Junkyard Dog ; 2013 – present
Leapfrog body guillotine
Military press transitioned into either a drop or a slam
Nerve hold
Reverse chokeslam facebuster – 2006
Running powerslam
Scoop powerslam
Managers
Tony Atlas
Daivari
Ivory
Theodore Long
Melina
Matt Striker
Mae Young
Nicknames
" The World 's Strongest Man "
" Sexual Chocolate "
" The Silverback "
" The King of the Jungle "
" The World 's Strongest Champion " ( Used during his ECW Championship and World Heavyweight Championship reigns )
Entrance themes
" Power " by Jim Johnston ( 1998 ; Used while a part of the Nation of Domination )
" Sexual Chocolate " performed by Stevan Swann and composed by Jim Johnston ( 1998 – 2000 , November 15 , 2010 )
" The Wall " performed by Heet Mob
" Some Bodies Gonna Get It " by Three 6 Mafia ( May 21 , 2006 – present )
" Calling All Cars " by Jim Johnston ( 2007 @-@ 2008 ; when tagging with Big Daddy V )
" New Day , New Way " by Jim Johnston ( February 8 , 2016 ; when tagging with The New Day )
= = Championships , records and accomplishments = =
= = = Powerlifting = = =
CHAMPIONSHIPS PARTICIPATION – High School Level
Two times 1st place in Texas State High School Powerlifting TEAM Championships ( in Division I under Silsbee High School )
1st place in Texas State High School Powerlifting Championships 1988 in SHW division
1st place in Texas State High School Powerlifting Championships 1989 in SHW division
1st place in Texas State High School Powerlifting Championships 1990 in SHW division
1st place in National High School Powerlifting Championships 1990 in SHW division at age 18
results : Powerlifting Total – 922 kg ( 377 @.@ 5 / 227 / 317 @.@ 5 ) – 2033 lbs ( 832 / 501 / 700 )
CHAMPIONSHIPS PARTICIPATION – Junior & Senior Level
1st place in International Junior ( 20 – 23 ) Powerlifting Championships 1991 in SHW division at age 20
2nd place in Men 's USPF Senior National Championships 1990 in SHW division at age 19results : Powerlifting Total – 910 kg ( 365 @.@ 0 / 212 @.@ 5 / 332 @.@ 5 ) / 2006 @.@ 2 lbs ( 804 @.@ 7 / 468 @.@ 5 / 733 @.@ 0 )
1st place in ADFPA ( USAPL ) National Powerlifting Championships 1995 in SHW division at age 24results : Powerlifting Total – 1050 kg ( 430 @.@ 0 / 210 @.@ 0 / 410 @.@ 0 ) / 2314 @.@ 8 lbs ( 948 @,@ 0 / 462 @,@ 9 / 903 @.@ 9 ) raw with wraps
1st place in WDFPF World Powerlifting Championships 1995 in SHW division at age 24results : Powerlifting Total – 1060 kg ( 432 @.@ 5 / 235 @.@ 0 / 392 @.@ 5 ) / 2336 @.@ 9 lbs ( 953 @.@ 5 / 518 @.@ 1 / 865 @.@ 3 ) raw with wraps
1st place in USAPL National Powerlifting Championships 1997 in SHW division at age 26results : Powerlifting Total – 1020 kg ( 410 / 225 / 385 ) – 2248 @.@ 7 ( 903 @.@ 9 / 496 @.@ 0 / 848 @.@ 8 ) raw with wraps
RECORDS *
Teen III ( 18 – 19 years ) Level
Teen @-@ age World Records in the squat at 377 @.@ 5 kg ( 832 lbs ) and total at 922 kg ( 2033 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) set in April 1990 at The National High School Powerlifting Championships at age 18
Teen @-@ age US American Records in the squat at 377 @.@ 5 kg ( 832 lbs ) , bench press 227 kg ( 501 pounds ) , dead lift 317 @.@ 5 kg ( 700 lbs ) and total at 922 kg ( 2033 lbs ) set in April 1990 at The National High School Powerlifting Championships at age 18
Texas state and US American Teen @-@ age record holder in all four powerlifting categories – the squat at 377 @.@ 5 kg ( 832 lbs ) , bench press at 238 kg ( 525 lbs ) and deadlift at 369 @.@ 7 kg ( 815 lbs ) as well as the total at 922 kg ( 2033 lbs ) at age 19 .
Current Texas state and US American Teen @-@ age record holder in the squat at 425 @.@ 0 kg ( 936 @.@ 75 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since 1991
Collegiate Level
Current Texas State Collegiate Record holder in the squat at 425 @.@ 0 kg ( 936 @.@ 75 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since 1991 ( best in America as well but not registered as such )
Junior Level ( 20 – 23 years )
Current Texas State Junior Record holder in the deadlift at 385 @.@ 6 kg ( 850 @.@ 0 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since 1995 ( best in America as well but not registered as such )
Senior Level ( 24 + years )
Current Texas State Record holder in the squat at 433 kg ( 954 lbs ) , the deadlift at 410 @.@ 5 kg ( 905 lbs ) and the total at 1060 kg ( 2337 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since 1995
Former All @-@ time raw ( unequipped ) squat World Record holder at 430 @.@ 0 kg ( 948 @.@ 0 lbs ) ( drug @-@ tested as well as non drug @-@ tested ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) from July 16 , 1995 to October 29 , 1995
Former All @-@ time raw ( unequipped ) squat World Record holder at 432 @.@ 5 kg ( 953 @.@ 5 lbs ) ( drug @-@ tested as well as non drug @-@ tested ) in SHW class from October 29 , 1995 to June 7 , 2010 * * ( + regardless of weight class until November 4 , 2007 * * * )
Former All @-@ time raw ( unequipped ) deadlift World Record holder at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) ( drug @-@ tested as well as non drug @-@ tested ) in SHW class from July 16 , 1995 to May 23 , 2010 * * * * ( + regardless of weight class until July 4 , 2009 * * * * * )
Current All @-@ time drug @-@ tested raw ( unequipped ) squat World Record holder at 432 @.@ 5 kg ( 953 @.@ 5 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since October 29 , 1995
Current All @-@ time drug @-@ tested raw ( unequipped ) deadlift World Record holder at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) in SHW class only since July 16 , 1995
Current All @-@ time drug @-@ tested raw ( unequipped ) Powerlifting Total World Record holder at 1060 @.@ 0 kg ( 2336 @.@ 9 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since October 29 , 1995
Current All @-@ time American Record holder in the raw deadlift at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) ( drug @-@ tested as well as non drug @-@ tested ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class ) since July 16 , 1995
Current American Record holder in the deadlift at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) ( drug @-@ tested as well as non drug @-@ tested ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class and equipment ) since July 16 , 1995
Current All @-@ time US National Championship Record holder in the deadlift at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) ( drug @-@ tested as well as non drug @-@ tested ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class and equipment ) since July 16 , 1995
Federation Records
World Drug @-@ Free Powerlifting Federation ( WDFPF ) World Records
Current WDFPF World Record holder in the squat at 432 @.@ 5 kg ( 953 @.@ 5 lbs ) , the deadlift at 392 @.@ 5 kg ( 865 @.@ 3 lbs ) and the total at 1060 kg ( 2336 @.@ 9 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class and equipment ) since October 29 , 1995 ( categorized as " open equipped " , despite performed in singlet & knee sleeves only / without suit )
U.S.A. Powerlifting ( USAPL ) US American Records
Current USAPL US American Record holder in the deadlift at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class and equipment ) since July 16 , 1995
Current US National Championship Record holder in the deadlift at 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) in SHW class ( + regardless of weight class and equipment ) since July 16 , 1995
Special Powerlifting Honors
" The World 's Strongest Teen @-@ ager " by the Los Angeles Times in April 1990 .
Mark Henry was voted in the All @-@ time Top 25 All @-@ Mens US Powerlifting Nationals Team in 2007 .
Mark Henry is the only human in history who has not only squatted more than 900 lbs without a squat suit , but also deadlifted more than 900 lbs raw .
Mark Henry is the only human in history to have squatted more than 900 lbs without a squat suit and deadlifted more than 900 lbs raw in one and the same powerlifting meet .
Mark Henry 's 430 @.@ 0 kg ( 948 @.@ 0 lbs ) raw squat and 410 @.@ 0 kg ( 903 @.@ 9 lbs ) deadlift , done on July 16 , 1995 is the highest raw " squat @-@ pull @-@ 2 @-@ lift @-@ total " ( squat + deadlift = 1851 @.@ 9 lbs ) ever lifted in a competition . ( Andrei Malanichev 's 430 @.@ 0 kg ( 948 @.@ 0 lbs ) squat and 400 @.@ 0 kg ( 881 @.@ 8 lbs ) deadlift
= 1829 @.@ 8 lbs on October 22 , 2011 being the 2nd highest ever ; Mark Henry 's 953 @.@ 5 lbs squat and 865 @.@ 3 lbs deadlift =
1818 @.@ 8 lbs being the 3rd highest , Benedikt Magnusson 's 837 @.@ 75 lbs squat and 975 @.@ 5 lbs deadlift
= 1813 @.@ 3 lbs being the 4th highest ; Malanichev 's 992 lbs squat and 815 lbs deadlift =
1808 being the 5th ; Don Reinhoudt 's 904 @.@ 5 lbs squat and 885 @.@ 5 lbs deadlift = 1790 @.@ 0 lbs being th 6th )
Mark Henry does not only hold the greatest all @-@ time drug @-@ tested raw ( unequipped ) Powerlifting Total in history at 1060 @.@ 0 kg ( 2336 @.@ 9 lbs ) , but also the second greatest in history at 1050 kg ( 2314 @.@ 8 lbs ) .
* incomplete
* * surpassed by Robert Wilkerson ( SHW class ) of the United States with a 975 lbs raw squat with knee wraps on June 7 , 2010 at the Southern Powerlifting Federation ( SPF ) Nationals ( open competition , not drug @-@ tested ) as the all @-@ time raw world record in the SHW class
* * * surpassed by Sergiy Karnaukhov ( 308 @-@ pound @-@ class ) of Ukraine with a 970 lbs raw squat with knee wraps on November 4 , 2007 as the all @-@ time raw " regardless of weight class " world record
* * * * surpassed by Andy Bolton ( SHW class ) of the United Kingdom with a 953 lbs raw deadlift on May 23 , 2010 ( open competition , not drug @-@ tested ) as the all @-@ time raw world record in the SHW class ( + regardless of weight class )
* * * * * surpassed by Konstantin Konstantinovs ( 308 @-@ pound @-@ class ) of Latvia with a 939 lbs raw deadlift without a belt on July 4 , 2009 ( drug @-@ tested competition ) as the all @-@ time raw " regardless of weight class " world record
= = = Weightlifting = = =
Olympic Games
Olympic Games team member representing USA at the Olympics 1992 in Barcelona , Spain , finishing 10th place in SHW division at age 21
Team Captain of the Olympic Weightlifting team representing USA at the Olympics 1996 in Atlanta , Georgia , finishing 14th in SHW division due to back injury at age 25
Pan American GamesSilver Medalist in the Olympic weightlifting Total in SHW ( + 108 ) division at the Pan American Games 1995 in Mar del Plata , Argentina at age 23
result : total – 804 pounds
Gold Medalist in the Snatch in SHW ( + 108 ) division at the Pan American Games 1995 in Mar del Plata , Argentina at age 23
result : snatch – 391 1 / 4 pounds , setting an American record
Bronze Medalist in Clean and jerk in SHW ( + 108 ) division at the Pan American Games 1995 in Mar del Plata , Argentina at age 23
result : clean and jerk – snatch 412 3 / 4 pounds
North America , Central America , Caribbean Islands ( NACAC ) Championships
1st place in North America , Central America , Caribbean Islands Championships 1996 in SHW ( + 108 kg ) division
U.S. National Weightlifting Championships1st place in U.S. National Junior Weightlifting Championships 1991 in SHW ( + 110 kg ) division at age 19results : total : 326 @.@ 0 kg – snatch : 156 @.@ 0 kg / clean & jerk : 170 @.@ 0 kg
4th place in U.S. Senior National Weightlifting Championships 1991 in SHW ( + 110 kg ) division at age 19results : total : 325 @.@ 0 kg – snatch : 150 @.@ 0 kg / clean & jerk : 175 @.@ 0 kg
3rd place in U.S. Senior National Weightlifting Championships 1992 in SHW ( + 110 kg ) division at age 20results : total : 365 @.@ 0 kg – snatch : 165 @.@ 0 kg / clean & jerk : 200 @.@ 0 kg
1st place in U.S. Senior National Weightlifting Championships 1993 in SHW ( + 108 kg ) division at age 21results : total : 385 @.@ 0 kg – snatch : 175 @.@ 0 kg / clean & jerk : 210 @.@ 0 kg
1st place in U.S. Senior National Weightlifting Championships 1994 in SHW ( + 108 kg ) division at age 22results : total : 387 @.@ 5 kg – snatch : 172 @.@ 5 kg / clean & jerk : 215 @.@ 0 kg
1st place in U.S. Senior National Weightlifting Championships 1996 in SHW ( + 108 kg ) division at age 24results : total : 400 @.@ 0 kg – snatch : 180 @.@ 0 kg / clean & jerk : 220 @.@ 0 kg
Mark Henry was voted as the # 1 outstanding lifter of the championships
U.S. Olympic Festival Championships1st place in U.S. Olympic Festival Championships 1993 in SHW ( + 108 kg ) division at age 22
1st place in U.S. Olympic Festival Championships 1994 in SHW ( + 108 kg ) division at age 23
USA Weightlifting American Open Championships
2nd place in the American Open Weightlifting Championships 1991 in SHW ( + 110 kg ) division at age 20
1st place in the American Open Weightlifting Championships 1992 in SHW ( + 110 kg ) division at age 21
RECORDS
Junior US American record holder ( + 110 kg ) in the Snatch at 162 @.@ 5 kg , Clean and jerk at 202 @.@ 5 kg , and Total at 362 @.@ 5 kg ( 1986 – 1992 )
Senior US American record holder ( + 108 kg ) in the Snatch at 180 @.@ 0 kg , Clean and jerk at 220 @.@ 0 kg , and Total at 400 @.@ 0 kg ( 1993 – 1997 )
= = = Strength athletics = = =
Arnold Classic
Arnold Strongman Classic – Winner 2002
First man in history to one @-@ hand clean and push press the " unliftable " Thomas Inch dumbbell ( 172 lbs ; 2 @.@ 47 " diameter handle
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The Second Strongest Man That Ever Lived according to Flex Magazine
International Sports Hall of Fame
International Sports Hall of Fame ( Class of 2012 )
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2011 )
PWI ranked him No. 9 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2012
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
ECW Championship ( 1 time )
World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Award ( 3 times )
" Holy $ # ! + Move of the Year " ( 2011 ) Big Show and Mark Henry implode the ring after Henry superplexed him at Vengeance
Feat of Strength of the Year ( 2013 ) Pulling two trucks with his bare hands
Match of the Year ( 2014 ) – Team Cena vs. Team Authority at Survivor Series
= John Joscelyn =
John Joscelyn or John Joscelin ( 1529 – 1603 ) was an English clergyman and antiquarian as well as secretary to Matthew Parker , an Archbishop of Canterbury during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England . Joscelyn was involved in Parker 's attempts to secure and publish medieval manuscripts on church history , and was one of the first scholars of the Old English language . He also studied the early law codes of England . His Old English dictionary , although not published during his lifetime , contributed greatly to the study of that language . Many of his manuscripts and papers eventually became part of the collections of Cambridge University , Oxford University , or the British Library .
= = Early life = =
Joscelyn was born in 1529 , and was the son of Sir Thomas Joscelin and Dorothy Gate . John was their third son to survive childhood , and was probably born on his father 's estate at High Roding , Essex . He attended Queens ' College at Cambridge beginning in 1545 , attaining a Bachelor of Arts in 1549 . In the school year 1550 – 1551 he taught Latin at Queens ' College , and the following school year he taught Greek . At the end of 1552 , he was awarded a Master of Arts . In 1555 , during Queen Mary I 's reign , Joscelyn subscribed to the required church doctrine , and was once more a teacher of Greek during the school year 1556 – 1557 . However , in 1557 he resigned from his fellowship at Queens ' College .
= = Work for Parker = =
In 1559 shortly after he was appointed as archbishop , Matthew Parker , the Archbishop of Canterbury , named Joscelyn to a chaplainacy , and also as his Latin language secretary . The following year Parker gave Joscelyn a prebend in Hereford , held until 1577 . Unusually for the time , besides Greek and Latin Joscelyn was a scholar of Hebrew . From Parker 's interest in the history of early Christianity , and to discover more information about the growth of papal power in the Middle Ages , Joscelyn also began to study Old English ( a topic of interest to Parker ) , and helped the archbishop in his studies of the English pre @-@ Norman Conquest church . Joscelyn helped discover lost manuscripts , obtained them for Parker , and prepared them for publication . Joscelyn also acquired manuscripts for himself , 40 of which were written in Old English .
Joseclyn often annotated the manuscripts he or Parker owned , and even inserted some pages of faked script into the D manuscript of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , and probably owned that manuscript prior to Robert Cotton . His glosses are still extant on several dozen manuscripts , usually in Latin , but occasionally in English . He was , however , also concerned that their collections be properly cared for . He had a good understanding of the law codes of the English Anglo @-@ Saxon kings , which he used in the preparation of an Old English @-@ Latin dictionary he worked on , but which was never completed . The dictionary was , however , of great help to later Old English scholars , as it passed into the hands of Robert Cotton , and became part of the Cotton Library as manuscripts Titus A xv and Titus A xvi . Joscelyn 's written work on Old English grammar also became part of the Cotton library , but was lost after Cotton loaned the manuscript to William Camden in 1612 .
Parker published in 1572 a work entitled De Antiquitate Britannicae Ecclesiae & Priuilegiis Ecclesiae Canuariensis , cum Archiepiscopis eiusdem 70 , which is the first privately printed work to appear in English . Although Parker claimed in a letter that he was the author , it is likely that at the very least Joscelyn did most of the research , and the manuscript of the work , which is now Vitellius E xiv , is largely in his handwriting . Further , Parker 's son , after the archbishop 's death , noted beside the bequest notation for Joscelyn 's brother Thomas that John Joscelyn was the author of the work .
= = Legacy and death = =
Joscelyn also published an edition of Gildas ' work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae in 1568 , for which he wrote the preface . He also wrote a history of Corpus Christi College at Cambridge that remained unpublished until 1880 , 200 years after his death . He contributed extensively to Parker 's A Testimonie of Antiquitie Shewing the Auncient Fayth in the Church of England , the earliest printed book containing portions in Old English . Joscelyn also contributed a large part of Parker 's De Antiquitate Britannicae , published in 1572 .
In 1577 , Parker 's successor gave Joscelyn a rectory at Hollingbourne , Kent , replacing the prebend at Hereford . He died on 28 December 1602 , probably at High Roding , and was buried in All Saint 's Church in High Roding . He never married .
Joscelyn 's contributions to the study of Old English have been called " a significant contribution to the development of the study of the language " . The historian May McKisack called him a " man of great learning and a good servant to his master " . Besides his dictionary and grammar , his working notebook also became part of the Cotton library , now manuscript Vitellius D.vii. Other of his manuscripts , either written or acquired by him , were either given to Corpus Christi College by Parker 's heirs , or became parts of the British Library or the Bodleian Library .
= Keratoconus =
Keratoconus ( KC , KTCN ) is a degenerative disorder of the eye in which structural changes within the cornea cause it to thin and change to a more conical shape than the more normal gradual curve . Keratoconus can cause substantial distortion of vision , with multiple images , streaking and sensitivity to light all often reported by the person . It is typically diagnosed in the person 's adolescent years . If both eyes are significantly affected , the deterioration in vision can affect the person 's ability to drive a car or read normal print .
In most cases , corrective lenses fitted by a specialist are effective enough to allow the person to continue to drive legally and likewise function normally . Further progression of the disease may require surgery , for which several options are available , including intrastromal corneal ring segments , corneal collagen cross @-@ linking , mini asymmetric radial keratotomy , corneal intrastromal implantation system ( CISIS ) , topography @-@ guided photorefractive keratectomy ( PRK ) , topography @-@ guided conductive keratoplasty , phakic intraocular lenses and , in 25 % of cases , corneal transplantation .
Estimates of the rates for keratoconus range from 1 in 500 to 1 in 2000 people , but difficulties with differential diagnosis cause uncertainty . It seems to occur in populations throughout the world , although it is observed more frequently in certain ethnic groups , such as South Asians . Environmental and genetic factors are considered possible causes , but the exact cause is uncertain . It has been associated with detrimental enzyme activity within the cornea . The word is from Greek : kéras horn , cornea ; and Latin : cōnus cone .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
People with early keratoconus typically notice a minor blurring of their vision and come to their clinician seeking corrective lenses for reading or driving . At early stages , the symptoms of keratoconus may be no different from those of any other refractive defect of the eye . As the disease progresses , vision deteriorates , sometimes rapidly . Visual acuity becomes impaired at all distances , and night vision is often poor . Some individuals have vision in one eye that is markedly worse than that in the other . The disease is often bilateral , though asymmetrical . Some develop photophobia ( sensitivity to bright light ) , eye strain from squinting in order to read , or itching in the eye , but there is normally little or no sensation of pain . It may cause luminous objects to appear as cylindrical pipes with the same intensity at all points .
The classic symptom of keratoconus is the perception of multiple " ghost " images , known as monocular polyopia . This effect is most clearly seen with a high contrast field , such as a point of light on a dark background . Instead of seeing just one point , a person with keratoconus sees many images of the point , spread out in a chaotic pattern . This pattern does not typically change from day to day , but over time , it often takes on new forms . People also commonly notice streaking and flaring distortion around light sources . Some even notice the images moving relative to one another in time with their heart beat . The predominant optical aberration of the eye in keratoconus is coma . The visual distortion experienced by the person comes from two sources , one being the irregular deformation of the surface of the cornea , and the other being scarring that occurs on its exposed highpoints . These factors act to form regions on the cornea that map an image to different locations on the retina . The effect can worsen in low light conditions , as the dark @-@ adapted pupil dilates to expose more of the irregular surface of the cornea .
= = Diagnosis = =
Prior to any physical examination , the diagnosis of keratoconus frequently begins with an ophthalmologist 's or optometrist 's assessment of the person 's medical history , particularly the chief complaint and other visual symptoms , the presence of any history of ocular disease or injury which might affect vision , and the presence of any family history of ocular disease . An eye chart , such as a standard Snellen chart of progressively smaller letters , is then used to determine the person 's visual acuity . The eye examination may proceed to measurement of the localized curvature of the cornea with a manual keratometer , with detection of irregular astigmatism suggesting a possibility of keratoconus . Severe cases can exceed the instrument 's measuring ability . A further indication can be provided by retinoscopy , in which a light beam is focused on the person 's retina and the reflection , or reflex , observed as the examiner tilts the light source back and forth . Keratoconus is amongst the ophthalmic conditions that exhibit a scissor reflex action of two bands moving toward and away from each other like the blades of a pair of scissors .
If keratoconus is suspected , the ophthalmologist or optometrist will search for other characteristic findings of the disease by means of slit lamp examination of the cornea . An advanced case is usually readily apparent to the examiner , and can provide for an unambiguous diagnosis prior to more specialized testing . Under close examination , a ring of yellow @-@ brown to olive @-@ green pigmentation known as a Fleischer ring can be observed in around half of keratoconic eyes . The Fleischer ring , caused by deposition of the iron oxide hemosiderin within the corneal epithelium , is subtle and may not be readily detectable in all cases , but becomes more evident when viewed under a cobalt blue filter . Similarly , around 50 % of subjects exhibit Vogt 's striae , fine stress lines within the cornea caused by stretching and thinning . The striae temporarily disappear while slight pressure is applied to the eyeball . A highly pronounced cone can create a V @-@ shaped indentation in the lower eyelid when the person 's gaze is directed downwards , known as Munson 's sign . Other clinical signs of keratoconus will normally have presented themselves long before Munson 's sign becomes apparent , and so this finding , though a classic sign of the disease , tends not to be of primary diagnostic importance .
A handheld keratoscope , sometimes known as " Placido 's disk " , can provide a simple noninvasive visualization of the surface of the cornea by projecting a series of concentric rings of light onto the cornea . A more definitive diagnosis can be obtained using corneal topography , in which an automated instrument projects the illuminated pattern onto the cornea and determines its topography from analysis of the digital image . The topographical map indicates any distortions or scarring in the cornea , with keratoconus revealed by a characteristic steepening of curvature which is usually below the centreline of the eye . The technique can record a snapshot of the degree and extent of the deformation as a benchmark for assessing its rate of progression . It is of particular value in detecting the disorder in its early stages when other signs have not yet presented .
= = = Stages = = =
Once keratoconus has been diagnosed , its degree may be classified by several metrics :
The steepness of greatest curvature from ' mild ' ( < 45 D ) , ' advanced ' ( up to 52 D ) or ' severe ' ( > 52 D ) ;
The morphology of the cone : ' nipple ' ( small : 5 mm and near @-@ central ) , ' oval ' ( larger , below @-@ center and often sagging ) , or ' globus ' ( more than 75 % of cornea affected ) ;
The corneal thickness from mild ( > 506 μm ) to advanced ( < 446 μm ) .
Increasing use of corneal topography has led to a decline in use of these terms .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Despite considerable research , the etiology of keratoconus remains unclear . Several sources suggest that keratoconus likely arises from a number of different factors : genetic , environmental or cellular , any of which may form the trigger for the onset of the disease . Once initiated , the disease normally develops by progressive dissolution of Bowman 's layer , which lies between the corneal epithelium and stroma . As the two come into contact , cellular and structural changes in the cornea adversely affect its integrity and lead to the bulging and scarring characteristic of the disorder . Within any individual keratoconic cornea , regions of degenerative thinning coexisting with regions undergoing wound healing may be found . Scarring appears to be an aspect of the corneal degradation ; however , a recent , large , multicenter study suggests abrasion by contact lenses may increase the likelihood of this finding by a factor over two .
A number of studies have indicated keratoconic corneas show signs of increased activity by proteases , a class of enzymes that break some of the collagen cross @-@ linkages in the stroma , with a simultaneous reduced expression of protease inhibitors . Other studies have suggested that reduced activity by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase may be responsible for a build @-@ up of free radicals and oxidising species in the cornea . Whatever the pathogenetical process , the damage caused by activity within the cornea likely results in a reduction in its thickness and biomechanical strength . At an ultrastructural level the weakening of the corneal tissue is associated with a disruption of the regular arrangement of the collagen layers and collagen fibril orientation . While keratoconus is considered a noninflammatory disorder , one study shows wearing rigid contact lenses by people leads to overexpression of proinflammatory cytokines , such as IL @-@ 6 , TNF @-@ alpha , ICAM @-@ 1 , and VCAM @-@ 1 in the tear fluid .
A genetic predisposition to keratoconus has been observed , with the disease running in certain families , and incidences reported of concordance in identical twins . The frequency of occurrence in close family members is not clearly defined , though it is known to be considerably higher than that in the general population , and studies have obtained estimates ranging between 6 % and 19 % . Two studies involving isolated , largely homogenetic communities have contrarily mapped putative gene locations to chromosomes 16q and 20q . Most genetic studies agree on an autosomal dominant model of inheritance . A rare , autosomal dominant form of severe keratoconus with anterior polar cataract is caused by a mutation in the seed region of mir @-@ 184 , a microRNA that is highly expressed in the cornea and anterior lens . Keratoconus is diagnosed more often in people with Down 's syndrome , though the reasons for this link have not yet been determined .
Keratoconus has been associated with atopic diseases , which include asthma , allergies , and eczema , and it is not uncommon for several or all of these diseases to affect one person . Keratoconus is also associated with Alport syndrome , Down syndrome and Marfan syndrome . A number of studies suggest vigorous eye rubbing contributes to the progression of keratoconus , and people should be discouraged from the practice . Keratoconus differs from Ectasia which is caused by LASIK eye surgery . Post @-@ LASIK Ectasia has been associated with the excessive removal of the eye 's stromal bed tissue during surgery .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Lenses = = =
In early stages of keratoconus , glasses or soft contact lenses can suffice to correct for the mild astigmatism . As the condition progresses , these may no longer provide the person with a satisfactory degree of visual acuity , and most practitioners will move to manage the condition with rigid contact lenses , known as rigid , gas @-@ permeable , ( RGP ) lenses . RGP lenses provide a good level of visual correction , but do not arrest progression of the condition .
In people with keratoconus , rigid contact lenses improve vision by means of tear fluid filling the gap between the irregular corneal surface and the smooth regular inner surface of the lens , thereby creating the effect of a smoother cornea . Many specialized types of contact lenses have been developed for keratoconus , and affected people may seek out both doctors specialized in conditions of the cornea , and contact lens fitters who have experience managing people with keratoconus . The irregular cone presents a challenge and the fitter will endeavor to produce a lens with the optimal contact , stability and steepness . Some trial @-@ and @-@ error fitting may prove necessary .
= = = = Hybrid lenses = = = =
Traditionally , contact lenses for keratoconus have been the ' hard ' or RGP variety , although manufacturers have also produced specialized ' soft ' or hydrophilic lenses and , most recently , silicone hydrogel lenses . A soft lens has a tendency to conform to the conical shape of the cornea , thus diminishing its effect . To counter this , hybrid lenses have been developed which are hard in the centre and encompassed by a soft skirt . However , soft or earlier generation hybrid lenses did not prove effective for every person . Early generation lenses have been discontinued . The fourth generation of hybrid lens technology has improved , giving more people an option that combines the comfort of a soft lens with the visual acuity of an RGP lens .
= = = = Scleral lenses = = = =
Scleral lenses are sometimes prescribed for cases of advanced or very irregular keratoconus ; these lenses cover a greater proportion of the surface of the eye and hence can offer improved stability . Easier handling can find favor with people with reduced dexterity , such as the elderly .
= = = = Piggybacking = = = =
Some people find good vision correction and comfort with a " piggyback " lens combination , in which RGP lenses are worn over soft lenses , both providing a degree of vision correction . One form of piggyback lens makes use of a soft lens with a countersunk central area to accept the rigid lens . Fitting a piggyback lens combination requires experience on the part of the lens fitter , and tolerance on the part of the person with keratoconus .
= = = Surgery = = =
= = = = Corneal transplant = = = =
Between 11 % and 27 % of cases of keratoconus will progress to a point where vision correction is no longer possible , thinning of the cornea becomes excessive , or scarring as a result of contact lens wear causes problems of its own , and a corneal transplantation or penetrating keratoplasty becomes required . Keratoconus is the most common grounds for conducting a penetrating keratoplasty , generally accounting for around a quarter of such procedures . The corneal transplant surgeon trephines a lenticule of corneal tissue and then grafts the donor cornea to the existing eye tissue , usually using a combination of running and individual sutures . The cornea does not have a direct blood supply , so the donor tissue is not required to be blood type matched . Eye banks check the donor corneas for any disease or cellular irregularities .
The acute recovery period can take four to six weeks , and full postoperative vision stabilization often takes a year or more , but most transplants are very stable in the long term . The National Keratoconus Foundation reports that penetrating keratoplasty has the most successful outcome of all transplant procedures , and when performed for keratoconus in an otherwise healthy eye , its success rate can be 95 % or greater . The sutures used usually dissolve over a period of three to five years , but individual sutures can be removed during the healing process if they are causing irritation to the person .
In the USA , corneal transplants ( also known as corneal grafts ) for keratoconus are usually performed under sedation as outpatient surgery . In other countries , such as Australia and the UK , the operation is commonly performed with the person undergoing a general anaesthetic . All cases require a careful follow @-@ up with an eye doctor ( ophthalmologist or optometrist ) for a number of years . Frequently , vision is greatly improved after the surgery , but even if the actual visual acuity does not improve , because the cornea is a more normal shape after the healing is completed , people can more easily be fitted with corrective lenses . Complications of corneal transplants are mostly related to vascularization of the corneal tissue and rejection of the donor cornea . Vision loss is very rare , though difficult @-@ to @-@ correct vision is possible . When rejection is severe , repeat transplants are often attempted , and are frequently successful . Keratoconus will not normally reoccur in the transplanted cornea ; incidences of this have been observed , but are usually attributed to incomplete excision of the original cornea or inadequate screening of the donor tissue . The long @-@ term outlook for corneal transplants performed for keratoconus is usually favorable once the initial healing period is completed and a few years have elapsed without problems .
One way of reducing the risk of rejection is to use a technique called deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty ( DALK ) . In a DALK graft , only the outermost epithelium and the main bulk of the cornea , the stroma , are replaced ; the person 's rearmost endothelium layer and the Descemet 's membrane are left , giving some additional structural integrity to the postgraft cornea . Furthermore , it is possible to transplant freeze @-@ dried donor tissue . The freeze @-@ drying process ensures this tissue is dead , so there is no chance of rejection .
= = = = = Epikeratophakia = = = = =
Rarely , a nonpenetrating keratoplasty known as an epikeratophakia ( or epikeratoplasty ) may be performed in cases of keratoconus . The corneal epithelium is removed and a lenticule of donor cornea is grafted on top of it . The procedure requires a greater level of skill on the part of the surgeon , and is less frequently performed than a penetrating keratoplasty , as the outcome is generally less favorable . However , it may be seen as an option in a number of cases , particularly for young people .
= = = = Corneal ring implants = = = =
A possible surgical alternative to corneal transplant is the insertion of intrastromal corneal ring segments . A small incision is made in the periphery of the cornea and two thin arcs of polymethyl methacrylate are slid between the layers of the stroma on either side of the pupil before the incision is closed by a suture . The segments push out against the curvature of the cornea , flattening the peak of the cone and returning it to a more natural shape . The procedure offers the benefit of being reversible and even potentially exchangeable as it involves no removal of eye tissue .
= = = = Cross @-@ linking = = = =
Corneal collagen cross @-@ linking is a developing treatment which aims to strengthen the cornea , however , according to a 2015 Cochrane review , there is insufficient evidence to determine if it is useful in keratoconus .
In 2016 , the US Food and Drug Administration approved Avedro 's riboflavin ophthalmic solution and KXL system for crosslinking based on three 12 @-@ month clinical trials .
= = = = Radial keratotomy = = = =
Radial keratotomy is a refractive surgery procedure where the surgeon makes a spoke @-@ like pattern of incisions into the cornea to modify its shape . This early surgical option for myopia has been largely superseded by LASIK and other similar procedures . LASIK is absolutely contraindicated in keratoconus and other corneal thinning conditions as removal of corneal stromal tissue will further damage an already thin and weak cornea . For similar reasons , radial keratotomy has also generally not been used for people with keratoconus .
= = Prognosis = =
Patients with keratoconus typically present initially with mild astigmatism and myopia , commonly at the onset of puberty , and are diagnosed by the late teenage years or early 20s . The disease can , however , present or progress at any age ; in rare cases , keratoconus can present in children or not until later adulthood . A diagnosis of the disease at an early age may indicate a greater risk of severity in later life . Patients ' vision will seem to fluctuate over a period of months , driving them to change lens prescriptions frequently , but as the condition worsens , contact lenses are required in the majority of cases . The course of the disorder can be quite variable , with some patients remaining stable for years or indefinitely , while others progress rapidly or experience occasional exacerbations over a long and otherwise steady course . Most commonly , keratoconus progresses for a period of 10 to 20 years before the course of the disease generally ceases in the third and fourth decades of life .
= = = Corneal hydrops = = =
In advanced cases , bulging of the cornea can result in a localized rupture of Descemet 's membrane , an inner layer of the cornea . Aqueous humor from the eye 's anterior chamber seeps into the cornea before Descemet 's membrane reseals . The patient experiences pain and a sudden severe clouding of vision , with the cornea taking on a translucent milky @-@ white appearance known as a corneal hydrops . Although disconcerting to the patient , the effect is normally temporary and after a period of six to eight weeks , the cornea usually returns to its former transparency . The recovery can be aided nonsurgically by bandaging with an osmotic saline solution . Although a hydrops usually causes increased scarring of the cornea , occasionally it will benefit a patient by creating a flatter cone , aiding the fitting of contact lenses . Corneal transplantation is not usually indicated during corneal hydrops .
= = Epidemiology = =
The National Eye Institute reports keratoconus is the most common corneal dystrophy in the United States , affecting about one in 2 @,@ 000 Americans , but some reports place the figure as high as one in 500 . The inconsistency may be due to variations in diagnostic criteria , with some cases of severe astigmatism interpreted as those of keratoconus , and vice versa . A long @-@ term study found a mean incidence rate of 2 @.@ 0 new cases per 100 @,@ 000 population per year . Some studies have suggested a higher prevalence amongst females , or that people of South Asian ethnicity are 4 @.@ 4 times as likely to suffer from keratoconus as Caucasians , and are also more likely to be affected with the condition earlier .
Keratoconus is normally bilateral ( affecting both eyes ) although the distortion is usually asymmetric and is rarely completely identical in both corneas . Unilateral cases tend to be uncommon , and may in fact be very rare if a very mild condition in the better eye is simply below the limit of clinical detection . It is common for keratoconus to be diagnosed first in one eye and not until later in the other . As the condition then progresses in both eyes , the vision in the earlier @-@ diagnosed eye will often remain poorer than that in its fellow .
= = History = =
The German oculist Burchard Mauchart provided an early description in a 1748 doctoral dissertation of a case of keratoconus , which he called staphyloma diaphanum . However , it was not until 1854 that British physician John Nottingham ( 1801 – 1856 ) clearly described keratoconus and distinguished it from other ectasias of the cornea . Nottingham reported the cases of " conical cornea " that had come to his attention , and described several classic features of the disease , including polyopia , weakness of the cornea , and difficulty matching corrective lenses to the patient 's vision . In 1859 , British surgeon William Bowman used an ophthalmoscope ( recently invented by Hermann von Helmholtz ) to diagnose keratoconus , and described how to angle the instrument 's mirror so as to best see the conical shape of the cornea . Bowman also attempted to restore vision by pulling on the iris with a fine hook inserted through the cornea and stretching the pupil into a vertical slit , like that of a cat . He reported that he had had a measure of success with the technique , restoring vision to an 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman who had previously been unable to count fingers at a distance of 8 inches ( 20 cm ) . By 1869 , when the pioneering Swiss ophthalmologist Johann Horner wrote a thesis entitled On the treatment of keratoconus , the disorder had acquired its current name . The treatment at that time , endorsed by the leading German ophthalmologist Albrecht von Graefe , was an attempt to physically reshape the cornea by chemical cauterization with a silver nitrate solution and application of a miosis @-@ causing agent with a pressure dressing . In 1888 , the treatment of keratoconus became one of the first practical applications of the then newly invented contact lens , when the French physician Eugène Kalt manufactured a glass scleral shell that improved vision by compressing the cornea into a more regular shape . Since the start of the 20th century , research on keratoconus has both improved understanding of the disease and greatly expanded the range of treatment options . The first successful corneal transplantation to treat keratoconus was done in 1936 by Ramon Castroviejo .
= = Related disorders = =
Several other corneal ectatic disorders , also cause thinning of the cornea :
Keratoglobus is a very rare condition that causes corneal thinning primarily at the margins , resulting in a spherical , slightly enlarged eye . It may be genetically related to keratoconus .
Pellucid marginal degeneration causes thinning of a narrow ( 1 – 2 mm ) band of the cornea , usually along the inferior corneal margin . It causes irregular astigmatism that , in the early stages of the disease can be corrected by spectacles . Differential diagnosis may be made by slit @-@ lamp examination .
Posterior keratoconus , a distinct disorder despite its similar name , is a rare abnormality , usually congenital , which causes a nonprogressive thinning of the inner surface of the cornea , while the curvature of the anterior surface remains normal . Usually only a single eye is affected .
Post @-@ LASIK ectasia is a complication of LASIK eye surgery .
= German submarine U @-@ 39 ( 1938 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 39 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of the Kriegsmarine that operated from 1938 to the first few days of World War II .
She was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 29 July 1936 as part of the re @-@ armament program ( Aufrüstung ) in Germany , which was illegal under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . The keel for U @-@ 39 was laid down on 2 June 1937 , by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen . She was commissioned on 10 December 1938 with Kapitänleutnant Gerhard Glattes in command .
On 14 September 1939 , just 27 days after she began her first patrol , U @-@ 39 attempted to sink the British aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal by firing two torpedoes at her . The U @-@ 39 was immediately hunted down by three British destroyers , disabled with depth charges , and subsequently sunk . All of the crew members survived and were captured .
U @-@ 39 was the first German U @-@ boat to be sunk in World War II .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 39 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 39 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
= = = Patrol and Sinking = = =
U @-@ 39 conducted only one war patrol during her entire career , as part of the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla . She left Wilhelmshaven with U @-@ 31 , U @-@ 32 , U @-@ 35 and U @-@ 53 all of which were also a part of the 6th Flotilla , on 19 August 1939 , in preparation for the beginning of World War II . She headed into the North Sea and eventually circumnavigated the British Isles . Prior to her sinking , U @-@ 39 was attacked in the North Sea on 10 September while en route to the British Isles . She was depth charged by an unidentified British vessel and was forced to dive to 100 meters ( 328 feet ) to escape the attack .
On 14 September 1939 , after only 27 days at sea , U @-@ 39 fired two torpedoes at the British aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal off Rockall Bank north @-@ west of Scotland . Lookouts spotted the torpedo tracks and Ark Royal turned towards the attack , reducing her cross @-@ section and causing both torpedoes to miss and exploded short of their target . Following the failed attack , three British destroyers in the vicinity of the Ark Royal , HMS Faulknor , Firedrake , and Foxhound detected U @-@ 39 . All three destroyers depth charged the U @-@ boat and seconds after Firedrake released her depth charges , U @-@ 39 surfaced . Foxhound , which was the closest to the U @-@ boat , picked up 25 crew members while Faulknor rescued 11 and Firedrake saved the remaining eight . The crewmen were then taken ashore in Scotland and spent the rest of the war in various prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps , including the Tower of London , before being shipped to Canada .
U @-@ 39 was the first of many U @-@ boats to be sunk in World War II ; at 58 ° 32 ′ N 11 ° 49 ′ W.
= = = Aftermath = = =
Four other U @-@ boats joined U @-@ 39 on her ill @-@ fated patrol , U @-@ 31 , U @-@ 32 , U @-@ 53 and U @-@ 55 . According to a report by the Seekriegsleitung ( German Supreme Naval Command ) on 22 September 1939 , U @-@ 32 and U @-@ 53 were heading back to their home port of Kiel while only U @-@ 31 and U @-@ 35 remained in the operational area north of the British Isles . According to plan , U @-@ 39 should also have made for Kiel . However , there had been no contact with the U @-@ boat for several days . A lack of response from U @-@ 39 , despite several requests to give her current location , began to fuel rumours that she was sunk . This belief was later confirmed by a British radio transmission detailing the arrival of the first German prisoners of war who were members of the Kriegsmarine , at a London railway station a few days later .
= FN Five @-@ seven =
The FN Five @-@ seven , trademarked as the Five @-@ seveN , is a semi @-@ automatic pistol designed and manufactured by Fabrique Nationale d ’ Armes de Guerre @-@ Herstal ( FN Herstal ) in Belgium ( trademark capitalization style is intended to emphasize the manufacturer 's initials . )
It is a lightweight polymer @-@ based weapon with a large magazine capacity , ambidextrous controls , low recoil , and the ability to penetrate body armor when using certain cartridge types . It is known as the " cop killer . " The nickname was reported as a cultural phenomena by Wired and many others , and tested by the Brady campaign which called it a " Risk to Police Officers . "
Sales of the Five @-@ seven were originally restricted by FN to military and law enforcement customers , but since 2004 , the pistol has also been offered to civilian shooters for personal protection , target shooting , and similar uses . Although offered only with sporting ammunition , the Five @-@ seven 's introduction to civilian shooters was met with vocal opposition from gun control organizations such as the Brady Campaign , and the pistol has been subject to ongoing controversy in the United States .
The Five @-@ seven is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations , including Canada , France , Greece , India , Poland , Spain , and the United States . In the United States , the Five @-@ seven is in use with numerous law enforcement agencies , including the U.S. Secret Service . In the years since the pistol 's introduction to the civilian market in the United States , it has also become increasingly popular with civilian shooters .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
The Five @-@ seven pistol and its 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition were developed by FN Herstal in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge and associated pistols and submachine guns . NATO called for two types of weapons chambered for a new cartridge — one a shoulder @-@ fired weapon , and the other a handheld weapon . According to NATO , these new weapons , termed personal defense weapons ( PDWs ) , were to provide " personal protection in last @-@ resort situations when the user is directly endangered by the enemy [ ... ] . " In 1989 , NATO published document D / 296 , outlining a number of preliminary specifications for these weapons :
The new cartridge was to have greater range , accuracy , and terminal performance than the 9 × 19mm cartridge . Additionally , it was to be capable of penetrating certain types of body armor .
The shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon was to weigh less than 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) , with a magazine capacity of at least 20 rounds .
The handheld personal defense weapon ( pistol ) was to weigh less than 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , although a weight of 700 g ( 1 @.@ 5 lb ) was deemed desirable ; it was to have a magazine capacity of no fewer than 20 rounds .
Both weapons were to be sufficiently compact to be carried hands @-@ free on the user 's person at all times , whether in the cab of a vehicle or the cockpit of an aircraft , and were to perform effectively in all environments and weather conditions .
FN Herstal was the first small arms manufacturer to respond to NATO 's requirement ; FN started by developing a shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon , the FN P90 , along with a small caliber , high velocity 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge type . The original 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , called the SS90 , went into production with the P90 in 1990 . This cartridge type was discontinued in 1993 , and replaced with the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 , which used a heavier and slightly shorter projectile weighing 2 @.@ 0 g ( 31 grains ) . The reduced length of the SS190 projectile allowed it to be used more conveniently in the Five @-@ seven , which was under development at that time .
In 1993 , Jean @-@ Louis Gathoye of FN filed a United States patent application for a delayed blowback operating system intended for the Five @-@ seven pistol , and U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 347 @,@ 912 ( " Elements for decelerating the recoil of the moving parts of a fire arm " ) was received the following year . In 1995 , FN officially announced development of the Five @-@ seven pistol , and a prototype of the pistol was publicly displayed the following year . With some improvements , a double @-@ action only model of the pistol went into production in 1998 , and a single @-@ action model called the Five @-@ seven Tactical was then introduced shortly afterward . The Five @-@ seven first entered service in May 2000 , when the Cypriot National Guard ( Greek : Εθνική Φρουρά ) purchased 250 pistols for their special forces group .
= = = NATO evaluation = = =
In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19
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After attending a series of promotional photo shoots and making some radio appearances , The Go @-@ Getters released their first and only studio album World Record Holders in 1999 . The album featured other Chicago @-@ based rappers such as Rhymefest , Mikkey Halsted , Miss Criss , and Shayla G. Meanwhile , the production was handled by West , Arrowstar , Boogz , and Brian " All Day " Miller .
West spent much of the late @-@ 1990s producing records for a number of well @-@ known artists and music groups . The third song on Foxy Brown 's second studio album Chyna Doll was produced by West . Her second effort subsequently became the very first hip @-@ hop album by a female rapper to debut at the top of the U.S. Billboard 200 chart in its first week of release . West produced three of the tracks on Harlem World 's first and only album The Movement alongside Jermaine Dupri and the production duo Trackmasters . His songs featured rappers Nas , Drag @-@ On , and R & B singer Carl Thomas . The ninth track from World Party , the last Goodie Mob album to feature the rap group 's four founding members prior to their break @-@ up , was co @-@ produced by West with his manager Deric " D @-@ Dot " Angelettie . At the close of the millennium , West ended up producing six songs for Tell ' Em Why U Madd , an album that was released by D @-@ Dot under the alias of The Madd Rapper ; a fictional character he created for a skit on The Notorious B.I.G. ' s second and final studio album Life After Death . West 's songs featured guest appearances from rappers such as Ma $ e , Raekwon , and Eminem .
West got his big break in the year 2000 , when he began to produce for artists on Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . West came to achieve recognition and is often credited with revitalizing Jay @-@ Z 's career with his contributions to the rap mogul 's influential 2001 album The Blueprint . The Blueprint is consistently ranked among the greatest hip @-@ hop albums , and the critical and financial success of the album generated substantial interest in West as a producer . Serving as an in @-@ house producer for Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records , West produced records for other artists from the label , including Beanie Sigel , Freeway , and Cam 'ron . He also crafted hit songs for Ludacris , Alicia Keys , and Janet Jackson .
Despite his success as a producer , West 's true aspiration was to be a rapper . Though he had developed his rapping long before he began producing , it was often a challenge for West to be accepted as a rapper , and he struggled to attain a record deal . Multiple record companies ignored him because he did not portray the ' gangsta image ' prominent in mainstream hip hop at the time . After a series of meetings with Capitol Records , West was ultimately denied an artist deal .
According to Capitol Record 's A & R , Joe Weinberger , he was approached by West and almost signed a deal with him , but another person in the company convinced Capitol 's president not to . Desperate to keep West from defecting to another label , then @-@ label head Damon Dash reluctantly signed West to Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . Jay @-@ Z later admitted that Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella was initially reluctant to support West as a rapper , claiming that many saw him as a producer first and foremost , and that his background contrasted with that of his labelmates .
West 's breakthrough came a year later on October 23 , 2002 , when , while driving home from a California recording studio after working late , he fell asleep at the wheel and was involved in a near @-@ fatal car crash . The crash left him with a shattered jaw , which had to be wired shut in reconstructive surgery . The accident inspired West ; two weeks after being admitted to the hospital , he recorded a song at the Record Plant Studios with his jaw still wired shut . The composition , " Through The Wire " , expressed West 's experience after the accident , and helped lay the foundation for his debut album , as according to West " all the better artists have expressed what they were going through " . West added that " the album was my medicine " , as working on the record distracted him from the pain . " Through The Wire " was first available on West 's Get Well Soon ... mixtape , released December 2002 . At the same time , West announced that he was working on an album called The College Dropout , whose overall theme was to " make your own decisions . Don 't let society tell you , ' This is what you have to do . ' "
= = = 2003 – 06 : The College Dropout and Late Registration = = =
Carrying a Louis Vuitton backpack filled with old disks and demos to the studio and back , West crafted much of his production for his debut album in less than fifteen minutes at a time . He recorded the remainder of the album in Los Angeles while recovering from the car accident . Once he had completed the album , it was leaked months before its release date . However , West decided to use the opportunity to review the album , and The College Dropout was significantly remixed , remastered , and revised before being released . As a result , certain tracks originally destined for the album were subsequently retracted , among them " Keep the Receipt " with Ol ' Dirty Bastard and " The Good , the Bad , and the Ugly " with Consequence . West meticulously refined the production , adding string arrangements , gospel choirs , improved drum programming and new verses . West 's perfectionism led The College Dropout to have its release postponed three times from its initial date in August 2003 .
The College Dropout was eventually issued by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella in February 2004 , shooting to number two on the Billboard 200 as his debut single , " Through the Wire " peaked at number fifteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for five weeks . " Slow Jamz " , his second single featuring Twista and Jamie Foxx , became an even bigger success : it became the three musicians ' first number one hit . The College Dropout received near @-@ universal critical acclaim from contemporary music critics , was voted the top album of the year by two major music publications , and has consistently been ranked among the great hip @-@ hop works and debut albums by artists . " Jesus Walks " , the album 's fourth single , perhaps exposed West to a wider audience ; the song 's subject matter concerns faith and Christianity . The song nevertheless reached the top 20 of the Billboard pop charts , despite industry executives ' predictions that a song containing such blatant declarations of faith would never make it to radio . The College Dropout would eventually be certified triple platinum in the US , and garnered West 10 Grammy nominations , including Album of the Year , and Best Rap Album ( which it received ) . During this period , West also founded GOOD Music , a record label and management company that would go on to house affiliate artists and producers , such as No I.D. and John Legend . At the time , the focal point of West 's production style was the use of sped @-@ up vocal samples from soul records . However , partly because of the acclaim of The College Dropout , such sampling had been much copied by others ; with that overuse , and also because West felt he had become too dependent on the technique , he decided to find a new sound .
Beginning his second effort that fall , West would invest two million dollars and take over a year to craft his second album . West was significantly inspired by Roseland NYC Live , a 1998 live album by English trip hop group Portishead , produced with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra . Early in his career , the live album had inspired him to incorporate string arrangements into his hip @-@ hop production . Though West had not been able to afford many live instruments around the time of his debut album , the money from his commercial success enabled him to hire a string orchestra for his second album Late Registration . West collaborated with American film score composer Jon Brion , who served as the album 's co @-@ executive producer for several tracks . Although Brion had no prior experience in creating hip @-@ hop records , he and West found that they could productively work together after their first afternoon in the studio where they discovered that neither confined his musical knowledge and vision to one specific genre . Late Registration sold over 2 @.@ 3 million units in the United States alone by the end of 2005 and was considered by industry observers as the only successful major album release of the fall season , which had been plagued by steadily declining CD sales .
While West had encountered controversy a year prior when he stormed out of the American Music Awards of 2004 after losing Best New Artist , the rapper 's first large @-@ scale controversy came just days following Late Registration 's release , during a benefit concert for Hurricane Katrina victims . In September 2005 , NBC broadcast A Concert for Hurricane Relief , and West was a featured speaker . When West was presenting alongside actor Mike Myers , he deviated from the prepared script . Myers spoke next and continued to read the script . Once it was West 's turn to speak again , he said , " George Bush doesn 't care about black people . " West 's comment reached much of the United States , leading to mixed reactions ; President Bush would later call it one of the most " disgusting moments " of his presidency . West raised further controversy in January 2006 when he posed on the cover of Rolling Stone wearing a crown of thorns .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Graduation and 808s & Heartbreak = = =
Fresh off spending the previous year touring the world with U2 on their Vertigo Tour , West felt inspired to compose anthemic rap songs that could operate more efficiently in large arenas . To this end , West incorporated the synthesizer into his hip @-@ hop production , utilized slower tempos , and experimented with electronic music and influenced by music of the 1980s . In addition to U2 , West drew musical inspiration from arena rock bands such as The Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin in terms of melody and chord progression . To make his next effort , the third in a planned tetralogy of education @-@ themed studio albums , more introspective and personal in lyricism , West listened to folk and country singer @-@ songwriters Bob Dylan and Johnny Cash in hopes of developing methods to augment his wordplay and storytelling ability .
West 's third studio album , Graduation , garnered major publicity when its release date pitted West in a sales competition against rapper 50 Cent 's Curtis . Upon their September 2007 releases , Graduation outsold Curtis by a large margin , debuting at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart and selling 957 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Graduation once again continued the string of critical and commercial successes by West , and the album 's lead single , " Stronger " , garnered the rapper his third number @-@ one hit . " Stronger " , which samples French house duo Daft Punk , has been accredited to not only encouraging other hip @-@ hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music , but also for playing a part in the revival of disco and electro @-@ infused music in the late 2000s . Ben Detrick of XXL cited the outcome of the sales competition between 50 Cent 's Curtis and West 's Graduation as being responsible for altering the direction of hip @-@ hop and paving the way for new rappers who didn 't follow the hardcore @-@ gangster mold , writing , " If there was ever a watershed moment to indicate hip @-@ hop 's changing direction , it may have come when 50 Cent competed with Kanye in 2007 to see whose album would claim superior sales . "
West 's life took a different direction when his mother , Donda West , died of complications from cosmetic surgery involving abdominoplasty and breast reduction in November 2007 . Months later , West and fiancée Alexis Phifer ended their engagement and their long @-@ term intermittent relationship , which had begun in 2002 . The events profoundly affected West , who set off for his 2008 Glow in the Dark Tour shortly thereafter . Purportedly because his emotions could not be conveyed through rapping , West decided to sing using the voice audio processor Auto @-@ Tune , which would become a central part of his next effort . West had previously experimented with the technology on his debut album The College Dropout for the background vocals of " Jesus Walks " and " Never Let Me Down . " Recorded mostly in Honolulu , Hawaii in three weeks , West announced his fourth album , 808s & Heartbreak , at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , where he performed its lead single , " Love Lockdown " . Music audiences were taken aback by the uncharacteristic production style and the presence of Auto @-@ Tune , which typified the pre @-@ release response to the record .
808s & Heartbreak , which features extensive use of the eponymous Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine and contains themes of love , loneliness , and heartache , was released by Island Def Jam to capitalize on Thanksgiving weekend in November 2008 . Reviews were positive , though slightly more mixed than his previous efforts . Despite this , the record 's singles demonstrated outstanding chart performances . Upon its release , the lead single " Love Lockdown " debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and became a " Hot Shot Debut " , while follow @-@ up single " Heartless " performed similarly and became his second consecutive " Hot Shot Debut " by debuting at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . While it was criticized prior to release , 808s & Heartbreak had a significant effect on hip @-@ hop music , encouraging other rappers to take more creative risks with their productions .
In 2012 , Rolling Stone journalist Matthew Trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote , " Now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & Heartbreak has revealed itself to be Kanye 's most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . "
West 's controversial incident the following year at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards was arguably his biggest controversy , and led to widespread outrage throughout the music industry . During the ceremony , West crashed the stage and grabbed the microphone from winner Taylor Swift in order to proclaim that , instead , Beyoncé 's video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , nominated for the same award , was " one of the best videos of all time " . He was subsequently withdrawn from the remainder of the show for his actions . West 's tour with Lady Gaga was cancelled in response to the controversy , and it was suggested that the incident was partially responsible for 808s & Heartbreak 's lack of nominations at the 52nd Grammy Awards .
= = = 2010 – 12 : My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and collaborations = = =
Following the highly publicized incident , West took a brief break from music and threw himself into fashion , only to hole up in Hawaii for the next few months writing and recording his next album . Importing his favorite producers and artists to work on and inspire his recording , West kept engineers behind the boards 24 hours a day and slept only in increments . Noah Callahan @-@ Bever , a writer for Complex , was present during the sessions and described the " communal " atmosphere as thus : " With the right songs and the right album , he can overcome any and all controversy , and we are here to contribute , challenge , and inspire . " A variety of artists contributed to the project , including close friends Jay @-@ Z , Kid Cudi and Pusha T , as well as off @-@ the @-@ wall collaborations , such as with Justin Vernon of Bon Iver .
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy , West 's fifth studio album , was released in November 2010 to rave reviews from critics , many of whom described it as his best work that solidified his comeback . In stark contrast to his previous effort , which featured a minimalist sound , Dark Fantasy adopts a maximalist philosophy and deals with themes of celebrity and excess . The record included the international hit " All of the Lights " , and Billboard hits " Power " , " Monster " , and " Runaway " , the latter of which accompanied a 35 @-@ minute film of the same name . During this time , West initiated the free music program GOOD Fridays through his website , offering a free download of previously unreleased songs each Friday , a portion of which were included on the album . This promotion ran from August 20 - December 17 , 2010 . Dark Fantasy went on to go platinum in the United States , but its omission as a contender for Album of the Year at the 54th Grammy Awards was viewed as a " snub " by several media outlets .
Following a headlining set at Coachella 2011 that was described by The Hollywood Reporter as " one of greatest hip @-@ hop sets of all time " , West released the collaborative album Watch the Throne with Jay @-@ Z. By employing a sales strategy that released the album digitally weeks before its physical counterpart , Watch the Throne became one of the few major label albums in the Internet age to avoid a leak . " Niggas in Paris " became the record 's highest charting single , peaking at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 . In 2012 , West released the compilation album Cruel Summer , a collection of tracks by artists from West 's record label GOOD Music . Cruel Summer produced four singles , two of which charted within the top twenty of the Hot 100 : " Mercy " and " Clique " . West also directed a film of the same name that premiered at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival in custom pyramid @-@ shaped screening pavilion featuring seven screens .
= = = 2013 – 15 : Yeezus and Adidas collaboration = = =
Sessions for West 's sixth solo effort begin to take shape in early 2013 in his own personal loft 's living room at a Paris hotel . Determined to " undermine the commercial " , he once again brought together close collaborators and attempted to incorporate Chicago drill , dancehall , acid house , and industrial music . Primarily inspired by architecture , West 's perfectionist tendencies led him to contact producer Rick Rubin fifteen days shy of its due date to strip down the record 's sound in favor of a more minimalist approach . Initial promotion of his sixth album included worldwide video projections of the album 's music and live television performances . Yeezus , West 's sixth album , was released June 18 , 2013 to rave reviews from critics . It became the rapper 's sixth consecutive number one debut , but also marked his lowest solo opening week sales . Def Jam issued " Black Skinhead " to radio in July 2013 as the album 's lead single . On September 6 , 2013 , Kanye West announced he would be headlining his first solo tour in five years , to support Yeezus , with fellow American rapper Kendrick Lamar accompanying him along the way .
In June 2013 , West and television personality Kim Kardashian announced the birth of their first child , North . In October 2013 , West and Kardashian announced their engagement to widespread media attention . November 2013 , West stated that he was beginning work on his next studio album , hoping to release it by mid @-@ 2014 , with production by Rick Rubin and Q @-@ Tip . In December 2013 , Adidas announced the beginning of their official apparel collaboration with West , to be premiered the following year . In May 2014 , West and Kardashian were married in a private ceremony in Florence , Italy , with a variety of artists and celebrities in attendance . West released a single , " Only One " , featuring Paul McCartney , on December 31 , 2014 .
" FourFiveSeconds " , a single jointly produced with Rihanna and McCartney , was released in January 2015 . West also appeared on the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special , where he premiered a new song entitled " Wolves " , featuring Sia Furler and fellow Chicago rapper , Vic Mensa . In February 2015 , West premiered his clothing collaboration with Adidas , entitled Yeezy Season 1 , to generally positive reviews . This would include West 's Yeezy Boost sneakers . In March 2015 , West released the single " All Day " featuring Theophilus London , Allan Kingdom and Paul McCartney . West performed the song at the 2015 BRIT Awards with a number of US rappers and UK grime MC 's including : Skepta , Wiley , Novelist , Fekky , Krept & Konan , Stormzy , Allan Kingdom , Theophilus London and Vic Mensa . He would premiere the second iteration of his clothing line , Yeezy Season 2 , in September 2015 at New York Fashion Week .
= = = 2015 – present : The Life of Pablo and Turbo Grafx 16 = = =
Having initially announced a new album entitled So Help Me God slated for a 2014 release , in March 2015 West announced that the album would instead be tentatively called SWISH . Later that month , West was awarded an honorary doctorate by the School of the Art Institute of Chicago for his contributions to music , fashion , and popular culture , officially making him an honorary DFA . The next month , West headlined at the Glastonbury Festival in the UK , despite a petition signed by almost 135 @,@ 000 people against his appearance . Toward the end of the set , West proclaimed himself : " the greatest living rock star on the planet . " Media outlets , including social media sites such as Twitter , were divided on his performance . NME stated , " The decision to book West for the slot has proved controversial since its announcement , and the show itself appeared to polarise both Glastonbury goers and those who tuned in to watch on their TVs . " The publication added that " he 's letting his music speak for and prove itself . " The Guardian said that " his set has a potent ferocity – but there are gaps and stutters , and he cuts a strangely lone figure in front of the vast crowd . " In December 2015 , West released a song titled " Facts " .
West announced in January 2016 that SWISH would be released on February 11 , and that month released new songs " Real Friends " and a snippet of " No More Parties in L.A. " with Kendrick Lamar . This also revived the GOOD Fridays initiative in which Kanye releases new singles every Friday . On January 26 , 2016 , West revealed he had renamed the album from SWISH to Waves , and also announced the premier of his Yeezy Season 3 clothing line at Madison Square Garden . In the weeks leading up to the album 's release , West became embroiled in several Twitter controversies and released several changing iterations of the tracklist for the new album . Several days ahead of its release , West again changed the title , this time to The Life of Pablo . On February 11 , West premiered the album at Madison Square Garden as part of the presentation of his Yeezy Season 3 clothing line . Following the preview , West announced that he would be modifying the track list once more before its release to the public , and further delayed its release to finalize the recording of the track " Waves " at the behest of co @-@ writer Chance the Rapper . He released the album exclusively on Tidal on 14 February 2016 following a performance on SNL . Following its official streaming release , West continued to tinker with mixes of several tracks , describing the work as " a living breathing changing creative expression " and proclaiming the end of the album as a dominant release form . Although a statement by West around Life of Pablo 's initial release indicated that the album would be a permanent exclusive to Tidal , the album was released through several other competing services starting in April .
On February 24 , 2016 , West stated on Twitter that he was planning to release another album in the summer of 2016 , tentatively called Turbo Grafx 16 in reference to the 1980s video game console of the same name .
On June 3 , 2016 , West premiered the first single " Champions " off the GOOD Music album Cruel Winter , which was six minutes and featured Travis Scott , Big Sean , Gucci Mane , Desiigner , Yo Gotti , Quavo , and 2 Chainz . He told the radio host , Big Boy , that the beat had been in works for a year and a half .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Influences and early work = = =
West 's musical career has been defined by frequent stylistic shifts , and has seen him develop and explore a variety of different musical approaches and genres . When asked about his early musical inspirations , he has named artists such as A Tribe Called Quest , Stevie Wonder , Michael Jackson , George Michael , LL Cool J , Phil Collins and Madonna . West has named Puff Daddy as the " most important cultural figure " in his life , and he has also described David Bowie as one of his " most important inspirations . " West was formatively mentored by Chicago producer No I.D. , who introduced him to hip hop production in the early 1990s , allowing a teenage West to sit in on recording sessions . Early in his career , West pioneered a style of production dubbed " chipmunk soul " which utilized pitched @-@ up vocal samples , usually from soul and R & B songs , along with his own drums and instrumentation . His first major release featuring his trademark soulful vocal sampling style was " This Can 't Be Life " , a track from Jay @-@ Z 's The Dynasty : Roc La Familia . West has said that Wu @-@ Tang Clan producer RZA influenced him in his style , and has named Wu @-@ Tang rappers Ghostface Killah and Ol ' Dirty Bastard as inspirations . RZA spoke positively of the comparisons , stating in an interview for Rolling Stone , " I got super respect for Kanye [ ... ] [ he ] is going to inspire people to be like him . " West further developed his style on his 2004 debut album , The College Dropout . After a rough version was leaked , he meticulously refined the production , adding string arrangements , gospel choirs , and improved drum programming .
For his second album , Late Registration ( 2005 ) , he collaborated with film score composer Jon Brion and drew influence from non @-@ rap influences such as English trip hop group Portishead . Blending West 's primary soulful hip hop production with Brion 's elaborate chamber pop orchestration , the album experimentally incorporated a wide array of different genres and prominent orchestral elements , including string arrangements , piano chords , brass flecks , and horn riffs among other symphonic instrumentation . It also incorporated a myriad of foreign and vintage instruments not typical in popular music , let alone hip hop , such as a celesta , harpsichord , Chamberlin , CS @-@ 80 analog synthesizer , Chinese bells and berimbau , vibraphones , and marimba . Rolling Stone described Late Registration as West claiming " the whole world of music as hip @-@ hop turf " chronicling the album as " his mad quest to explode every cliché about hip @-@ hop identity . " Critic Robert Christgau wrote that " there 's never been hip @-@ hop so complex and subtle musically . " For a period of time , Kanye West stood as the sole current pop star to tour with a string section , as audible on his 2006 live album Late Orchestration .
= = = Middle period = = =
With his third album , Graduation ( 2007 ) , West moved away from the soulful sound of his previous releases and towards a more atmospheric , rock @-@ tinged , electronic @-@ influenced soundscape . Under the belief that Late Registration had been too indulgent and poorly arranged , he fashioned Graduation to contain less ornate production , made the album completely devoid of skits , and attempted to sequence it as a tighter , more cohesive package . The musical evolution arose from him listening to music genres encompassing European Britpop and Euro @-@ disco , American alternative and indie @-@ rock , and his native Chicago house . Towards this end , West retracted much of the live instrumentation that characterized his previous album and replaced it with heavy , gothic synthesizers , distorted synth @-@ chords , rave stabs , house beats , electro @-@ disco rhythms , and a wide array of modulated electronic noises and digital audio @-@ effects . In addition , West drew musical inspiration from arena rock bands such as The Rolling Stones , U2 , and Led Zeppelin in terms of melody and chord progression . Similar to its predecessor , the album wasn 't confined to the conventional looping techniques typical of contemporary hip @-@ hop and instead continued to implement sudden musical shifts within its multi @-@ layered song structures and express intricately composed introductions , bridges , and codas .
Conceived in the wake of several distressing personal events , West 's fourth studio album , 808s & Heartbreak ( 2008 ) , marked a radical departure from his previous releases , largely abandoning rap and hip hop stylings in favor of a stark electropop sound composed utilizing the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , the Auto @-@ Tune vocal processor , and virtual synthesis technology . The album 's music features austere production and elements such as droning synthesizers , dense drums , lengthy strings , and somber piano , and drew comparisons to the work of 1980s post @-@ punk and new wave groups ; West would confess an affinity with artists such as Joy Division , Gary Numan , TJ Swan and Boy George , and later described 808s as " the first black new wave album . " Maintaining a " minimal but functional " approach towards the album 's studio production , West explored the electronic feel produced by his explicitly Auto @-@ Tuned vocals and manipulated the sounds created by the 808 , modulating its pitch to produce a distorted , electronic sound ; he then sought to juxtapose mechanical sounds with the traditional sounds of taiko drums and choir monks . Rolling Stone journalist Matthew Trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote in a 2012 article , " Now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & Heartbreak has revealed itself to be Kanye 's most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . "
West recorded his fifth album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) , with a wide range of collaborators . It has been noted by writers for its maximalist aesthetic and its incorporation of elements from West 's previous four albums . Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson noted that such elements " all recur at various points " , namely " the luxurious soul of 2004 's The College Dropout , the symphonic pomp of Late Registration , the gloss of 2007 's Graduation , and the emotionally exhausted electro of 2008 's 808s & Heartbreak . " AllMusic 's Andy Kellman views it as the " culmination " of those albums , while noting that " it does not merely draw characteristics from each one of them . The 13 tracks ... sometimes fuse them together simultaneously . Consequently , the sonic and emotional layers are often difficult to pry apart and enumerate " . Kellman emphasized the track " All of the Lights " as most representative of the album 's " contrasting elements and maniacal extravagance . " Robert Christgau , writing for MSN Music , commented that the music eschews the " grace " of The College Dropout and Late Registration for " grandiosity " and " sonic luxuries . "
= = = Recent work = = =
Describing his sixth studio album Yeezus ( 2013 ) as " a protest to music , " West embraced an abrasive style that incorporated a variety of unconventional influences . Music critic Greg Kot described it as " a hostile , abrasive and intentionally off @-@ putting " album that combines " the worlds of " 1980s acid @-@ house and contemporary Chicago drill music , 1990s industrial music , and the " avant @-@ rap " of Saul Williams , Death Grips and Odd Future . The album also incorporates elements of trap music , as well as dancehall , punk , and electro . Inspired by the minimalist design of Le Corbusier and primarily electronic in nature , the album features distorted drum machines and " synthesizers that sound like they 're malfunctioning , low @-@ resolution samplers that add a pixelated digital aura to the most analog sounds . " To this end , the album incorporates glitches reminiscent of CD skips or corrupted MP3 's , and Auto @-@ Tuned vocals are modulated to a point in which they are difficult to decipher . It also continues West 's practice of eclectic samples : he employs a sample of Nina Simone 's " Strange Fruit , " an obscure Hindi sample on " I Am a God " , and a sample of 1970s Hungarian rock group Omega on " New Slaves " . " On Sight " interpolates a melody from " Sermon ( He 'll Give Us What We Really Need ) " by the Holy Name of Mary Choral Family . Rolling Stone called the album a " brilliant , obsessive @-@ compulsive career auto @-@ correct " .
Released in 2016 after several years of delays , West 's seventh album The Life of Pablo was noted for its " raw , occasionally even intentionally messy , composition " in distinction to West 's previous albums . Rolling Stone wrote that " this is a messy album that feels like it was made that way on purpose , after the laser @-@ sharp intensity of Yeezus , " stating that " It 's designed to sound like a work in progress . " Carl Wilson of Slate characterized the album as creating " strange links between Kanye 's many iterations — soul @-@ sample enthusiast , heartbroken Auto @-@ Tune crooner , hedonistic avant @-@ pop composer , industrial @-@ rap shit @-@ talker , " suggesting that " the point is that in the context of all this sonic landscaping , in West 's kamikaze , mood @-@ swinging way , Pablo now seems undeniably ( not half @-@ assedly , as I 'd been about to conclude ) like an album of struggle . " He also noted the album 's use of auto @-@ tune , a cappella , as well as bass and percussion lines " that are only the tail @-@ end decay of some lost starting place , some vanished rhythmic Eden . " West initially characterized the release as " a gospel album . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune wrote in his review of The Life of Pablo , " West 's version of gospel touches on some of those sonic cues — heavy organ , soaring choirs — but seems more preoccupied with gospel text and the notion of redemption . "
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Fashion = = =
Early in his career , West made clear his interest in fashion and desire to work in the clothing design industry . In September 2005 , West announced that he would release his Pastelle Clothing line in spring 2006 , claiming " Now that I have a Grammy under my belt and Late Registration is finished , I am ready to launch my clothing line next spring . " The line was developed over the following four years – with multiple pieces teased by West himself – before the line was ultimately cancelled in 2009 . In 2009 , West collaborated with Nike to release his own shoe , the Air Yeezys , with a second version released in 2012 . In January 2009 , West introduced his first shoe line designed for Louis Vuitton during Paris Fashion Week . The line was released in summer 2009 . West has additionally designed shoewear for Bape and Italian shoemaker Giuseppe Zanotti .
On October 1 , 2011 , Kanye West premiered his women 's fashion label , DW Kanye West at Paris Fashion Week . He received support from DSquared2 duo Dean and Dan Caten , Olivier Theyskens , Jeremy Scott , Azzedine Alaïa , and the Olsen twins , who were also in attendance during his show . His debut fashion show received mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews , ranging from reserved observations by Style.com to excoriating commentary by The Wall Street Journal , The New York Times , the International Herald Tribune , Elleuk.com , The Daily Telegraph , Harper 's Bazaar and many others . On March 6 , 2012 , West premiered a second fashion line at Paris Fashion Week . The line 's reception was markedly improved from the previous presentation , with a number of critics heralding West for his " much improved " sophomore effort .
On December 3 , 2013 , Adidas officially confirmed a new shoe collaboration deal with West . After months of anticipation and rumors , West confirmed the release of the Adidas Yeezy Boosts with a Twitter announcement directing fans to the domain yeezy.supply. In 2015 , West unveiled his Yeezy Season clothing line , premiering Season 1 in collaboration with Adidas early in the year . The line received positive critical reviews , with Vogue observing " a protective toughness , a body @-@ conscious severity that made the clothes more than a simple accessory . " The release of the Yeezy Boosts and the full Adidas collaboration was showcased in New York City on February 12 , 2015 , with free streaming to 50 cinemas in 13 countries around the world . An initial release of the Adidas Yeezy Boosts was limited to 9000 pairs to be available only in New York City via the Adidas smartphone app ; the Adidas Yeezy Boosts were sold out within 10 minutes . The shoes released worldwide on February 28 , 2015 , were limited to select boutique stores and the Adidas UK stores . He followed with Season 2 later that year at New York Fashion Week . On February 11 , West premiered his Yeezy Season 3 clothing line at Madison Square Garden in conjunction with the previewing of his album The Life of Pablo .
= = = Business ventures = = =
West founded the record label and production company GOOD Music in 2004 , in conjunction with Sony BMG , shortly after releasing his debut album , The College Dropout . John Legend , Common , and West were the label 's inaugural artists . The label houses artists including West , Big Sean , Pusha T , Teyana Taylor , Yasiin Bey / Mos Def , D 'banj and John Legend , and producers including Hudson Mohawke , Q @-@ Tip , Travis Scott , No I.D. , Jeff Bhasker , and S1 . GOOD Music has released ten albums certified gold or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . In November 2015 , West appointed Pusha T the new president of GOOD Music .
In August 2008 , West revealed plans to open 10 Fatburger restaurants in the Chicago area ; the first was set to open in September 2008 in Orland Park . The second followed in January 2009 , while a third location is yet to be revealed , although the process is being finalized . His company , KW Foods LLC , bought the rights to the chain in Chicago . Ultimately , in 2009 , only two locations actually opened . In February 2011 , West shut down the Fatburger located in Orland Park . Later that year , the remaining Beverly location also was shuttered .
On January 5 , 2012 , West announced his establishment of the creative content company DONDA , named after his late mother Donda West . In his announcement , West proclaimed that the company would " pick up where Steve Jobs left off " ; DONDA would operate as " a design company which will galvanize amazing thinkers in a creative space to bounce their dreams and ideas " with the " goal to make products and experiences that people want and can afford . " West is notoriously secretive about the company 's operations , maintaining neither an official website nor a social media presence . In stating DONDA 's creative philosophy , West articulated the need to " put creatives in a room together with like minds " in order to " simplify and aesthetically improve everything we see , taste , touch , and feel . " . Contemporary critics have noted the consistent minimalistic aesthetic exhibited throughout DONDA creative projects .
On March 30 , 2015 , it was announced that West is a co @-@ owner , with various other music artists , in the music streaming service Tidal . The service specialises in lossless audio and high definition music videos . Jay Z acquired the parent company of Tidal , Aspiro , in the first quarter of 2015 . Including Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z , sixteen artist stakeholders ( such as Rihanna , Beyoncé , Madonna , Chris Martin , Nicki Minaj and more ) co @-@ own Tidal , with the majority owning a 3 % equity stake . The idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry , and to rival other streaming services such as Spotify , which have been criticised for their low payout of royalties . " The challenge is to get everyone to respect music again , to recognize its value " , stated Jay @-@ Z on the release of Tidal .
On June 6 , 2016 , West announced the Yeezy Season 2 Zine and the Adidas Yeezy Boost 750 will be released to retailers on June 11 . They are high @-@ top shoes with a glow in the dark sole .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
West , alongside his mother , founded the " Kanye West Foundation " in Chicago in 2003 , tasked with a mission to battle dropout and illiteracy rates , while partnering with community organizations to provide underprivileged youth access to music education . In 2007 , the West and the Foundation partnered with Strong American Schools as part of their " Ed in ' 08 " campaign . As spokesman for the campaign , West appeared in a series of PSAs for the organization , and hosted an inaugural benefit concert in August of that year .
In 2008 , following the death of West 's mother , the foundation was rechristened " The Dr. Donda West Foundation . " The foundation ceased operations in 2011 .
Kanye West and friend , Rhymefest , also founded " Donda 's House , Inc " . Got Bars is the Donda 's House signature music / lyric composition and performance program . Participants are selected through an application and audition process . Got Bars is a free music writing program with the goal of helping at @-@ risk Chicago youth . It is aimed at students between
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49 's racing career got off to an unsettled start when Brabham 's lead driver , Niki Lauda , abruptly quit the sport after 10 laps of the first practice session at the penultimate race of the 1979 season , the Canadian Grand Prix . The car soon showed promise : Piquet ran third in the race on the high speed Circuit Île Notre @-@ Dame before retiring with a broken gearbox . Lauda 's replacement , Argentine novice Ricardo Zunino , was seventh of the nine who completed the race . At the season finale in wet conditions at the Watkins Glen International circuit , Zunino spun off although Piquet set the fastest lap before a driveshaft failed , putting his car out of the race .
Early in the 1980 season , Piquet 's car scored points finishes at the Argentine and South African Grands Prix , behind Alan Jones ' Williams FW07 @-@ DFV and the turbocharged Renault RE20 of René Arnoux . At the fourth race of the season , the United States Grand Prix West , Piquet qualified on pole by over a second in a BT49 featuring some updates to the sidepods , bodywork and suspension , before leading the race , held on the streets of Long Beach , California , from start to finish . BT49s in Piquet 's hands scored in seven of the ten remaining rounds of the championship . Towards the end of the season , the suspension was reworked for the Dutch Grand Prix on the high speed Circuit Park Zandvoort , lengthening the wheelbase by three inches and allowing the car to run in a lower drag configuration . Piquet won after Jones destroyed his FW07 's skirts on kerbs . Piquet also won the next race , the Italian Grand Prix to give himself a one @-@ point lead over Williams driver Jones . By the end of the season the BT49 was " arguably the fastest Cosworth @-@ powered car " , but Piquet lost the title to Jones at the penultimate race of the year , the Canadian Grand Prix , when a development engine failed while he was leading the race . The BT49s driven by the team 's second drivers — Zunino and then from mid @-@ season Mexican Héctor Rebaque — either retired or finished outside the points , with the exception of Rebaque 's sixth place at the Canadian race . The team finished third in the constructors ' championship behind Williams and Ligier , unable to compete with only one car scoring points .
Disagreement between the teams and the sport 's administrators over the technical regulations for the 1981 Formula One season contributed to Goodyear 's temporary withdrawal from Formula One and meant that the 1981 South African Grand Prix was run by the teams to 1980 regulations using cars with sliding skirts . Piquet finished second in a BT49B , but the race did not count towards the championship . The season proper opened with the United States Grand Prix West , at which the BT49C was introduced . To the team 's surprise , it was the only car to exploit the " obvious " loophole in the new ground clearance regulation by lowering itself , but the BT49Cs raced with conventional suspension after the hydropneumatic system repeatedly jammed . The team revised the system continuously over the next three races and used it to set pole position at the Brazilian and Argentine Grands Prix and win the Argentine and San Marino races while continuing to suffer from the system not rising or lowering correctly .
Frank Williams led an abortive protest against the car at the Argentine Grand Prix , objecting to the flexibility of the fixed skirts used to seal the underside of the car , which allowed them to replicate the effect of a sliding skirt . At the following race , the scrutineers rejected the flexible skirts . Brabham replaced them with stiffer material from one of the other teams for the race , which Piquet won . As the season progressed , other teams developed their own lowering systems — a front spring and cylinder were stolen from the Brabham garage in Argentina — but after a rule clarification from FISA many cars were lowered by the driver pressing a switch , a development that Murray found frustrating in light of Brabham 's efforts to develop a system that he considered legal . The cars ran on Goodyear tyres again from the sixth round of the championship ; motorsport author Doug Nye believes this cost the BT49s good results at several races while the American company adapted to the latest Formula One developments . Despite the virtually solid suspension now required to maintain a consistent ride height , which put components under greater strain , Piquet built a championship challenge on the back of consistent reliability : by the end of the season , his BT49Cs had finished 10 of 15 races , with only one mechanical failure . Piquet finished fifth at the final race of the season — the Caesars Palace Grand Prix — to take the title from Carlos Reutemann in a Williams FW07 by one point .
Brabham had been working with the German engine manufacturer BMW since 1980 on the development of a turbocharged engine for Formula One . The BMW @-@ powered BT50 made its debut at the start of the 1982 season , taking advantage of the high @-@ altitude Kyalami circuit in South Africa , which favoured turbocharged cars . However , the as yet unreliable BMW @-@ powered cars were dropped for the next two races . Piquet finished first at the Brazilian Grand Prix in a BT49D , but was disqualified after a protest from Renault and Ferrari on the grounds that the car had raced underweight due to its water @-@ cooled brakes . FISA ruled that in future all cars must be weighed before coolants were topped up , resulting in a boycott of the fourth race of the season by most of the DFV @-@ powered teams , including Brabham . Under threat from BMW , Brabham did not use its Ford @-@ powered BT49s again until the sixth race of the season , the Monaco Grand Prix , where one was entered for Riccardo Patrese alongside Piquet in a BT50 . Patrese won the race after a chaotic final lap on which several other cars stopped . Patrese used the BT49 for the next two races , taking a second place behind Piquet 's BMW @-@ powered car in the BT49 's final Formula One race , the 1982 Canadian Grand Prix .
= = Historic racing = =
Since 1995 , BT49s have competed regularly in the FIA Historic Formula One Championship . The championship is open to cars that competed in Formula One in the DFV era , between 1967 and 1985 , in several classes to allow for equal competition . The BT49 competes in class C , for post 1971 ground effects cars . In 1999 , Motor Sport magazine tested a BT49D from the series featuring 530 bhp ( 395 kW ) from its developed DFV at 11 @,@ 200 rpm , but the championship has since introduced rules to restrict engines to 10 @,@ 500 rpm to keep costs down . While the cars ' original skirts can be kept , they must be set up such that there is 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) clearance beneath the car , a rule that removes most of the advantage of ground effect . The hydropneumatic suspension employed during 1981 is not permitted . The carbon @-@ carbon brakes originally used in 1981 and 1982 are also banned and the cars must run with conventional brake pads and steel brakes . The cars use Avon slick tyres . Christian Glaesel won the 2005 FIA Historic Formula One Championship driving a BT49D and Joaquin Folch won the 2012 championship in a BT49C .
= = Complete Formula One World Championship results = =
( key ) ( Results in bold indicate pole position ; results in italics indicate fastest lap )
^ 1 Placings in the constructors ' championship are for chassis @-@ engine combinations . Brabham used both Alfa Romeo and Ford @-@ powered cars during this season : the BT49 @-@ Fords scored no points and Brabham @-@ Ford was not classified .
^ 2 Brabham used both Ford and BMW @-@ powered cars during this season : Brabham @-@ Ford was classified 9th .
= Thomas Hines =
Thomas Henry Hines ( October 8 , 1838 – January 23 , 1898 ) was a Confederate cavalryman who was known for his spying activities during the last two years of the American Civil War . A native of Butler County , Kentucky , he initially worked as a grammar instructor , mainly at the Masonic University of La Grange , Kentucky . During the first year of the war , he served as a field officer , initiating several raids . He was an important assistant to John Hunt Morgan , doing a preparatory raid ( Hines ' Raid ) in advance of Morgan 's Raid through the states of Indiana and Ohio , and after being captured with Morgan , organized their escape from the Ohio Penitentiary . He was later involved in espionage and tried to stir up insurrections against the Federal government in selected Northern locales .
On several occasions during the war , Hines was forced to make narrow , seemingly impossible , escapes . At one point , he concealed himself in a mattress that was being used at the time ; on another occasion , he was confused for the actor and assassin John Wilkes Booth , a dangerous case of mistaken identity that forced him to flee Detroit in April 1865 by holding a ferry captain at gunpoint . Union agents viewed Hines as the man they most needed to apprehend , but apart from the time he served at the Ohio Penitentiary in late 1863 , he was never captured .
After the war , once it was safe for him to return to his native Kentucky , he settled down with much of his family in Bowling Green . He started practicing law , which led him to serve on the Kentucky Court of Appeals , eventually becoming its Chief Justice . Later , he practiced law in Frankfort , Kentucky , until his death in 1898 , keeping many of the secrets of Confederate espionage from public knowledge .
= = Early life = =
Hines was born in Butler County , Kentucky , on October 8 , 1838 , to Judge Warren W. and Sarah Carson Hines and was raised in Warren County , Kentucky . While his education was largely informal , he spent some time in common schools . He was 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) tall , and weighed a mere 140 pounds ( 64 kg ) . With his slender build , Hines was described as rather benign in appearance , and a friend observed that he had a voice resembling that of a " refined woman " . He was said to have a fondness not only for women , but also music and horses .
He became an adjunct professor at the Masonic University , a school established by the Grand Lodge of Kentucky Freemasons for teaching the orphans of Kentucky Masons in La Grange in 1859 . He was the principal of its grammar school , but with the advent of the war , he joined the Confederate Army in September 1861 .
= = Civil War = =
= = = Early war experiences = = =
Hines joined the Confederate army , as did at least eleven of his cousins . Hines initially led " Buckner 's Guides " , which were attached to Albert Sidney Johnston 's command , as his fellow guides recognized his " coolness and leadership " . In November 1861 , he was given a lieutenant 's commission . On December 31 , 1861 , he led a successful mission to Borah 's Ferry , Kentucky , to attack a Union outpost there .
The Guides were disbanded in January 1862 after the Confederate government of Kentucky fled Bowling Green , as Hines did not want to fight anywhere except in Kentucky . He traveled to Richmond , Virginia , and missed the Battle of Shiloh as a result . In April , he decided to join Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan , and he re @-@ enlisted in the army as a private in the 9th Kentucky Cavalry in May 1862 . Morgan recognized Hines ' talents and commissioned him as a captain on June 10 , 1862 . Afterward , Hines spent most of his time engaged in secret missions in his beloved Kentucky . Dressed in civilian clothes , he usually operated alone to avoid drawing attention to himself , not wanting to be executed as a spy .
On many of his forays in Kentucky , Hines made special trips to see loved ones . Often it was to visit Nancy Sproule , his childhood sweetheart and future bride , in Brown 's Lock , near Bowling Green . On other occasions he visited his parents in Lexington , Kentucky . In both places , Union spies attempted to capture Hines , but he always escaped , even after his father had been captured and his mother was sick in bed .
= = = 1863 = = =
In June 1863 , Hines led an invasion into Indiana with 25 Confederates posing as a Union unit in pursuit of deserters . Their goal was to see if the local Copperheads would support the invasion of John Hunt Morgan planned for July 1863 . Traveling through Kentucky for eight days to obtain supplies for their mission , they crossed the Ohio River to enter Indiana , near the village of Derby , on June 18 , 1863 . Hines visited the local Copperhead leader , Dr. William A. Bowles , in French Lick , and learned that there would be no formal support for Morgan 's Raid . On his way back to Kentucky , Hines and his men were discovered in Valeene , Indiana , leading to a small skirmish near Leavenworth , Indiana , on Little Blue Island . Hines had to abandon his men as he swam across the Ohio River under gunfire .
After wandering around Kentucky for a week , Hines rejoined General Morgan at Brandenburg , Kentucky . Colonel Basil W. Duke made a disparaging comment in his memoirs about how Hines appeared on the Brandenburg riverfront , saying Hines was " apparently the most listless inoffensive youth that was ever imposed upon " ; despite being Morgan 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Colonel Duke was usually not told of all the espionage Hines was carrying out , causing some to believe that Hines and Duke did not like each other , which was not the case .
It was due to Hines that the riverboats Alice Dean and the John T. McCombs were captured for the purpose of transporting Morgan 's 2000 + men force across the Ohio River . It was Hines ' reports that encouraged Morgan to be rough with anyone posing as a Confederate sympathizer in Indiana , as Morgan had been relying on support from sympathizers in Indiana to be successful on his raid . Hines stayed with Morgan until the end of the Raid , and was with John Hunt Morgan during their imprisonment , first at Johnson 's Island , and later at the Ohio Penitentiary just outside downtown Columbus , Ohio , where , despite the rules of war dictating that prisoners of war should go to military prison , they were put in with common criminals .
= = = = Escape = = = =
Hines discovered a way to escape from the Ohio Penitentiary . He had been reading the novel Les Misérables and was said to be inspired by Jean Valjean and Valjean 's escapes through the passages underneath Paris , France . Hines noticed how dry the lower prison cells felt and how they were lacking in mold , even though sunlight never shined there . This caused him to believe that escape by tunneling down was possible . After discovering an air chamber underneath them , which he had deduced , Hines begun the tunneling effort . The tunnel was only eighteen inches wide , which was just large enough for him to enter the four foot by four foot air chamber that was surrounded by heavy masonry . As Hines and the six others who accompanied Hines and John Hunt Morgan worked on the tunnel , a thin crust of dirt was used to hide the tunneling from the prison officials . They tunneled for six weeks , with the tunnel 's exit coming between the inner and the 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) outer prison walls , near a coal pile . On the day of escape , November 26 , 1863 , Morgan switched cells with his brother , Colonel Richard Morgan . The day was chosen as a new Union military commander was coming to Columbus , and Morgan knew that the prison cells would be inspected at that time . Together , after the daily midnight inspection , Hines , John Hunt Morgan and five captains under Morgan 's command used the tunnel to escape . Aided by the fact that the prison sentries sought shelter from the raging storm occurring at the time , the Confederate officers climbed the 25 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wall effortlessly , using metal hooks to effect their escape .
Hines had even left a note for the warden . It read : " Warden N. Merion , the Faithful , the Vigilant " as follows : " Castle Merion , Cell No. 20 . November 27 , 1863 . Commencement , November 4 , 1863 . Conclusion , November 20 , 1863 . Hours for labor per day , three . Tools , two small knives . La patience est amere , mais son fruit est doux . By order of my six honorable confederates . " Those left behind were strip searched and moved to different cells in the Ohio State Penitentiary . Two of the officers who escaped with Hines and Morgan , Captain Ralph Sheldon and Captain Samuel Taylor , were captured four days later in Louisville , Kentucky , but the other three ( Captain Jacob Bennett , Captain L. D. Hockersmith , and Captain Augustus Magee ) made good their escape to Canada and the South .
Hines led John Hunt Morgan back to Confederate lines . First , they arrived at the train station in downtown Columbus , where they bought tickets to Cincinnati , Ohio . The duo jumped off the train before it entered the Cincinnati train station . They continued to evade capture in Cincinnati , staying for one night at the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown , Kentucky . In Tennessee , Hines diverted the Union troops ' attention away from John Hunt Morgan , and was himself recaptured and sentenced to death by hanging . He escaped that night by telling stories to the soldier in charge of him and subdued him when given the chance . A few days later he again escaped Union soldiers who intended to hang him .
= = = Northwest Conspiracy = = =
Hines went to the Confederate capital of Richmond , Virginia , after his escape in January 1864 . He convinced Confederate President Jefferson Davis of a plan to instill mass panic in the Northern states , by means of freeing prisoners and causing arson in larger Northern cities . Impressed by Hines ' plan , Davis agreed to back him . Davis urged Hines to tell Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin and Secretary of War James Seddon his plan . Both men agreed to the plan , and encouraged Hines to proceed , with the only hesitation by Davis , Benjamin and Sheldon being the effect on public opinion on such a plan , including what Great Britain and France would think of Hines ' actions .
Hines thought it would be easier to enter the North from Canada and traveled there during the winter . Hines led the Northwest Conspiracy from Canada in the fall of 1864 . Colonel Benjamin Anderson was involved in the plot , along with other Confederate soldiers . It was hoped that Hines and his men would be able to free the Confederate prisoners held at Camp Douglas in Chicago , Illinois .
Hines led sixty men from Toronto , Ontario , on August 25 , 1864 . They arrived during the Democratic Party National Convention held in Chicago that year . The Copperheads had told Hines to wait until that time , as they said that 50 @,@ 000 Copperheads would be there for the event . However , encountering Copperhead hesitation to assist Hines and his force , and with Federal authorities apparently knowledgeable of the plot , Hines and his men were forced to flee Chicago on August 30 , 1864 . Many of the men thought Anderson may have been a double agent , forcing him to leave the group . A second attempt to free the Camp Douglas Confederate prisoners occurred during the United States Presidential Election of 1864 , but that plan was also foiled .
In the same year he tried to free Confederate prisoners of war by recruiting former members of Morgan 's Raiders who had escaped to Canada , including John Hunt Morgan 's telegrapher George " Lightning " Ellsworth , who was a native of Canada . On his last day in Chicago , Hines had to avoid discovery by Union soldiers inspecting the home he was hiding in by crawling into a mattress upon which the homeowner 's wife lay ill with delirium . The Union soldiers inspected the house he was in , and even checked to see if Hines was the one lying on the bed , but did not discover Hines in the mattress . The soldiers established a guard by the door of the house . As it rained the next day , visitors were encouraged to visit the sick woman . The soldiers never looked at the faces under the umbrellas , and as a result , Hines sneaked out of the house and left Chicago .
= = = Late war = = =
In October 1864 , Hines again went to Cincinnati , after crossing covertly through Indiana , where Union troops had again sought him . This time , with the help of friends whose home he hid in , Hines concealed himself in an old closet obscured by mortar and red bricks , where he avoided detection by the Union troops who inspected the house . Hines learned there that his beloved Nancy Sproule was in an Ohio convent . He decided to " spirit " her from it , and on November 10 , 1864 , at St. Mary 's Catholic Church in Covington , Kentucky , they were married , despite her father 's wishes that they wait until the war was over , due to Hines ' wartime activities . They spent a week 's honeymoon in Kentucky , after which Hines returned to his clandestine activities in Canada .
Two days after Lincoln 's assassination , on April 16 , 1865 , Hines was in Detroit , Michigan , when he was mistaken for John Wilkes Booth , who was then the subject of a massive manhunt . After finding himself in a fight , Hines jumped several fences and made his way to Detroit 's wharf . He waited for a ferryboat to empty its passengers and then forced the captain at gunpoint to take him across the Detroit River to Canada . On arrival , Hines apologized to the captain and gave him five dollars . Hines ' exploit led to the mistaken rumor that Booth had escaped into Canada .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After his escape from Detroit , Hines went to Toronto where several other former Confederates lived . Not expecting to return to the United States , he sent for his wife Nancy . While in Toronto he studied law with General John C. Breckinridge , a former Vice President of the United States . Once U.S. President Andrew Johnson declared a pardon for most former Confederates , Hines went back to Detroit on July 20 , 1865 , to sign a loyalty oath to the United States . However , knowing that Union officials in Kentucky would consider him an exception to the pardon , he remained in Canada until May 1866 .
After sending his wife to Kentucky , where their first child was born , Hines began living in Memphis , Tennessee , passing the bar exam on June 12 , 1866 , with high honors . During his stay in Memphis he also edited the Daily Appeal . Hines moved to Bowling Green , Kentucky , in 1867 , where many of his family lived , and practiced law there . Basil W. Duke appointed Hines a colonel in the Soldiers of the Red Cross . Hines later became the County Judge for Warren County , Kentucky .
Hines was elected to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1878 and served there until 1886 . From 1884 to 1886 , he served as Chief Justice . He was said to be " exceptionally free from all judicial bias " . Hines was a witness to the assassination of fellow judge John Milton Elliott on March 26 , 1879 , while the two were leaving the Kentucky State House , by Colonel Thomas Buford , a judge from Henry County , Kentucky . Buford , enraged by Elliott 's failure to rule in favor of his late sister in a property dispute , shot Elliott with a double @-@ barreled twelve gauge shotgun filled with buckshot after Hines had turned and walked away from Elliott . Hines inspected the body as Buford surrendered to a deputy sheriff who had come to investigate the turmoil .
After his time on the Kentucky Court of Appeals , Hines returned to practicing law in Frankfort , Kentucky . In 1886 , Hines began writing a series of four articles discussing the Northwest Conspiracy for Basil W. Duke 's Southern Bivouac magazine . The magazine was dedicated to the memory of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy , but was less adversarial than similar Southern magazines , gaining a larger Northern readership than similar journals . The first of the articles was printed in the December 1886 issue . However , after consulting with former Confederate president Jefferson Davis at Davis ' home in Mississippi , Hines did not name anybody on the Northern side who assisted in the conspiracy . After writing the first article , Hines was attacked for not being more forthcoming regarding all the participants from both newspapers ' reviewers ( particularly from the Louisville Times ) and Southern readers , which discouraged Hines from publishing any more accounts of the Northwest Conspiracy .
Hines died in 1898 in Frankfort , and was buried in Fairview Cemetery in Bowling Green , Kentucky , in the Hines series of plots . Also among the Hines family plots is the grave site of Duncan Hines , a second cousin twice removed .
= = Misinformation = =
Historical markers concerning Hines ' exploits have occasionally included mistaken information . The historical marker placed by the Indiana Civil War Centennial Commission in 1963 in the vicinity of Derby , Perry County , Indiana , to memorialize Hines ' entry into Indiana states that Hines invaded Indiana in 1862 , although he actually did so in 1863 . In addition , a marker by the Confederate Monument of Bowling Green in Bowling Green 's Fairview Cemetery says that Hines died before he could go to the dedication ceremony in 1876 , when in reality he died in 1898 and is buried a few hundred feet away .
= Lavoy Allen =
Lavoy Allen ( born February 4 , 1989 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was selected in the 2nd Round , 50th overall pick in the 2011 NBA draft by the Philadelphia 76ers . Allen is the son of a truck driver , and did not play much basketball until eighth grade . He attended Pennsbury High School , where he was coached by Frank Sciolla . Rivals.com ranked him the 14th best center in his class , and Scout.com named him the 110th overall prospect . Allen committed to Temple University and coach Fran Dunphy .
Temple reached the NCAA Tournament in all four seasons that Allen played there . He was a three @-@ time All @-@ Atlantic 10 Defensive Team honoree and a two @-@ time All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team recipient . In his junior year , he became the first Temple player to average a double @-@ double since Ollie Johnson accomplished the feat in 1970 @-@ 71 . Allen declared for early entry in the 2010 NBA draft , but withdrew prior to the May 8 deadine . As a senior , Allen surpassed Johnny Baum as the all @-@ time leading rebounder in Temple history . He was the recipient of the Robert V. Geasey Trophy honoring the Philadelphia Big Five Player of the Year . Dunphy has said that Allen " might be the smartest player I 've ever coached . "
= = Early life = =
Allen was born in Trenton , New Jersey on February 4 , 1989 . His mother is Paula Allen and his father , Dave Allen , is a truck driver . When he was nine years old , Lavoy moved to Morrisville , Pennsylvania , and struggled to make friends in his new surroundings . He did not play much organized basketball until eighth grade . In an interview , Allen admitted he was not very good in the beginning , and focused on passing the ball to a better teammate . His initial motivation was how schoolchildren mocked him for his height yet not being able to dunk . " I could barely jump over the Sunday paper , " he said .
= = High school career = =
He attended Pennsbury High School , where he was coached by Frank Sciolla . Former Temple player Dalton Pepper was his high school teammate . In ninth grade , Allen decided that he wanted to be great , and put in much more practice time . He became a starter on the varsity team in his sophomore year . As a junior , he averaged 12 points and nine rebounds per game , and was named a Top 150 player in his class by Hoop Scoop .
In his senior season , Allen posted per @-@ game averages of 13 points , 9 @.@ 6 rebounds , 3 @.@ 2 assists , 3 blocks , and 2 steals . Under Allen , Pennsbury reached the second round of the PIAA playoffs before losing to Harrisburg High School . He was named to the Second Team all @-@ Southeastern Pennsylvania at the conclusion of the season . Allen tried out for the USA U @-@ 19 basketball team , but did not make the final cut . Rivals.com ranked him the 14th best center in his class , and Scout.com named him the 110th overall prospect . He worked at a day care facility to earn enough money to bring his date to the senior prom . On November 8 , 2006 , Allen committed to Temple , over Division I scholarship offers from Rutgers , Saint Joseph 's , and La Salle . Along with Dayton signee Chris Wright , Allen was one of two ESPN 100 prospects in the class of 2008 to sign with an Atlantic 10 program .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Coming into his freshman season , Allen was selected to the Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Rookie Team . He was seen as an answer for Temple 's rebounding and interior scoring struggles from the previous 12 @-@ 18 season . In his first college basketball game , Allen scored eight points and grabbed nine rebounds in a loss to # 7 Tennessee . From November 18 through December 9 , 2007 , he scored in double figures in six consecutive games . On February 10 , 2008 , Allen 's season @-@ high 20 points led Temple to an 80 @-@ 70 overtime victory over the UMass Minutemen . Allen was benched in the February 17 game against Dayton due to missing a study assignment .
The Owls finished the season 21 – 13 , and made the NCAA Tournament for the first time since 2001 , receiving a 12 seed by the selection committee . In the first round , they bowed out to fifth @-@ seeded Michigan State 72 @-@ 61 . In that game , Allen notched his first double @-@ double of 13 points and 11 rebounds , and also drained his first two collegiate three @-@ pointers . He led the team in blocks with a total of 52 , and finished second in field goal percentage ( .558 ) , third in rebounds per game ( 5 @.@ 7 ) , and fourth in points per game ( 8 @.@ 1 ) . Allen was selected to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Rookie Team .
= = = Sophomore = = =
As a sophomore , Allen increased his scoring average to 10 @.@ 9 points per game , second on the team , and again led the team in blocks with 1 @.@ 56 per game . He shot a team @-@ best .579 from the floor , and his .618 field goal percentage in league games led the Atlantic 10 . In addition , he led the team and finished third in the Atlantic 10 in rebounding with 9 @.@ 0 rebounds per game . He had 14 double @-@ doubles on the season . In the Owls ' game against Lafayette , Allen broke his thumb and was forced to miss the next game against Buffalo . His season @-@ high 23 points came on February 8 , when the Owls defeated the Rhode Island Rams 68 @-@ 62 ; Allen also had 13 rebounds . The following day , Allen received his first Philadelphia Big 5 player of the week honors . He would again be honored as Big 5 player of the week on February 23 , following a 20 @-@ point and season @-@ high 18 rebound performance against St. Bonaventure .
At the end of the regular season , Allen was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 Third Team and All @-@ Atlantic 10 Defensive Team . He helped Temple to its second consecutive Atlantic 10 Tournament title and NCAA Tournament appearance . In the championship game over Duquesne , Allen contributed 10 points and 14 rebounds . He posted 10 points and 11 rebounds against Arizona State in an 2009 NCAA Tournament Round of 64 loss .
= = = Junior = = =
Allen was a Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team selection in his junior year . He averaged 11 @.@ 5 points and 10 @.@ 7 rebounds per game , becoming the first Temple player to average a double @-@ double since Ollie Johnson accomplished the feat in 1970 @-@ 71 . Allen 's 10 @.@ 9 rebounds per game average in Atlantic 10 conference games was bested only by Fordham 's Chris Gaston and Duquesne 's Damian Saunders . In addition , he led Temple in field goal percentage at .536 . He scored 10 points and snatched 17 rebounds in the Owls ' upset of # 3 Villanova on December 19 . In a 65 @-@ 53 win over La Salle on February 28 , 2010 , Allen scored 17 points and grabbed 21 rebounds , a career high and the most by an Owl since Joe Newman pulled down 24 on February 5 , 1973 . With the victory , Temple clinched the Philadelphia Big Five title with a perfect 4 – 0 record . Allen became the 46th Temple player to score 1 @,@ 000 points in his career in a game against George Washington . This earned him Atlantic 10 ( co- ) player of the week honors for the week of March 7 .
Led by Allen , Temple enjoyed a 29 – 5 season , captured a share of the Atlantic 10 conference regular season championship with a 14 – 2 record , and culminated in a third consecutive Atlantic 10 conference tournament title and an automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament . In the NCAA Tournament , Temple was seeded fifth and matched up with 12 seed Cornell in the first round . Allen had 11 points , but his Owls were upset by the Big Red 78 @-@ 65 . Following the season , Allen was selected to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team and All @-@ Atlantic 10 Defensive Team . He was recognized as an All @-@ Fourth District first @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All @-@ America teams . Since the Atlantic 10 Conference was its own district , this is equivalent to being named first team All @-@ Atlantic 10 by the NABC . The U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Allen to the 10 @-@ man All @-@ District II team covering college basketball players in the states of New York , New Jersey , Delaware. the District of Columbia , Pennsylvania , and West Virginia .
Allen briefly flirted with the 2010 NBA draft . He declared for early entry in the draft , but did not hire an agent . After one workout with the Portland Trail Blazers , Allen was told to return to school to work on his offensive game . On May 8 , Allen officially pulled his name out of consideration for the draft . He did so on the final day allowed by the NCAA to ensure collegiate eligibility .
= = = Senior = = =
Allen was named to the 20 @-@ man USA Select team , which played with and against the USA National team from July 19 @-@ 24 . Prior to his senior campaign , he was on the preseason John R. Wooden Award and Naismith College Player of the Year watchlists . He was a preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team and Defensive Team selection . On December 6 , Allen was named Atlantic 10 co @-@ player of the week after recording back @-@ to back double @-@ doubles against Central Michigan and Maryland , both Temple victories . He sprained his ankle in a game against Fordham on February 9 , 2011 , and was forced to miss the following game versus the Dayton Flyers . In the February 20 game against Saint Joseph 's , Allen became Temple 's all time leader in rebounds . Allen snatched 12 boards to pass Temple radio analyst Johnny Baum 's career 1 @,@ 042 rebounds . He received conference player of the week honors for the week of February 28 . Allen scored a career @-@ high 24 points to top La Salle in the regular season finale , earning him Atlantic 10 Player of the Week recognition on March 6 .
Temple finished with a 26 – 8 record in Allen 's senior season and earned a berth to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . This time , they defeated Penn State in the Round of 64 before falling to San Diego State in double overtime . Allen had 12 points and 11 rebounds in his final game as a Temple Owl . He was named to the All @-@ Atlantic 10 First Team and Defensive Team at the conclusion of the regular season . Allen was the recipient of the Robert V. Geasey Trophy honoring the Philadelphia Big Five Player of the Year .
Behind Chris Gaston of Fordham , Allen finished second in conference in rebounding average with an 8 @.@ 4 mark in league play , and was fifth in the Atlantic 10 in blocks . In addition , he averaged 11 @.@ 6 points per game , second on the team . For his career , he pulled down 1 @,@ 147 rebounds and scored 1 @,@ 421 points , 24th in Temple history . Temple coach Fran Dunphy has said that Allen " might be the smartest player I 've ever coached in terms of positioning and understanding the game – just his knowledge . "
= = = College statistics = = =
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2011 NBA draft = = =
On April 1 , 2011 , Allen participated in the 2011 Reese 's College All @-@ Star Game held at the Reliant Center in Houston , Texas . He contributed 11 points and eight rebounds as his East team lost to the West 113 – 108 . Chad Ford of ESPN said that Allen was the 99th best prospect in the 2011 NBA draft . Allen sprained his ankle in a workout with his hometown Philadelphia 76ers and was forced to miss the next workout with the New Jersey Nets . The Sixers were not overly concerned with the injury , as they drafted him in the second round with the 50th pick on June 23 . Allen became the 32nd Temple product to be drafted and the first since the New York Knicks selected Mardy Collins with the 29th pick in 2006 .
= = = Strasbourg IG = = =
On July 15 , 2011 , he signed a contract with Strasbourg IG of France 's LNB Pro A. The contract included an opt @-@ out clause when the NBA settled its lockout , set to expire on January 30 , 2012 . Allen joined former Richmond foes Kevin Anderson and Justin Harper on Strasbourg IG . He made his debut on October 7 , scoring 10 points and pulling down four rebounds in a 77 – 74 victory over Cholet Basket . The following game , against SLUC Nancy Basket , he grabbed a season @-@ high 13 rebounds and also added 12 points . Allen 's season @-@ high 19 points came on November 10 , when Strasbourg IG defeated Chorale Roanne Basket 93 – 80 . In nine games , Allen averaged 10 @.@ 1 points and 7 @.@ 2 rebounds per game .
= = = Philadelphia 76ers = = =
= = = = Rookie season = = = =
When the NBA ended its lockout , Allen opted @-@ out of his French contract to sign a contract with the Philadelphia 76ers on December 9 , the first day of training camp . Allen made his NBA debut during the 76ers ' 97 – 62 win over the Toronto Raptors on January 7 , 2012 , and grabbed two rebounds . He first saw significant playing time on the January 23 game against the Washington Wizards due to injuries to centers Spencer Hawes and Nikola Vucevic . Allen responded by scoring 10 points on 5 – 5 shooting and pulling down six rebounds en route to a 103 – 83 victory . He recorded a season @-@ high 15 points on February 1 against the Chicago Bulls , and a season @-@ high 12 rebounds against the Milwaukee Bucks on April 25 . In 41 regular season games and 15 as a starter , Allen averaged 4 @.@ 1 points and 4 @.@ 2 rebounds per game .
Allen raised his averages in the playoffs to 6 @.@ 3 points and 4 @.@ 9 rebounds per game . Coach Doug Collins named him the starting center in the playoff opener against the Bulls . In his first playoff game , Allen sprained his thumb , but the injury was not considered severe . In Game 2 of the series , he nearly posted a double double with 11 points and nine rebounds . The 76ers advanced past the Bulls to face the Boston Celtics in the conference semifinals . Allen hit the " shot of [ his ] life " to help the 76ers defeat the Celtics 82 – 81 in the second game of the series . With the score tied and four minutes left , Andre Iguodala passed the ball to Allen , who hit a 22 foot jumper as the shot clock expired . He earned his postseason minutes partially because of his ability to guard Celtics star Kevin Garnett . The Sixers pushed the series to seven games , but ultimately lost to the Celtics .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
On July 11 , 2012 , Allen re @-@ signed with the Philadelphia 76ers to a reported two @-@ year , $ 6 million contract . He missed two days of training camp to attend to his girlfriend , who gave birth to his son Kai on October 4 . He started the majority of games for the 76ers in his sophomore season at center due to the absence of Andrew Bynum . Allen averaged 5 @.@ 8 points and 5 @.@ 0 rebounds in his second season with the 76ers .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Allen missed an exhibition game due to a knee injury . He was criticized for missing a practice in October 2013 due to oversleeping . He mainly played backup power forward during the season . Allen missed four games in January 2014 due to a strained right calf . In 51 games , Allen posted averages of 5 @.@ 2 points and 5 @.@ 4 rebounds per game .
= = = Indiana Pacers = = =
On February 20 , 2014 , Allen and Evan Turner were traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Danny Granger and a second @-@ round draft pick . In eight minutes per game , Allen averaged 2 @.@ 9 points and 2 @.@ 4 rebounds per game . Allen scored 13 points in a match against the 76ers on March 14 and contributed 12 points and 11 rebounds last game of the regular season versus the Orlando Magic . He got married in the summer of 2014 .
On July 11 , 2014 , Allen re @-@ signed with the Pacers . He was most effective earlier in the season due to injuries of other players . He missed a January 31 , 2015 game against the Sacramento Kings due to a sore knee . Allen mainly played as a backup power forward and averaged 5 @.@ 0 points and 5 @.@ 1 rebounds in his first full season with the Pacers .
On July 27 , 2015 , Allen re @-@ signed once again with the Pacers .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= Edward Pulsford =
Edward Pulsford ( 29 September 1844 – 29 September 1919 ) was an English @-@ born Australian politician and free @-@ trade campaigner .
Pulsford established a successful business with his father as commission agents in Yorkshire before moving his interests to New South Wales in 1883 . There he became a vigorous campaigner for free trade , and was a co @-@ founder of the Free Trade and Liberal Association in that colony , the body that would later become the machine behind the Free Trade Party . Although his attempts to enter the New South Wales Legislative Assembly were abortive , he was appointed to the Legislative Council in 1895 and served until 1901 , when he was elected to the Senate . An uncompromising opponent of all forms of protectionism , following the 1909 Fusion of the anti @-@ Labour forces he joined the Liberal Party only with reluctance .
Pulsford is also remembered for his avid opposition to the White Australia policy and other forms of racial discrimination . Whilst financial editor of the Daily Telegraph he attacked restrictive immigration laws , and he fought against the policy in the state parliament and later in the Senate , where he was one of the few to oppose the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act . This racial tolerance , combined with his opposition to women 's suffrage , has led the economist John Hawkins to describe him as " probably the least racist but perhaps the most sexist member of the Australian Senate in its first decade " .
= = Early life = =
Edward Pulsford was born at Burslem in Staffordshire on 29 September 1844 . His mother was Mary Ann , née Cutler , and his father , James Eustace Pulsford , was a Baptist minister and businessman . He received a private education and worked with his father as a commission agent ; together they worked in Hull , Yorkshire , from 1870 to 1884 . On 23 February 1870 , he married Mary Charlotte Stainforth at Hull ; she would predecease him . In 1883 Edward embarked for New South Wales , while his father travelled to New York to become resident secretary of the Liverpool , London & Globe Insurance Company . After his arrival in Sydney , Pulsford immediately became involved in the free trade cause , and in 1885 he co @-@ founded the Free Trade and Liberal Association of New South Wales ( FTLA , a forerunner of the Free Trade Party ) with Bernhard Wise . His campaigning on behalf of free trade led to his becoming an honorary member of the Cobden Club .
= = Colonial politics = =
From its foundation until 1891 , Pulsford was secretary of the FTLA , and became an organiser and ferocious pamphleteer . He received a prize for an essay on " The Beneficial Influence of a Free Trade Policy upon the Colony of New South Wales " , written as a contribution to the 1887 centennial edition of the Year @-@ Book of Australia . He became actively involved in journalism as proprietor of the Armidale Chronicle and financial editor of the Daily Telegraph from 1890 to 1898 . While focusing overwhelmingly on free trade , actively denigrating the neighbouring colony of Victoria 's protectionist policies , he also worked on the compilation of an Australian biographical supplement to Webster 's International Dictionary and supported Federation .
Pulsford was a leading proponent of the free @-@ trade cause , although an intended candidacy for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly in 1891 did not eventuate . He had contested a by @-@ election for East Sydney earlier that year , losing to protectionist candidate Walter Bradley . He was nevertheless nominated to the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1895 by the Free Trade Premier , George Reid . He continued his support of free trade policies , but differentiated himself from his colleagues by firmly opposing restrictions on Asian immigration . He had expressed regret concerning the fate of the Australian Aborigines in a Telegraph article in 1888 and also opposed Sir Henry Parkes 's poll tax on the Chinese , and now opposed the continuing restrictive measures passed in 1896 and 1898 . He served as president of the Australian Free Trade and Liberal Association 's New South Wales branch in 1900 and was deputy president of the federal election campaign committee , standing himself for the Senate in New South Wales .
= = Federal politics = =
At the first federal election in March 1901 , Pulsford was elected as a senator for New South Wales in the sixth and final position , narrowly defeating fellow Free Trader John Gray . He continued his fervent support of free trade and was one of the few senators to oppose the White Australia policy , describing " the whole of the inhabitants of Asia as [ his ] friends " . He opposed the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act , supported Asians ' eligibility for the old @-@ age pension , and decried the treatment of Kanaka labourers as " cattle " . In his opposition to immigration restriction he highlighted the diplomatic insult to Japan and other Asian nations , and published a pamphlet in 1905 supporting the protestations of the Japanese government against the policy .
Pulsford spoke for five hours in the debate on the 1902 Customs Tariff Bill , although he later supported time limits for speeches . Missing out on a frontbench portfolio when the Free Traders were briefly in government from 1904 to 1905 , he was absent from parliament for most of 1907 . Described by the Tribune as " the best living authority on Australia 's tariff question " , his pamphlet to the Cobden Club in 1907 attracted a favourable reception . He opposed women 's suffrage on the grounds that it would put Australia " in advance of public opinion throughout the world " , believing it would lead to the " vulgarisation of women " .
The Fusion in 1909 between the Free Trade and Protectionist parties to form the Liberal Party was difficult for Pulsford , who had " no faith in either the old Protection or the new Protection " , and although he did join the new party , his support of any protectionist legislation would be " in order to show that all such legislation must be a failure " . He was defeated at the 1910 election when the Labour Party won all the Senate seats in New South Wales .
= = Later life = =
Pulsford continued his support for the free @-@ trade cause outside Parliament , and in May 1914 planned to establish a free @-@ trade paper to be circulated around Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , a scheme that was abandoned following the outbreak of World War I. He revised his book Commerce and the Empire ( originally published in 1903 ) in 1917 , arguing that free trade was central to the freedoms the Empire was fighting for , and calling for free trade with Germany after the war . On 2 March 1919 he married Blanche Elspeth Brown at Neutral Bay , but he died later that year on his seventy @-@ fifth birthday , 29 September 1919 . Survived by his second wife and the three sons of his first marriage , Pulsford was buried at Gore Hill cemetery after an Anglican service .
= History of slavery in Indiana =
Slavery in Indiana occurred between the time of French rule during late seventeenth century and 1826 , with a few traces of slavery afterward . When the United States first forcibly removed the Native Americans from the region , slavery was accepted as a necessity to keep peace with the Indians and the French . When the Indiana Territory was established in 1800 , William Henry Harrison , a former slaveholder , was appointed governor and slavery continued to be tolerated through a series of laws enacted by the appointed legislature .
Opposition against slavery began to organize in Indiana around 1805 , and in 1809 abolitionists took control of the territorial legislature and overturned many of the laws permitting retaining of slaves . By the time Indiana was granted statehood in 1816 , the abolitionists were in firm control and slavery was banned in the constitution . In 1820 , an Supreme Court of Indiana ruling in Polly v. Lasselle freed all the remaining slaves in the state . An additional Supreme Court ruling in 1821 freed indentured servant Mary Bateman Clark , helping to bring an end to indentured servitude .
With the end of slavery in the state , Indiana became a border state with the southern slave states . Hoosiers like Levi Coffin came to play an important role in the Underground Railroad that helped many slaves escape from the South . Indiana remained anti @-@ slavery and in the American Civil War remained with the Union and contributed men to the war .
= = Early existence = =
In 1783 , at the end of the American Revolution , the territory that would become Indiana was annexed to the United States . Slavery was already a present institution – the French who had controlled the area only 20 years earlier , and their allies among the Native American Population , had been practicing slavery in the region for at least one hundred and fifty years before the Americans took control . René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle , first began explorations in Indiana in the late 1660s . He was accompanied by a Shawnee slave on several of his expeditions . In 1787 Congress organized the territory under the Northwest Ordinance , which prohibited slavery by stating " that there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory " . It would later be decided that anyone who purchased a slave outside of the territory could enter and reside there with their slaves . The Ordinance also allowed for preexisting French – Indian slave arrangements .
Many Virginian natives living in the territory interpreted the Ordinance as allowing them to have slaves . The Ordinance stated that the Virginians " shall have their possessions and titles confirmed to them , and be protected in the enjoyment of their rights and liberties . " Many decided to keep slaves . Fear of French rebellion kept the courts from acting against slavery , as did the violent actions of those who would kidnap escaped slaves . A court ruling in the Michigan Territory in 1807 stated that preexisting slavery could still exist under the Northwest Ordinance , validated Hoosier slaveholding in the opinions of the slaveholders .
= = = Southern influence = = =
Many of the territory 's early settlers came from the South . Southern immigrants who were anti @-@ slavery settled in Ohio where a strong anti @-@ slavery movement was underway . The immigrants in favor of slavery generally moved to Indiana where the government was friendly to slaveholders . When they relocated to the Indiana Territory , they brought what few slaves they owned with them . An 1810 census recorded 393 free blacks and 237 slaves in the Indiana Territory . Knox County , where the territorial capital of Indiana , Vincennes , was located , was the center of Indiana slavery . A young Army officer named Charles Larrabee , who was serving in Governor William Henry Harrison ’ s army , summed the Vincennes populace as “ chiefly from Kentucky and Virginia … slavery is tolerated here . ”
Most of the initial immigration was attributed to the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 . After the Revolutionary War , George Rogers Clark and his soldiers , all Virginians , were given land grants in southern Indiana . Many settled in Indiana bringing their Southern ideals with them . After the War of 1812 many veterans of the Western theater were granted land in central Indiana . These soldiers were mostly from Kentucky and the South . They also moved into Indiana , bringing more Southern influence to the state .
Southerners of all classes migrated to Indiana . William Henry Harrison , longtime Indiana Territory governor and future United States President , was from the long established aristocracy class of the lowland and coastal South . His class supported slavery . From the non @-@ slaveholding class of the Upland South were migrants such as Abraham Lincoln , whose family is representative of the migration to Indiana from Kentucky and Tennessee . Some of his social class , while not owning slaves , typically condoned the institution . Lincoln 's father worked as a slave catcher and the family of Lincoln 's wife , Mary Todd , owned slaves . But others immigrated to Indiana such as Levi Coffin , a North Carolina Quaker who was an outspoken abolitionist .
= = Treatment of slaves = =
The first recorded slaves in Indiana were owned by the French traders who entered the region and introduced the practice to the native tribes . Jesuit priests encouraged the tribes they lived among to adopt slavery as an alternative to executing their prisoners in war . According to some classical historians , the decline of cannibalism among the tribes was a direct result of the rise of slavery . Early slaves were often Native Americans who were sold to pay debts . The early slaves typically performed manual labor , helping the traders transport their goods and to build forts and trading posts . While part of new France , laws were enacted to give slaves some protection from their masters . Torture and mutilation of slaves was forbidden , and families were prevented from being forcibly broken up . Other laws allowed slaves to be seized by creditors as payment . Other laws required that if a master had children by a slave , the slave and her children were then to be freed . Their status under the French laws was similar to that of minors .
As the territory developed , their tasks changed ; slaves also served as household servants and farm workers , as in the case of William Henry Harrison 's slaves . George Rogers Clark 's two slaves assisted him in running a gristmill in Clarksville . While the pro @-@ slavery faction was in power , laws were passed permitting anyone to seize and return slaves who were more than ten miles from their home , and a one hundred dollar fine was placed on anyone who helped a slave escape . Some slaves , like " Aunt Fannie " , who belonged to Dennis Pennington , refused to be set free . Pennington had freed all his slaves when he left Virginia , but Fannie did not want to be left behind and continued on as a free household servant for the rest of her life . She was buried in the Pennington family cemetery in Corydon , Indiana . Others were not so fortunate as in the case of another black woman who also lived in Corydon . When she tried to escape from her masters she was run down in the street , beaten , and carried back home . The men threatened death to anyone in the town , which was strongly anti @-@ slavery , who interfered .
The slaves did not have a large impact on Indiana 's economy as they never became a large percentage of the population and large scale plantation style farms , that were common in the southern states , never developed in Indiana . In 1820 , the year all the state 's slaves were freed , the census only counted 192 out of a population over 65 @,@ 000 . Many slaves had already been freed by that time and there over 1200 free blacks in the state during the same census .
= = Indiana Territory = =
Slavery in the Indiana Territory was supported by Governors William Henry Harrison and his successor Thomas Posey , who both sought to legalize it in the territory . Both men were appointed by the President of the United States while the office was held by southern slaveholders . Although slavery was not legal under Article 6 of the Northwest Ordinance , Harrison recognized the existing customs of slavery and indenture in the territory , Both men 's slavery positions were resisted by the territory 's population . In a gesture to the residents who lived in the territory before the Northwest Ordinance , Harrison organized a public meeting in 1802 which called for a 10 @-@ year moratorium on the slavery ban . Harrison and Posey were strongly opposed by Jonathan Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and other prominent men who would eventually take over the territorial legislature .
Indiana courts never ruled on the Ordinance / slavery issue during the territorial period . When the issue of slavery was in the courts , it “ was always treated as an existing institution and its legality went unchallenged . ” Early Hoosiers , including William Henry Harrison , wanted to have slavery legalized in the new territory . Harrison may have been motivated by the need to appease existing slaveowners , the need for labor in a developing territory , or the desire to attract immigrants from southern colonies . They sought passage of a new law to override the Northwest Ordinance 's ban on slavery . Harrison succeeded in getting permission from Congress for the territory to decide for itself whether slavery should be legalized . Harrison and his party sought to gradually legalize slavery three times ( 1803 , 1807 , and 1809 ) but all three efforts ultimately failed . Harrison succeeded , however , in passing laws that established forms of indentured servitude .
Harrison was particularly interested in having slavery legalized . He maintained a plantation style home in Vincennes called Grouseland . Harrison was also in the process of constructing another plantation style farm called Harrison Valley near Corydon in 1807 , the same year he was pushing for slavery to be legalized .
In 1803 Harrison asked Congress to suspend the anti @-@ slavery clause of the Northwest Ordinance for ten years . Harrison claimed it was necessary to increase the territory 's population more quickly and attract new settlers . Congress wanted the territory to become economically viable so that the federal government would not longer have to financially support it . In 1803 the entire territory 's population numbered less than 5 @,@ 000 . That year the legislature — which was appointed by Harrison — passed legislation reintroducing indentured servitude .
In 1805 the Territory was granted representation in Congress . Pro @-@ slavery Benjamin Parke was elected and supported Harrison 's request to have Congress suspend the ban on slavery in the territory . Parke submitted legislation to outright legalize slavery , but no action was taken on it . The same year , Congress suspended Article Six of the Northwest Ordinance for ten years , and granted the territories covered by it the right to choose for themselves to legalize slavery . By the same act , Congress removed the legislative power from the General Court of the territory and created a Legislative Council that would was to be popularly elected . When the election was complete Davis Floyd was the only anti @-@ slavery member elected ; slavery had not yet become a major issue in the state . That year Harrison persuaded the legislature to begin the debate to legalize slavery . The bill was narrowly defeated because many of the slaveholders in the council wanted a concession from Harrison , namely to recommend creating the Illinois Territory , a concession which he refused to make .
= = = Fight to end slavery = = =
Harrison 's move to legalize slavery was not taken lightly by President Thomas Jefferson . Although Jefferson was himself a slaveholder , he was opposed to the spread of slavery . Jefferson had been working with James Lemen since at least 1784 and used him as an agent in the Northwest to organize an anti @-@ slavery movement . Lemen succeeded in helping to establish an anti @-@ slavery Baptist church that drew many members . Jefferson sent Lemen to the Indiana territory again in 1807 with the mission to seek out and organize the anti @-@ slavery men of the state and encourage them to take action . Several prominent men had already been stirred by Harrison 's moves to legalize slavery . Dennis Pennington , a former slave holder who had freed his slaves when he moved to Indiana , was chief among the anti @-@ slavery men . Jonathan Jennings , who also attended the meeting , would quickly grow into the party 's leader . Other prominent anti @-@ slavery men included Richard Rue , John Paul , and General William Johnson , all veterans of the Revolution .
Later in 1807 , at Lemen 's urging , a mass meeting was held in Springville attended by many of the anti @-@ slavery men within the state . The meeting was held largely in response to Harrison 's attempt to legalize slavery and the fact that he almost succeeded , and likely would soon unless a large anti @-@ slavery faction came to power . The meeting was chaired by John Beggs , with Davis Floyd acting as secretary . Dennis Pennington and others put forth speeches , and resolved to stop the attempt to legalize slavery . They declared their intentions to end the " despised institution " . Their resolution stated :
... a great number of citizens , in various parts of the United States , are preparing , and many have actually emigrated to this Territory , to get free from a Government which does tolerate slavery ... And although it is contended by some , that , at this day , there is a great majority in favor of slavery , whilst the opposite opinion is held by others
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was originally collected from the Ohio River near Cincinnati , but this species has not been seen since its original collection in the 1800s . Ephemera compar is known from a single specimen , collected from the " foothills of Colorado " in 1873 , but despite intensive surveys of the Colorado mayflies reported in 1984 , it has not been rediscovered .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) red list of threatened species includes one mayfly : Tasmanophlebi lacuscoerulei , the large blue lake mayfly , which is a native of Australia and is listed as endangered because its alpine habitat is vulnerable to climate change .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Over 3 @,@ 000 species of mayfly in 42 families and over 400 genera are known worldwide , including about 630 species in North America . Mayflies are an ancient group of winged ( pterygote ) insects . Putative fossil stem group representatives ( e.g. Syntonopteroidea like Lithoneura lameerrei ) are already known from the late Carboniferous . The largest mayfly of all times may have been Bojophlebia prokopi from the Upper Carboniferous of Moravia with a wing span of 45 cm ( 18 in ) . The name Ephemeroptera is from the Greek εφήμερος , ephemeros
= " short @-@ lived " ( literally " lasting a day " , cf . English " ephemeral " ) , and πτερόν , pteron =
" wing " , referring to the brief lifespan of adults . The English common name is for the insect 's emergence in or around the month of May in the UK . The name shadfly is from the Atlantic fish the shad , which runs up American East Coast rivers at the same time as many mayflies emerge .
From the Permian , numerous stem group representatives of mayflies are known , which are often lumped into a separate taxon Permoplectoptera ( e.g. including Protereisma permianum in the Protereismatidae , and Misthodotidae ) . The larvae of Permoplectoptera still had 9 pairs of abdominal gills , and the adults still had long hind wings . Maybe the fossil family Cretereismatidae from the Lower Cretaceous Crato Formation of Brazil also belongs as the last offshoot to Permoplectoptera . The Crato outcrops otherwise yielded fossil specimens of modern mayfly families or the extinct ( but modern ) family Hexagenitidae . However , from the same locality the strange larvae and adults of the extinct family Mickoleitiidae ( order Coxoplectoptera ) have been described , which represents the fossil sister group of modern mayflies , even though they had very peculiar adaptations such as raptorial forelegs .
The oldest mayfly inclusion in amber is Cretoneta zherichini ( Leptophlebiidae ) from the Lower Cretaceous of Siberia . In the much younger Baltic amber numerous inclusions of several modern families of mayflies have been found ( Ephemeridae , Potamanthidae , Leptophlebiidae , Ametropodidae , Siphlonuridae , Isonychiidae , Heptageniidae , and Ephemerellidae ) . The modern genus Neoephemera is represented in the fossil record by the Ypresian species N. antiqua from Washington State .
Grimaldi and Engel , reviewing the phylogeny in 2005 , commented that many cladistic studies had been made with no stability in Ephemeroptera suborders and infraorders ; the traditional division into Schistonota and Pannota was wrong because Pannota is derived from the Schistonota . The phylogeny of the Ephemeroptera was first studied using molecular analysis by Ogden and Whiting in 2005 . They recovered the Baetidae as sister to the other clades . Mayfly phylogeny was further studied using morphological and molecular analyses by Ogden and others in 2009 . They found that the Asian genus Siphluriscus was sister to all other mayflies . Some existing lineages such as Ephemeroidea , and families such as Ameletopsidae , were found not to be monophyletic , through convergence among nymphal features .
The following traditional classification is based on Peters and Campbell ( 1991 ) , in Insects of Australia .
= = In human culture = =
= = = In art and literature = = =
The Ancient Greek naturalist and philosopher Aristotle wrote in his History of Animals that
Bloodless and many footed animals , whether furnished with wings or feet , move with more than four points of motion ; as , for instance , the dayfly ( ephemeron ) moves with four feet and four wings : and , I may observe in passing , this creature is exceptional not only in regard to the duration of its existence , whence it receives its name , but also because though a quadruped it has wings also .
The Ancient Roman encyclopaedist Pliny the Elder described the mayfly as the " hemerobius " in his Natural History :
The River Bug on the Black Sea at midsummer brings down some thin membranes that look like berries out of which burst a four @-@ legged caterpillar in the manner of the creature mentioned above , but it does not live beyond one day , owing to which it is called the hemerobius .
The Dutch Golden Age author Augerius Clutius ( Outgert Cluyt ) illustrated some mayflies in his 1634 De Hemerobio ( " On the Mayfly " ) , the earliest book written on the group . Maerten de Vos similarly illustrated a mayfly in his 1587 depiction of the fifth day of creation , amongst an assortment of fish and water birds .
In 1495 Albrecht Dürer included a mayfly in his engraving The Holy Family with the Mayfly . The critics Larry Silver and Pamela H. Smith argue that the image provides " an explicit link between heaven and earth .. to suggest a cosmic resonance between sacred and profane , celestial and terrestrial , macrocosm and microcosm . "
In his 1789 book The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , Gilbert White described in the entry for " June 10th , 1771 " how
Myriads of May @-@ flies appear for the first time on the Alresford stream . The air was crowded with them , and the surface of the water covered . Large trouts sucked them in as they lay struggling on the surface of the stream , unable to rise till their wings were dried ... Their motions are very peculiar , up and down for so many yards almost in a perpendicular line .
The mayfly has come to symbolise the transitoriness and brevity of life . The English poet George Crabbe , known to have been interested in insects , compared the brief life of a newspaper with that of mayflies , both being known as " Ephemera " , things that live for a day :
The theme of brief life is echoed in the artist Douglas Florian 's 1998 poem , " The Mayfly " . The American Poet Laureate Richard Wilbur 's 2005 poem " Mayflies " includes the lines " I saw from unseen pools a mist of flies , In their quadrillions rise , And animate a ragged patch of glow , With sudden glittering " .
Another literary reference to mayflies is seen in The Epic of Gilgamesh , one of the earliest surviving great works of literature . The briefness of Gilgamesh 's life is compared to that of the adult mayfly .
In Szeged , Hungary , mayflies are celebrated in two monuments , one by Pal Farkas , and another on the Belvárosi bridge , symbolizing freedom .
= = = In fly fishing = = =
Mayflies are the primary source of models for artificial flies , hooks tied with coloured materials such as threads and feathers , used in fly fishing . These are based on different life @-@ cycle stages of mayflies . For example , the flies known as " emergers " in North America are designed by fly fishermen to resemble subimago mayflies , and are intended to lure freshwater trout . In 1983 , Patrick McCafferty recorded that artificial flies had been based on 36 genera of North American mayfly , from a total of 63 western species and 103 eastern / central species . A large number of these species have common names among fly fishermen , who need to develop a substantial knowledge of mayfly " habitat , distribution , seasonality , morphology and behavior " in order to match precisely the look and movements of the insects that the local trout are expecting .
Izaak Walton describes the use of mayflies for catching trout in his 1653 book The Compleat Angler ; for example , he names the " Green @-@ drake " for use as a natural fly , and " duns " ( mayfly subimagos ) as artificial flies . These include for example the " Great Dun " and the " Great Blue Dun " in February ; the " Whitish Dun " in March ; the " Whirling Dun " and the " Yellow Dun " in April ; the " Green @-@ drake " , the " Little Yellow May @-@ Fly " and the " Grey @-@ Drake " in May ; and the " Black @-@ Blue Dun " in July . Nymph or " wet fly " fishing was restored to popularity on the chalk streams of England by G.E.M. Skues with his 1910 book Minor Tactics of the Chalk Stream . In the book , Skues discusses the use of duns to catch trout . The March brown is " probably the most famous of all British mayflies " , having been copied by anglers to catch trout for over 500 years .
Some English public houses beside trout streams such as the River Test in Hampshire are named " The Mayfly " .
= = = As a spectacle = = =
The hatch of the giant mayfly Palingenia longicauda on the Tisza and Mureș Rivers in Hungary and Serbia , known as " Tisza blooming " , is a tourist attraction . The 2014 hatch of the large black @-@ brown mayfly Hexagenia bilineata on the Mississippi River in the US was imaged on weather radar ; the swarm flew up to 760 m ( 2500 feet ) above the ground near La Crosse , Wisconsin , creating a radar signature that resembled a " significant rain storm " , and the mass of dead insects covering roads , cars and buildings caused a " slimy mess " .
= = = As food = = =
Mayflies are consumed in several cultures and are estimated to contain the most raw protein content of any edible insect by dry weight . In Malawi , kungu , a paste of mayflies ( Caenis kungu ) and mosquito is made into a cake for eating . Adult mayflies are collected and eaten in many parts of China and Japan . Near Lake Victoria , Povilla mayflies are collected , dried and preserved for use in food preparations .
= = = As a name for ships and aircraft = = =
" Mayfly " was the crew 's nickname for His Majesty 's Airship No. 1 , an aerial scout airship built by Vickers but wrecked by strong winds in 1911 before her trial flights .
Two vessels of the Royal Navy were named HMS Mayfly : a torpedo boat launched in January 1907 , and a Fly @-@ class river gunboat constructed in sections at Yarrow in 1915 .
The Seddon Mayfly , which was constructed in 1908 , was an aircraft that was unsuccessful in early flight . The first aircraft designed by a woman , Lillian Bland , was titled the Bland Mayfly .
= = = Other human uses = = =
In pre @-@ 1950 France , " chute de manne " was obtained by pressing mayflies into cakes and using them as bird food and fishbait . From an economic standpoint , mayflies also provide fisheries with an excellent diet for fish . Mayflies could find uses in the biomedical , pharmaceutical , and cosmetic industries . Their exoskeleton contains chitin , which has applications in these industries .
Mayfly larvae do not survive in polluted aquatic habitats and , thus , have been chosen as bioindicators , markers of water quality in ecological assessments .
In marketing , Nike produced a line of running shoes in 2003 titled " Mayfly " . The shoes were designed with a wing venation pattern like the mayfly and were also said to have a finite lifetime . The telecommunication company Vodafone featured mayflies in a 2006 branding campaign , telling consumers to " make the most of now " .
= Integer sorting =
In computer science , integer sorting is the algorithmic problem of sorting a collection of data values by numeric keys , each of which is an integer . Algorithms designed for integer sorting may also often be applied to sorting problems in which the keys are floating point numbers or text strings . The ability to perform integer arithmetic on the keys allows integer sorting algorithms to be faster than comparison sorting algorithms in many cases , depending on the details of which operations are allowed in the model of computing and how large the integers to be sorted are .
Integer sorting algorithms including pigeonhole sort , counting sort , and radix sort are widely used and practical . Other integer sorting algorithms with smaller worst @-@ case time bounds are not believed to be practical for computer architectures with 64 or fewer bits per word . Many such algorithms are known , with performance depending on a combination of the number of items to be sorted , number of bits per key , and number of bits per word of the computer performing the sorting algorithm .
= = General considerations = =
= = = Models of computation = = =
Time bounds for integer sorting algorithms typically depend on three parameters : the number n of data values to be sorted , the magnitude K of the largest possible key to be sorted , and the number w of bits that can be represented in a single machine word of the computer on which the algorithm is to be performed . Typically , it is assumed that w ≥ log2 ( max ( n , K ) ) ; that is , that machine words are large enough to represent an index into the sequence of input data , and also large enough to represent a single key .
Integer sorting algorithms are usually designed to work in either the pointer machine or random access machine models of computing . The main difference between these two models is in how memory may be addressed . The random access machine allows any value that is stored in a register to be used as the address of memory read and write operations , with unit cost per operation . This ability allows certain complex operations on data to be implemented quickly using table lookups . In contrast , in the pointer machine model , read and write operations use addresses stored in pointers , and it is not allowed to perform arithmetic operations on these pointers . In both models , data values may be added , and bitwise Boolean operations and binary shift operations may typically also be performed on them , in unit time per operation . Different integer sorting algorithms make different assumptions , however , about whether integer multiplication is also allowed as a unit @-@ time operation . Other more specialized models of computation such as the parallel random access machine have also been considered .
Andersson , Miltersen & Thorup ( 1999 ) showed that in some cases the multiplications or table lookups required by some integer sorting algorithms could be replaced by customized operations that would be more easily implemented in hardware but that are not typically available on general @-@ purpose computers . Thorup ( 2003 ) improved on this by showing how to replace these special operations by the bit field manipulation instructions already available on Pentium processors .
= = = Sorting versus integer priority queues = = =
A priority queue is a data structure for maintaining a collection of items with numerical priorities , having operations for finding and removing the item with the minimum priority value . Comparison @-@ based priority queues such as the binary heap take logarithmic time per update , but other structures such as the van Emde Boas tree or bucket queue may be faster for inputs whose priorities are small integers . These data structures can be used in the selection sort algorithm , which sorts a collection of elements by repeatedly finding and removing the smallest element from the collection , and returning the elements in the order they were found . A priority queue can be used to maintain the collection of elements in this algorithm , and the time for this algorithm on a collection of n elements can be bounded by the time to initialize the priority queue and then to perform n find and remove operations . For instance , using a binary heap as a priority queue in selection sort leads to the heap sort algorithm , a comparison sorting algorithm that takes O ( n log n ) time . Instead , using selection sort with a bucket queue gives a form of pigeonhole sort , and using van Emde Boas trees or other integer priority queues leads to other fast integer sorting algorithms .
Instead of using an integer priority queue in a sorting algorithm , it is possible to go the other direction , and use integer sorting algorithms as subroutines within an integer priority queue data structure . Thorup ( 2007 ) used this idea to show that , if it is possible to perform integer sorting in time T ( n ) per key , then the same time bound applies to the time per insertion or deletion operation in a priority queue data structure . Thorup 's reduction is complicated and assumes the availability of either fast multiplication operations or table lookups , but he also provides an alternative priority queue using only addition and Boolean operations with time T ( n ) + T ( log n ) + T ( log log n ) + ... per operation , at most multiplying the time by an iterated logarithm .
= = = Usability = = =
The classical integer sorting algorithms of pigeonhole sort , counting sort , and radix sort are widely used and practical . Much of the subsequent research on integer sorting algorithms has focused less on practicality and more on theoretical improvements in their worst case analysis , and the algorithms that come from this line of research are not believed to be practical for current 64 @-@ bit computer architectures , although experiments have shown that some of these methods may be an improvement on radix sorting for data with 128 or more bits per key . Additionally , for large data sets , the near @-@ random memory access patterns of many integer sorting algorithms can handicap them compared to comparison sorting algorithms that have been designed with the memory hierarchy in mind .
Integer sorting provides one of the six benchmarks in the DARPA High Productivity Computing Systems Discrete Mathematics benchmark suite , and one of eleven benchmarks in the NAS Parallel Benchmarks suite .
= = Practical algorithms = =
Pigeonhole sort or counting sort can both sort n data items having keys in the range from 0 to K − 1 in time O ( n + K ) . In pigeonhole sort ( often called bucket sort ) , pointers to the data items are distributed to a table of buckets , represented as collection data types such as linked lists , using the keys as indices into the table . Then , all of the buckets are concatenated together to form the output list . Counting sort uses a table of counters in place of a table of buckets , to determine the number of items with each key . Then , a prefix sum computation is used to determine the range of positions in the sorted output at which the values with each key should be placed . Finally , in a second pass over the input , each item is moved to its key 's position in the output array . Both algorithms involve only simple loops over the input data ( taking time O ( n ) ) and over the set of possible keys ( taking time O ( K ) ) , giving their O ( n + K ) overall time bound .
Radix sort is a sorting algorithm that works for larger keys than pigeonhole sort or counting sort by performing multiple passes over the data . Each pass sorts the input using only part of the keys , by using a different sorting algorithm ( such as pigeonhole sort or counting sort ) that is suited only for small keys . To break the keys into parts , the radix sort algorithm computes the positional notation for each key , according to some chosen radix ; then , the part of the key used for the ith pass of the algorithm is the ith digit in the positional notation for the full key , starting from the least significant digit and progressing to the most significant . For this algorithm to work correctly , the sorting algorithm used in each pass over the data must be stable : items with equal digits should not change positions with each other . For greatest efficiency , the radix should be chosen to be near the number of data items , n . Additionally , using a power of two near n as the radix allows the keys for each pass to be computed quickly using only fast binary shift and mask operations . With these choices , and with pigeonhole sort or counting sort as the base algorithm , the radix sorting algorithm can sort n data items having keys in the range from 0 to K − 1 in time O ( n logn K ) .
= = Theoretical algorithms = =
Many integer sorting algorithms have been developed whose theoretical analysis shows them to behave better than comparison sorting , pigeonhole sorting , or radix sorting for large enough combinations of the parameters defining the number of items to be sorted , range of keys , and machine word size . Which algorithm has the best performance depends on the values of these parameters . However , despite their theoretical advantages , these algorithms are not an improvement for the typical ranges of these parameters that arise in practical sorting problems .
= = = Algorithms for small keys = = =
A Van Emde Boas tree may be used as a priority queue to sort a set of n keys , each in the range from 0 to K − 1 , in time O ( n log log K ) . This is a theoretical improvement over radix sorting when K is sufficiently large . However , in order to use a Van Emde Boas tree , one either needs a directly @-@ addressable memory of K words , or one needs to simulate it using a hash table , reducing the space to linear but making the algorithm be randomized . Another priority queue with similar performance ( including the need for randomization in the form of hash tables ) is the Y @-@ fast trie of Willard ( 1983 ) .
A more sophisticated technique with a similar flavor and with better theoretical performance was developed by Kirkpatrick & Reisch ( 1984 ) . They observed that each pass of radix sort can be interpreted as a range reduction technique that , in linear time , reduces the maximum key size by a factor of n ; instead , their technique reduces the key size to the square root of its previous value ( halving the number of bits needed to represent a key ) , again in linear time . As in radix sort , they interpret the keys as two @-@ digit base @-@ b numbers for a base b that is approximately √ K. They then group the items to be sorted into buckets according to their high digits , in linear time , using either a large but uninitialized direct addressed memory or a hash table . Each bucket has a representative , the item in the bucket with the largest key ; they then sort the list of items using as keys the high digits for the representatives and the low digits for the non @-@ representatives . By grouping the items from this list into buckets again , each bucket may be placed into sorted order , and by extracting the representatives from the sorted list the buckets may be concatenated together into sorted order . Thus , in linear time , the sorting problem is reduced to another recursive sorting problem in which the keys are much smaller , the square root of their previous magnitude . Repeating this range reduction until the keys are small enough to bucket sort leads to an algorithm with running time O ( n log logn K ) .
A complicated randomized algorithm of Han & Thorup ( 2002 ) allows these time bounds to be reduced even farther , to O ( n √ log log K ) .
= = = Algorithms for large words = = =
An integer sorting algorithm is said to be non @-@ conservative if it requires a word size w that is significantly larger than log max ( n , K ) . As an extreme instance , if w ≥ K , and all keys are distinct , then the set of keys may be sorted in linear time by representing it as a bitvector , with a 1 bit in position i when i is one of the input keys , and then repeatedly removing the least significant bit .
The non @-@ conservative packed sorting algorithm of Albers & Hagerup ( 1997 ) uses a subroutine , based on Ken Batcher 's bitonic sorting network , for merging two sorted sequences of keys that are each short enough to be packed into a single machine word . The input to the packed sorting algorithm , a sequence of items stored one per word , is transformed into a packed form , a sequence of words each holding multiple items in sorted order , by using this subroutine repeatedly to double the number of items packed into each word . Once the sequence is in packed form , Albers and Hagerup use a form of merge sort to sort it ; when two sequences are being merged to form a single longer sequence , the same bitonic sorting subroutine can be used to repeatedly extract packed words consisting of the smallest remaining elements of the two sequences . This algorithm gains enough of a speedup from its packed representation to sort its input in linear time whenever it is possible for a single word to contain Ω ( log n log log n ) keys ; that is , when log K log n log log n ≤ cw for some constant c > 0 .
= = = Algorithms for few items = = =
Pigeonhole sort , counting sort , radix sort , and Van Emde Boas tree sorting all work best when the key size is small ; for large enough keys , they become slower than comparison sorting algorithms . However , when the key size or the word size is very large relative to the number of items ( or equivalently when the number of items is small ) , it may again become possible to sort quickly , using different algorithms that take advantage of the parallelism inherent in the ability to perform arithmetic operations on large words .
An early result in this direction was provided by Ajtai , Fredman & Komlós ( 1984 ) using the cell probe model of computation ( an artificial model in which the complexity of an algorithm is measured only by the number of memory accesses it performs ) . Building on their work , Fredman & Willard ( 1994 ) described two data structures , the Q @-@ heap and the atomic heap , that are implementable on a random access machine . The Q @-@ heap is a bit @-@ parallel version of a binary trie , and allows both priority queue operations and successor and predecessor queries to be performed in constant time for sets of O ( ( log N ) 1 / 4 ) items , where N ≤ 2w is the size of the precomputed tables needed to implement the data structure . The atomic heap is a B @-@ tree in which each tree node is represented as a Q @-@ heap ; it allows constant time priority queue operations ( and therefore sorting ) for sets of ( log N ) O ( 1 ) items .
Andersson et al . ( 1998 ) provide a randomized algorithm called signature sort that allows for linear time sorting of sets of up to 2O ( ( log w ) 1 / 2 − ε ) items at a time , for any constant ε > 0 . As in the algorithm of Kirkpatrick and Reisch , they perform range reduction using a representation of the keys as numbers in base b for a careful choice of b . Their range reduction algorithm replaces each digit by a signature , which is a hashed value with O ( log n ) bits such that different digit values have different signatures . If n is sufficiently small , the numbers formed by this replacement process will be significantly smaller than the original keys , allowing the non @-@ conservative packed sorting algorithm of Albers & Hagerup ( 1997 ) to sort the replaced numbers in linear time . From the sorted list of replaced numbers , it is possible to form a compressed trie of the keys in linear time , and the children of each node in the trie may be sorted recursively using only keys of size b , after which a tree traversal produces the sorted order of the items .
= = = Trans @-@ dichotomous algorithms = = =
Fredman & Willard ( 1993 ) introduced the transdichotomous model of analysis for integer sorting algorithms , in which nothing is assumed about the range of the integer keys and one must bound the algorithm 's performance by a function of the number of data values alone . Alternatively , in this model , the running time for an algorithm on a set of n items is assumed to be the worst case running time for any possible combination of values of K and w . The first algorithm of this type was Fredman and Willard 's fusion tree sorting algorithm , which runs in time O ( n log n / log log n ) ; this is an improvement over comparison sorting for any choice of K and w . An alternative version of their algorithm that includes the use of random numbers and integer division operations improves this to O ( n √ log n ) .
Since their work , even better algorithms have been developed . For instance , by repeatedly applying the Kirkpatrick – Reisch range reduction technique until the keys are small enough to apply the Albers – Hagerup packed sorting algorithm , it is possible to sort in time O ( n log log n ) ; however , the range reduction part of this algorithm requires either a large memory ( proportional to √ K ) or randomization in the form of hash tables .
Han & Thorup ( 2002 ) showed how to sort in randomized time O ( n √ log log n ) . Their technique involves using ideas related to signature sorting to partition the data into many small sublists , of a size small enough that signature sorting can sort each of them efficiently . It is also possible to use similar ideas to sort integers deterministically in time O ( n log log n ) and linear space . Using only simple arithmetic operations ( no multiplications or table lookups ) it is possible to sort in randomized expected time O ( n log log n ) or deterministically in time O ( n ( log log n ) 1 + ε ) for any constant ε > 0 .
= Maryland Route 331 =
Maryland Route 331 ( MD 331 ) is a 28 @.@ 74 @-@ mile ( 46 @.@ 25 km ) state highway on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in the United States . The route runs from Vienna in Dorchester County northwest to Easton in Talbot County , intersecting U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) at both ends . MD 331 is a two @-@ lane undivided road most of its length that passes mostly through agricultural areas . The road also passes through the communities of Hurlock and Preston along the way . It encounters several routes during its journey , including MD 14 near Rhodesdale and MD 16 in the Preston area , both of which the route forms concurrencies with . In addition , the route also intersects with MD 392 and MD 307 in Hurlock and with MD 318 near Preston .
Most of present @-@ day MD 331 was designated as part of US 213 in 1926 when the U.S. Highway System was established . By 1940 , US 213 was moved to a new alignment that crossed the Choptank River at Cambridge on a bridge built in 1935 and MD 331 was designated to run from Vienna to Easton . Both ends of MD 331 have been shortened since , with the southernmost portion of MD 331 curtailed following the completion of the US 50 bypass of Vienna by the 1990s and the northern terminus of the route cut back to US 50 in 2004 when the state @-@ maintained portion of Dover Road to Dover Street in Easton was turned over to the city .
= = Route description = =
MD 331 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial within the town of Easton .
= = = Dorchester County = = =
MD 331 begins at an interchange with US 50 in Vienna , Dorchester County , a short distance west of the Nanticoke River . From this interchange , the route heads north on Rhodesdale Vienna Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road . It passes through wooded areas , with a set of power lines and an abandoned railroad line located along the east side of the road . MD 331 continues into farmland , with some rural residences alongside the road , before it approaches Reids Grove , where MD 819 ( Reids Grove Road ) loops to the west of MD 331 . Past Reids Grove , the route continues through a mix of woodland and farmland , still paralleling the power lines and the abandoned railroad .
MD 331 reaches Rhodesdale , where it intersects MD 14 ( Rhodesdale Eldorado Road ) . At this intersection , the route makes a left turn to run concurrent with MD 14 along East New Market Rhodesdale Road , heading west through Rhodesdale . The road leaves Rhodesdale and heads into farmland . MD 331 splits from MD 14 by turning north on Shiloh Church Hurlock Road at an intersection . Along Shiloh Church Hurlock Road , MD 331 passes a few residences before heading through more farm fields .
MD 331 enters Hurlock and heads into residential areas , with the name changing to Main Street at the Jackson Street intersection . It passes more residences before intersecting MD 392 ( Delaware Avenue ) . Past MD 392 , the road passes more homes before it heads into the downtown area of Hurlock , where it crosses the Maryland and Delaware Railroad 's Seaford Line and MD 307 ( Broad Street ) . Past this intersection , MD 331 heads northwest on Academy Street past numerous homes before the road leaves Hurlock . Upon leaving Hurlock , the road becomes Waddells Corner Road and it heads into farmland . The road turns to the west and continues through agricultural areas with intermittent residences . It comes to an intersection with MD 16 ( East New Market Ellwood Road ) , where MD 331 makes a right turn to head north along with MD 16 . MD 16 and MD 331 head north through a mix of woods and farms with some residences . The road continues through rural areas with an increasing number of residences as it approaches the Preston area . The road intersects the western terminus of MD 318 ( Preston Road ) near a car dealership . Past this intersection , MD 16 and MD 331 continue northwest on Preston Road .
= = = Caroline and Talbot counties = = =
The road crosses the Hunting Creek into Caroline County . Before entering Preston , MD 817 loops off to the west of MD 16 and MD 331 on Linchester Road . Past MD 817 , the road enters Preston , where it becomes Main Street , passing by residences and some businesses . The route intersects MD 324 ( Maple Avenue ) before reaching the center of town , where MD 16 splits from MD 331 by heading northeast on Harmony Road . Past this intersection , the route passes more residences before leaving Preston , where it becomes Dover Bridge Road . It heads north into rural areas of woods and farms with some residences along the road . The road turns to the northwest and intersects Tanyard Road . MD 331 turns west and continues to the residential community of Bethlehem , where it intersects MD 578 ( Bethlehem Road ) . Past Bethlehem , the road continues past many rural residences .
MD 331 enters wetlands as it approaches the Choptank River , which it crosses into Talbot County on the Dover Bridge , a swing bridge . Upon entering Talbot County , the route becomes Dover Road and continues to the northwest through a mix of woodland and farmland . It turns to the west with the number of residences increasing as it approaches Easton . Upon reaching Easton , MD 331 heads into commercial and industrial areas . The route ends at the intersection with US 50 ( Ocean Gateway ) , where Dover Road continues west as a local road toward downtown Easton .
= = History = =
MD 331 from Rhodesdale to Easton was one of the original state roads marked for improvement in 1909 . In 1910 , the only paved sections of the highway were the approaches to Dover Bridge in both Talbot County and Caroline County . The state road was paved from Hurlock to Shiloh Church in 1912 , from Easton to Waddell 's Corner in 1913 and 1914 , from Waddell 's Corner to Hurlock in 1915 , and within Hurlock in 1916 . When the U.S. Highway System was organized in 1926 , the state road became part of US 213 .
The first section of the Vienna – Rhodesdale highway was 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of pavement south from Rhodesdale that was completed by 1923 . The remainder of the highway was under construction by 1924 , with another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section of the road completed north from Vienna by 1927 . The gap between Vienna and Rhodesdale was filled in 1928 . When the Nanticoke River Bridge at Vienna was completed in 1931 , US 213 was rerouted between Mardela Springs and Rhodesdale to pass through Vienna . A new Dover Bridge , replacing a bridge built in the 19th century , was completed in 1932 . In 1939 , the original MD 331 and US 213 swapped routes ; US 213 also assumed MD 344 between Vienna and MD 16 at Mount Holly .
MD 331 has seen little change since 1939 . MD 331 and MD 16 were realigned around Ellwood and Linchester around 1960 . MD 331 's southern terminus was truncated at its newly constructed interchange with US 50 in Vienna in 1991 shortly after US 50 bypassed Vienna . MD 331 's northern terminus has been rolled back twice in Easton . The state highway was rolled back from Washington Street to Park Street in 1983 . MD 331 was truncated at US 50 in 2004 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 331A is the designation for the 0 @.@ 08 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 13 km ) section of Linchester Road from MD 331 to MD 817A near Preston in Caroline County .
MD 331B is the designation for the 0 @.@ 06 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 097 km ) section of Seaman Road from MD 331 near its intersection with MD 318 in Dorchester County to Langrell Road ( MD 817
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iffle Sessions – Live in Belfast 1998 , all of which found Morrison paying tribute to his early musical influences .
In 1997 , Morrison released The Healing Game . The album received mixed reviews , with the lyrics being described as " tired " and " dull " , though critic Greil Marcus praised the musical complexity of the album by saying : " It carries the listener into a musical home so perfect and complete he or she might have forgotten that music could call up such a place , and then populate it with people , acts , wishes , fears . " The following year , Morrison finally released some of his previously unissued studio recordings in a two @-@ disc set , The Philosopher 's Stone . His next release , 1999 's Back on Top , achieved a modest success , being his highest charting album in the US since 1978 's Wavelength .
= = = Recent years : 2000 – present = = =
Van Morrison continued to record and tour in the 2000s , often performing two or three times a week . He formed his own independent label , Exile Productions Ltd , which enables him to maintain full production control of each album he records , which he then delivers as a finished product to the recording label that he chooses , for marketing and distribution .
The album , Down the Road released in May 2002 , received a good critical reception and proved to be his highest charting album in the US since 1972 's Saint Dominic 's Preview . It had a nostalgic tone , with its fifteen tracks representing the various musical genres that Morrison had previously covered — including R & B , blues , country and folk ; one of the tracks was written as a tribute to his late father George , who had played a pivotal role in nurturing his early musical tastes .
Morrison 's 2005 album , Magic Time , debuted at number twenty @-@ five on the US Billboard 200 charts upon its May release , some forty years after Morrison first entered the public 's eye as the frontman of Them . Rolling Stone listed it as number seventeen on The Top 50 Records of 2005 . Also in July 2005 , Morrison was named by Amazon as one of their top twenty @-@ five all @-@ time best @-@ selling artists and inducted into the Amazon.com Hall of Fame . Later in the year , Morrison also donated a previously unreleased studio track to a charity album , Hurricane Relief : Come Together Now , which raised money for relief efforts intended for Gulf Coast victims devastated by hurricanes , Katrina and Rita . Morrison composed the song , " Blue and Green " , featuring Foggy Lyttle on guitar . This song was released in 2007 on the album , The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3 and also as a single in the UK . Van Morrison was a headline act at the international Celtic music festival , The Hebridean Celtic Festival in Stornoway Outer Hebrides in the summer of 2005 .
He released an album with a country music theme , entitled Pay the Devil , on 7 March 2006 and appeared at the Ryman Auditorium where the tickets sold out immediately after they went on sale . Pay the Devil debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number seven on Top Country Albums . Amazon Best of 2006 Editor 's Picks in Country listed the country album at number ten in December 2006 . Still promoting the country album , Morrison 's performance as the headline act on the first night of the Austin City Limits Music Festival on 15 September 2006 was reviewed by Rolling Stone magazine as one of the top ten shows of the 2006 festival . In November 2006 , a limited edition album , Live at Austin City Limits Festival was issued by Exile Productions , Ltd . A later deluxe CD / DVD release of Pay the Devil , in the summer of 2006 contained tracks from the Ryman performance . In October 2006 , Morrison had released his first commercial DVD , Live at Montreux 1980 / 1974 with concerts taken from two separate appearances at the Montreux Jazz Festival .
A new double CD compilation album The Best of Van Morrison Volume 3 was released in June 2007 containing thirty @-@ one tracks , some of which were previously unreleased . Morrison selected the tracks , which ranged from the 1993 album Too Long in Exile to the song " Stranded " from the 2005 album Magic Time . On 3 September 2007 , Morrison 's complete catalogue of albums from 1971 through 2002 were made available exclusively at the iTunes Store in Europe and Australia and during the first week of October 2007 , the albums became available at the US iTunes Store .
Still on Top – The Greatest Hits , a thirty @-@ seven track double CD compilation album was released on 22 October 2007 in the UK on the Polydor label . On 29 October 2007 , the album charted at number two on the Official UK Top 75 Albums — his highest UK charting . The November release in the US and Canada contains twenty @-@ one selected tracks . The hits that were released on albums with the copyrights owned by Morrison as Exile Productions Ltd . — 1971 and later — had been remastered in 2007 .
Keep It Simple , Morrison 's 33rd studio album of completely new material was released by Exile / Polydor Records on 17 March 2008 in the UK and released by Exile / Lost Highway Records in the US and Canada on 1 April 2008 . It comprised eleven self @-@ penned tracks . Morrison promoted the album with a short US tour including an appearance at the SXSW music conference , and a UK concert broadcast on BBC Radio 2 . In the first week of release Keep It Simple debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number ten , Morrison 's first Top Ten charting in the US .
Morrison released his 34th studio album , Born to Sing : No Plan B on 2 October 2012 on Blue Note Records . The album was recorded in Belfast , Morrison 's birthplace and hometown . The first single from this album , " Open the Door ( To Your Heart ) " , was released on 24 August 2012 .
A selection of Morrison 's lyrics , Lit Up Inside , was published by City Lights Books in the US and Faber & Faber in the UK the book was released on 2 October 2014 and an evening of words and music commenced at the Lyric Theatre , London on 17 November 2014 to mark its launch . Morrison himself selected his best and most iconic lyrics from a catalog of 50 years of writing
Morrison 's 35th studio album , Duets : Re @-@ working the Catalogue was released on 24 March 2015 on the RCA record label .
Morrison 's 70th birthday in 2015 was marked by celebrations in his hometown of Belfast , commencing with BBC Radio Ulster presenting programs including " Top 70 Van Tracks " between 26 and 28 August . As the headline act ending the Eastside Arts Festival , Morrison performed two 70th @-@ birthday concerts on Cyprus Avenue on his birthday 31 August . The first of the concerts was broadcast live on BBC Radio Ulster and a 60 @-@ minute BBC film of highlights from the concerts , entitled Up On Cyprus Avenue , was first shown on 4 September .
Morrison will release Keep Me Singing , his 36th studio album on 30 September 2016 . " Too Late " , the first single , will also be released on that date . The songs are twelve originals and one cover song . The album will be his first release of originals since Born to Sing : No Plan B in 2012 . A short tour of the U.S. will follow with six dates in October 2016 .
= = Live performances = =
By 1972 , after being a performer for nearly ten years , Morrison began experiencing stage fright when performing for audiences of thousands , as opposed to the hundreds as he had experienced in his early career . He became anxious on stage and would have difficulty establishing eye contact with the audience . He once said in an interview about performing on stage , " I dig singing the songs but there are times when it 's pretty agonising for me to be out there . " After a brief break from music , he started appearing in clubs , regaining his ability to perform live , albeit with smaller audiences .
The 1974 live double album , It 's Too Late to Stop Now has been noted to be one of the greatest recordings of a live concert and has appeared on lists of greatest live albums of all time . Biographer Johnny Rogan states that " Morrison was in the midst of what was arguably his greatest phase as a performer . " Performances on the album were from tapes made during a three @-@ month tour of the US and Europe in 1973 with the backing group the Caledonia Soul Orchestra . Soon after recording the album , Morrison restructured the Caledonia Soul Orchestra into a smaller unit , the Caledonia Soul Express .
On Thanksgiving Day 1976 , Morrison performed at the farewell concert for the Band . It was his first live performance in several years , and he considered skipping his appearance until the last minute , even refusing to go on stage when they announced his name . His manager , Harvey Goldsmith , said he " literally kicked him out there . " Morrison was on good terms with the members of the Band as near @-@ neighbours in Woodstock , and they had the shared experience of stage fright . At the concert , he performed two songs . His first was a rendition of the classic Irish song " Too Ra Loo Ra Loo Ral " . His second song was " Caravan " , from his 1970 album Moondance . Greil Marcus , in attendance at the concert , wrote : " Van Morrison turned the show around ... singing to the rafters and ... burning holes in the floor . It was a triumph , and as the song ended Van began to kick his leg into the air out of sheer exuberance and he kicked his way right offstage like a Rockette . The crowd had given him a fine welcome and they cheered wildly when he left . " The filmed concert served as the basis for Martin Scorsese 's 1978 film , The Last Waltz .
During his association with the Band , Morrison acquired the nicknames " Belfast Cowboy " and " Van the Man " . On the Band 's album Cahoots , as part of the duet " 4 % Pantomime " that Morrison sings with Richard Manuel ( and that he co @-@ wrote with Robbie Robertson ) , Manuel addresses him , " Oh , Belfast Cowboy " . When he leaves the stage after performing " Caravan " on The Last Waltz , Robertson calls out " Van the Man ! "
On 21 July 1990 , Morrison joined many other guests for Roger Waters ' massive performance of The Wall – Live in Berlin with an estimated crowd of between three hundred thousand and half a million people and broadcast live on television . He sang " Comfortably Numb " with Roger Waters , and several members from The Band : Levon Helm , Garth Hudson and Rick Danko . At concert 's end , he and the other performers sang " The Tide Is Turning " .
Morrison performed before an estimated audience of sixty to eighty thousand people when US President Bill Clinton visited Belfast , Northern Ireland on 30 November 1995 . His song " Days Like This " had become the official anthem for the Northern Irish peace movement .
Van Morrison continued performing concerts in the 2000s throughout the year rather than touring . Playing few of his best @-@ known songs in concert , he has firmly resisted relegation to a nostalgia act . During a 2006 interview , he told Paul Sexton :
I don 't really tour . This is another misconception . I stopped touring in the true sense of the word in the late 1970s , early 1980s , possibly . I just do gigs now . I average two gigs a week . Only in America do I do more , because you can 't really do a couple of gigs there , so I do more , 10 gigs or something there .
On 7 and 8 November 2008 , at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California , Morrison performed the entire Astral Weeks album live for the first time . The Astral Weeks band featured guitarist Jay Berliner , who had played on the album that was released forty years previously in November 1968 . Also featured on piano was Roger Kellaway . A live album entitled Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl resulted from these two performances . The new live album on CD was released on 24 February 2009 , followed by a DVD from the performances . The DVD , Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl : The Concert Film was released via Amazon Exclusive on 19 May 2009 . In February and March 2009 , Morrison returned to the US for Astral Weeks Live concerts , interviews and TV appearances with concerts at Madison Square Garden and at the Beacon Theatre in New York City . He was interviewed by Don Imus on his Imus in the Morning radio show and put in guest appearances on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and Live with Regis and Kelly . Morrison continued with the Astral Weeks performances with two concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London in April and then returned to California in May 2009 performing the Astral Weeks songs at the Hearst Greek Theatre in Berkeley , the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles , California and appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . Morrison filmed the concerts at the Orpheum Theatre so that they could be viewed by Farrah Fawcett , confined to bed with cancer and thus unable to attend the concerts .
In addition to It 's Too Late to Stop Now and Astral Weeks Live at the Hollywood Bowl , Morrison has released three other live albums : Live at the Grand Opera House Belfast in 1984 ; A Night in San Francisco in 1994 that Rolling Stone magazine felt stood out as : " the culmination of a career 's worth of soul searching that finds Morrison 's eyes turned toward heaven and his feet planted firmly on the ground " ; and The Skiffle Sessions – Live in Belfast 1998 recorded with Lonnie Donegan and Chris Barber and released in 2000 .
Morrison was scheduled to perform at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 25th anniversary concert on 30 October 2009 , but cancelled . In an interview on 26 October , Morrison told his host Don Imus that he had planned to play " a couple of songs " with Eric Clapton ( who had cancelled on 22 October due to gallstone surgery ) , but that they would do something else together at " some other stage of the game " .
Morrison performed for the Edmonton Folk Music Festival in Edmonton , Alberta , Canada on 4 August 2010 as the headline act for the fundraiser and scheduled as second day headliner at the Feis 2011 Festival in London 's Finsbury Park on 19 June 2011 .
Morrison appeared in concert at Odyssey Arena in Belfast on 3 February and at the O2 in Dublin on 4 February 2012 . He appeared at the 46th Montreux Jazz Festival as a headliner on 7 July 2012 .
In 2014 Morrison 's former high school Orangefield High School , formerly known as Orangefield Boys ' Secondary School closed its doors permanently . To mark the school 's closure Morrison performed in the school assembly hall for three nights of concerts from 22 – 24 August . The performance on the 22 August was exclusively for former teachers and pupils and the two remaining concerts were for members of the public
The first night of the Nocturne Live concerts at Blenheim Palace , Oxfordshire , UK on 25 June 2015 , featured Morrison and Grammy Award @-@ winning American Jazz vocalist and songwriter Gregory Porter .
= = Collaborations = =
During the 1990s , Morrison developed a close association with two vocal talents at opposite ends of their careers : Georgie Fame ( with whom Morrison had already worked occasionally ) lent his voice and Hammond organ skills to Morrison 's band ; and Brian Kennedy 's vocals complemented the grizzled voice of Morrison , both in studio and live performances .
The 1990s also saw an upsurge in collaborations by Morrison with other artists , a trend continuing into the new millennium . He recorded with Irish folk band the Chieftains on their 1995 album , The Long Black Veil . Morrison 's song , " Have I Told You Lately " would win a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 1996 .
He also produced and was featured on several tracks with blues legend John Lee Hooker on Hooker 's 1997 album , Don 't Look Back . This album would win a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Blues Album in 1998 and the title track " Don 't Look Back " , a duet featuring Morrison and Hooker , would also win a Grammy Award for " Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals " in 1998 . The project capped a series of Morrison and Hooker collaborations that began in 1971 when they performed a duet on the title track of Hooker 's 1972 album Never Get Out of These Blues Alive . On this album , Hooker also recorded a cover of Morrison 's " T.B. Sheets " .
Morrison additionally collaborated with Tom Jones on his 1999 album Reload , performing a duet on " Sometimes We Cry " , and he also sang vocals on a track entitled " The Last Laugh " on Mark Knopfler 's 2000 album , Sailing to Philadelphia . In 2004 , Morrison was one of the guests on Ray Charles ' album , Genius Loves Company , featuring the two artists performing Morrison 's " Crazy Love " .
In 2000 , Morrison recorded a classic country music duet album You Win Again with Linda Gail Lewis . The album received a three star review from AllMusic who called it " a roots effort that never sounds studied " .
= = Music = =
= = = Vocals = = =
Featuring his characteristic growl — a mix of folk , blues , soul , jazz , gospel , and Ulster Scots Celtic influences — Morrison is widely considered by many rock historians to be one of the most unusual and influential vocalists in the history of rock and roll . Critic Greil Marcus has gone so far as to say that " no white man sings like Van Morrison . " In his 2010 book , Marcus wrote , " As a physical fact , Morrison may have the richest and most expressive voice pop music has produced since Elvis Presley , and with a sense of himself as an artist that Elvis was always denied . "
As Morrison began live performances of the 40 @-@ year @-@ old album Astral Weeks in 2008 , there were comparisons to his youthful voice of 1968 . His early voice was described as " flinty and tender , beseeching and plaintive " . Forty years later , the difference in his vocal range and power were noticeable but reviewers and critic 's comments were favourable : " Morrison 's voice has expanded to fill his frame ; a deeper , louder roar than the blue @-@ eyed soul voice of his youth – softer on the diction – but none the less impressively powerful . " Morrison also commented on the changes in his approach to singing : " The approach now is to sing from lower down [ the diaphragm ] so I do not ruin my voice . Before , I sang in the upper area of my throat , which tends to wreck the vocal cords over time . Singing from lower in the belly allows my resonance to carry far . I can stand four feet from a mic and be heard quite resonantly . "
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Morrison has written hundreds of songs during his career with a recurring theme reflecting a nostalgic yearning for the carefree days of his childhood in Belfast . Some of his song titles derive from familiar locations in his childhood , such as " Cyprus Avenue " ( a nearby street ) , " Orangefield " ( the boys school he attended ) , and " On Hyndford Street " ( where he was born ) . Also frequently present in Morrison 's best love songs is a blending of the sacred @-@ profane as evidenced in " Into the Mystic " and " So Quiet in Here " .
Beginning with his 1979 album , Into the Music and the song " And the Healing Has Begun " , a frequent theme of his music and lyrics has been based on his belief in the healing power of music combined with a form of mystic Christianity . This theme has become one of the predominant qualities of his work .
His lyrics show an influence of the visionary poets William Blake and W. B. Yeats and others such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth . Biographer Brian Hinton believes " like any great poet from Blake to Seamus Heaney he takes words back to their origins in magic ... Indeed , Morrison is returning poetry to its earliest roots – as in Homer or Old English epics like Beowulf or the Psalms or folk song – in all of which words and music combine to form a new reality . " Another biographer John Collis believes that Morrison 's style of jazz singing and repeating phrases preclude his lyrics from being regarded as poetry or as Collis asserts : " he is more likely to repeat a phrase like a mantra , or burst into scat singing . The words may often be prosaic , and so can hardly be poetry . "
Morrison has described his songwriting method by remarking that : " I write from a different place . I do not even know what it is called or if it has a name . It just comes and I sculpt it , but it is also a lot of hard work doing the sculpting . "
= = = Performance style = = =
Critic Greil Marcus argues that given the truly distinctive breadth and complexity of Morrison 's work , it is almost impossible to cast his work among that of others : " Morrison remains a singer who can be compared to no other in the history of rock & roll , a singer who cannot be pinned down , dismissed , or fitted into anyone 's expectations . " Or in the words of Jay Cocks : " He extends himself only to express himself . Alone among rock 's great figures — and even in that company he is one of the greatest — Morrison is adamantly inward . And unique . Although he freely crosses musical boundaries — R & B , Celtic melodies , jazz , rave @-@ up rock , hymns , down @-@ and @-@ dirty blues — he can unfailingly be found in the same strange place : on his own wavelength . "
His transcendental signature style first came into full expression with his 1968 classic , Astral Weeks and he was noted to have remained a " master of his transcendental craft " in 2009 while performing the Astral Weeks songs live . This musical art form was based on stream of consciousness songwriting and emotional vocalising of lyrics that have no basis in normal structure or symmetry . His live performances are dependent on building dynamics with spontaneity between himself and his band , whom he controls with hand gestures throughout , sometimes signalling impromptu solos from a selected band member . The music and vocals build towards a hypnotic and trance @-@ like state that depends on in @-@ the @-@ moment creativity . Scott Foundas with LA Weekly wrote " he seeks to transcend the apparent boundaries of any given song ; to achieve a total freedom of form ; to take himself , his band and the audience on a journey whose destination is anything but known . " Greil Marcus wrote an entire book devoted to examining the moments in Morrison 's music where he reaches this state of transcendence and explains : " But in his music the same sense of escape from ordinary limits – a reach for , or the achievement of , a kind of violent transcendence – can come from hesitations , repetitions of words or phrases , pauses , the way a musical change by another musician is turned by Morrison as a bandleader or seized on by him as a singer and changed into a sound that becomes an event in and of itself . In these moments , the self is left behind , and the sound , that " yarragh , " becomes the active agent : a musical person , with its own mind , its own body . " A book reviewer further described it as " This transcendent moment of music when the song and the singer are one thing not two , neither dependent on the other or separate from the other but melded to the other like one , like breath and life ... "
Morrison has said he believes in the jazz improvisational technique of never performing a song the same way twice and except for the unique rendition of the Astral Weeks songs live , doesn 't perform a concert from a preconceived set list . Morrison has said he prefers to perform at smaller venues or symphony halls noted for their good acoustics . His ban against alcoholic beverages , which made entertainment news during 2008 , was an attempt to prevent the disruptive and distracting movement of audience members leaving their seats during the performances . In a 2009 interview , Morrison stated : " I do not consciously aim to take the listener anywhere . If anything , I aim to take myself there in my music . If the listener catches the wavelength of what I am saying or singing , or gets whatever point whatever line means to them , then I guess as a writer I may have done a day 's work . "
= = = Genre = = =
The music of Van Morrison has encompassed many genres since his early days as a blues and R & B singer in Belfast . Over the years he has recorded songs from a varying list of genres drawn from many influences and interests . As well as blues and R & B , his compositions and covers have moved between pop music , jazz , rock , folk , country , gospel , Irish folk and traditional , big band , skiffle , rock and roll , new age , classical and sometimes spoken word ( " Coney Island " ) and instrumentals . Morrison defines himself as a soul singer .
Morrison 's music has been described by music journalist Alan Light as " Celtic soul " , or what biographer Brian Hinton referred to as a new alchemy called " Caledonian soul . " Another biographer , Ritchie Yorke quoted Morrison as believing that he has " the spirit of Caledonia in his soul and his music reflects it . " According to Yorke , Morrison claimed to have discovered " a certain quality of soul " when he first visited Scotland ( his Belfast ancestors were of Ulster Scots descent ) and Morrison has said he believes there is some connection between soul music and Caledonia . Yorke relates that Morrison " discovered several years after he first began composing music that some of his songs lent themselves to a unique major modal scale ( without sevenths ) which of course is the same scale as that used by bagpipe players and old Irish and Scottish folk music . "
= = Caledonia = =
The name " Caledonia " has played a prominent role in Morrison 's life and career . Biographer Ritchie Yorke had pointed out already by 1975 that Morrison has referred to Caledonia so many times in his career that he " seems to be obsessed with the word " . In his 2009 biography , Erik Hage found that " Morrison seemed deeply interested in his paternal Scottish roots during his early career , and later in the ancient countryside of England , hence his repeated use of the term Caledonia ( an ancient Roman name for Scotland / northern Britain ) " . As well as being his daughter Shana 's middle name , it is the name of his first production company , his studio , his publishing company , two of his backing groups , his parents ' record store in Fairfax , California in the 1970s , and he also recorded a cover of the song " Caldonia " ( with the name spelled " Caledonia " ) in 1974 . Morrison used " Caledonia " in what has been called a quintessential Van Morrison moment in the song , " Listen to the Lion " with the lyrics , " And we sail , and we sail , way up to Caledonia " . As late as 2008 , Morrison used " Caledonia " as a mantra in the live performance of the song , " Astral Weeks " recorded at the two Hollywood Bowl concerts .
= = Influence = =
Morrison 's influence can readily be heard in the music of a diverse array of major artists and according to The Rolling Stone 's Encyclopedia of Rock and Roll ( Simon & Schuster , 2001 ) , " his influence among rock singers / song writers is unrivaled by any living artist outside of that other prickly legend , Bob Dylan . Echoes of Morrison 's rugged literateness and his gruff , feverish emotive vocals can be heard in latter day icons ranging from Bruce Springsteen to Elvis Costello " . His influence includes U2 ( Bono was quoted saying " I am in awe of a musician like Van Morrison . I had to stop listening to Van Morrison records about six months before we made The Unforgettable Fire because I didn 't want his very original soul voice to overpower my own . " ) ; John Mellencamp ( " Wild Night " ) ; Jim Morrison ; Joan Armatrading ( the only musical influence she will acknowledge ) ; Nick Cave ; Rod Stewart ; Tom Petty ; Rickie Lee Jones ( recognises both Laura Nyro and Van Morrison as the main influences on her career ) ; Elton John ; Graham Parker ; Sinéad O 'Connor ; Phil Lynott of Thin Lizzy ; Bob Seger ( " I know Bruce Springsteen was very much affected by Van Morrison , and so was I. " from Creem interview ) ( " I 've Been Working " ) ; Kevin Rowland of Dexys Midnight Runners ( " Jackie Wilson Said " ) ; Jimi Hendrix ( " Gloria " ) ; Jeff Buckley ( " The Way Young Lovers Do " , " Sweet Thing " ) ; Nick Drake ; and numerous others , including the Counting Crows ( their " sha @-@ la @-@ la " sequence in Mr Jones , is a tribute to Morrison ) . Morrison 's influence reaches into the country music genre , with Hal Ketchum acknowledging , " He ( Van Morrison ) was a major influence in my life . "
Morrison 's influence on the younger generation of singer @-@ songwriters is pervasive : including Irish singer Damien Rice , who has been described as on his way to becoming the " natural heir to Van Morrison " ; Ray Lamontagne ; James Morrison ; Paolo Nutini ; Eric Lindell David Gray and Ed Sheeran are also several of the younger artists influenced by Morrison . Glen Hansard of the Irish rock band the Frames ( who lists Van Morrison as being part of his holy trinity with Bob Dylan and Leonard Cohen ) commonly covers his songs in concert . American rock band the Wallflowers have covered " Into the Mystic " . Canadian blues @-@ rock singer Colin James also covers the song frequently at his concerts . Actor and musician Robert Pattinson has said that Van Morrison was his " influence for doing music in the first place " . Morrison has shared the stage with Northern Irish singer @-@ songwriter Duke Special , who admits Morrison has been a big influence .
Overall , Morrison has typically been supportive of other artists , often willingly sharing the stage with them during his concerts . On the live album , A Night in San Francisco , he had as his special guests , among others , his childhood idols : Jimmy Witherspoon , John Lee Hooker and Junior Wells . Although he often expresses his displeasure ( in interviews and songs ) with the music industry and the media in general , he has been instrumental in promoting the careers of many other musicians and singers , such as James Hunter , and fellow Belfast @-@ born brothers , Brian and Bap Kennedy .
Morrison has also influenced the other arts : the German painter Johannes Heisig created a series of lithographs illustrating the book In the Garden – for Van Morrison , published by Städtische Galerie Sonneberg , Germany , in 1997 .
= = Personal life = =
Morrison lived in Belfast from birth until 1967 , when he moved to New York after signing with Bang Records . Facing deportation due to visa problems , he managed to stay in the US when his American girlfriend Janet ( Planet ) Rigsbee agreed to marry him . Once married , Morrison and his wife moved to Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he found work performing in local clubs . The couple had one daughter in 1970 , Shana Morrison , who has become a singer @-@ songwriter . Morrison and his family moved around America , living in Boston ; Woodstock , New York ; and a hilltop home in Fairfax , California . His wife appeared on the cover of the album Tupelo Honey . They divorced in 1973 .
Morrison moved back to Europe in the late 1970s , first settling in London 's Notting Hill Gate area . Later , he moved to Bath , where he purchased the Wool Hall studio in January 1994 . He also has a home in the Irish seaside village of Dalkey near Dublin , where legal actions against two different neighbours concerning safety and privacy issues have been taken to court in 2001 and in 2010 . In the former case , Morrison pursued his action all the way to the Irish Supreme Court .
In 2001 , nine months into a tour with Linda Gail Lewis promoting their collaboration You Win Again , Lewis left , later filing claims against Morrison for unfair dismissal and sexual discrimination . Both claims were later withdrawn , and Morrison 's solicitor was quoted that " ( Mr. Morrison 's ) pleased that these claims have finally been withdrawn . He accepted a full apology and comprehensive retraction which represents a complete vindication of his stance from the outset . Miss Lewis has given a full and categorical apology and retraction to Mr. Morrison . " Lewis ' legal representative Christine Thompson said both parties had agreed to the terms of the settlement .
Morrison met Irish socialite Michelle Rocca in the summer of 1992 , and they often featured in the Dublin gossip columns , an unusual event for the reclusive Morrison . Rocca also appeared on one of his album covers , Days Like This . The couple married and have two children ; a daughter was born in February 2006 and a son in August 2007 .
In December 2009 , Texas native and Morrison employee Gigi Lee gave birth to a son who she asserted was Morrison 's and whom she named after him . Lee announced the birth of the child on Morrison 's official website although Morrison has subsequently denied paternity . It was revealed in December 2011 that both had died : Lee from throat cancer in October 2011 and her son in January 2011 from complications of diabetes .
= = Discography = =
= = Recognition and legacy = =
Morrison has received several major music awards in his career , including six Grammy Awards ( 1996 – 2007 ) ; inductions into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( January 1993 ) , the Songwriters Hall of Fame ( June 2003 ) , and the Irish Music Hall of Fame ( September 1999 ) ; and a Brit Award ( February 1994 ) . In addition he has received civil awards : an OBE ( June 1996 ) and an Officier de l ’ Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ( 1996 ) . He has honorary doctorates from the University of Ulster ( 1992 ) and from Queen 's University Belfast ( July 2001 ) .
The Hall of Fame inductions began in 1993 with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ; Morrison becoming notable as the first living inductee not to attend his own ceremony , – Robbie Robertson from the Band accepted the award on his behalf . When Morrison became the initial musician inducted into the Irish Music Hall of Fame , Bob Geldof presented Morrison with the award . Morrison 's third induction was into the Songwriters Hall of Fame for " recognition of his unique position as one of the most important songwriters of the past century " . Ray Charles presented the award , following a performance during which the pair performed Morrison 's " Crazy Love " from the album , Moondance . Morrison 's BRIT Award was for his Outstanding Contribution to British Music . Former Beirut hostage , John McCarthy presented the award ; while testifying to the importance of Morrison 's song " Wonderful Remark " McCarthy called it " a song … which was very important to us . "
Morrison received two civil awards in 1996 , firstly the Order of the British Empire for his service to music , secondly an award from the French government which made him an Officier de l ’ Ordre des Arts et des Lettres . Along with these state awards he has two honorary degrees in music ; an honorary doctorate in literature from the University of Ulster , and an honorary doctorate in music from Queen 's University in his hometown of Belfast .
Other awards include an Ivor Novello Award for Lifetime Achievement in 1995 , the BMI ICON award in October 2004 for Morrison 's " enduring influence on generations of music makers " , and an Oscar Wilde : Honouring Irish Writing in Film award in 2007 for his contribution to over fifty films , presented by Al Pacino , who compared Morrison to Oscar Wilde – both " visionaries who push boundaries " . He was voted the Best International Male Singer of 2007 at the inaugural International Awards in Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club , London .
Morrison has also appeared in a number of " Greatest " lists , including the TIME magazine list of The All @-@ Time 100 Albums , which contained Astral Weeks and Moondance , and he appeared at number thirteen on the list of WXPN 's 885 All Time Greatest Artists . In 2000 , Morrison ranked twenty @-@ fifth on American cable music channel VH1 's list of its " 100 Greatest Artists of Rock and Roll " . In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked Van Morrison forty @-@ second on their list of " Greatest Artists of All Time " . Paste ranked him twentieth in their list of " 100 Greatest Living Songwriters " in 2006 . Q ranked him twenty @-@ second on their list of " 100 Greatest Singers " in April 2007 and he was voted twenty @-@ fourth on the November 2008 list of Rolling Stone magazine 's 100 Greatest Singers of All Time .
Three of Morrison 's songs appear in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll : " Brown Eyed Girl " , " Madame George " and " Moondance " .
Morrison has been announced as of the 2010 honorees listed in the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
In August 2013 , it was announced that Morrison would receive the Freedom of Belfast , the highest honour the city can bestow . On 15 November 2013 , Morrison became the 79th recipient of the award , presented at the Waterfront Hall for his career achievements . After receiving the award , he performed a free concert for residents who won tickets from a lottery system .
In August 2014 , a " Van Morrison Trail " was established in East Belfast by Morrison in partnership with the Connswater Community Greenway . It is a self @-@ guided trail , which over the course of 3 @.@ 5 kilometers leads to eight places that were important to Morrison and inspirational to his music .
On 2 September 2014 , Morrison was presented with the Legend award at the GQ Men of the Year ceremony at Royal Opera House in London .
On 13 October 2014 , Morrison received his fifth BMI Million @-@ Air Award for 11 million radio plays of the song Brown Eyed Girl making it one of the Top 10 Songs of all time on US radio and television . Morrison has also received Million @-@ Air awards for Have I Told You Lately
The Songwriter 's Hall of Fame announced on 8 April 2015 that Morrison would be the 2015 recipient of the Johnny Mercer Award on 18 June 2015 at their 46th Annual Induction and Awards Dinner in New York City .
On 4 February 2016 he was knighted , by Prince Charles , for his musical achievements and his services to tourism and charitable causes in Northern Ireland .
= The Convict =
" The Convict " is the ninth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 37th overall . It first aired on November 30 , 2006 in the United States on NBC . The episode was the series ' only original script written by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant , who are the creators of the original British comedy series of the same name . It was directed by Jeffrey Blitz , his first such credit of the series .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton and Stamford branches of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) discovers that an employee named Martin Nash ( Wayne Wilderson ) , who came with the branches ' recent merger , was previously in prison . Michael becomes frustrated when Martin 's stories of prison sound better than working in the office . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) plays a prank on Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) by giving incorrect information to Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) on how to impress her .
According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 9 @.@ 07 million viewers watched " The Convict " on its first broadcast , making it up to that point the largest audience of the season . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , it earned a 4 @.@ 4 / 11 ratings share , finishing in eighteenth place for the week among all the major networks . Television critics were largely positive towards the episode , particularly Carell 's " Prison Mike " sequence as well as Helms ' performance as Andy Bernard .
= = Synopsis = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) learns that black employee Martin Nash ( Wayne Wilderson ) is a former criminal , and tells the entire office . During this time , in a misguided effort to avoid issues of stereotyping and racism Michael asks the employees to name a white person that they trust and he will name a black person he trusts even more . The name Jesus pops up and Michael replies with Apollo Creed . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) encourages Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) to pursue Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , and intentionally gives him information about her strong dislikes . Later , Andy strums " The Rainbow Connection " on his banjo while singing falsetto . Pam smiles politely and silently shares the joke with Jim .
Martin tells the others he was incarcerated for insider trading , and that he enjoyed certain perks of prison , including outside time and art classes . Pam comments that prison sounds better than their current work situation . Attempting to convince his employees that the office is better than prison , Michael sends everyone to " outside time " in the bitter cold . He then calls a meeting in which he adopts the persona of " Prison Mike . " Martin comments that Michael 's performance did not remind him of his time in prison . This further infuriates Michael , who then locks all of the staff inside the conference room . In order to have his co @-@ workers released , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) tells Michael the staff is simply teasing him . After letting the workers go , a relieved Michael relents , but Martin chooses to quit .
= = Production = =
" The Convict " was written by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant , the co @-@ creators of the British comedy series of the same name . It was their first original script for the American series , after years of creator and executive producer Greg Daniels imploring them to participate . Gervais and Merchant had refused previously because they believed that the American show should be written by Americans , and only changed their minds after watching the second season .
Gervais first worried that he was too unfamiliar with office protocol in the United States , noting that he " knew everything about this place ( in England ) , the pitfalls , the dos and don 'ts . Whereas in America , I don 't know if I 'm getting it right or not . " Despite this , his script writing went " remarkably fast . I suppose that 's because we 'd been away from those characters for two or three years . It 's one of our favorite shows , the American Office . " Gervais and Merchant spent several days debating phrasing and language , leading them to a point where they felt they had " translated it pretty well " for American viewers .
" The Convict " was the first Office episode to be directed by Jeffrey Blitz , who later won an Emmy Award for the fifth season episode " Stress Relief " . In a departure from series routine , Gervais and Merchant were not present on set for much of filming , though episode writers had typically been available in the past . Actress Kate Flannery found the episode " a lot of fun to shoot , " and observed that on the occasions Gervais was present , " it seems to me like he is looking at all of us with a sense of , ' I can 't believe that this exists because of me . ' That is just my interpretation , but he seems so humble , and kind of reverent . " One scene was meant to take place outdoors under cold temperatures , so the parking lot set was laden with fake snow and slush . Also present on set were two sets of twin babies , as the character of Hannah Smotridge @-@ Barr brings her son to the office .
The third season DVD contains several scenes that were deleted from the final cut of the episode . These include Dwight and Andy verbally sparring in the kitchen , Dwight informing Michael that he believes Martin has murdered Meredith , Michael explaining that he created " Prison Mike " in an improvisation class , and Pam giving Andy wildly incorrect tips for hanging out with Jim .
= = Reception = =
" The Convict " was first broadcast on NBC in the United States on November 30 , 2006 , near the end of the fall sweeps period . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by an estimated 9 @.@ 07 million viewers , the highest number of the series ' season up to that point . The episode earned a 4 @.@ 4 / 11 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . Among that demographic , The Office finished in eighteenth place for the week among all of the major networks .
Eric Goldman of IGN rated " The Convict " 9 out of 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . He wrote that " while this wouldn 't qualify as one of the very best episodes of the series , the great news is , Gervais and Merchant did an excellent job , working very well within the same @-@ but @-@ different world the US version of the show has created , and delivering some of the biggest and best laughs of the season . " Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald however was more critical of the episode , explaining that " Carell is a fearless actor , but he can 't stop a train wreck . The B @-@ story is better , as Jim decides to prank Pam by coaching Andy on just the wrong way to woo the receptionist . The Office has been erratic all season , but even at its worst , it 's still the best comedy on television . "
Writing for AOL TV , Michael Sciannamea thought " The Convict " seemed different from previous episodes , citing as evidence the scene of Michael and Martin discussing trustworthy black men ; Sciannamea attributed this to its guest writers : " I don 't think Gervais and Merchant went over the top ... it just seemed a little different than the others . " Also in his review , Sciannamea expressed his gradual enjoyment of Andy , " When I first saw him up in Stamford , I thought he was just the Connecticut version of Dwight . But now I think he adds greatly to the mix and is definitely one who is going to stir things up in Scranton . " Give Me My Remote 's Kath Skerry believed " the uncomfortable , unbearably awkward moments that the UK version perfected are definitely present throughout the episode . " She also praised Helms for " prov [ ing ] once again how perfectly he fits in on this show as he is absolutely hysterical . "
Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West was pleased with the Jim @-@ Karen storyline and called it " a nice , normal progression for two single people who are into each other . " She also praised Jim 's prank on Pam , especially viewing Helms ' performance " amazingly funny as this oblivious blowhard . " Referring to " Michael 's earnest determination not to assume that Martin was the ex @-@ con whom the Stamford office had hired , " West found the episode to be a satire of " white liberal guilt " . Reviewers were also positive towards the " Prison Mike " sequence , with West calling it " a dead @-@ on impersonation of a badass convict . " Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A- " .
= Deinocheirus =
Deinocheirus ( / ˌdaɪnoʊˈkaɪərəs / DY @-@ no @-@ KY @-@ rəs ) is a genus of large ornithomimosaur that lived during the Late Cretaceous around 70 million years ago . In 1965 , a pair of large arms , shoulder girdles , and a few other bones of a new dinosaur were first discovered in the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia . In 1970 , this specimen became the holotype of the only species within the genus , Deinocheirus mirificus ; the genus name is Greek for " horrible hand " . No further remains were discovered for almost fifty years , and its nature remained a mystery . Two more complete specimens were described in 2014 , which shed light on many aspects of the animal . Parts of these new specimens had been looted from Mongolia some years before , but were repatriated in 2014 .
Deinocheirus was an unusual ornithomimosaur , the largest of the clade at 11 m ( 36 ft ) long , and weighing 6 @.@ 36 t ( 14 @,@ 000 lb ) . Though it was a bulky animal , it had many hollow bones which saved weight . The arms were among the largest of any bipedal dinosaur at 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long , with large , blunt claws on its three @-@ fingered hands . The legs were relatively short , and bore blunt claws . Its vertebrae had tall neural spines that formed a " sail " along its back . The tail ended in pygostyle @-@ like vertebrae , which indicate the presence of a fan of feathers . The skull was 1 @.@ 024 m ( 3 @.@ 36 ft ) long , with a wide bill and a deep lower jaw , similar to those of hadrosaurs .
The classification of Deinocheirus was long uncertain , and it was initially placed in the theropod group carnosauria , but similarities with ornithomimosaurians were soon noted . After more complete remains were found , Deinocheirus was shown to be a primitive ornithomimosaurian , most closely related to the smaller genera Garudimimus and Beishanlong , together forming the family Deinocheiridae . Members of this group were not adapted for speed , unlike other ornithomimosaurs . Deinocheirus is thought to have been omnivorous ; its skull shape indicates a diet of plants , fish scales were found in association with one specimen and gastroliths were also present in the stomach region of the specimen . The large claws may have been used for digging and gathering plants . Bite marks on Deinocheirus bones have been attributed to the tyrannosaurid Tarbosaurus .
= = Description = =
Deinocheirus is the largest ornithomimosaurian ( ostrich dinosaur ) discovered ; the largest known specimen measured up to 11 m ( 36 ft ) long , with an estimated weight of 6 @.@ 36 t ( 14 @,@ 000 lb ) . The two other known specimens are smaller , the holotype being 94 % as big while the smallest , a subadult , only 74 % as big . When only the incomplete holotype arms were known , various sizes were extrapolated from them by different methods . A 2010 study estimated the hip height of Deinocheirus to be 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 – 12 ft ) . The weight had previously been estimated between 2 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) to 12 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 lb ) . Enormous sizes were also suggested by comparing the arms with those of tyrannosaurs , even though members of that group have very small arms in proportion to their body size .
Deinocheirus and Therizinosaurus possessed the longest forelimbs known for any bipedal dinosaurs . The holotype forelimbs measure 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long — the humerus ( upper arm bone ) is 93 @.@ 8 cm ( 36 @.@ 9 in ) , the ulna 68 @.@ 8 cm ( 27 @.@ 1 in ) , and the hand is 77 cm ( 30 in ) — including the 19 @.@ 6 cm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) long recurved claws . Each scapulocoracoid of the shoulder girdle has a length of 1 @.@ 53 m ( 5 @.@ 0 ft ) . Each half of the paired ceratobranchialia measure 42 cm ( 17 in ) . The shoulder @-@ blade was long and narrow , and the deltopectoralis crest was pronounced and triangular . The upper arm ( humerus ) was relatively slender , and only slightly longer than the hand . The ulna and radius ( lower arm bones ) were elongate and not firmly connected to each other in a syndesmosis . The metacarpus was long compared to the fingers . The three fingers were about equal in length , the first being the stoutest and the second the longest . Various rough areas and impressions on the forelimbs indicate the presence of powerful muscles . Most articular surfaces of the arm bones were deeply furrowed , indicating that the animal had thick pads of cartilage between the joints . Though the arms of Deinocheirus were large , the ratio between them and the shoulder girdle was less than that of the smaller ornithomimosaur Ornithomimus . The arm bones of Deinocheirus were similar in proportions to those of the small theropod Compsognathus . The wishbone ( furcula ) , an element not known from any other ornithomimosaurs , was U @-@ shaped . The hindlimbs were relatively short , and the thigh bone ( femur ) was longer than the shin bone ( tibia ) , as is common for large animals . The metatarsus was short and not arctometatarsalian , as in most other theropods . The claw bones of the feet were blunt and broad @-@ tipped instead of tapered , unlike other theropods , but resembled the unguals of large ornithischian dinosaurs . The proportions of the toe bones resembled those of tyrannosaurs , due to the large weight they had to bear .
Though Deinocheirus was a bulky animal , its dorsal ribs were tall and relatively straight , indicating that the body was narrow . The ten neck vertebrae were low and long , and progressively shorter backwards from the skull . This resulted in a more S @-@ curved neck than seen in other ornithomimosaurs , due to the larger skull . The neural spines of the twelve back vertebrae became increasingly longer from front to back , the last one being 8 @.@ 5 times the height of the centrum part . This is almost the same as the highest ratio in the neural spines of the theropod Spinosaurus . The neural spines had a system of interconnecting ligaments , which stiffened the vertebral column allowing it to support the abdomen while transmitting the stress to the hips and hindlimbs . Together , the neural spines formed a tall " sail " along the lower back , hips , and base of the tail , somewhat similar to that of Spinosaurus .
All the vertebrae were highly pneumatised by invading air sacs , except for the atlas bone and the hindmost tail vertebrae , and were thereby connected to the respiratory system . The back vertebrae were as pneumatised as those of sauropod dinosaurs , and had an extensive system of depressions . These adaptations may be correlated with gigantism , as they
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credited Overton as a way to prevent an international incident . Overton was finally given the medals he had earned in the war — including a Distinguished Service Cross and four Silver Star Medals — in 2009 .
= = Biography = =
Dolphin D. Overton was born on 2 April 1926 in Andrews , South Carolina . He was interested in flying from an early age , and as a boy he flew with his father . He became an avid reader of stories from World War I flying aces . At age 16 , Overton was flying solo in a Piper J @-@ 3 Cub .
Overton graduated from high school and began college at The Citadel in Charleston , South Carolina in 1943 , at the age of 16 , but one year later he dropped out in an attempt to enlist in the United States Navy . Overton attempted to become a naval aviator in 1945 but there was little demand for additional aviators at the time , as the war was nearing its end .
After being discharged from the Navy , Overton earned an appointment to the United States Military Academy , graduating in 1949 and being commissioned as a second lieutenant . Overton became one of 92 graduates to join the newly formed United States Air Force . In 1950 , Overton earned his aviator wings after a year of training at Williams Air Force Base in Phoenix , Arizona , alongside Ivan Kincheloe , who would later also become a flying ace in Korea .
= = = Air Force career = = =
Overton 's first assignment was with the 31st Fighter Group at Turner Air Force Base in Albany , Georgia , commanded by David C. Schilling , and flying the F @-@ 84 Thunderjet , a fighter @-@ bomber . Shortly after the beginning of this assignment , Overton nearly died in a training incident . On his third flight in the F @-@ 84 , as he tried to set a record for completing an obstacle course in the shortest time , he was involved in a major crash . The crash threatened to end his career , but Schilling , determined to prevent Overton from being discharged , gave him extra assignments to keep him in the military .
Overton flew F @-@ 84s with the 31st Fighter Group . He was a part of the first major trans @-@ Atlantic deployment of F @-@ 84s to the United Kingdom in late 1950 . He volunteered for deployment to South Korea to serve in the Korean War in 1951 .
= = = First Korean War tour = = =
In February 1952 , Overton joined the 8th Fighter @-@ Bomber Squadron , 49th Fighter @-@ Bomber Wing . As many of the other pilots deploying with Overton were from the Air National Guard , Overton was the most experienced jet aircraft pilot among them . Because of this , he was made a flight leader and the assistant Operations Officer of the squadron . The unit flew out of Taegu ( K @-@ 2 ) and its missions consisted primarily of close air support and interdiction missions in support of United Nations ground forces . In this time , Overton also took assignments as a forward air controller and directed air support missions to troops on the front lines . Overton spent some of this time on the USS Valley Forge ( CV @-@ 45 ) to assist US Navy pilots with their own close air support doctrine .
On 15 June 1952 , Overton led a bombing raid over Pyongyang to destroy a series of targets near the Pyongyang Air Base . The targets had been unsuccessfully bombed earlier by a similar strike force , but Overton 's group was successful in destroying almost all of the targets while none of his aircraft took major damage from the 48 antiaircraft and 100 automatic weapons , and without harming the many nearby UN prisoner of war concentrations .
On 28 June 1952 , the squadron was ordered to attack a convoy of Chinese vehicles . Overton , leading a group of 24 F @-@ 84s , directed attacks on the convoy despite taking intense anti @-@ aircraft fire himself , and the aircraft destroyed 150 vehicles . Though the circumstances in the event were lost in subsequent actions , Overton would later be decorated for this achievement .
On 4 July , Overton was on a mission near Sakchu , leading a group of 37 F @-@ 84s on an attack mission against the North Korean Military Academy when they were attacked by almost 200 MiG @-@ 15s in the largest engagement of the war . In spite of the intense fire , Overton 's group took no losses , and the results of the engagement , as well as Overton 's heroism were cause for subsequent decoration . With this unit , Overton flew 102 combat missions over the course of a 6 @-@ month tour . It concluded in August 1952 .
= = = Second Korean War tour = = =
At the end of his first tour , Overton volunteered for a second tour in Korea in a fighter unit . For this tour , Overton joined the 16th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , 51st Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing at Suwon Air Base . For the first several weeks in this assignment , Overton saw little action . He flew 40 missions into MiG alley without making contact with any Soviet , Chinese or North Korean pilots . He flew an F @-@ 86 Sabre , tail number 50 @-@ 631 , nicknamed Dolph 's Devil and Angel in Disguise .
During this time , Overton was known to sit in his bases ' chapel in silence for extended periods of time , not praying , to calm his nerves . He also began to grow a mustache , though he professes not to be superstitious . Overton would continue to grow this mustache until immediately before his final flight , when he shaved it off . He also believed any number with a three in it , including the number 13 , was lucky .
Overton was described by fellow pilots as being a " smart and serious professional . " He visited a radar site in his spare time to memorize the flight patterns of the Soviet and Chinese fliers . By the end of January 1953 , Overton had learned the MiG patrol and landing patterns . He had made contact with MiGs several times but had not been successful at shooting any down . This changed on 21 January when Overton began successfully downing aircraft north of the Yalu River . Over the course of four days and four missions , he downed five Soviet aircraft ; two on 21 January and one each on 22 and 23 January . Overton himself expressed surprise at how successful his strategy was , noting he was never discovered until it was too late , and he considered the victories relatively easy . He downed his fifth and final Soviet pilot on 24 January 1953 , his 49th mission of the tour . This meant he attained ace status in the shortest time of any pilot in the war . He became an ace on the same day as Harold E. Fischer , and the two were the 24th and 25th US aces in the war . Overton 's streak was briefly billed as the " hottest streak in jet fighting history , " and for a few days he was characterized as a hero by Stars and Stripes .
During a mission which occurred on a disputed date , either 23 January or 25 January , Overton and his squadron commander , ace Edwin L. Heller flew north of the Yalu River in search of MiG formations . Heller and Overton both shot down aircraft , some sources say this was one of Overton 's first five victories , while others say they were his sixth and seventh , for which he never received credit , but Heller was struck by a MiG and crashed . He was either 60 or 150 miles north of the Yalu River line , so a rescue attempt was not made . This was later seen as one of the reasons Overton was singled out for reprimand for crossing the Yalu River . Most sources attribute Overton with only five victories .
= = = Reprimand and resignation = = =
The next morning , 25 January , Overton was summoned to the office of his wing commander , Colonel John W. Mitchell . There , Colonel David C. Jones of the Fifth Air Force command staff determined he had crossed the Yalu river into China for each of his five victories . Violating Chinese airspace was officially prohibited . The next day Mitchell told him he was being grounded and sent home , and " made clear that he was not going home a hero . " The 16th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron was grounded for 10 days .
Overton was told he would not be given the decorations he had earned in Korea , including the awards from his previous tour which had not yet been written up . Overton had twice been pinned with a Distinguished Flying Cross personally by Fifth Air Force commander Lieutenant General Glenn O. Barcus , and he had been considered for several Silver Star Medals . Overton was also given a bad efficiency report which characterized him as insubordinate . Overton lost his temporary rank of captain . The military delayed official recognition of his credits and ace status until December 1953 . He became one of 40 US aces during the war . Overton resigned his commission before the war ended .
Subsequent analysis has indicated Overton may have been treated unfairly for these actions , becoming a scapegoat for the actions of many other pilots in the war . No new policies had been released warning about crossing the Chinese border , and no pilots before Overton had been punished for doing so . Overton himself expressed frustration at the move , as he had been the rearmost pilot in the formation that crossed the Yalu River on 24 January , and Mitchell himself had been known to cross the border and condoned the action . Fellow ace and unit member Francis Gabreski challenged the move , claiming that US pilots were outnumbered and it was the only way to maintain air superiority . It was later revealed that Swiss observers to the peace talks at Panmunjon were traveling through Manchuria on foot when they spotted a UN @-@ Soviet dogfight and lodged a complaint , prompting an investigation which eventually indicted Overton .
The move was seen as an effort by the US military to prevent an international incident by not acknowledging that US pilots had violated Chinese airspace . Debate remains as to whether or not these airspace violations were a necessity , as US pilots were able to maintain air superiority despite being outnumbered in the war , and Chinese and Soviet pilots , who could have launched similar strikes on UN ships at sea and on targets in Japan did not do so . Still , many missions into Chinese airspace were authorized during the war . Informally , it was known that US pilots regularly violated the rule in a rush to down MiGs .
= = = Subsequent life = = =
Following his resignation , Overton had no contact with the military . This continued for several decades until Overton reconnected with fellow West Point graduate Lieutenant General Charles G. Cleveland , and he discovered the Air Force had established Air Force Review Boards Agency to review incidents and determine if individuals had been unfairly denied medals . In the meantime , Overton became a successful businessman , owning and operating several companies .
Overton continued flying as a hobby after the military . He built a personal aviation library with 10 @,@ 000 books , and began collecting and restoring aircraft . By 1999 , Overton had acquired and restored over 90 aircraft , donating most to museums and institutions around the United States and abroad . Among this collection are several more Piper Cubs and Ford Trimotor aircraft , which he flew regularly for leisure . He was also active in the development of a state aviation museum for North Carolina . The Carolinas Aviation Museum , established in 1992 , named its library for Overton .
Overton was exonerated 25 years later when he was deemed eligible to receive two Distinguished Flying Crosses and four Silver Star Medals . However , records relating to Overton 's actions were destroyed in the 1973 National Archives Fire and the awarding of his decorations was delayed . Some sources later whitewashed the controversy by claiming Overton was on his final four missions in Korea when he became an ace , and that he was scheduled to be returned to the United States after the missions anyway . The US Air Force maintained that Overton had been denied his medals due to " clerical omissions . " The Air Force , in its citations for Overton 's medals , claimed the actions took place at Insadong and Uiju , instead of acknowledging Overton had claimed the victories in Chinese airspace .
Overton was honored by the Gathering of Eagles program of the Air Force Air Command and Staff College twice , once in 1999 and again in 2008 . On 18 September 2009 , Overton was further presented with the Distinguished Service Cross by Air Force Chief of Staff General Norton Schwartz , who in a speech noted that Overton had been " not properly recognized " for the 28 June 1952 bombing run . Overton would also finally be presented with his Distinguished Flying Cross and Silver Star Medals , 57 years after the actions . It followed a six @-@ month appeal process initiated by Overton .
Overton resided in North Carolina with his wife , Sue . The couple had five children and 10 grandchildren . He died on 25 March 2013 .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
From numerous visits to radar stations before his flights , Overton memorized where and how the Soviet pilots landed as well as how long they stayed airborne . He then told radar men at Cho @-@ do Airport to inform him when Soviet pilots took off , allowing him to ambush them . Using this information , Overton would fly in a racetrack pattern between the MiGs landing zones and the sun , preventing them from spotting him as they made their landing approaches . Overton would then fall in behind the formations of Soviet fighters as they began their landings , shooting them down with minimal resistance . All of his subsequent victories were described as " parallel intercepts , non @-@ deflection shots from close range without using the radar ranging feature on the Sabre 's gunsight . "
Most sources agree Overton had five victories . However , there is a dispute as to whether this number is higher , thanks to the disputed account of one mission . A few sources claim Overton flew one final mission on 25 January 1953 and shot down two more MiG @-@ 15s which he never received credit for . Other sources attest that this mission — the same in which Edwin Heller was shot down — took place 23 January and Overton shot down only one aircraft during the flight .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Overton was decorated numerous times during his Korean War tour , however many of these awards and medals were rescinded following his controversial removal from the country . Additionally , his records were among the 16 to 18 million which were destroyed in the 1973 National Archives fire . Most of Overton 's decorations were restored following his 2009 appeal . What follows is an incomplete list of awards confirmed to have been awarded to Overton during his service .
= = = Distinguished Service Cross citation = = =
The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to ( then ) First Lieutenant Dolphin D. Overton , III , United States Air Force , for extraordinary heroism in action against an armed enemy of the United States as Group Leader of twenty @-@ two F @-@ 84 type Aircraft , 49th Bomber Wing , FIFTH Air Force , on 28 June 1952 . On that date , Lieutenant Overton 's group was diverted against a target of truck convoys discovered by a previous recce flight . Working in and through an overcast , Lieutenant Overton planned and executed a very difficult attack , sequencing his aircraft in such a manner as to provide maximum coverage of the target with minimum risk from heavy ground fire . With disregard for his own safety , Lieutenant Overton remained in enemy fire under the overcast so that he could visually direct the attacks and withdrawals . So successful was Lieutenant Overton 's direction of the attack , that one hundred fifty trucks were destroyed and confirmed by photograph , making it one of the largest such strikes of the war . Lieutenant Overton 's command of this strike in such adverse conditions and with such devastating results highlights his superb flying skill and extraordinary heroism in the face of fierce enemy opposition . Lieutenant Overton 's actions reflect great credit upon himself , the FAR EAST Air Force , the United States Air Force , and the United Nations Command .
= DuSable Museum of African American History =
The DuSable Museum of African American History is dedicated to the study and conservation of African American history , culture , and art . It was founded in 1961 by Dr. Margaret Taylor @-@ Burroughs ( sometimes Margaret Burroughs or Margaret Goss Burroughs ) , her husband Charles Burroughs , Gerard Lew , Eugene Feldman , and others . Dr. Taylor @-@ Burroughs and other founders established the museum to celebrate black culture , then overlooked by most museums and academic establishments . It is located at 740 E. 56th Place at the corner of Cottage Grove Avenue on the South Side of Chicago in Washington Park . The museum is in an affiliation with the Smithsonian Institution .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
The DuSable Museum was originally chartered on February 16 , 1961 . Its origins as the Ebony Museum of Negro History and Art began following the work of Margaret and Charles Burroughs to correct the perceived omission of black history and culture in the education establishment . The museum was originally located on the ground floor of the Burroughs ' home at 3806 S. Michigan Avenue . In 1968 , the museum was renamed for Jean Baptiste Point du Sable , a Haitian fur trader and the first non @-@ Native @-@ American permanent settler in Chicago . During the 1960s , the museum and the South Side Community Art Center , which was located across the street , founded in 1941 by Taylor @-@ Burroughs and dedicated by Eleanor Roosevelt , formed an African American cultural corridor . This original museum site had previously been a social club and boarding house for African American railroad workers and is now listed as a Chicago Landmark and on the National Register of Historic Places .
The DuSable Museum quickly filled a void caused by limited cultural resources then available to African Americans in Chicago . It became an educational resource for African American history and culture and a focal point in Chicago for black social activism . The museum has hosted political fundraisers , community festivals , and various events serving the black community . The museum 's model has been emulated in numerous other cities around the country , including Boston , Los Angeles , and Philadelphia .
= = = Expansion = = =
In 1973 , the Chicago Park District donated the usage of a park administration building in Washington Park as the site for the museum . The current location once served as a lockup facility for the Chicago Police Department . In 1993 , the museum expanded with the addition of a new wing named in honor of the late Mayor Harold Washington , the first African @-@ American mayor of Chicago . In 2004 , the original building became a contributing building to the Washington Park United States Registered Historic District which is a National Register of Historic Places listing .
The DuSable Museum is the oldest and largest caretaker of African American culture in the United States . Over its long history , it has expanded as necessary to reflect the increased interest in black culture . This willingness to adapt has allowed it to survive while other museums faltered due to a weakening economy and decreased public support . The museum was the eighth one located on Park District land . Although it focuses on exhibiting African American culture , it is one of several Chicago museums that celebrates Chicago 's ethnic and cultural heritage .
Antoinette Wright , director of the DuSable Museum , has said that African American art has grown out of a need for the culture to preserve its history orally and in art due to historical obstacles to other forms of documentation . She also believes that the museum serves as a motivational tool for members of a culture that has experienced extensive negativity . In the 1980s , African American museums such as the DuSable endured the controversy of whether negative aspects of the cultural history should be memorialized . In the 1990s , the African American genre of museum began to flourish despite financial difficulties . In 2016 , the museum formed an affiliation with the Smithsonian Institution .
= = Collection = =
The new wing contains a permanent exhibit on Washington with memorabilia , personal effects and surveys highlights of his political career . The museum also serves as the city 's primary memorial to du Sable . Highlights of its collection include the desk of activist Ida B. Wells and the violin of poet Paul Laurence Dunbar .
The museum has a collection of 13 @,@ 000 artifacts , books , photographs , art objects , and memorabilia . The DuSable collection has come largely from private gifts . It has United States slavery @-@ era relics , nineteenth- and twentieth @-@ century artifacts , and archival materials , including the diaries of sea explorer Captain Harry Dean . The DuSable collection includes works from scholar W. E. B. Du Bois , sociologist St. Clair Drake , and poet Langston Hughes . The African American art collection contains selections from the South Side Community Art Center students Charles White , Archibald Motley , Jr . , Gus Nall , Charles Sebree , and Marion Perkins , as well as numerous New Deal Works Progress Administration period and 1960s Black Arts Movement works . The museum also owns prints and drawings by Henry O. Tanner , Richmond Barthé , and Romare Bearden , and has an extensive collection of books and records pertaining to African and African American history and culture .
= = Facilities = =
The original north entrance contains the main lobby of the museum and features the Thomas Miller mosaics , which honor the institution 's founders . The building was designed c.1915 by D.H. Burnham and Company to serve as the South Park Administration Building in Washington Park on the city 's south side . The new wing is 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) . The museum has a 466 @-@ seat auditorium , which is part of the new wing , that hosts community @-@ related events , such as a jazz and blues music series , poetry readings , film screenings , and other cultural events . The museum also has a gift shop and a research library . As of 2001 , the museum operated with a US $ 2 @.@ 7 million budget , compared to a $ 55.7M budget for the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . The museum 's funding is partially dependent upon a Chicago Park District tax levy .
After the 1993 expansion of the new wing , the museum contained 50 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) of exhibition space . The $ 4 million expansion was funded by a $ 2 million matching funds grant from city and state officials .
= Uyarndha Manithan =
Uyarndha Manithan ( English : The Noble Man ) is a 1968 Indian Tamil @-@ language drama film written by Javar Seetharaman and directed by Krishnan @-@ Panju . The film was produced by A. V. Meiyappan under AVM Productions and stars Sivaji Ganesan and Sowcar Janaki in the lead roles , while S. A. Ashokan , Major Sundarrajan , Vanisri and Sivakumar play pivotal roles . The film 's soundtrack and background score were composed by M. S. Viswanathan , while the lyrics for the songs were written by Vaali .
In addition to being Sivaji Ganesan 's 125th film , Uyarndha Manithan was conceived as an adaption of Chitrakar 's 1966 Bengali film Uttar Purush . The plot revolves around a wealthy industrialist 's son who secretly marries the daughter of his family estate 's accountant , only for his father to discover it and burn down the estate along with his son 's pregnant wife , who is inside . The remainder of the film reveals the truth behind how she and her progeny survives .
Released on 29 November 1968 , Uyarndha Manithan earned positive critical feedback and went on to become a commercial success . The songs " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " and " Paal Polave " remain popular today in Tamil Nadu . The film won the National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer at the 16th National Film Awards , for P. Susheela , making it the first Tamil film to win a National Award under that category . It also won four Tamil Nadu State Film Awards , including Best Film ( First prize ) and Best Director for Krishnan @-@ Panju .
= = Plot = =
Rajalingam ( alias Raju ) ( Sivaji Ganesan ) is the son of a wealthy Madurai @-@ based industrialist , Sankaralingam ( S. V. Ramadoss ) . Living with Raju is his driver and friend , Sundaram ( Major Sundarrajan ) . While vacationing in his family estate at Kodaikanal with Sundaram and his family doctor , Gopal ( S. A. Asokan ) , Raju meets Parvathi ( Vanisri ) and falls in love with her . Gopal too becomes smitten with Parvathi when he meets her whilst conducting her father 's medical treatment . Parvathi , who knows Raju through her father , as he is also an accountant of Raju 's family estate , reciprocates Raju 's feelings . Gopal decides not to reveal his love for Parvathi to Raju for Raju 's sake . Raju and Parvathi marry in secret with the help of Gopal and the consent of Parvathi 's father . The couple live together in Kodaikanal without disclosing the knowledge of their marriage to Raju 's father , Sankaralingam .
Three months later , Parvathi becomes pregnant . Sankaralingam , fearing for his son 's safety , arrives at Kodaikanal and becomes furious upon finding out Raju 's marriage to Parvathi . He orders his henchmen to set the estate on fire with Parvathi and her father inside . Raju and Gopal rush to save Parvathi , but they are stopped by Sankaralingam 's henchmen and are forcefully taken back to Madurai , leaving Parvathi and her father for dead . A few months after returning to Madurai , Raju is forced to marry his cousin Vimala ( Sowcar Janaki ) . After the marriage , Sankaralingam hands over his business affairs to Raju and dies . Nineteen years pass . Despite having mutual affection for each other , Raju and Vimala remain childless and Raju is unable to forget Parvathi .
Sathyamurthy ( Sivakumar ) , a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old who lives with his uncle Murugan ( V. S. Raghavan ) , is unable to retain any job due to his honest nature . He becomes acquainted with Gopal , with whose recommendation he becomes Raju 's personal house servant . When Sathyamurthy displays his mother 's photograph at his house to pray to her , it is revealed that Sathyamurthy is the son of Raju and Parvathi . Parvathi had survived the accident , was cared for by Murugan , and died a few years after giving birth to Sathyamurthy without divulging the identity of Raju to Sathyamurthy and Murugan . Sathyamurthy improves his reading and writing skills with the help of Sundaram 's daughter , Gowri ( Bharathi Vishnuvardhan ) and the two fall in love . When Raju learns of their love , he approves of their marriage . Gopal comes to know that Sathyamurthy is Raju 's son , but dies of a sudden heart attack before revealing it .
Jealous of Sathymurthy 's influence on Raju , Rathnam ( V. K. Ramasamy ) and his wife ( Manorama ) hide Vimala 's diamond necklace in Sathyamurthy 's suitcase in an effort to get rid of him . Vimala , upset at losing her necklace , searches the house for it . When Raju , Sundaram , Gowri , and Sathyamurthy return after attending a conference in Kodaikanal , Vimala , acting on Rathnam 's provocation , orders that Sathyamurthy 's suitcase be searched . When the necklace is found in it , Raju throws Sathyamurthy out of his house , despite Sathyamurthy proclaiming his innocence . Gowri then shows Parvathi 's photograph to Raju , who is shocked to learn that Sathyamurthy is his own son . Raju reveals the truth about Parvathi to Vimala , who also accepts Sathyamurthy as her son . Before Raju and Vimala rush to bring Sathyamurthy back , Raju learns of a fire breaking out in one of his mills . Sathyamurthy , unhappy of being wrongly accused by Raju , attempts suicide by entering the burning mill . Raju saves Sathyamurthy in time and reveals the truth about his birth to him . The family is united and Sathyamurthy marries Gowri .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Sivaji Ganesan wanted A. V. Meiyappan to produce his 125th film , which eventually became Uyarndha Manithan . Meiyappan then asked the director duo Krishnan @-@ Panju to search for a good script . One of Meiyappan 's friends , V. A. P. Iyer , suggested Meiyappan to remake the Bengali film Uttar Purush ( 1966 ) . After watching the film , Meiyappan was impressed with it and made a decision with Krishnan @-@ Panju and Javar Seetharaman to remake the film with a few alterations .
When the script was ready , Meiyappan 's sons and the film 's co @-@ producers M. Saravanan , M. Kumaran and M. Murugan narrated it to Ganesan at his residence , Annai Illam . Ganesan initially rejected it as he felt the character of Dr. Gopal had more impact than the main character , Raju , and sought to film the portions involving Dr. Gopal in four days . However , on Meiyappan 's insistence , Ganesan played the role of Raju . The role of Dr. Gopal went to S. A. Ashokan and Ganesan assisted him for acting in the scene where Dr. Gopal dies of a heart attack . S. V. Ramadoss was cast as Raju 's father Sankaralingam , Major Sundarrajan as Raju 's classmate , Vanishree as Raju 's wife Parvathi , Sowcar Janaki as Raju 's cousin Vimala , Sivakumar as Raju 's son Sathyamurthy and V. S. Raghavan portrayed Sathyamurthy 's uncle Murugan .
When M. Saravanan asked about Ganesan 's salary to Ganesan 's younger brother V. C. Shanmugham , who spoke on Ganesan 's behalf , Shanmugham said that Ganesan was willing to accept any amount that AVM Productions could afford to offer . Taking this to be a vague statement as Shanumgham did not state Ganesan 's salary properly , Saravanan discovered that Ganesan accepted ₹ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 26 @,@ 667 in 1968 ) for one of A. P. Nagarajan 's latest films . Since Thiruvilaiyadal ( 1965 ) , Nagarajan 's films were made in Eastmancolor , and because Uyarndha Manidhan was made in black @-@ and @-@ white and costume designing for the film was less as compared to those of Nagarajan 's films , M. Saravanan decided to pay ₹ 150 @,@ 000 ( US $ 20 @.@ 000 in 1968 ) to Ganesan . P. N. Sundaram served as the cinematographer , while Panju edited the film under the pseudonym " Panjabi " .
= = = Filming = = =
Ganesan 's mannerisms and acting style in the film were inspired by one of his friends who was a Coimbatore @-@ based industrialist . During the scene near the end of the film in which Ganesan enters a burning house , which he did without any hesitation , he accidentally singed his body hair . The song " En Kelvikkenna Badhil " was re @-@ shot as Meiyappan was not pleased with the earlier sequence that was shown to him by the production unit . The song " Paal Polave " was initially meant to be shot at Kodaikanal , but due to unfavourable weather conditions the production crew decided not to include the song in the final version . The film 's art director , A. K. Sekhar , wanted to include the song in the film after hearing its rendition by P. Susheela and constructed a specially erected set at AVM studios in Chennai that resembled Kodaikanal . The song was filmed there in three days .
It was speculated that a film producer bought the remake rights of The Parent Trap ( 1961 ) in Hindi and titled it as Vapas . AVM Productions had already acquired the rights to the film , which they were making under the title Do Kaliyaan ( 1968 ) . To avoid a clash with that film , AVM Production stalled the production of Uyarndha Manithan for eight months and managed to release Do Kaliyaan first . Ganesan , who thought that the project had been shelved , went to inform AVM Productions that he would commence filming with another technical crew . However , AVM Productions convinced him that the shooting was only delayed , and paid him ₹ 50 @,@ 000 ( US $ 6 @,@ 667 in 1968 ) in advance . After the release of Do Kaliyaan , filming was resumed and completed . The final length of the film 's prints were 4 @,@ 591 metres ( 15 @,@ 062 ft ) long .
= = Themes = =
In his 2015 book Madras Studios : Narrative , Genre , and Ideology in Tamil Cinema , Swarnavel Eswaran Pillai notes that the title Uyarndha Manithan , meaning " A Honourable Man " , epitomises the contradiction within the character of Raju , and in the trajectory of the rebel in Parasakthi ( 1952 ) , as he finally ends up a " meek / reactionary family man " who had forsaken his own offspring / lineage at a critical juncture .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack and musical score for Uyarndha Manithan were composed by M. S. Viswanathan , while the lyrics were written by Vaali . The soundtrack was released under the label of Saregama . In the composition and picturisation for the song " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " , Viswanathan was inspired by one of the songs in My Fair Lady ( 1964 ) , in which Rex Harrison sings with a walking stick in hand on a golf course . Due to T. M. Soundararajan 's laughter being inadequate during the recording of this song , Viswanathan himself recorded his own laughter . M. Saravanan , in his book AVM 60 Cinema , described the use of dialogues in " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " as " something new to Tamil cinema " . The song was parodied by Vikram and Vivek in Dhool ( 2003 ) , and " Paal Polave " was parodied by Santhanam in Yuvan Yuvathi ( 2011 ) .
The soundtrack was received positively by critics , with " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " and " Paal Polave " remaining popular today in Tamil Nadu . In his book Pride of Tamil Cinema : 1931 to 2013 , G. Dhananjayan wrote that Uyarntha Manithan " had memorable songs from the combination of MS Vishwanathan [ sic ] and Vaalee [ sic ] . The songs [ ... ] are popular even today " . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu praised the bossa nova portions in the song " Velli Kinnamthan " . News Today described " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " as " testament to the capabilities of two legends - TM . Soundarajan and Sivaji Ganesan " , adding that the " transition from Sivaji panting and TMS taking over is seamless " .
Track list
All lyrics written by Vaali .
= = Release and reception = =
Uyarndha Manithan was released on 29 November 1968 . It earned positive critical feedback and went on to become a commercial success , completing a theatrical run of 125 days . The 125th day commemorative celebrations were held in the presence of C. N. Annadurai , the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu . This was also the last function which Annadurai attended before his death .
G. Dhananjayan appreciated the performances of the cast and the quality of Javar Seetharaman 's dialogues , calling them " crispy " . On Ganesan 's performance , Ananda Vikatan , wrote in its 1968 review of the film : " Can anyone show both hate and love at the same time ? Sivaji proves that he can ! No more than words of ' natural acting ' is enough for Sivaji " . The magazine praised the film by stating that it " attracts our hearts " .
Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu , when asked by an anonymous person how someone like Sivaji Ganesan can be called a great actor , replied , " Watch Uyarndha Manidhan [ sic ] and Motor Sundaram Pillai , and let ’ s continue this conversation . " Historian and columnist Randor Guy labelled Major Sundarrajan 's performance in the film , along with his role in Gnana Oli ( 1972 ) , as " memorable " .
= = = Awards = = =
The National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer was introduced in 1968 . Since Susheela won the first award for her rendition of " Paal Polave " , Uyarndha Manithan became the first Tamil film to win a National Film Award under the Best Female Playback Singer category . It was also Ganesan 's first film to win a Tamil Nadu State Film Award .
= = Cancelled remake = =
After the success of Uyarndha Manithan , AVM Productions was keen to remake it in Hindi and approached Dilip Kumar . After watching the film , Kumar was hesitant to play the lead role as he felt he would not match Ganesan 's performance in the original version . K. Balachander was signed up to be the director of the remake , which led to Kumar being initially convinced that he could be successful .
After a fortnight , Kumar met Balachander in Chennai and watched Uyarndha Manithan again for a second time to study his character . This time , however , Kumar hesitated to portray Ganesan 's role and requested Balachander to direct the remake of Babu ( 1971 ) . Balachander showed concern with Kumar 's change of heart and refused the offer , leading to both the remakes of Uyarndha Manithan and Babu being shelved .
= = Legacy = =
The song " Andha Naal Gnaabagam " was considered one of the most memorable songs written by Vaali that featured in a Sivaji Ganesan film . Rediff ranked it alongside " Madhavi Pon Mayilaal " from Iru Malargal ( 1967 ) and " Potri Paadadi Penne " from Thevar Magan ( 1992 ) .
Susheela chose " Paal Polave " along with " Unnai Ondru Ketpen " and " Paartha Gnaabagam Illaiyo " as her favourite songs that she had recorded . Singer Swarnalatha , who made her debut with the song " Chinnanchiru Kiliye " from Neethikku Thandanai ( 1987 ) , was chosen to sing the song by M. S. Viswanathan after he was impressed with her rendition of " Paal Polave " , which he had asked her to sing during the song 's audition . The song was rendered twice by the contestants of the fourth season of the Star Vijay reality show Airtel Super Singer , and once each by the contestants of the second and third season of its junior version , Airtel Super Singer Junior .
Ganesan 's biographer T. S. Narayanswami included Uyarndha Manithan in his list of Ganesan 's " all @-@ time greats " . In March 2009 , Sharadha Narayanan of The New Indian Express rated Sundarrajan 's performance in the film among his other noted films in which he featured like Vennira Aadai ( 1965 ) , Major Chandrakanth ( 1966 ) and Gnana Oli . In her review of the 2011 film Seedan , Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu said that the premise of the film was " on the lines of Sivaji Ganesan 's poignant Uyarndha Manidhan [ sic ] " . Uyarndha Manithan was included with other Sivaji Ganesan @-@ starrers in the compilation DVD 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , featuring Ganesan 's " iconic performances in the form of scenes , songs and stunts " . It was released in May 2012 .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Norma ( constellation ) =
Norma is a small constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere between Scorpius and Centaurus , one of twelve drawn up in the 18th century by French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille and one of several depicting scientific instruments . Its name is Latin for normal , referring to a right angle , and is variously considered to represent a rule , a carpenter 's square , a set square or a level . It remains one of the 88 modern constellations
Four of Norma 's brighter stars — Gamma , Delta , Epsilon and Eta — make up a square in the field of faint stars . Gamma2 Normae is the brightest star with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 0 . Mu Normae is one of the most luminous stars known , with a luminosity half- to one million times that of the Sun . Four star systems are known to harbour planets . The Milky Way passes through Norma , and the constellation contains eight open clusters visible to observers with binoculars . The constellation also hosts Abell 3627 , also called the Norma Cluster , one of the most massive galaxy clusters known .
= = History = =
Norma was introduced in 1751 – 52 by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille with the French name l ’ Equerre et la Regle , " the Square and Rule " , after he had observed and catalogued 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised 14 new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honored instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . Lacaille portrayed the constellations of Norma , Circinus and Triangulum Australe , respectively , as a set square and ruler , a compass , and a surveyor 's level in a set of draughtsman instruments , in his 1756 map of the southern stars . The level was dangling from the apex of a triangle , leading some astronomers to conclude he was renaming l ’ Equerre et la Regle to " le Niveau " " the level " . In any case , the constellation 's name had been shortened and Latinised by Lacaille to Norma by 1763 .
= = Characteristics = =
Norma is bordered by Scorpius to the north , Lupus to the northwest , Circinus to the west , Triangulum Australe to the south and Ara to the east . Covering 165 @.@ 3 square degrees and 0 @.@ 401 % of the night sky , it ranks 74th of the 88 constellations in size . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Nor ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of ten segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 15h 12m 13.6119s and 16h 36m 08.3235s , while the declination coordinates are between − 42 @.@ 27 ° and − 60 @.@ 44 ° . The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 29 ° N.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Lacaille charted and designated ten stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Mu in 1756 , however his Alpha Normae was transferred into Scorpius and left unnamed by Francis Baily , before being named N Scorpii by Benjamin Apthorp Gould , who felt its brightness warranted recognition . Though Beta Normae was depicted on his star chart , it was inadvertently left out of Lacaille 's 1763 catalogue , was likewise transferred to Scorpio by Baily and named H Scorpii by Gould . Norma 's brightest star , Gamma2 Normae , is only of magnitude 4 @.@ 0 . Overall , there are 44 stars within the constellation 's borders brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .
The four main stars — Gamma , Delta , Epsilon and Eta — make up a square in this region of faint stars . Gamma1 and Gamma2 Normae are an optical double , and not a true binary star system . Located 129 ± 1 light @-@ years away from Earth , Gamma2 Normae is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III around 2 to 2 @.@ 5 times as massive as the Sun . It has swollen to a diameter 10 times that of the Sun and shines with 45 times the Sun 's luminosity . It also is half of a close optical double , with a magnitude 10 companion star related by line of sight only . Gamma1 Normae is a yellow @-@ white supergiant , located much further away at around 1500 light @-@ years from Earth . Epsilon Normae is a spectroscopic binary , with two blue @-@ white main sequence stars of almost equal mass and spectral type ( B3V ) orbiting each other every 3 @.@ 26 days . There is a third star separated by 22 arcseconds , which has a magnitude of 7 @.@ 5 and is likely a smaller B @-@ type main sequence star of spectral type B9V . The system is 530 ± 20 light @-@ years distant from Earth , Eta Normae is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 65 . It shines with a luminosity approximately 66 times that of the Sun .
Iota1 Normae is a multiple star system . The AB ( mag 5 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 76 ) pair orbit each other with a period of 26 @.@ 9 years ; they are 2 @.@ 77 and 2 @.@ 71 times as massive as the Sun respectively . The pair are 128 ± 6 light @-@ years distant from Earth . A third component is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G8V with an apparent magnitude of 8 @.@ 02 .
Mu Normae is a remote blue supergiant of spectral type O9.7Iab , one of the most luminous stars known . Uncertainties regarding its distance leave open the possibility that Mu Normae could be up to a million times as luminous and 60 times as massive as the Sun , though it is more likely to have around 500 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's luminosity and 40 times its mass . It is suspected of being an Alpha Cygni variable , with a magnitude range of 4 @.@ 87 – 4 @.@ 98 . QU Normae is another hot blue @-@ white star that is a variable , ranging from magnitude 5 @.@ 27 to 5 @.@ 41 over 4 @.@ 8 days . Lying near Eta Normae is R Normae , a Mira variable . Its visual magnitude range is 6 @.@ 5 – 13 @.@ 9 and its average period is 507 @.@ 5 days . Located halfway between Eta Normae and Gamma Circini is T Normae , another Mira variable . It ranges from magnitude 6 @.@ 2 to 13 @.@ 6 , with a period of 244 days . S Normae is a well @-@ known Cepheid variable with a magnitude range of 6 @.@ 12 – 6 @.@ 77 and a period of 9 @.@ 75411 days . It is located at the centre of the open cluster NGC 6087 . It is a yellow @-@ white supergiant of spectral type F8 @-@ G0Ib that is 6 @.@ 3 times as massive as the Sun . A binary , it has a 2 @.@ 4 solar mass ( M ☉ ) companion that is a blue @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V.
IM Normae is one of only ten recurrent novae known in the Milky Way . It has erupted in 1920 and 2002 , reaching magnitude 8 @.@ 5 from a baseline of 18 @.@ 3 . It was poorly monitored after the first eruption , so it is possible that it erupted in between . Norma hosts two faint R Coronae Borealis variable stars of magnitude 10 — RT Normae and RZ Normae — rare degenerate stars thought to have formed from the merger of two white dwarfs that fade by several magnitudes periodically as they eject large amounts of carbon dust . A faint object of magnitude 16 , QV Normae is a high mass X @-@ ray binary star system 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It is composed of a neutron star orbiting a blue @-@ white supergiant approximately 20 times as massive as the Sun . The stellar wind from the more massive star is drawn to the magnetic poles of the neutron star , forming an accretion column and producing X @-@ rays . Located 19 @,@ 000 light @-@ years away , QX Normae is an active low mass X ray binary composed of a neutron star and its companion star that is smaller and cooler than the Sun . The neutron star is 1 @.@ 74 ± 0 @.@ 14 times as massive as the Sun , yet its radius is a mere 9 @.@ 3 ± 1 @.@ 0 km . 1E161348 @-@ 5055 is a neutron star found in the centre of RCW103 supernova remnant . A periodic X @-@ Ray source with a period of 6 @.@ 67 hours , it is approximately 2000 years old and 10 @,@ 000 light @-@ years away from Earth . It is unusual in that it is spinning much too slowly for its young age , behaving instead like a multi @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old star . SGR J1550 @-@ 5418 is a soft gamma repeater ( SGR ) — a magnetar that is emitting gamma ray flares , located some 30 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . The rotation period , of approximately 2 @.@ 07 seconds , is the fastest yet observed for a magnetar . XTE J1550 @-@ 564 is another X @-@ ray binary , this time composed of a large black hole around 10 times as massive as the Sun and a cool orange donor star . The black hole is a microquasar , firing off jets of material most likely from its accretion disk .
Four star systems are known to harbour planets . HD 330075 is a sunlike star around 164 light @-@ years distant that is orbited by a hot Jupiter every 3 @.@ 4 days . Announced in 2004 , it was the first planet discovered by the HARPS spectrograph . HD 148156 is a star 168 ± 7 light @-@ years distant . Slightly larger and hotter than the Sun , it was found to have a roughly Jupiter @-@ size planet with an orbital period of 2 @.@ 8 years . HD 143361 is a binary star system composed of a sunlike star and a faint red dwarf separated by 30 @.@ 9 AU . A planet roughly triple the mass of Jupiter orbits the brighter star every 1057 ± 20 days . HD 142415 is approximately 113 light @-@ years distant and has a Jupiter @-@ sized planet with an orbital period of around 386 days .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Due to its location on the Milky Way , this constellation contains many deep @-@ sky objects such as star clusters , including eight open clusters visible through binoculars . NGC 6087 is the brightest of the open clusters in Norma with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 4 . It lies in the southeastern corner of the constellation between Alpha Centauri and Zeta Arae . Thought to be around 100 million years old , it is about 3300 light @-@ years away and is around 14 light @-@ years in diameter . Its brightest member is the Cepheid variable S Normae . A rich background star field makes it less distinct , though around 36 member stars are visible though a 10 cm telescope at 150x magnification . Located 0 @.@ 4 ° north of Kappa Normae is NGC 6067 , which has an integrated magnitude of 5 @.@ 6 though it is indistinct as it lies in a rich star field . It is thought to be around 102 million years old , and contain 891 solar masses . Two Cepheid variables — QZ Normae and V340 Normae — have been identified as members of the cluster . Fainter open clusters include NGC 6134 with a combined magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 and located 4000 light @-@ years away from Earth , the spread @-@ out NGC 6167 of magnitude 6 @.@ 7 , NGC 6115 near Gamma Normae , NGC 6031 and NGC 5999 .
Located around 4900 light @-@ years distant is Shapley 1 ( or PK 329 + 02 @.@ 1 ) , a planetary nebula better known as the Fine @-@ Ring Nebula . Appearing ring @-@ shaped , it is thought that it actually is cylindrical and oriented directly at Earth . Around 8700 years old , it lies about five degrees west @-@ northwest of Gamma1 Normae . Its integrated magnitude is 13 @.@ 6 and its mean surface brightness is 13 @.@ 9 . The central star is a white dwarf of magnitude 14 @.@ 03 . Mz 1 is a bipolar planetary nebula , thought to be an hourglass shape tilted at an angle to observers on Earth , some 3500 light @-@ years distant . Mz 3 — known as the Ant Nebula as it resembles an ant — has a complex appearance , with at least four outflow jets and two large lobes visible .
Approximately 200 million light @-@ years from Earth with a redshift of 0 @.@ 016 is Abell 3627 ; also called the Norma Cluster , it is one of the most massive galaxy clusters known to exist , at ten times the average cluster mass . Abell 3627 is thus theorized to be the Great Attractor , a massive object that is pulling the Local Group , the Virgo Supercluster , and the Hydra @-@ Centaurus Supercluster towards its location at 600 – 1000 kilometres per second .
= Jason Jones ( programmer ) =
Jason Jones ( born June 1 , 1971 ) is a video game developer and programmer who co @-@ founded the video game studio Bungie with Alex Seropian in 1991 . Jones began programming on Apple computers in high school , assembling a multiplayer game called Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete . While attending the University of Chicago , Jones met Seropian and the two formed a partnership to publish Minotaur .
Following the modest success of Minotaur , Jones programmed Bungie 's next game , Pathways Into Darkness , and worked on code , level design and story development for Bungie 's Marathon and Myth series . For Bungie 's next projects , Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 , Jones took on a more managerial role as project lead . He worked as design lead on the 2014 video game Destiny .
= = Early life = =
Jones became interested in programming in high school , and learned Applesoft BASIC and 6502 Assembly on an Apple II series computer . When Apple released its Macintosh line , Jones 's family purchased a Macintosh 128K , but Jones never programmed much for it . After high school Jones got a job programming for a computer @-@ aided design company on PCs , before going to college the next year . In his off time Jones said that all he ever did on the Apple II was write games , " and it seemed logical to continue that on the Mac , " he said . " The first thing I did on the Mac was to port a modem game I 'd written called Minotaur from 6502 Assembly on the Apple II into MPW C on the Mac . I was still finishing that when I came to college . By that time , I knew I wanted to write games . "
= = Bungie = =
Jones met Alex Seropian in his second year at the University of Chicago . In 1991 Seropian had founded Bungie and published his own game , Operation Desert Storm . Seropian was looking for another game to publish , and they decided to work together to finish Minotaur . While Seropian did design and marketing , Jones finished the programming . Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete shipped in April 1992 ; while the game sold only around 2 @,@ 500 copies ( it required a then @-@ rare modem for network play ) , it developed a devoted following . After publishing Minotaur , Jones and Seropian formed a partnership ; " What I liked about him was that he never wasted any money " , Jones said of his partner .
Bungie focused on the Mac platform due to familiarity with the platform and ease of use . " The PC market was really cutthroat , but the Mac market was all friendly and lame . So it was easier to compete , " Jones said . After Minotaur , Bungie began work on a 3D graphics version of the game , but realized that the game 's format was not suited to a 3D environment . Instead , Jones and Seropian wrote a brand @-@ new story for what became Pathways Into Darkness . Since Bungie had no money and Jones was the only one with the available time , he single @-@ handedly coded the game on a Mac IIfx , passing art chores to his friend Colin Brent . Pathways was successful enough that Bungie moved from a one @-@ bedroom apartment to an actual office .
Bungie 's next project started as an update of Pathways but evolved into a science fiction shooter game , Marathon . The game included state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art graphics , network multiplayer , and voice support , and won a number of awards on release in 1994 . Jones recalled that he was surprised anyone ever completed the game and sought to atone for some of its shortcomings with its sequel , Marathon 2 : Durandal , which was also released for Windows PCs . The Marathon series was followed by a series of real @-@ time strategy games , starting with Myth : The Fallen Lords in 1996 .
Bungie continued to expand , and in 1997 work began on a new project , codenamed Blam ! ( Jones had changed the name from Monkey Nuts because he could not bring himself to tell his mother about the new game under that title . ) Blam ! evolved from a real @-@ time strategy game to a third @-@ person shooter to a first @-@ person shooter called Halo : Combat Evolved . Jones role in development was unlike Marathon and Myth , where Jones was involved in developing more than half the levels and much to most of the story . Instead , he was the project lead and a manager , barely providing any code to the game . He would read war journals by authors such as John Kinkaid and Winston Churchill .
In 2000 , Microsoft acquired Bungie , moving the team from Chicago to Washington State . Jones recalled that the buyout was a " blur [ ... ] We 'd been talking to people for years and years — before we even published Marathon , Activision made a serious offer [ to buy us ] . But the chance to work on [ the Microsoft Xbox console ] — the chance to work with a company that took the games seriously . Before that we worried that we 'd get bought by someone who just wanted Mac ports or didn 't have a clue . " Around the same time , a glitch in versions of Myth II was found to entirely erase a player 's hard drive ; this led to a massive recall of the games right before they shipped , costing Bungie nearly one million dollars . Composer Martin O 'Donnell said that this recall created financial uncertainty in the studio , though accepting the offer was not something " Bungie had to do . " Jones and Seropian refused to accept Microsoft 's offer until the entire studio agreed to the buyout .
Combat Evolved was highly successful , selling more than a million units in its first six months and driving Xbox sales . Jones led the development team that created its sequel , Halo 2 , and he worked as design lead on a new video game series , Destiny . He was listed in Next Generation Magazine 's top 100 Developers in 2006 and 2007 .
= Cyclone Hyacinthe =
Tropical Cyclone Hyacinthe was the wettest tropical cyclone on record in the world . The eighth named storm of the season , Hyacinthe formed on January 15 , 1980 , to the northeast of Mauritius in the southern Indian Ocean . Initially it moved to the west @-@ southwest , and while slowly intensifying it passed north of the French overseas department of Réunion . On January 19 , Météo @-@ France estimated that the storm had intensified to a tropical cyclone . Hyacinthe looped to the south of eastern Madagascar and weakened , although it restrengthened after turning to the east . The storm executed another loop to the southwest of Réunion , passing near the island for a second and later third time . Hyacinthe became extratropical on January 29 after turning southward , dissipating two days later .
For twelve days , Hyacinthe dropped torrential rainfall on Réunion ; nearly all of the island received more than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of precipitation . Over a 15 day period from January 14 to January 28 , 6 @,@ 083 mm ( 239 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall were recorded at Commerson 's Crater , a volcano . The heaviest rainfall occurred through a process called orographic lift in the mountainous interior , leading to hundreds of landslides . Widespread floods damaged half the roads on Réunion and isolated three villages . Hyacinthe caused heavy damage to crops and damaged or destroyed 2 @,@ 000 houses . Losses from the storm totaled $ 167 million ( 1980 USD , 676 million francs ) , and 25 people were killed .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the middle of January 1980 , the Intertropical Convergence Zone persisted along 10 ° S , spawning a small low @-@ level circulation near St. Brandon . According to Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) , a tropical depression formed about 355 km ( 220 mi ) northeast of Mauritius on January 15 . It tracked to the west @-@ southwest , passing north of the island on January 17 . That day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also reported that a tropical depression had developed , labeling it " 08S " . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm , and the MFR followed suit on January 18 , naming the storm Hyacinthe . The storm gradually intensified as it passed north of Réunion , with 1 @-@ minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) by January 19 , according to the JTWC . That day , an eye developed , and MFR estimated that Hyacinthe intensified to tropical cyclone status , with 10 @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . A strengthening anticyclone to the south turned the storm northwestward , and on January 20 Hyacinthe executed a small loop to the south just offshore eastern Madagascar .
While moving to the south , Hyacinthe 's winds steadily decreased . On January 21 , the storm weakened below tropical cyclone intensity , and on January 22 the JTWC estimated winds decreased to 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . The next day , it turned to the east while
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and Louise Stebbins ( née Beck ) . His father , born in Wisconsin of English descent , was an instructor at Chico State Normal School who had also published on birds and agriculture , stressing the importance of gardening in education . The oldest of seven children , young Robert grew up learning about local birds and exploring the wildlife of Northern California . His mother , born in Switzerland and educated at the Normal School , instilled a sense of artistry in Robert , painting pictures for Robert and his siblings in her spare time . When Stebbins was seven , his family moved to the San Francisco Bay Area , where his father worked on agricultural curriculum for children and taught at the University of California , Berkeley . Around the age of nine , his family moved to Southern California , living first in Pomona , then in Sherman Oaks , Los Angeles . Stebbins spent time hiking in the nearby Santa Monica Mountains , exploring the wildlife and amassing a collection of bird and mammal specimens which he prepared and mounted himself . Stebbins attended North Hollywood High School , where his father taught hygiene and agriculture . Robert graduated in 1933 . He discovered his artistic talents around sixteen years old . His early work consisted of cartoons : he drew illustrations on classmates ' clothing and contributed cartoons to youth magazines , winning several awards .
= = University and early career ( 1933 – 1945 ) = =
Shortly after graduating high school , Stebbins enrolled in the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) . He initially majored in civil engineering , thinking it a better career option than biology , but became unhappy with the program . Struggling with poor performance and health issues related to congenital heart problems , he took a leave for year and a half . During his time in recuperation , he turned his attention back to natural history , and was persuaded to return to UCLA by Raymond Cowles , a biology professor there . Stebbins returned with enthusiasm despite the perceived lack of job security , remarking in 1985 : " I was cautious because of the Great Depression , but I was determined to pursue biology even if it meant standing on a corner with a tin cup . " He switched his major to zoology and graduated in 1940 with highest honors .
After graduating , Stebbins split his time between a summer job as a naturalist at Lassen Volcanic National Park and pursuing graduate school at UCLA . Over the next few years he also obtained teaching credentials in junior college , high school , and elementary education . Stebbins initially planned to study birds , with an eye towards roadrunners , but felt the field of ornithology was too crowded , while herpetology , the study of reptiles and amphibians , offered more opportunities for new research . Cowles became his graduate advisor . The main focus of Stebbins ' graduate research was the biology of fringe @-@ toed lizards , a group of sand @-@ dwelling lizards of the American Southwest . For his master 's degree ( completed in 1942 ) he studied the anatomical structure of the nasal passages of the lizards , documenting in detail the looped , horseshoe @-@ shaped structure of the nasal passages that functions as a u @-@ trap , preventing sand grains from being inhaled while the lizards lay buried at the sand 's surface . His Ph.D dissertation ( completed in 1943 ) further explored the anatomical , behavioral , and physiological adaptations of the lizards . During this time he also published on the behavior of the sidewinder rattlesnake , and , with his father , produced two field guides to birds , providing illustrations to his father 's text . Their first book , What Bird is That ? , was pressed in the family garage . Stebbins considered his father " a pioneer of sorts in the extensive use of drawings in teaching natural history , " a tradition he later strove to continue in his own works .
On June 8 , 1941 , Stebbins married Anna @-@ rose Cooper , who would eventually type the text of all of Stebbins ' field guides . Part of their honeymoon was spent camping in the Owens Valley of southeastern California .
= = Career ( 1945 – 1978 ) = =
In 1945 Stebbins was hired an assistant professor of zoology at the University of California , Berkeley , and became the first curator of herpetology at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology , where he would remain throughout his career . The first faculty member to teach herpetology at Berkeley , he wrote new lab manuals , created the herpetology teaching collection , and co @-@ taught a popular course on vertebrate natural history .
= = = Ring species in salamanders = = =
Stebbins soon became interested in Ensatina salamanders , which occur from British Columbia to Baja California and are present in both the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges of California but absent in the Central Valley . Finding the salamanders in Berkeley much different than the ones he was used to seeing in the mountains of Southern California , he embarked upon a research program examining color differences throughout California . In his resulting monograph , published in 1949 , he proposed that the color varieties — many previously regarded as distinct species — were actually various races or subspecies of a single species that in most locations interbreed where two forms co @-@ occur , creating hybrids that partially resemble both forms . However , at the southern edge of the Central Valley , where the Sierra foothill populations come into contact with those of the Coast Range , the populations do not interbreed , instead acting as distinct species . This phenomenon is known as a ring speciation , with different populations representing different stages of speciation , the process by which one species becomes two . Zoologist Arnold Grobman called Stebbins ' research " without doubt , the most outstanding study of a genus of American salamanders that has yet appeared . " The Ensatina complex has been the focus of research ever since , and is a widely used textbook example of evolutionary processes .
= = = Reptilian parietal eye = = =
Stebbins ' early work with lizards in the southern California desert led to a series of papers from the 1950s through the 1970s exploring the parietal eye of reptiles ( also called the " third eye " , a tiny light @-@ sensitive organ on the forehead ) and the associated pineal gland , both of which are now known to influence circadian rhythms . Aided by a Senior Postdoctoral Fellowship from the National Science Foundation , Stebbins and colleagues found that lizards with the parietal eye surgically removed changed their behavior : they became active much earlier in the day , spent more time in the sun , and remained active much later than control lizards . Further studies over the next few decades focused on the parietal eye of the tuatara , the pineal gland 's effects on lizard reproductive behavior , and parietal skull openings in fossil " mammal @-@ like reptiles " such as Lystrosaurus . His work had implications beyond reptile biology : Nobel laureate Julius Axelrod , after reading the work of Stebbins and others , began investigating the pineal gland in mammals , with emphasis on the effect of melatonin on activity cycles . Melatonin has since been found to influence human health . Stebbins was proud of his parietal and pineal work , calling it " possibly the single piece of research which gives me the most satisfaction . "
= = = Other research , conservation , and field guides = = =
In 1949 Stebbins received a Guggenheim Fellowship that allowed him to extend his studies throughout the western United States and to collect enough material to begin preparing his first amphibian field manuals . The first of these to appear was Amphibians of Western North America ( 1951 , University of California Press ) , covering the U.S. and Canada roughly west of the 102nd meridian . Praised for its thoroughness as well as its illustrations , the book " unquestionably provides more information concerning the 51 species … covered than any preceding it , " wrote Charles M. Bogert : " The maps provided for each species and subspecies are on the whole the most detailed and accurate of any thus far published . " Stebbins ' second herpetological field guide , Amphibians and Reptiles of Western North America ( 1954 , McGraw @-@ Hill ) , was similarly praised .
In 1964 Stebbins visited the Galápagos Islands on a research expedition and studied the ecology and behavior of marine iguanas and lava lizards . Also on the expedition was Roger Tory Peterson , who recalled " While the rest of were enjoying high adventure on the more remote islands and sea @-@ girt rocks , he patiently snared 200 frisky lizards with a noose of thread suspended from a rod . He took their cloacal temperatures , marked them with dye , and then dosed them with radioactive iodine , which enabled him to locate the elusive reptiles later with a Geiger counter . " In 1966 , Stebbins produced what became his best @-@ known book , A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians ( Peterson Field Guides ) , which Peterson called " a classic ... one of the most beautiful as well as scholarly works in the series " .
Stebbins was also committed to education and conservation . He made appearances on the TV series Science in Action , traveled to Asia to promote science education , and chaired a U.C. elementary school science project which recommended that science be taught to children as early as six . In conjunction with the Sierra Club he produced two educational films : Nature Next Door ( 1962 ) and No Room for Wilderness ? ( 1967 ) . Stebbins co @-@ authored revisions of the widely used textbooks General Zoology ( 5th ed . , 1972 ; 6th ed . , 1979 ) and Elements of Zoology ( 4th ed . , 1974 ) , books originally written by Tracy Storer and Robert Usinger .
In the late 1960s Stebbins became concerned about the impacts that increasingly popular off @-@ road vehicle ( ORV ) driving was having on desert ecosystems of southern California — witnessing environmental degradation in some of the same places he had studied during graduate school — and became actively involved in over a decade of conservation efforts . Stebbins and colleagues studied the diversity of organisms in and around ORV areas , communicated research to Bureau of Land Management officials , and petitioned President Jimmy Carter to limit all @-@ terrain vehicle use in deserts . Stebbins faced opposition from ORV riders and their lobbyists : American Motorcyclist magazine called him a " staunch abolitionist in the war against motorized vehicles in the desert . " Stebbins ' efforts eventually helped secure the passing of the California Desert Protection Act of 1994 which established the Mojave National Preserve and elevated Joshua Tree and Death Valley from national monuments to more protected national parks . In 1998 Stebbins was recognized in the U.S. Congress by Representative George Miller and the Contra Costa Times as one of 10 environmental leaders deemed " national treasures " for their activism .
Other research included field work in Colombia , South Africa , and Australia , and the description of the Jemez Mountains salamander , southern torrent salamander and yellow @-@ eyed ensatina , and the panamint alligator lizard . Two salamanders were named in his honor during his time at Berkeley : the Tehachapi slender salamander ( Batrachoseps stebbinsi ) and the Sonora tiger salamander ( Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi ) . Over his 32 years at Berkeley , Stebbins was the advisor to 29 graduate students , including Wade Fox , Richard G. Zweifel , and R. Bruce Bury . Upon his retirement from UC Berkeley in 1978 , Stebbins was awarded the highest faculty honor , the Berkeley Citation .
= = Retirement years ( 1978 – 2013 ) = =
After retiring , Stebbins remained active in painting , conservation , and education , and continued to make natural history observations . He revised his well @-@ known and widely used Field Guide in 1985 and again in 2003 . He co @-@ wrote the non @-@ specialist book A Natural History of Amphibians with former student Nathan Cohen in 1997 , and revised his Field Guide to California Amphibians and Reptiles in 2012 , with new contributions by Samuel McGinnis , another former student . In 2009 he produced Connecting With Nature : A Naturalist 's Perspective , a book intended to help connect children with nature . He took additional art lessons , broadened his subject matter to include landscapes , African wildlife , portraits , and still lifes , and took up the violin , which he had studied decades earlier . His paintings have been shown and sold in galleries and museums in Berkeley , Palm Springs , and Oregon .
Stebbins was a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences , which awarded him its highest honor , the Fellows Medal , in 1991 .
Stebbins died at age 98 at his home in Eugene , Oregon on September 23 , 2013 , having been in declining health over the previous year . He was survived by his wife and three children . Only one week before his death , he was honored in the scientific name of a newly described species of legless lizard , Anniella stebbinsi . His collected field notes , comprising over 35 bound volumes , are archived in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology .
= = The " Stebbins " = =
Stebbins ' book A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians , first published in 1966 and revised in 1985 and 2003 , has widely been considered " the bible of the field " for American herpetologists . Often referred to simply as " Stebbins " , the book has educated and inspired generations of naturalists and herpetologists . On the impact of the guide , professor Samuel Sweet of UC Santa Barbara stated " Before that book , if people went out to look for snakes , it was so they could gather them up to sell to pet shops or just show off to their buddies . What [ Stebbins ] did was help make a transition to a similar situation as bird watching , where it became OK to just look at the animals and leave them alone . "
In 1966 , the Houghton @-@ Mifflin Company first published A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians as part of its Peterson Field Guide series . While including some illustrations from Stebbins ' previous books , the high quality of the artwork was immediately recognized , as was the quality and thoroughness of the writing . Biologist David Wake , then of the University of Chicago but later to work with Stebbins at Berkeley , considered the only " serious defect " to be absence of any coverage of snake @-@ bite first aid . Wake also noted that the geographic area covered left a gap ranging from 75 miles to over 400 miles wide when paired with the earlier Peterson Guide to eastern reptiles and amphibians by Roger Conant .
The second edition , published in 1985 , included several changes such as 37 new species , 12 new plates of illustrations , the inclusion of endemic species of the Baja California Peninsula , and new common names chosen to enhance clarity . In his 1986 review , Sweet remarked on the frankness of imperfect knowledge : " For the first time we have a field guide that indicates clearly which taxonomic interpretations are tentative and where distributions and life history features remain poorly known . " Concerned about the impact of over @-@ collecting , Stebbins reduced coverage of collecting and keeping animals , and also removed a section on handling venomous snakes .
The third edition , published in 2003 , included 36 new species and several new paintings . Stebbins considered keeping up @-@ to @-@ date with current scientific literature the most daunting task due to the volume of recent publications .
= = Books = =
Cyril A. Stebbins ; — — ( 1941 ) . What Bird is That ? . Van Nuys , CA : Valley Vista Press .
Cyril A. Stebbins ; — — ( 1942 ) . Birds of Lassen Volcanic National Park and Vicinity . Van Nuys , CA : Valley Vista Press .
Loye H. Miller ; — — ( 1947 ) . Birds of the Campus , University of California Los Angeles . University of California Press .
— — ( 1951 ) . Amphibians of Western North America . University of California Press .
— — ( 1954 ) . Amphibians and Reptiles of Western North America . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill Press .
— — ( 1960 ) . Reptiles and Amphibians of the San Francisco Bay Region . University of California Press .
Alden H. Miller ; — — ( 1964 ) . The Lives of Desert Animals in Joshua Tree National Monument . University of California Press .
— — ( 1966 ) . Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians ( 1st ed . ) . Boston : Houghton @-@ Mifflin Co . Second edition : 1985 ; Third edition ; 2003
— — ( 1972 ) . California Amphibians and Reptiles . University of California Press .
Tracy I. Storer , Robert L. Usinger , — — , and James W. Nybakken ( 1972 ) . General Zoology ( 5th ed . ) . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill Press . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Cyril A. Stebbins ; — — ( 1974 ) . Birds of Yosemite National Park . Yosemite National Park : Yosemite Natural History Association .
— — ; Nathan W. Cohen ( 1997 ) . A Natural History of Amphibians . Princeton University Press .
— — ( 2009 ) . Connecting With Nature : A Naturalist 's Perspective . National Science Teachers Association .
— — ; Samuel M. McGinnis ( 2012 ) . Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of California ( Revised ed . ) . University of California Press .
= = Films = =
Nature Next Door . Sierra Club , National Press . Palo Alto , California . ( 1962 )
No Room for Wilderness ? Lawrence Dawson Productions , San Francisco . ( 1967 )
= SpaceX reusable launch system development program =
The SpaceX reusable launch system development program is a privately funded program to develop a set of new technologies for an orbital launch system that may be reused many times in a manner similar to the reusability of aircraft . The company SpaceX is developing the technologies over a number of years to facilitate full and rapid reusability of space launch vehicles . The project 's long @-@ term objectives include returning a launch vehicle first stage to the launch site in minutes and to return a second stage to the launch pad following orbital realignment with the launch site and atmospheric reentry in up to 24 hours . SpaceX 's long term goal is that both stages of their orbital launch vehicle will be designed to allow reuse a few hours after return .
The program was publicly announced in 2011 and the design for returning the rocket to its launchpad using only its own propulsion systems was completed in February 2012 . SpaceX 's active test program began in late 2012 with testing low @-@ altitude , low @-@ speed aspects of the landing technology . High @-@ velocity , high @-@ altitude aspects of the booster atmospheric return technology began testing in late 2013 and continued to late 2015 , when SpaceX first achieved a successful landing and recovery of a first stage .
The reusable launch system technology is under development for the first stages of the Falcon family of rockets . It is particularly well @-@ suited to the Falcon Heavy where the two outer cores separate from the rocket earlier in the flight , and are therefore moving more slowly at stage separation . On flight 20 the speed at separation was close to 6000 km / h and this allowed a return to near the launch site . On flight 22 , going to GTO , the speed was faster between 8000 and 9000 km / h . At faster speeds it is not possible to return the booster to near the launch site and a landing , if attempted , would need to be hundreds of kilometres downrange likely on an autonomous drone ship . The process involves flipping the rocket around , a boostback burn to slow the rocket , a reentry burn , controlling direction to arrive at the landing site and a landing burn .
It is intended that the reusable technology will be extended to both the first and upper stages of the future launch vehicle for the Mars Colonial Transporter and is considered paramount to the plans SpaceX is developing to colonize Mars .
The first controlled vertical splashdown of an orbital rocket stage on the ocean surface was achieved in April 2014 on the ninth flight of a Falcon 9 . Two subsequent flights in January and April 2015 attempted to land the returning first stage on a floating platform . Although both boosters were guided accurately to the target , they did not succeed in landing vertically on the drone ship and were destroyed . A historic vertical landing was finally achieved on December 21 , 2015 , when the first @-@ stage booster of Falcon 9 Flight 20 successfully touched down at Landing Zone 1 , Cape Canaveral . On April 8 , 2016 , Flight 23 achieved the first soft landing on a drone ship in the Atlantic Ocean .
= = History = =
The broad outline of the reusable launch system was first publicly described on September 29 , 2011 . SpaceX said it would attempt to develop powered descent and recovery of both Falcon 9 stages — a fully vertical takeoff , vertical landing ( VTVL ) rocket . The company produced a computer @-@ animated video depicting a notional view of the first stage returning tail @-@ first for a powered descent and the second stage with a heat shield , reentering head first before rotating for a powered descent . In September 2012 , SpaceX began flight tests on a prototype reusable first stage with the suborbital Grasshopper rocket . Those tests continued into 2014 , including testing of a second and larger prototype vehicle , F9R Dev1 .
News of the Grasshopper test rocket become public earlier in September 2011 , when the US Federal Aviation Administration released a draft Environmental Impact Assessment for the SpaceX Test Site in Texas , and the space media had reported it by September 26 . In May 2012 , SpaceX obtained a set of atmospheric test data for the recovery of the Falcon 9 first stage based on 176 test runs in the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center wind tunnel test facility . The work was contracted for by SpaceX under a reimburseable Space Act Agreement with NASA .
In 2012 , it was noted that for the technology projected for use on a reusable Falcon 9 rocket the first @-@ stage separation would occur at a velocity of approximately 2 @.@ 0 km / s ( 6 @,@ 500 km / h ; 4 @,@ 100 mph ; Mach 6 ) rather than the 3 @.@ 4 km / s ( 11 @,@ 000 km / h ; 7 @,@ 000 mph ; Mach 10 ) for an expendable Falcon 9 , to provide the residual fuel necessary for the deceleration and turnaround maneuver and the controlled descent and landing .
In November 2012 , CEO Elon Musk announced SpaceX 's plans to build a second , much larger , reusable rocket system , this one to be powered by LOX / methane rather than LOX / RP @-@ 1 used on Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy . The new system will be " an evolution of SpaceX 's Falcon 9 booster " , and SpaceX reiterated their commitment to develop a breakthrough in vertical landing technology . By the end of 2012 , the demonstration test vehicle , Grasshopper , had made three VTVL test flights — including a 29 @-@ second hover flight to 40 meters ( 130 ft ) on December 17 , 2012 . In early March 2013 , SpaceX successfully tested Grasshopper for a fourth time when it flew to an altitude of over 80 meters ( 260 ft ) .
In March 2013 , SpaceX announced that it would instrument and equip subsequent Falcon 9 first @-@ stages as controlled descent test vehicles , with plans for over @-@ water propulsively @-@ decelerated simulated landings beginning in 2013 , with the intent to return the vehicle to the launch site for a powered landing — possibly as early as mid @-@ 2014 . The April 2013 draft Environmental Impact Statement for the proposed SpaceX South Texas Launch Site includes specific accommodations for return of the Falcon 9 first @-@ stage boosters to the launch site . Elon Musk first publicly referred to the reusable Falcon 9 as the Falcon 9 @-@ R in April 2013 .
In September 2013 , SpaceX successfully relit three engines of a spent booster on an orbital launch , and the booster re @-@ entered the atmosphere at hypersonic speed without burning up . With the data collected from the first flight test of a booster @-@ controlled descent from high altitude , coupled with the technological advancements made on the Grasshopper low @-@ altitude landing demonstrator , SpaceX announced it believed it was ready to test a full land @-@ recovery of a booster stage . Based on the positive results from the first high @-@ altitude flight test , SpaceX advanced the expected date of a test from mid @-@ 2014 to early 2015 , with the intention of doing so on the next Space Station cargo resupply flight pending regulatory approvals . That flight took place on April 18 , 2014 .
Musk stated in May 2013 that the goal of the program is to achieve full and rapid reusability of the first stage by 2015 , and to develop full launch vehicle reusability following that as " part of a future design architecture " .
In February 2014 , SpaceX made explicit that the newly defined super @-@ heavy launch vehicle for the Mars Colonial Transporter would also make use of the reusable technology . This is consistent with Musk 's strategic statement in 2012 that " The revolutionary breakthrough will come with rockets that are fully and rapidly reusable . We will never conquer Mars unless we do that . It 'll be too expensive . The American colonies would never have been pioneered if the ships that crossed the ocean hadn 't been reusable . "
Also in May 2014 , SpaceX publicly announced an extensive test program for a related reusable technology : a propulsively @-@ landed space capsule called DragonFly . The tests will be run in Texas at the McGregor Rocket Test Facility in 2014 – 2015 .
In June 2014 , COO Gwynne Shotwell clarified that all funding for development and testing of the reusable launch system technology development program is private funding from SpaceX , with no contribution by the US government . SpaceX has not publicly disclosed the cost of the development program .
For the first time , SpaceX stated in July 2014 that they are " highly confident of being able to land successfully on a floating launch pad or back at the launch site and refly the rocket with no required refurbishment . "
By late 2014 , SpaceX suspended or abandoned the plan to recover and reuse the Falcon 9 second stage ; the additional mass of the required heat shield , landing gear , and low @-@ powered landing engines would incur too great a performance penalty .
= = Technologies = =
Several new technologies needed to be developed and tested to facilitate successful launch and recovery of both stages of the SpaceX reusable rocket launching system . Following the completion of the third high @-@ altitude controlled @-@ descent test , and the completion of the third low @-@ altitude flight of the second @-@ generation prototype test vehicle ( plus eight flights of the first @-@ generation Grasshopper prototype flight test vehicle ) , SpaceX indicated that they are now able to consistently " reenter from space at hypersonic velocity , restart main engines twice , deploy landing legs and touch down at near zero velocity . "
The technologies that were developed for this program , some of which are still being refined , include :
restartable ignition system for the first @-@ stage booster Restarts are required at both supersonic velocities in the upper atmosphere — in order to decelerate the high velocity away from the launch pad and put the booster on a descent trajectory back toward the launch pad — and at high transonic velocities in the lower atmosphere — in order to slow the terminal descent and to perform a soft landing .
new attitude control technology — for the booster stage and second stage — to bring the descending rocket body through the atmosphere in a manner conducive both to non @-@ destructive return and sufficient aerodynamic control such that the terminal phase of the landing is possible . This includes sufficient roll control authority to keep the rocket from spinning excessively as occurred on the first high @-@ altitude flight test in September 2013 , where the roll rate exceeded the capabilities of the booster attitude control system ( ACS ) and the fuel in the tanks " centrifuged " to the side of the tank shutting down the single engine involved in the low @-@ altitude deceleration maneuver . The technology needs to handle the transition from the vacuum of space at hypersonic conditions , decelerating to supersonic velocities and passing through transonic buffet , before relighting one of the main @-@ stage engines at terminal velocity .
hypersonic grid fins were added to the booster test vehicle design beginning on the fifth ocean controlled @-@ descent test flight . Arranged in an " X " configuration , the grid fins control the descending rocket 's lift vector once the vehicle has returned to the atmosphere to enable a much more precise landing location .
throttleable rocket engine technology is required to reduce engine thrust because the full thrust of even a single Merlin 1D engine exceeds the weight of the nearly empty booster core .
terminal guidance and landing capability , including a vehicle control system and a control system software algorithm to be able to land a rocket with the thrust @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of the vehicle greater than one , with closed @-@ loop thrust vector and throttle control
navigation sensor suite for precision landing
a large floating landing platform in order to test pinpoint landings prior to receiving permission from the US government to bring returning rocket stages into US airspace over land . In the event , SpaceX built the autonomous spaceport drone ship in 2014 , and conducted an initial flight test and landing attempt in January 2015 .
large @-@ surface @-@ area thermal protection system to absorb the heat load of deceleration of the second stage from orbital velocity to terminal velocity
lightweight , deployable landing gear for the booster stage . In May 2013 , the design was shown to be a nested , telescoping piston on an A @-@ frame . The total span of the four carbon fiber / aluminum extensible landing legs is approximately 18 meters ( 60 ft ) , and weigh less than 2 @,@ 100 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 600 lb ) . Deployment system uses high @-@ pressure Helium as the working fluid . With Flight 25 it was announced that each landing leg contained a " crush core " , to absorb the impact of landing for particularly hard landings .
= = Economics of rocket reuse = =
In order to make the Falcon 9 reusable and return to the launch site , extra propellant and landing gear must be carried on the first stage , requiring around a 30 percent reduction of the maximum payload to orbit in comparison with the expendable Falcon 9 . Reflight of a previously used stage on a subsequent flight is dependent on the condition of the landed stage , and is a technique that has seen little use outside of the Space Shuttle 's reusable solid rocket boosters . In September 2013 , SpaceX said that if all aspects of the test program were successful and if a customer is interested , the first reflight of a Falcon 9 booster stage could happen as early as late 2014 . In December 2015 , following the recovery of the first stage from the 22 December launch , SpaceX projected that the first reflight of a recovered booster would likely occur in 2016 , but that their plan was to not refly the 22 December recovered stage for that purpose . Musk projects that the reflight step of the program will be " straightforward , " because of the multiple full duration firings of the engines that have been done on the ground , and the multiple engine restarts that have already been demonstrated , with no significant degradation seen . Several industry analysts continue to see potential problems that could prevent economic reuse because costs to refurbish and relaunch the stage are not yet demonstrated . Moreover , the economic case for reuse will be highly dependent on launching frequently , and that is simply unknown as of 2015 .
If SpaceX is successful in developing the reusable technology , it is expected to significantly reduce the cost of access to space , and change the increasingly competitive market in space launch services . Michael Belfiore wrote in Foreign Policy in 2013 that , at a published cost of US $ 56 @.@ 5 million per launch to low Earth orbit , " Falcon 9 rockets are already the cheapest in the industry . Reusable Falcon 9s could drop the price by an order of magnitude , sparking more space @-@ based enterprise , which in turn would drop the cost of access to space still further through economies of scale . " Even for military launches , which have a number of contractual requirements for additional launch services to be provided , SpaceX 's price is under US $ 100 million .
Space industry analyst Ajay Kothari has noted that SpaceX reusable technology could do for space transport " what jet engines did for air transportation sixty years ago when people never imagined that more than 500 million passengers would travel by airplanes every year and that the cost could be reduced to the level it is — all because of passenger volume and reliable reusability . " SpaceX said in January 2014 that if they are successful in developing the reusable technology , launch prices of around US $ 5 to 7 million for a reusable Falcon 9 were possible , and following the successful first stage recovery in December 2015 , Musk said that " the potential cost reduction over the long term is probably in excess of a factor of 100 . "
As of March 2014 launch service providers who compete with SpaceX were not planning to develop similar technology or offer competing reusable launcher options . Neither ILS , which markets launches of the Russian Proton rocket ; Arianespace ; nor SeaLaunch are planning on developing and marketing reusable launch vehicle services . SpaceX was the only competitor that projected a sufficiently elastic market on the demand side to justify the costly development of reusable rocket technology and the expenditure of private capital to develop options for that theoretical market opportunity .
SpaceX pricing and payload specifications published for the non @-@ reusable Falcon 9 v1.1 rocket actually include about 30 percent more performance than the published price list indicates ; the additional performance is reserved for SpaceX to do reusability booster demonstration flight tests while still achieving the specified payloads for customers .
In order to achieve the full economic benefit of the reusable technology , it is necessary that the reuse be both rapid and complete — without the long and costly refurbishment period or partially reusable design that plagued earlier attempts at reusable launch vehicles . SpaceX has been explicit that the " huge potential to open up space flight " is dependent on achieving both complete and rapid reusability . CEO Musk stated in 2014 that success with the technology development effort could reduce " the cost of spaceflight by a factor of 100 " because the cost of the propellant / oxidizer on the Falcon 9 is only 0 @.@ 3 percent of the total cost of the vehicle .
Separate from the market competition brought about by SpaceX lower launch prices and the potential future of even more radically lower launch prices if the technology can be completed successfully , Aviation Week has said that " SpaceX reusable launch work is an R & D model " — " The audacity of the concept and speed of the program ’ s progress make it an exemplar . ... [ the ] breakneck pace of development has been almost Apollo @-@ like in its execution ... [ even while ] success is far from guaranteed . "
On 9 March 2016 SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell gave a more realistic appraisal of the potential savings of a reused launch now that attempts to reuse the second stage had been abandoned due to cost and weight issues . She said at $ 1m cost of refueling and $ 3m cost of refurbishing a used first stage could potentially allow a launch to be priced as low as $ 40m , a 30 % saving . SpaceX biggest customer SES has said it wants to be the first to ride a reused vehicle , however it wants a launch price of $ 30m or a 50 % saving to offset the risk of pioneering the process .
According to Elon Musk , almost every piece of the Falcon should be reused over 100 times . Heat shields and a few other items should be reused over 10 times before replacement .
= = Technical feasibility = =
Prior to the reusability program 's success in December 2015 , the return of an orbital launch system had never been accomplished . And even after this success , the rapid reuse of a rocket is still yet to be attempted . Developing a reusable rocket is extremely challenging due to the small percentage of a rocket 's mass that can make it to orbit . Typically , a rocket 's payload is only about 3 % of the mass of the rocket which is also roughly the amount of mass in fuel that is required for the vehicle 's re @-@ entry .
Elon Musk said at the beginning of the program that he believed the return , vertical landing and recovery was possible because the SpaceX manufacturing methodologies result in a rocket efficiency exceeding the typical 3 % margin . A SpaceX rocket operating in the reusable configuration has approximately 30 % less payload lift capacity than the same rocket in an expendable configuration .
= = Test program = =
SpaceX is currently testing reusable technologies both for its first @-@ stage booster launch vehicle designs — with three test vehicles — and for its new reusable Dragon V2 space capsule — with a low @-@ altitude test vehicle called DragonFly .
SpaceX has publicly disclosed a multi @-@ element , incremental test program for booster stages that includes four aspects :
low @-@ altitude ( less than 760 m / 2 @,@ 500 ft ) , low @-@ velocity testing of its single @-@ engine Grasshopper technology @-@ demonstrator at its Texas test site
low @-@ altitude ( less than 3 @,@ 000 m / 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , low @-@ velocity testing of a much larger , second @-@ generation , three @-@ engine test vehicle called F9R Dev1 . The second generation vehicle includes extensible landing legs and will be tested at the Texas test site
high @-@ altitude , mid @-@ velocity testing was planned but discontinued . It would use F9R Dev2 ) at a SpaceX leased facility at Spaceport America in New Mexico .
high @-@ altitude ( 91 km / 300 @,@ 000 ft ) , very @-@ high @-@ velocity ( approximately 2 @.@ 0 km / s ; 6 @,@ 500 km / h ; 4 @,@ 100 mph ; Mach 6 ) ballistic reentry , controlled @-@ deceleration and controlled @-@ descent tests of post @-@ mission ( spent ) Falcon 9 booster stages following a subset of Falcon 9 launches that began in 2013
Eight low @-@ altitude booster flight tests were made by Grasshopper in 2012 and 2013 . The first booster return controlled @-@ descent test from high @-@ altitude was made in September 2013 , with a second test in April , a third test flight in July and a fourth test in September 2014 . All four test flights to date were intended to be over @-@ water , simulated landings . Five low @-@ altitude booster flight tests of F9R Dev1 were flown during April – August 2014 , before the vehicle self @-@ destructed for safety reasons on the fifth flight .
= = = Flight testing vehicles = = =
Grasshopper is a set of experimental technology @-@ demonstrator , suborbital reusable launch vehicles ( RLV ) . Two versions of the prototype reusable test vehicles was built , the 106 @-@ foot tall Grasshopper ( formerly designated as Grasshopper v1.0 ) and the 160 @-@ foot tall Falcon 9 Reusable Development Vehicle , or F9R Dev1 — formerly known as Grasshopper v1.1. Grasshopper was built in 2011 @-@ 2012 for low @-@ altitude , low @-@ velocity hover testing at the SpaceX Rocket Test Facility in McGregor , Texas , that began in September 2012 and concluded in October 2013 after eight test flights . The second prototype vehicle design , F9R Dev1 , was built on the much larger Falcon 9 v1.1 booster stage was used for higher @-@ altitude and higher @-@ velocity flight testing .
The low @-@ altitude , low @-@ speed flights of the first test vehicle — Grasshopper — were conducted . F9R Dev1 was also tested at the Texas facility .
= = = = Grasshopper = = = =
Grasshopper , the company 's first VTVL test vehicle , consisted of a Falcon 9 v1.0 first @-@ stage tank , a single Merlin @-@ 1D engine , and four permanently attached steel landing legs . It stood 106 feet ( 32 m ) tall . SpaceX built a 0 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) concrete launch facility at its Rocket Development and Test Facility in McGregor , Texas to support the Grasshopper flight test program . Grasshopper was also known as Grasshopper version 1 @.@ 0 , or Grasshopper v1.0 , prior to 2014 during the time the followon Grasshopper @-@ class test vehicles were being built .
In addition to three test flights in 2012 , five additional tests were successfully flown by the end of October 2013 — including the fourth test overall in March 2013 — in which Grasshopper doubled its highest leap to rise to 80 @.@ 1 meters ( 263 ft ) with a 34 @-@ second flight . In the seventh test , in August 2013 , the vehicle flew to 250 meters ( 820 ft ) during a 60 @-@ second flight and executed a 100 @-@ meter ( 330 ft ) lateral maneuver before returning to the pad . Grasshopper made its eighth and final test flight on October 7 , 2013 , flying to 744 meters ( 2 @,@ 441 ft ) ( 0 @.@ 46 miles ) before making its eighth successful landing . The Grasshopper test vehicle is now retired .
= = = = Falcon 9 Reusable Development Vehicle ( F9R Dev ) = = = =
Beginning in October 2012 , SpaceX discussed development of a second @-@ generation Grasshopper test vehicle , which would have lighter landing legs that fold up on the side of the rocket , a different engine bay , and would be nearly 50 % longer than the first Grasshopper vehicle . In March 2013 , SpaceX announced that the larger Grasshopper @-@ class suborbital flight vehicle would be constructed out of the Falcon 9 v1.1 first @-@ stage tank that was used for qualification testing at the SpaceX Rocket Development and Test Facility in early 2013 . It has been rebuilt as the F9R Dev1 with extensible landing legs .
The second VTVL flight test vehicle — F9R Dev1 , built on the much longer Falcon 9 v1.1 first @-@ stage tank , and with retractable landing legs — made its first test flight on April 17 , 2014 . F9R Dev1 was used for low @-@ altitude test flights in the McGregor , Texas area with projected maximum altitude below 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) . This vehicle self @-@ destructed as a safety measure during a test flight on August 22 , 2014 .
As of April 2014 , a third flight test vehicle — F9R Dev2 — was being built and was planned to be flown at the high @-@ altitude test range available at Spaceport America in New Mexico where it was expected to be flown at altitudes up to 91 @,@ 000 meters ( 300 @,@ 000 ft ) -plus .
= = = = DragonFly = = = =
DragonFly is a prototype test article for a propulsively @-@ landed version of the SpaceX Dragon space capsule , a suborbital reusable launch vehicle ( RLV ) , intended for low @-@ altitude flight testing . It will undergo a test program in Texas at the McGregor Rocket Test Facility , in 2014 – 2015 .
The DragonFly test vehicle is powered by eight SuperDraco engines , arranged in a redundant pattern to support fault @-@ tolerance in the propulsion system design . SuperDracos utilize a storable propellant mixture of monomethyl hydrazine ( MMH ) fuel and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer ( NTO ) , the same propellants used in the much smaller Draco thrusters used for attitude control and maneuvering on the first @-@ generation Dragon spacecraft . While SuperDraco engines are capable of 73 @,@ 000 newtons ( 16 @,@ 400 lbf ) of thrust , during use on DragonFly flight test vehicle each will be throttled to less than 68 @,@ 170 newtons ( 15 @,@ 325 lbf ) to maintain vehicle stability .
A test flight program of thirty flights has been proposed , including two propulsive assist ( parachutes plus thrusters ) and two propulsive landing ( no parachutes ) on flights dropped from a helicopter at an altitude of approximately 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) . The other 26 test flights are projected to take off from a pad : eight to be propulsive assist hops ( landing with parachutes plus thrusters ) and 18 to be full propulsive hops , similar to the Grasshopper and F9R Dev booster stage test flights .
The DragonFly test program is not expected to start until after the completion of the F9R Dev1 booster testing at the McGregor facility .
= = = Falcon 9 booster post @-@ mission flight tests = = =
In an arrangement unusual for launch vehicles , some first stages of the SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 rockets are being used for propulsive @-@ return controlled @-@ descent flight tests after they complete the boost phase of an orbital flight . These boosters would ordinarily just be discarded in the ocean after setting their payloads on their way . The over @-@ water tests take place in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans south of Vandenberg Air Force Base and east of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . The first flight test occurred on September 29 , 2013 , after the second stage with the CASSIOPE and nanosat payloads separated from the booster . These descent and simulated landing tests continued over the next two years , with the second flight test taking place on April 18 , 2014 , and four subsequent tests conducted in 2015 .
= = = = Perfecting re @-@ entry and controlled descent = = = =
Following analysis of the flight test data from the first booster @-@ controlled descent in September 2013 , SpaceX announced it had successfully tested a large amount of new technology on the flight , and that coupled with the technology advancements made on the Grasshopper low @-@ altitude landing demonstrator , they were ready to test a full recovery of the booster stage . The first flight test was successful ; SpaceX said it was " able to successfully transition from vacuum through hypersonic , through supersonic , through transonic , and light the engines all the way and control the stage all the way through [ the atmosphere ] " . Musk said , " the next attempt to recovery [ sic ] the Falcon 9 first stage will be on the fourth flight of the upgraded rocket . This would be [ the ] third commercial Dragon cargo flight to ISS . "
This second flight test took place during the April 2014 Dragon flight to the ISS . SpaceX attached landing legs to the first stage , decelerated it over the ocean and attempted a simulated landing over the water , following the ignition of the second stage on the third cargo resupply mission contracted to NASA . The first stage was successfully slowed down enough for a soft landing over the Atlantic Ocean . SpaceX announced in February 2014 the intent to continue the tests to land the first @-@ stage booster in the ocean until precision control from hypersonic all the way through subsonic regimes has been proven . Five additional controlled @-@ descent tests were conducted in the remainder of 2014 through April 2015 , including two attempts to land on a floating landing platform — a SpaceX @-@ built Autonomous Spaceport Drone Ship — on the Atlantic Ocean east of the launch site , both of which brought the vehicle to the landing platform , but neither of which resulted in a successful landing .
= = = = First landing success aground = = = =
During the 2015 launch hiatus , SpaceX requested regulatory approval from the FAA to attempt returning their next flight to Cape Canaveral instead of targeting a floating platform in the ocean . The goal was to land the booster vertically at the leased Landing Zone 1 facility — the former Launch Complex 13 where SpaceX had recently built a large rocket landing pad . The FAA approved the safety plan for the ground landing on 18 December 2015 . The first stage landed successfully on target at 20 : 38 local time on December 21 ( 01 : 38 UTC on December 22 ) .
SpaceX does not plan to fly the Falcon 9 Flight 20 first stage again . Rather , the rocket was moved a few miles north to Launch pad 39A , recently refurbished by SpaceX at the adjacent Kennedy Space Center , to conduct a static fire test on 15 January 2016 . This test aimed to assess the health of the recovered booster and the capability of this rocket design to fly repeatedly in the future . The tests delivered good overall results except for one of the outer engines experiencing thrust fluctuations . Elon Musk reported that this may have been due to debris ingestion .
= = = = Near @-@ misses on the oceans = = = =
Falcon 9 Flight 21 launched the Jason @-@ 3 satellite on January 17 , 2016 and attempted to land on the floating platform Just Read the Instructions , located for the first time about 200 miles ( 320 km ) out in the Pacific Ocean . Approximately 9 minutes into the flight , the live video feed from the drone ship went down due to the losing its lock on the uplink satellite . The vehicle landed smoothly onto the vessel but one of the four landing legs failed to lock properly , reportedly due to ice from the heavy pre @-@ launch fog preventing a lockout collet from latching . Consequently the booster fell over shortly after touchdown and was destroyed in a deflagration upon impact with the pad .
Flight 22 was carrying a heavy payload of 5 @,@ 271 kilograms ( 12 @,@ 000 lb ) to geostationary transfer orbit ( GTO ) . This was heavier than previously advertised maximum lift capacity to GTO being made possible by going slightly subsynchronous . Following delays caused by failure of Flight 19 SpaceX agreed to provide extra thrust to the SES @-@ 9 satellite to take it supersynchronous . As a result of these factors , there was little propellant left to execute a full reentry and landing test with normal margins . Consequently the Falcon 9 first stage followed a ballistic trajectory after separation and re @-@ entered the atmosphere at high velocity , making it less likely to land successfully . The atmospheric re @-@ entry and controlled descent were successful despite the higher aerodynamical constraints on the first stage due to extra speed . However the rocket was moving too fast and was destroyed when it collided with the drone ship . SpaceX collected valuable data on the extended flight envelope required to recover boosters from GTO missions .
= = = = First landings on drone ship = = = =
On April 8 , 2016 , Falcon 9 Flight 23 , the third flight of the full @-@ thrust version , delivered the SpaceX CRS @-@ 8 cargo on its way to the International Space Station while the first stage conducted a boostback and re @-@ entry maneuver over the Atlantic ocean . Nine minutes after liftoff , the booster landed vertically on the drone ship Of Course I Still Love You , 300 km from the Florida coastline , achieving a long @-@ sought @-@ after milestone for the SpaceX reusability development program .
A second successful drone ship landing occurred on May 6 , 2016 , with the next flight which launched JCSAT @-@ 14 to GTO . This second landing at sea was more difficult than the previous one because the booster at separation was traveling about 8 @,@ 350 km / h ( 5 @,@ 190 mph ) compared to 6 @,@ 650 km / h ( 4 @,@ 130 mph ) on the CRS @-@ 8 launch to low Earth orbit . Pursuing their experiments to test the limits of the flight envelope , SpaceX opted for a shorter landing burn with three engines instead of the single @-@ engine burns seen in earlier attempts ; this approach consumes less fuel by leaving the stage in free fall as long as possible and decelerating more sharply , thereby minimizing the amount of energy expended to counter gravity . Elon Musk indicated this first stage may not be flown again instead being used as a life leader for ground tests to confirm others are good .
A third successful landing followed on May 27th , again following deceleration from the high speed required for a GTO launch . The landing crushed a " crush core " in one leg , leading to a notable tilt to the stage as it stood on the drone ship .
= = = = Future tests = = = =
SpaceX aims to return a number of first stages to both land and drone ships in 2016 to clarify the procedures needed to re @-@ use the boosters rapidly . The company hopes to begin offering pre @-@ flown Falcon 9 rocket stages commercially by the end of the year , aiming at relaunching such a stage in the near future . In January 2016 Elon Musk estimated the likelihood of success to 70 percent for all landing attempts in 2016 , hopefully rising to 90 percent in 2017 ; he also cautioned that we should expect " a few more RUDs " ( Rapid Unscheduled Disassembly , Musk 's euphemism to denote destruction of the vehicle on impact ) .
= Mr. Hooper =
Mr. Harold Hooper ( played by Will Lee ) , was one of the first four human characters to appear on the television series Sesame Street . Created by producer and writer Jon Stone , Mr. Hooper is the original proprietor of Hooper 's Store , the neighborhood variety store and combination diner / corner store that serves as a place for Muppets and humans to meet and interact . Lee , a character actor and instructor who had been blacklisted during the McCarthy era , was " perfectly cast " as Mr. Hooper . Mr. Hooper ranked first of all human characters of the show in recognition by young viewers . Mr. Hooper , who has been described as " slightly cranky but good @-@ hearted " and " curmudgeonly " , bridges the gap between the older generation and its young audience . Hooper 's Store , " an idealized social institution " , is an extension of his personality . He had a special relationship with the Muppet Big Bird .
At the time of Lee 's death , instead of recasting the role , or explaining his departure by saying he had moved , quit or retired , the writers and producers of Sesame Street decided to have the character of Mr. Hooper pass away as well , in order to create an episode that taught their young audience about the difficult topic of death . Research was conducted to ascertain the messages they wanted to convey about the topic , as well as the effect the episode would have on the young children who watched it . They were advised by experts in the fields of child psychology , child development , and religion . Studies conducted after the episode was produced showed that most children understood its messages about death , and that they experienced no long @-@ term ill effects . The episode , written by head writer Norman Stiles , aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983 ; the cast and crew reported that filming it was an emotional and touching experience . The episode , which set the standard for dealing with difficult topics on children 's television , was called heartbreaking yet affirming , and one of the proudest moments in the show 's history .
= = Development and description = =
Mr. Hooper , played by Will Lee from the premiere of Sesame Street in 1969 until his death in 1982 , was one of the first four human characters that appeared on the show . Created by producer and writer Jon Stone , Lee was the first actor to be cast . Lee came to Stone 's attention through writers Bruce and Carole Hart . Mr. Hooper was inspired by the Bob Keeshan character , Captain Kangaroo ; Stone previously worked on the Captain Kangaroo program , which greatly influenced him as he developed Sesame Street . Mr. Hooper is the original proprietor of Hooper 's Store , the neighborhood variety store and combination diner / corner store that serves as a place for Muppets and humans to meet and interact . Stone 's original conception of Mr. Hooper was that he would be , like most owners of such establishments at the time , older , male , Caucasian , and Jewish .
Lee was a character actor and acting instructor with a range of roles in the theater and who had been blacklisted during the McCarthy era . According to writer Michael Davis , Lee played Mr. Hooper , known for his bowtie and hornrimmed glasses , " with such certainty and naturalness he made adults suspend their sense of disbelief " . Writer Louise A. Gikow stated that Lee was " perfectly cast " as Mr. Hooper . According to fellow cast member Bob McGrath , who also appeared in Sesame Street 's first episode with Lee , " Will had a broader dimension to his character than perhaps the rest of us did ... He convinced me that no matter how simple the scene was with a child , you had to bring a tremendous integrity and an honesty and credibility to it " . Joan Ganz Cooney , Sesame Street co @-@ creator and president of the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , said , " He gave millions of children the message that the old and the young have a lot to say to each other " . The New York Times reported that Mr. Hooper ranked first of all human characters of the show in recognition by young viewers .
Davis described Mr. Hooper as " slightly cranky but good @-@ hearted " . Gikow called Mr. Hooper " curmudgeonly " . Davis stated that since Mr. Hooper 's appearance in the first episode of Sesame Street , he had become many things to many young children , " ... the guy in the apron at the far side of the generation gap , his half @-@ lens glasses slipping down his nose " . Davis also stated that Hooper 's Store , which he called " an idealized social institution " , is an extension of Mr. Hooper 's personality . Mr. Hooper has a special relationship with the Muppet character Big Bird , who would often come into Hooper 's Store for a birdseed milkshake and a chat . A running gag in the show was that Big Bird would often mispronounce Mr. Hooper 's name , although most attempts ended in " ooper , " such as " Looper " or " Cooper " . Mr. Hooper 's first name , Harold , was not revealed until the character earned a GED during night school .
Mr. Hooper 's last appearances on Sesame Street aired in 1983 , but Lee 's last segments for the show were taped in November 1982 and Lee participated in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade with other Sesame Street characters a few days before he died of a heart attack on December 7 , 1982 .
= = " Death of Mr. Hooper " = =
When Will Lee died on December 7 , 1982 , instead of recasting the role , or explaining Mr. Hooper 's departure by saying that he had moved away , quit or retired , the producers of Sesame Street decided have the character of Mr. Hooper pass away as well in order to create an episode that taught their young audience about the difficult topic of death . According to CTW researcher Rosemarie Truglio and her colleagues , the episode was one of the many social issues relevant to preschoolers the show has dealt with throughout its history . Executive producer Dulcy Singer stated : " if we left it unsaid , kids would notice . One way out was to avoid the issue of death entirely . " According to Big Bird 's actor Carroll Spinney , producers had considered the idea of writing Mr. Hooper out of the script : " we didn 't know what to do . We thought perhaps he could just retire , move to Florida or something , but then the producers thought that the best thing to do would be to actually deal with death . " The episode aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983 and to this day is considered one of the proudest and most groundbreaking moments in Sesame Street history .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The Sesame Street episode ( # 1839 ) in which the death of Mr. Hooper was discussed was structured as all episodes were structured at the time , with individual segments that took place on the main brownstone set ( called " street scenes " ) and interrupted by inserts , or puppet skits , short films , and animations . The episode begins with a scene between Gordon , played by Roscoe Orman , and the Muppet Forgetful Jones , played by puppeteer Richard Hunt . Gordon helps Forgetful remember something that had made him happy ; as Davis states , " Later , Big Bird forgets something that makes him sad " . After several inserts , Big Bird walks backward with his head between his legs ; when Gordon asks him why , he answers , " Just because " . Later , Big Bird listens to the adults conversing about a new baby who is due to visit Sesame Street with his mother .
Two segments later , Big Bird interrupts the adults — Maria ( Sonia Manzano ) , David ( Northern Calloway ) , Bob ( Bob McGrath ) , Susan ( Loretta Long ) , Gordon , Luis ( Emilio Delgado ) and Olivia ( Alaina Reed Hall ) — discussing politics by giving them pictures he had drawn of each of them . He gets to Mr. Hooper 's picture , saying that he would give it to him when he returns . The adults tearfully and emotionally explain to Big Bird that if Mr. Hooper has died , to which Bird Bird simply says he 'll give him the picture when he comes back . Susan then explains to Big Bird that when people die they never come back ; Big Bird reacts by getting upset , expressing his confusion and sadness . The adults reassure him that they love him and will take care of him and David reveals that he would take over the store , because Mr. Hooper left it to him in his will . Big Bird asks , " Why does it have to be this way ? Give me one good reason ! " and Gordon answers , " Big Bird , it has to be this way ... just because . " Bob and Susan then tell Big Bird that even through Mr. Hooper won 't be around anymore , they still have their fond memories Looking at Mr. Hooper 's picture , Big Bird says , mispronouncing his name as he had done many times in the past , " I 'm going to miss you , Mr. Looper . " Maria tearfully corrects Big Bird and everyone gathers around him in support .
According to Carroll Spinney , when Big Bird said the line " I 'm going to miss you , Mr. Looper " , he had started to say " Mr. Lee " before correcting himself . The filming crew decided to keep the take despite Spinney 's slip of the tongue due to the heavy emotions the cast members were feeling .
The episode ends with Big Bird hanging Mr. Hooper 's picture near his nest , and leaving to go see the new baby . Big Bird says , " You know , the one thing is about new babies , one day they 're not here and next day , here they are ! " He puts his head between his legs once again as the credits roll .
= = = Research = = =
Similar to what they had done with other social issues and in developing their curriculum , the CTW researched the topic of death and how preschoolers understand it . The first step in their research process was to assemble a team of experts , led by CTW research director Lewis Bernstein , in the fields of child psychology , child development , and religion . The team advised the show 's writers and producers how to handle the topic , in what they called " a curriculum bath " ; Bernstein described it in this way : " We bring in the experts to allow the writer to soak in expertise . We in Research bring in people to provide the information , and then the artistry of the writer takes over , as they integrate what they 've heard " . The experts advised the producers to provide their viewers with a sense of closure about Mr. Hooper 's death . They decided not to focus on how Mr. Hooper died , since explaining that he was old and ill might increase children 's fears about death . They chose to deal with his death in a single episode , and convey simple messages like : " Mr. Hooper is dead ; Mr. Hooper will not be coming back ; and Mr. Hooper will be missed by all " . Gikow stated that the episode they created was an example of the writers and producers ' skills as educators as well as entertainers .
Before the episode aired , the CTW conducted a series of studies to guide the writers and producers in creating the episode . Their goal was to answer four key questions : ( 1 ) Will children understand the messages they wanted to convey about death ? ( 2 ) How attentive will they be to the storyline ? ( 3 ) How will parents respond to the treatment of such a sensitive topic ? and ( 4 ) Will children be disturbed by the messages , and if so , for how long ? The researchers broke up children into three groups : children who only watched the scenes in which the storyline was played out and who were interviewed afterwards ; children who watched the entire episode and whose attention was recorded while they viewed it ; and children who watched the episode without the inserts , with their parents , who were interviewed 9 or 10 days later .
The researchers found that 73 % of 4- and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds in their study understood that Mr. Hooper was dead and that 88 % of this group understood that he was not coming back , although only about one @-@ fourth of the 3 @-@ year @-@ old viewers responded correctly . Most of the 4- and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds understood that Big Bird and the adults were sad . Most children ( 80 % ) were attentive during the episode . The parents interviewed had " overwhelmingly positive " reactions to the show , and that half reported that they had discussed death with their children after viewing it . None of the parents reported negative reactions from their children , either immediately after watching the episode or at a later time .
= = = Development and legacy = = =
Sesame Street head writer Norman Stiles was chosen to write the segments about
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13 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Puerto Rico , causing minor flooding and light damage . Klaus caused heavy marine damage in the Leeward Islands , including wrecking at least three ships . The Virgin Islands experienced heavy damage , as well . Damage from the storm totaled to $ 152 million ( 1984 USD ) , and the hurricane killed two on Dominica .
= = = Tropical Depression Nineteen = = =
A low pressure system formed east of Florida on November 22 and rode up the East Coast of the United States producing heavy rain before curving back out to sea and dissapating on November 26 . The storm left one fatality and $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( 1984 USD ) in damage . There has been evidence that the November storm may have become a subtropical cyclone east of Bermuda . The remnants of the cyclone contributed to the Late November 1984 Nor 'easter .
= = = Hurricane Lili = = =
Hurricane Lili was one of only four Atlantic tropical cyclones on record to reach hurricane status in the month of December . Lili developed as a subtropical cyclone which originated from a frontal trough to the south of Bermuda on December 12 . It tracked southeastward , then northward , slowly attaining tropical characteristics and becoming a hurricane on December 20 . Lili turned to the south and southwest , briefly threatening the northern Caribbean islands before weakening and dissipating near the coast of the Dominican Republic . Lili was the longest lasting tropical cyclone outside of the Atlantic hurricane season , as well as the strongest hurricane to form during the month of December . It briefly threatened to pass through the Leeward Islands as a minimal hurricane , though upon passing through the area as a dissipating tropical depression Lili produced light rainfall and no reported damage .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1984 . No names were retired , so the same list of names was used again in the 1990 season . This is the first time these names were used since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Bertha and Fran which were previously used in 1957 and 1973 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization did not retire any names used in the 1984 season .
= Maryland Route 318 =
Maryland Route 318 ( MD 318 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 11 @.@ 32 miles ( 18 @.@ 22 km ) from MD 16 and MD 331 at Preston east to the Delaware state line near Federalsburg , where the highway continues east as Delaware Route 18 ( DE 18 ) . MD 318 connects Federalsburg with Preston and Bridgeville , Delaware . The state highway follows the Dorchester – Caroline county line for most of its length between Linchester and Federalsburg . The county line road is considered to be in Caroline County for maintenance purposes . Further east , MD 318 runs concurrently with MD 313 to bypass Federalsburg . The portion of MD 318 west of Federalsburg was originally numbered Maryland Route 319 and assumed by MD 318 in the mid @-@ 1950s . The MD 319 section was constructed in the late 1910s near Federalsburg and completed west to MD 331 and MD 16 in the late 1920s . MD 318 east of Federalsburg was built in the mid @-@ 1920s . MD 318 was placed on the bypass of Federalsburg in the early 1960s ; its old alignment through Federalsburg became MD 315 .
= = Route description = =
MD 318 begins at an intersection with MD 16 and MD 331 at Linchester , just south of the Caroline – Dorchester county line . MD 16 and MD 331 head south from the intersection as East New Market Ellwood Road and west as a continuation of Preston Road toward Preston . MD 318 heads east as Preston Road , a two @-@ lane road that intersects Langrell Road and Beulah Road a short distance east of its western terminus . Langrell Road is unsigned MD 817B , which follows the county line west to a dead end at Hunting Creek . MD 318 continues east on top of the county line through farmland between Dorchester County to the south and Caroline County to the north . The state highway intersects American Corner Road and passes Magennis Farm Airport in the hamlet of Hynson . MD 318 fully enters Caroline County shortly after passing Lovers Road , then intersects MD 313 ( Federalsburg Highway ) and MD 315 ( Bloomingdale Avenue ) . MD 315 ( Bloomingdale Avenue ) , the old alignment of MD 318 , continues straight east toward downtown Federalsburg , while MD 318 turns south and runs concurrently with MD 313 on a bypass of Federalsburg .
MD 313 and MD 318 intersect MD 307 ( Williamsburg Road ) at the Federalsburg Roundabout . The highway crosses the Seaford Line of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad at @-@ grade as the highway gently curves to the east . After passing Main Street , which is unsigned MD 308 , MD 313 and MD 318 cross Marshyhope Creek . East of the creek , MD 313 turns south onto Reliance Road ; the old alignment of MD 313 , heads north toward downtown Federalsburg as Reliance Avenue . MD 318 continues east through an industrial area along Federalsburg Highway , which crosses the Seaford Line track again . The state highway crosses Tanyard Branch before meeting the other end of MD 315 ( Liberty Road ) . MD 318 continues east as Bridgeville Road to the Delaware state line , where the highway heads toward Bridgeville as DE 18 ( Federalsburg Road ) .
= = History = =
The portion of MD 318 between Linchester and Federalsburg was originally MD 319 , which was constructed as a state @-@ aid road from Federalsburg to about halfway to Hynson around 1919 . The state highway was completed west to U.S. Route 213 ( now MD 331 ) and MD 16 near Preston by 1930 . MD 318 from Federalsburg to the Delaware state line was built between 1924 and 1926 . MD 318 was extended west through Federalsburg and over the whole length of MD 319 in 1956 . The state highway west of Federalsburg was widened around 1958 and extended west fully into Dorchester County to its present terminus when MD 331 and MD 16 were relocated around Ellwood in 1960 . MD 318 was placed on the Federalsburg Bypass when the highway was extended south and east around the town to the present intersection with MD 315 in 1964 ; MD 318 through the town was renumbered MD 315 . The Federalsburg Roundabout was constructed in 1998 . The Federalsburg Bypass bridge over Marshyhope Creek , which was originally built in 1962 , will be rehabilitated in 2012 . During the project , which will replace the bridge 's deck , alternating one @-@ way traffic will cross the bridge directed by traffic lights at either end of the construction area .
= = Junction list = =
MD 318 follows the Caroline – Dorchester county line between the intersection with MD 817 near Preston and a point between Lovers Road and MD 313 near Federalsburg . The county line portion is considered to be in Caroline County for maintenance purposes .
= SS Czar =
SS Czar , or Царь in Russian , was an ocean liner for the Russian American Line before World War I. The ship was later known as Estonia for the Baltic American Line , Pułaski for the Gdynia America Line and as a British Ministry of War Transport troopship , and as Empire Penryn after World War II . The liner was built in Glasgow for the Russian American Line in 1912 and sailed on North Atlantic routes from Libau to New York . On one eastbound voyage in October 1913 , Czar was one of ten ships that came to the aid of the burning Uranium Line steamer Volturno .
After the Russian Revolution , the ship came under the control of the British Shipping Controller and was managed by the Wilson Line and later , the Cunard Line . Under Cunard management in 1918 as HMT Czar , she was employed as a troopship carrying United States troops to France as part of the United States Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force . After the end of World War I , the ship was returned to the East Asiatic Company , the parent company of the Russian American Line , who placed her on their Baltic American Line sailing in roundtrip passenger service to New York under the name Estonia . She was sold to the Polish Gdynia America Line in 1930 , and renamed SS Pułaski the following year for Polish passenger service to North and South America .
After the outbreak of World War II , Pułaski was initially used as a French and , after the Fall of France , a British troopship . Pułaski sailed variously in the North Atlantic , between African ports , and in the Indian Ocean . In 1946 , the ship 's name was changed to Empire Penryn and continued trooping duties under the management of Lamport & Holt . She was scrapped in 1949 at Blyth .
= = Launching and early career = =
Ocean liner SS Czar was launched on 23 March 1912 by Barclay Curle & Company of Glasgow , Scotland , for the Russian American Line , a subsidiary of the Danish East Asiatic Company . Czar had a 6 @,@ 503 gross tonnage ( GT ) and measured 425 feet ( 130 m ) long by 53 @.@ 2 feet ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) abeam and had two funnels and two masts . She was driven by twin screw propellers at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) by two steam engines . Czar had accommodations for 30 passengers in first class , 260 in second class , and 1 @,@ 086 in third class and steerage .
Czar sailed on her maiden voyage on 30 May 1912 from Libau ( present @-@ day Liepāja , Latvia ) to Copenhagen and New York , arriving in the latter city on 13 June . She replaced Lituania on the Libau – New York route , and sailed opposite various combinations of Kursk , Russia , Birma , and Dwinsk through July 1914 .
On her 5 August 1913 sailing from Libau , Czar carried a young Mark Rothko and his family on their way to join his father in the United States ; Rothko went on to become a well @-@ known American abstract expressionist painter and printmaker . On her October 1913 eastbound crossing , Czar responded to the distress calls of the Uranium Line steamer Volturno on fire in the middle of the Atlantic The liner joined nine other ships that came to the aid of the stricken ship . Amidst stormy seas , Czar 's crew rescued 102 passengers from Volturno , more than any other of the rescue ships , apart from the SS Grosser Kurfürst which rescued 105 . In March 1914 , King George V of the United Kingdom , on recommendation of the Board of Trade , awarded 19 of Czar 's crew the Silver Sea Gallantry Medal , along with a £ 3 award each .
= = World War I = =
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Czar switched to service from Archangel to New York , but ran only sporadically through 1916 . After the Russian Revolution , the East Asiatic Company suspended service on the Russian American Line , and transferred several ships , including Czar , to British registry . The British shipping controller initially placed the liner under the management of John Ellerman 's Wilson Line , but Czar was transferred to the Cunard Line management by the end of 1917 .
Known by this time as HMT Czar , the ship , along with former Russian American Line ships Czaritza , Kursk , and Dwinsk , was attached to the Cruiser and Transport Force of the United States Navy , and made three trips carrying American troops to France . Czar sailed on her first voyage with American troops on 16 April 1918 , when she departed from the Hoboken Port of Embarkation , with U.S. Navy transports Maui , Calamares , Pocahontas , El Oriente , and British troopship HMT Czaritza . The convoy was joined by transport Mount Vernon and was escorted by American cruiser Seattle . The convoy arrived safely in France on 28 April . Sources do not report when Czar returned to the United States , but she had done so by early June .
Czar loaded troops at Newport News , Virginia , and set out on her second U.S. convoy crossing on 14 June , sailing with American transports Princess Matoika , Wilhelmina , Pastores , and Lenape . On the morning of 16 June , lookouts on Princess Matoika spotted a submarine and , soon after , a torpedo missed that ship by a few yards . Later that morning , the Newport News ships met up with the New York portion of the convoy — which included DeKalb , Finland , Kroonland , George Washington , Covington , Rijndam , Italian steamer Dante Alighieri , and British steamer Vauben — and set out for France . The convoy was escorted by American cruisers North Carolina and Frederick , and destroyers Stevens and Fairfax ; battleship Texas and several other destroyers joined in escort duties for the group for a time . The convoy had a false alarm when a floating barrel was mistaken for a submarine , but otherwise uneventfully arrived at Brest on the afternoon of 27 June .
When she departed Newport News on 7 October , Czar began her last voyage ferrying American troops to France . Sailing in company with U.S. Navy transports Tenadores , Susquehanna , and America , she rendezvoused with American transport Kroonland , Italian steamer Caserta , and British steamer Euripides out of New York . The convoy ships were escorted by cruisers Seattle and Rochester , and destroyers Murray and Fairfax . The ships arrived safely in France on 20 October .
Throughout 1919 and into 1920 , HMT Czar continued transporting Commonwealth troops under Cunard management . The troopship primarily sailed between British ports and Mediterranean ports such as Trieste , Malta , Alexandria , and Constantinople . One typical voyage from Alexandria returned 1 @,@ 600 officers and men — who had been serving in Palestine , Syria , and Egypt — to Plymouth in January 1920 . Czar also played a role in the North Russia Campaign of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War when the liner departed Hull for North Russia on 28 August 1919 . H.M.T. Czar arrived in the Tyne , from Murmansk last Friday ( 15 August 1919 ) , with about 1 @,@ 800 British and Italian troops from the Syren Force North Russia . Amongst them were about 100 officers , N.C.O 's and men of the 6th and 13th Battalions Yorkshire Regiment .
= = Interwar civilian service = =
By late 1920 , Czar had been returned to the East Asiatic Company , which placed her in service for the Baltic American Line under the new name of Estonia . For her first Baltic American trip she sailed from Glasgow on 11 January 1921 for New York , Danzig , and Libau , arriving at the latter by mid @-@ February . Departing from Libau on 23 February , she began a regular Libau – Danzig – Boston – New York service , sailing opposite Lituania and Polonia .
In February 1925 , Estonia was reconditioned and outfitted with accommodations for 290 cabin @-@ class and 500 third @-@ class passengers . The following March , her accommodations were altered for 110 cabin @-@ class , 180 tourist @-@ class , and 500 third @-@ class passengers . Her last voyage for the Baltic American Line began on 31 January 1930 when she sailed from Danzig to Copenhagen , Halifax , and New York . Sold to the Polish @-@ owned Gdynia America Line , she sailed 13 March for one more trip on the Danzig – New York route under the name Estonia . Before her next voyage on 25 April , she was renamed Pułaski , after Polish soldier and American Revolutionary War general Kazimierz Pułaski . SS Pułaski continued sailing the same route through August 1935 , when she was moved to Gdynia – Buenos Aires service . She began her last voyage on this route on 21 April 1939 .
= = World War II = =
With the signing of the Anglo @-@ Polish military alliance impending , Pułaski sailed from Gdynia to Falmouth on 24 August 1939 . On 26 September , the ship left Dartmouth for Gibraltar ( calling there on 2 September ) and Piraeus , where she arrived on 13 October . Picking up Polish soldiers there , she sailed five days later for Marseille , where she eventually arrived on 2 December . Until March 1940 , Pułaski underwent a refit in Marseille after which she sailed under charter to the French Fabre Line . At the end of the 1930s , the Fabre Line sailed ships on a Marseille – Dakar route with intermediate stops in other African ports .
On 10 March , Pułaski departed Marseille on the first of three voyages from that port . She sailed to Algiers and from there to Dakar on 13 March . Pułaski left Dakar for Freetown , Sierra Leone , and Konakry , French Guinea , returning to Dakar in early April . Sailing for Marseille on 5 April , the ship returned on 13 April as a part of convoy DF 29 . Leaving again about two weeks later , she repeated the trip and returned to Marseille on 29 May as a part of convoy DF 41 . By the time of her return , the German invasion of France had been underway for nearly three weeks .
Pułaski sailed on her third and final French voyage on 6 June . The liner arrived at Dakar on 15 June , and sailed the next day for Freetown , where she arrived on 18 June . Likely because of the confusion surrounding the French surrender on 22 June , Pułaski 's movements over the next days are unrecorded , but she was detained at Konakry on 8 July by Vichy authorities . That evening , Pułaski 's crew raised steam and sailed the ship out of the harbor in defiance of the detainment . After taking fire from shore batteries at Konakry , the ship arrived back at Freetown on 9 July .
= = = British trooping duties = = =
On 14 August , Pułaski , Kościuszko ( the latest name of the former Czaritza ) , and Batory were chartered by the Ministry of War Transport for trooping duties and placed under the management of Lamport & Holt of Liverpool . All three ships retained their Polish crews but also carried a Lamport & Holt liaison officer aboard . Four days later , Pułaski joined convoy SL 44 , the 44th wartime convoy from Sierra Leone to Liverpool , with nearly 30 other ships and 10 escorts . Pułaski and about half of the ships departed the convoy at Liverpool on 7 September , while the other half continued on for Methil .
Pułaski next made her way to the Clyde in late October . Between 10 May and 12 June 1941 , she sailed on three roundtrip trooping runs between Clyde and Iceland . In late June , Pułaski , loaded with 2 @,@ 047 troops , sailed from Clyde to join convoy WS 9B headed for Freetown . The convoy arrived at its destination on 13 July . After three days , Pułaski and four other ships sailed on to Cape Town , arriving on 27 July . Leaving behind one ship at Cape Town , Pułaski and the others sailed on 30 July to their final destination of Aden , where they arrived in mid August .
Over the next seven months , Pułaski operated in the Indian Ocean , primarily sailing between Middle Eastern and East African ports . Beginning in late August , Pułaski sailed between Aden and ports of Suez , Durban , Berbera , Mombasa , Massawa , Port Sudan , and Kilindini . From Kilindini , in March 1942 , the liner sailed to Colombo and back to Durban on 8 April . While at Durban , a fire gutted the bridge in what may have been sabotage .
The damaged Pułaski made her way to East London in South Africa on 11 April where she remained under repair until June . Departing East London on 25 June , she resumed her Middle Eastern and African runs between Aden , Suez , and Durban . In November , the transport departed Aden and called at Basra , Bandar Abbas , and Karachi , before returning to Durban in early December . After nearly a two @-@ month stay at Durban , Pułaski returned to her trooping duties in the Indian Ocean on 1 February 1943 . She made her first visits to Diego Suarez , Zanzibar , and Tamatave in March , and Djibouti in April .
After a return to East London from Durban on 30 May , the ship put in for another extended stay , this time for four months . Resuming her trooping runs on 29 September , Pułaski began a year of almost continuous sailing . During this span , which lasted until mid @-@ September 1944 , the ship called at Bombay twice in addition to numerous stops in Aden , Suez , Durban , and Kilindini . Putting in at Durban on 15 September , Pułaski had a general refit over the next four months .
Pułaski resumed her Indian Ocean service when she left Durban on 21 January 1945 , headed for Kilindini . She visited Dar es Salaam for the first time in April , and departed from her first visit to Madras on Victory in Europe Day , 8 May 1945 . Headed to Akyab , Burma , she started the first of five India – Burma roundtrips through July . Over the next months , she shuttled between Rangoon , Calcutta ( where she was docked on Victory over Japan Day ) , Chittagong , Madras , and Colombo , arriving at the latter port for the final time on 12 September . From Colombo she sailed into the Western Pacific for Singapore where she arrived for the first of several visits on 14 September , two days after the Japanese garrison there surrendered . Through the end of 1945 , Pułaski continued sailing between Singapore and India , making additional stops at Port Swettenham , Chittagong , Sourabaya , and Batavia .
Pułaski arrived at Calcutta on 23 December 1945 . After this time , the ship continued to sail in trooping duties in the Indian Ocean , though her specific movements are not known . In March 1946 , Pułaski was purchased by the Ministry of War Transport for £ 100 @,@ 000 . It was around this time the Polish crews of Pułaski and Kościuszko refused to be repatriated to Soviet @-@ occupied Poland . The crew members all signed British articles . On 16 April 1946 , Pułaski was formally handed over to British authorities , who renamed the vessel Empire Penryn : Empire to match the naming convention for miscellaneous British auxiliary ships ; Penryn for the port of Penryn , Cornwall . Remaining under Lamport & Holt management , Empire Penryn performed trooping duties in the Mediterranean . The ship was taken out of service in 1948 , and was scrapped at Blyth in 1949 .
= Interstate 470 ( Missouri ) =
Interstate 470 ( I @-@ 470 ) is a 16 @.@ 72 @-@ mile ( 26 @.@ 91 km ) loop of the Interstate Highway System that serves to link southeast Kansas City to Independence via Lee 's Summit in Jackson County , Missouri . The western terminus of the freeway is at the Grandview Triangle interchange with I @-@ 49 , I @-@ 435 , U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) , and US 71 while the northern terminus is an cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 70 . The freeway travels west to east through southern Kansas City , curving towards the north at the Lee 's Summit Municipal Airport and becoming concurrent with Missouri Route 291 ( Route 291 ) as the highway travels north towards Independence .
An intermediate interchange with US 50 provides access to southern Jackson County , and to Raytown to the north via Route 350 , a former alignment of US 50 before the construction of I @-@ 470 . Plans for a southern freeway were first published in 1955 , and the first portions of I @-@ 470 were completed in 1970 . By 1983 the entire freeway was open to traffic . Since construction two new interchanges have been constructed , along with the expansion of the US 50 cloverleaf . In 2010 , part of the freeway was closed by the Grandview Triangle due to a landslide underneath the freeway . Between about 38 @,@ 000 and 75 @,@ 000 vehicles use the freeway on an average day .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 470 begins in southern Kansas City at the Grandview Triangle interchange with I @-@ 49 , I @-@ 435 , US 50 , and US 71 . The freeway , concurrent with US 50 , travels east through grasslands before meeting the westernmost interchange , a diamond interchange with Blue Ridge Boulevard . A rail line belonging to Kansas City Southern Railway passes under the freeway west of the interchange . The concurrent highways continue east through lightly populated Jackson County past a light residential zone , towards an interchange with Raytown Road . Raytown Road provides access to Longview Lake to the south of I @-@ 470 . Crossing into urbanized Lee 's Summit , the Kansas City Metropolitan Junior College is accessible from the View High Drive interchange . The city line between Kansas City and Lee 's Summit is near View High Drive . Exit 7 consists of a cloverleaf interchange with the southern end of Route 350 and US 50 , as well as Northwest Blue Parkway and Northwest Pryor Road . Two rail lines surround the cloverleaf interchange , both operated by the Union Pacific Railroad , however only the eastern line is operational . US 50 leaves the freeway and travels southeast as I @-@ 470 curves to the north near the Lee 's Summit Municipal Airport .
A partial interchange with Northeast Colburn Road is quickly followed by a partial interchange with Route 291 , which becomes concurrent with I @-@ 470 as it heads north towards Independence . Just north of the airport is an interchange with Strother Road , followed by an interchange with Woods Chapel Road . Lakewood Lakes , a pair of connected lakes , passes to the west of the freeway as it travels north . Lakewood Lakes was home to the Lollapalooza music festival in 1996 . An interchange with Northeast Bowlin Road serves as an access road to Blue Springs Lake to the east of the freeway . US 40 , which parallels I @-@ 70 through most of Missouri is the penultimate exit , serving the southern portions of Independence and Blue Springs . US 40 is named after Corporal Michael E. Webster , a Missouri State Highway Patrol officer who was killed in the line of duty by a drunk driver . The northern terminus of I @-@ 470 is at a cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 70 southwest of the Independence Center mall . The roadway continues north after the interchange with I @-@ 70 as Route 291 towards its ultimate end point at an interchange with I @-@ 435 .
Every three years , the Missouri Department of Transportation ( MoDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , MoDOT calculated that as few as 38 @,@ 152 vehicles traveled along the highway at the northern terminus just north of the interchange with I @-@ 70 , and as many as 75 @,@ 647 vehicles used the highway just east of the Grandview Triangle . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
Plans for a freeway linking southeast Kansas City to Independence were first published in 1955 in a document titled General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas . The first portions of the highway that were signed I @-@ 470 were established in 1970 , between I @-@ 70 and US 40 in Independence . The north @-@ south portion of the highway , then designated US 71 Bypass had been in existence since 1970 and was renumbered to Route 291 between 1970 and 1971 . Between 1979 and 1980 , the portion of the freeway between the Grandview Triangle and the Exit 7 cloverleaf had been completed . US 50 's alignment was changed to follow I @-@ 470 west to the Grandview Triangle , and the old routing of US 50 was renumbered Route 350 . The section of freeway between US 50 and Route 291 was opened to traffic in 1983 , completing the route . Between 1980 and 1983 , the portion of the route that is concurrent with Route 291 was upgraded to freeway standards and included in the I @-@ 470 loop .
Since construction of the highway , three interchanges have been added or expanded . The first addition was an interchange with View High Drive , which was constructed in early 1993 costing about $ 2 million to complete . The second was an addition to the existing cloverleaf at US 50 in Lee 's Summit , adding access roads to Pryor Road and Northwest Blue Parkway . Construction on that interchange began in July 2007 , and was completed by September 2008 . The third interchange , with Strother Road was first planned to be constructed in 2008 . The road served to provide access to the industrial park west of the freeway , and to spur new development on land pending sale by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints to the east of the freeway . The interchange was opened to traffic in August 2010 at a final construction cost of around $ 18 million .
In July 2010 , MoDOT closed the westbound lanes of I @-@ 470 near the Grandview Triangle due to large cracks that formed in the roadway . A buildup of ground water underneath the westbound lanes caused a 42 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 13 m ) retaining wall to fail . A landslide occurred on July 17 which created a 35 @-@ by @-@ 200 @-@ foot ( 11 m × 61 m ) hole in the roadway . The eastbound lanes were not affected and were not closed . The affected area was replaced by a 225 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 69 m ) bridge extension that opened in the following month .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Jackson County .
= Mind Games ( John Lennon album ) =
Mind Games is the fourth studio album by John Lennon . It was recorded at Record Plant Studios in New York in summer 1973 . The album was released in the US 29 October 1973 and the UK 16 November 1973 . The album was Lennon 's first self @-@ produced recording without help from Phil Spector . Like his previous album , the politically topical and somewhat abrasive Some Time in New York City , Mind Games was poorly received by some music critics upon release . It reached number 13 in the UK and number 9 in the US , where it was certified gold .
The album was recorded while Lennon was having difficulties with US immigration and at the beginning of his 18 @-@ month separation from Yoko Ono . The title track was released as a single at the same time as the album . The album itself was later reissued several times throughout the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Background = =
By the start of 1973 , John Lennon began distancing himself from the political and social issues he had embraced in the previous 18 months . It was also around this time that he and his wife , Yoko Ono , were going through marital problems . As Ono was completing her fourth album , Feeling the Space , Lennon decided he also wanted to record a new album , and liked the studio musicians that their assistant and production coordinator May Pang had assembled for Ono 's album . Shortly thereafter , he asked Pang to book them for his sessions . Wanting to produce an album that would be more accepted than his previous politically charged commercial flop Some Time in New York City , Lennon began writing and demoing a few songs for Mind Games in his Greenwich Village apartment . He began composing after a period of almost a year of not writing any material .
Amid frequent court appearances battling to stay in the United States , Lennon became stressed , a situation that was only worsened by constant surveillance by the FBI , due to his political activism . Lennon said " I just couldn 't function , you know ? I was so paranoid from them tappin ' the phone and followin ' me . " All this combined made Lennon begin to feel emotionally withdrawn . Lennon put his suffering aside to write the songs for Mind Games , writing all the songs for it in a week .
Under the moniker of " The Plastic U.F.Ono Band " , Lennon engaged the services of session drummer Jim Keltner , guitarist David Spinozza , Gordon Edwards on bass , Arthur Jenkins on percussion , Michael Brecker on saxophone , Ken Ascher on piano and organ , and the vocal backing of a group called Something Different . Difficulties between Lennon and Ono became more and more noticeable around this time . Just as the sessions were to get under way in June at New York 's Record Plant Studios , John and Yoko separated . At Ono 's urging , Pang became Lennon 's companion and lover in what would become an 18 @-@ month relationship later renowned as Lennon 's ' lost weekend ' .
= = Recording and content = =
Mind Games was recorded between July and August 1973 in Lennon 's characteristic quick fashion , and was mixed over a two @-@ week period . Lennon produced the album by himself , following his previous three @-@ year partnership with Phil Spector . When the album was remixed in 2002 , many audio anomalies hidden in the original mixing were uncovered . Some rough mixes appear on bootlegs and on 1997 's John Lennon Anthology .
The album continued Lennon 's previous attempts to chronicle his life through his songs , the tone of which displays a range of mixed feelings . Among the sombre and melodic songs directed to Ono , " Aisumasen ( I 'm Sorry ) " was originally titled " Call My Name " , a song in which Lennon was offering to comfort someone , whereas the final version sees him asking for forgiveness . In " One Day ( At a Time ) " , Lennon sings about his devotion to Ono . " Out the Blue " also reflects Lennon 's devotion to his wife , and reflects its author 's self @-@ doubt as a result of their separation . " Out the Blue " incorporates several musical genres , starting with a gentle , melancholy acoustic guitar and moving through gospel , country and choral music portions . Another love song , " You Are Here " took its title from Lennon 's one @-@ off art exhibition at the Robert Frazer Gallery . By the time of the Mind Games sessions , the composition had gone through several different themes , before Lennon settled on the theme of love and peace . The original master take of " You Are Here " featured an extra verse , that was about Japan and England .
Other songs on the album are more light @-@ hearted and optimistic , marking the return of Lennon 's humour and wit after the uncompromising doctrine espoused on Some Time in New York City . These tracks include " Intuition " , in which Lennon relates how life experience has honed his instincts and how it 's good to have gotten through it . While demoing the song on piano in early 1973 , with the lyrics still incomplete , he added a few lines from two previously released tracks – " How ? " , from Imagine ( 1971 ) , and " God " , from John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) . " Only People " reflects his and Ono 's personal philosophy . Lennon later said that it failed as a song , however ; in an interview with Playboy Magazine , he remarked : " It was a good lick , but I couldn 't get the words to make sense . "
Also appearing on Mind Games are songs that indulged Lennon 's affinity for pure rock ' n ' roll , such as " Tight A $ " , the title of which was a pun on the expressions " tight as " and " tight ass " . The track is in the rockabilly style with a 1950s sound , along the lines of songs that inspired Lennon in his youth . Another rock track , " Meat City " contains lyrics more in keeping with Lennon 's earlier penchant for obscure imagery over the personal . The song was a boogie piece until late in 1971 , when it began to take its final form , although with improvised lyrics . By late 1972 , Lennon had rewritten the words and finished developing the melody .
The song " Mind Games " , with its " love is the answer " refrain and call to " make love not war " , recalls Lennon 's work with the Beatles in 1967 . He started writing the track during the band 's Get Back sessions , in early 1969 , with the title " Make Love , Not War " . Lennon finished it after reading the book Mind Games : The Guide to Inner Space . Lennon had recorded demos of the retitled " Mind Games " on 28 and 29 December 1970 , at his home studio , Ascot Sound Studios .
" Bring on the Lucie ( Freeda Peeple ) " dated from late 1971 , having started out as little more than a chorus , after Lennon acquired a National guitar . Once he had worked on the lyrics , the song went from a simple political slogan to a full @-@ blown statement that hints at his earlier work , such as " Imagine " and " Power to the People " . " Only People " and the three @-@ second silent " Nutopian International Anthem " were the only political tracks on the album . The latter referred to " Nutopia : The Country of Peace " , a conceptual country which the Lennons had announced at a press conference in New York City on April Fool 's Day 1973 . " I Know ( I Know ) " features lyrics in which Lennon apologises for his thoughtlessness and discusses the causes of his insecurity . On some of the rough mixes available on bootlegs , the time @-@ consuming overdubbing on the song is apparent , as Lennon gradually refined the arrangement . The final track on Mind Games , " Meat City " contains a Lennon curse , " Fuck a pig ! " , sped up and backwards , while the mix used as the B @-@ side to the " Mind Games " single gave the same treatment to the phrase " Check the album ! "
" Rock and Roll People " was also recorded during the album 's sessions and given to Johnny Winter for his John Dawson Winter III album . Lennon 's version remained unreleased until 1986 's posthumous Menlove Ave. album .
= = Release and promotion = =
Tony King , vice @-@ president of Apple Records in Los Angeles at the time , convinced Lennon to promote Mind Games , arranging interviews for Lennon with Billboard and Record World . He also persuaded Lennon to do a television commercial in which King dressed up as the Queen of England and waltzed with Lennon ( the commercial session can be seen in the 1988 film Imagine : John Lennon ) . King reprised his role as the Queen for two radio spots promoting the album .
Lennon created the Mind Games album cover himself , hand @-@ cutting the photos . The front and back covers are similar ; on the back sleeve Lennon is more toward the foreground , representing his symbolic walking away from Ono and her apparent mountainous influence on him .
Mind Games was released on 29 October in America and 16 November in Britain , around the same time as Ono 's Feeling the Space . Apple Records issued the title track as a single , with the release dates matching those of the album in the US and UK . The single reached number 26 in the UK , and peaked at number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the US . The album charted at number 13 in the UK and peaked at number 9 on Billboard 's Top LP 's listings . Although Mind Games sold better than Some Time in New York City , its release " came and went with barely a ripple " , according to Beatles biographer Chris Ingham . Author Peter Doggett similarly writes that the album " did nothing to alter [ Lennon 's ] status as the least commercially successful Beatle " .
= = Reception = =
Jon Landau of Rolling Stone magazine assessed the songs on Mind Games as " his worst writing yet " and considered that Lennon was " helplessly trying to impose his own gargantuan ego upon an audience … [ that ] is waiting hopefully for him to chart a new course " . While finding the music " listenable " , Landau identified the album 's lyrics as " misguided in so underrating his audience 's intelligence " and added : " But then , perhaps Lennon 's didacticism , preaching and banality are part of the mind game of the album 's title … " More impressed , Melody Maker 's Ray Coleman found that " The raw nerves of a Lennon battered by America 's curious logic and sheer hard @-@ heartedness seem to have spurred him to write incisively … " Coleman concluded of Mind Games : " Musically or melodically this may not be a stand @-@ out album , but if you warm to the rasping voice of Lennon and , like me , regard him as the true fulcrum of much of what came from his old group , then like any new Lennon album , it will be enjoyable and even important . " In a mixed review , Robert Christgau described the album as " A step in the right direction , but only a step " . He complimented " Mind Games " as well as the songs " One Day ( At a Time ) " and " You Are Here " , but criticised Lennon for " falling back on ideas that have lost their freshness for him " .
Writing in their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , NME journalists Roy Carr and Tony Tyler opined that Mind Games " bears all the hallmarks of being made without any definite objective in mind – other than to redeem the unpleasantness of Some Time In New York City " . While noting the singer 's attempts to re @-@ create " the lyricism and melodic inventiveness " of Imagine , Carr and Tyler continued : " The reason the total album is not more effective can be laid at the door of Lennon 's personal situation , and on his tendency to react to events , instead of initiating them . " In The Beatles Apart ( 1981 ) , Bob Woffinden considered that , aside from the " excellent " title track and " Bring on the Lucie " , Mind Games " consisted of so @-@ so songs that hardly lodged in the memory " , and that " The best one can say of the album is that it 's exceptionally well produced . "
In a more recent review , for AllMusic , critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine writes that " confusion … lies at the heart of the album . Lennon doesn 't know which way to go , so he tries everything . " Erlewine adds : " While the best numbers are among Lennon 's finest , there 's only a handful of them , and the remainder of the record is simply pleasant . "
= = Reissues = =
The album was reissued in the US on Capitol Records in 1978 and 1980 , with the latter being a budget reissue . In the UK , the album was reissued on EMI 's budget label , Music for Pleasure ( MFP ) , on 28 November 1980 , featuring a different album cover . After Lennon 's death in December 1980 , the album , along with seven other Lennon albums , was reissued by EMI as part of a box set , which was released in the UK on 15 June 1981 . It was first issued on CD on 3 August 1987 , this time on the Parlophone label , and several months later on 22 March 1988 in the US on the Capitol label .
In 2002 , a remixing of Mind Games for its remastered reissue , containing three previously unreleased demo recordings , was overseen by Allan Rouse , which was released on 21 October 2002 in the UK , and almost a month later in the US , on 5 November 2002 . It was reissued again by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab in 2004 on CD and LP . In 2010 , the original mix was remastered as part of the re @-@ release of Lennon 's entire catalogue , the album was available separately or as part of the John Lennon Signature Box .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by John Lennon .
Side one
" Mind Games " – 4 : 13
" Tight A $ " – 3 : 37
" Aisumasen ( I 'm Sorry ) " – 4 : 44
" One Day ( At a Time ) " – 3 : 09
" Bring on the Lucie ( Freda Peeple ) " – 4 : 12
" Nutopian International Anthem " – 0 : 03
Side two
" Intuition " – 3 : 08
" Out the Blue " – 3 : 23
" Only People " – 3 : 23
" I Know ( I Know ) " – 3 : 49
" You Are Here " – 4 : 08
" Meat City " – 2 : 45
Bonus tracks
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per album sleeve and Bruce Spizer .
John Lennon – lead , harmony and backing vocals ; rhythm , slide and acoustic guitars ; clavichord ; percussion
Ken Ascher – piano , Hammond organ , Mellotron
David Spinozza – lead guitar
Gordon Edwards – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Rick Marotta – drums on " Bring on the Lucie " and " Meat City " ( with Keltner )
Michael Brecker – saxophone
Sneaky Pete Kleinow – pedal steel guitar
Something Different – backing vocals
Roy Cicala , Dan Barbiero – engineers
Tom Rabstanek – mastering
= = Charts = =
= When It Rains , It Pours ( 30 Rock ) =
" When It Rains , It Pours " is the second episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 82nd overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ show runner and executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by series producer Don Scardino . " When It Rains , It Pours " originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on September 30 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Joanna Adler , Ben Bailey , Elizabeth Banks , Craig Castaldo , Paul Giamatti , Andrea Mitchell , Chris Parnell , Sherri Shepherd , and Brian Williams .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) uses her newfound confidence of men noticing her to solve Pete Hornberger 's ( Scott Adsit ) problem with a difficult television editor named Ritchie ( Paul Giamatti ) . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) decides to teach his unborn child with his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) how to live . Elsewhere , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is determined to be with his wife Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) when she gives birth , and a mysterious individual is making sure Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) page duties at the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) at NBC are still getting done .
" When It Rains , It Pours " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 688 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For his work in the episode , Robert Carlock won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is surprised that men have been noticing her , instead of resenting or ignoring her as they usually do . Her friend Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) tells Liz that she is coming off as more confident since starting her relationship with her boyfriend Carol ( Matt Damon ) . Liz decides to use her new @-@ found confidence to help TGS with Tracy Jordan producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) with a problem he has had with a difficult television editor named Ritchie ( Paul Giamatti ) . Liz visits him in the editing room and hopes to convince him to get TGS 's show 's opener footage finished as soon as possible in which she is successful after flirting with Ritchie . Later , Liz learns that Ritchie is spreading a rumor that the two are sleeping together . She confronts Ritchie about it , he admits to starting the rumor in order to get the attention of his assistant editor Donna ( Joanna Adler ) . Later , Liz and Ritchie have a pretend break @-@ up in front of Donna , and Donna becomes interested in Ritchie .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and his girlfriend CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) tell Liz that they are expecting a son . Liz congratulates them , and tells the two that their son will have an old dad as Jack is in his early 50s . As a result of what Liz said , Jack fears that he will not be around so he decides to teach his unborn son how to live by recording a video containing advice for him . Later , Jack learns that he and Avery are in fact expecting a daughter and not a son . Jack realizes that he needs to make new tapes and in the tape he says to his unborn daughter " If you have the blondeness and self @-@ esteem of your mother , you will need no advice . "
At the same time , Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) wife , Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) , is going into labor . Tracy , who after missing the birth of his sons does not want to miss the birth of his daughter , has Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) guard him in his dressing room in the 30 Rock building so that he would not wander off . A fire drill occurs so everyone must exit the building . Outside , however , the two lose track of Tracy , who wanders around the city . He hails a cab to get to the hospital Angie is at , but realizes that he does not have money on him , however , the driver does not mind . Once inside the cab , the driver , Ben Bailey — the host of the game show Cash Cab — informs Tracy that he is a contestant . As part of the game , Tracy must answer questions to win money and reach his destination . As a result , Tracy answers all the questions correctly and arrives at the hospital in time to witness the birth of his daughter .
In addition , Liz and Jenna are surprised how smoothly everything is running in the TGS set without Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , a former NBC page . Unbeknownst to everyone , there is a " mystery man " going around TGS in a black cape completing all of the tasks that Kenneth would do . While Jack is recording a video , he catches Kenneth in his office , revealing that Kenneth has been the one completing all of his old tasks . Kenneth says that he is there because he knows how much he is needed , but Jack tells him that they do not need him and he must move on with his life . Hurt and bewildered , Kenneth leaves , and Jack says in the video for his unborn child that the exchange between him and Kenneth was really " tough love " and he had just sent Kenneth on a journey . Meanwhile , Kenneth Parcell gets a phone call from Angie , who is delirious on pain killers . At the same time , as Tracy is on the game show , Angie tells Kenneth to find Tracy . Unable to do so , Kenneth takes a cardboard cut @-@ out of Tracy and pretends to be him as she is giving birth until Tracy comes in and pushes Kenneth out of the way . Later , Jack tells Kenneth that he is truly needed back at TGS and offers to talk to human resources to get his job back , but Kenneth refuses and says he will re @-@ apply to the page program , following the proper procedures .
= = Production = =
This episode of 30 Rock was written by co @-@ show runner and executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by series producer Don Scardino . This was Carlock 's sixteenth writing credit , and Scardino 's twenty @-@ eighth directed episode . " When It Rains , It Pours " originally aired in the United States on September 30 , 2010 , on NBC as the second episode of the show 's fifth season and the 82nd overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on August 30 , August 31 , September 2 , September 5 , and September 8 , 2010 .
In August 2010 , series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey revealed to Entertainment Weekly correspondent Michael Ausiello that actor Paul Giamatti would guest star in the upcoming season playing a " grouchy " television editor named Ritchie . Giamatti is due to appear in a future episode of 30 Rock . Actress Elizabeth Banks returned as her 30 Rock character Avery Jessup , a CNBC television host and Jack Donaghy 's girlfriend , in this episode , and reprised the Avery role for the eighth time . Comedian actress Sherri Shepherd reprised her role as Angie Jordan , the wife of Tracy Jordan , for the seventh time . Comedian actor Chris Parnell , who played Dr. Leo Spaceman , the doctor who assisted in the birth of Angie and Tracy 's daughter in the episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 .
News anchors Brian Williams and Andrea Mitchell played themselves in the episode in which the two tease the Liz Lemon character of her supposed relationship with Giamatti 's Ritchie . This was Williams ' fourth appearance on the show , having appeared in the episodes " The Ones " , " Audition Day " , and " Future Husband " , and Mitchell 's first appearance on 30 Rock . Ben Bailey , the game show host of the Discovery Channel program Cash Cab played himself . In the beginning of the episode , several men hit on Liz , which surprises her , and one of those men who hits on her was credited as " Moonvest " and was played by Craig Castaldo , or known as Radio Man . Castaldo has made numerous appearances on the program .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " When It Rains , It Pours " drew in 5 @.@ 688 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . The show claimed a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The rating / share was the same number as the previous week 's season premiere episode , " The Fabian Strategy " ; in the week that " When It Rains , It Pours " originally aired , 30 Rock was the only Thursday program whose ratings did not fall from its season premiere . In February 2011 , Robert Carlock won the Writers Guild of America Award for Episodic Comedy for his work in this episode of 30 Rock .
Television columnist Alan Sepiwall for HitFix called this the best overall episode since season four 's December 2009 episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show # 0001 " . He wrote that the episode had " some incredibly funny jokes " , but noted that the " most hilarious moments " from " When It Rains , It Pours " came from the main characters themselves . Sepinwall enjoyed Jack 's videos to his unborn son , noting it was " ... the [ Jack ] I know and love best : supremely confident and ... oblivious to his own insanity . " Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club liked that the series had moved on from making the Liz character " asexual and vaguely repellent " for men . In his recap , Rabin much enjoyed the episode and said " If the rest of the season is as good as the first two episodes , we could have a big @-@ time comeback on our hands . " Juli Weiner of Vanity Fair wrote that Paul Giamatti was a delight as his 30 Rock character . Entertainment Weekly contributor Annie Barrett was thrilled that the Tracy character was a contestant on Cash Cab , noting once the game began " everything felt so right " . Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News preferred " When It Rains , It Pours " to the episodes of Community and The Office , which aired on NBC the same night . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student wrote that Giamatti played his part brilliantly , and that his involvement in the main plot was " well @-@ written , well @-@ organized , and by far the best thing about the episode " .
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad commented that Giamatti " seems like he could be an editor at NBC , so the guest role didn 't irritate or grate " . Sassone enjoyed Kenneth and Tracy 's stories here , and was glad that Jack and Avery have remained a couple . Verne Gay of Newsday noted that this episode of 30 Rock was a " spectacular piece of television , and comedy writing , and acting " . Scott Eidler of The Cornell Daily Sun called Tracy 's plot " very believable " , and opined that " any reservations I have had about this show being less than completely real are gone " after watching this episode . Meredith Blake of the Los Angeles Times deemed this a stellar episode , explaining that the Tracy , Liz , and Jack characters had storylines that allowed them " to strut their comedic stuff " . Time contributor James Poniewozik reported that " When It Rains , It Pours " was a very good episode . He noted that Jack 's storyline was the " simplest recipe for comedy : just turn on a camera and let Alec Baldwin be hilarious . But it came within the story of his accepting having a [ child ] assessing his mortality , and trying to distill what matters in his life " . Poniewozik was positive towards Liz 's plot with Giamatti , reporting that the her plot " involved one of the best guest roles in a sometimes too guest @-@ heavy role " and enjoyed the traits from Giamatti 's Ritchie .
= One South Broad =
One South Broad , also known as the Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building or PNB Building , is a 28 @-@ story 472 @-@ foot ( 144 m ) office tower in Center City , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The art deco tower , designed by architect John Torrey Windrim as an annex for Wanamaker 's department store , was completed in 1932 . Wanamaker 's Men 's Store opened in the first seven floors of the building , which is located a block from Wanamaker 's main store , and was intended to rival European department stores with its size and selection . In 1952 , the Philadelphia National Bank ( PNB ) bought the building and converted it into offices and banking space . Until 2014 , the building 's bell tower was decorated on all four sides with PNB 's initials in stainless steel 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) tall . Wells Fargo is the main tenant , occupying almost half the building . The former banking space at street level was converted to retail and restaurant space in 2000 .
Containing 465 @,@ 000 square feet ( 43 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space , One South Broad features a three @-@ story gallery lobby that connects to the Widener Building , adjacent to the south . The 24th and 25th floors originally featured a luxurious penthouse designed for Rodman Wanamaker and his wife ; it was converted to office use in 2000 by independent advertising agency Red Tettemer O 'Connell + Partners . The tower houses the 17 @-@ ton Founder 's Bell , one of the largest in the world , a tribute to John Wanamaker by his son Rodman ; listed on the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places by the Philadelphia Historical Commission , the bell is rung hourly , except for Sundays .
= = History = =
In the late 1920s , numerous high @-@ rises were being built in Center City Philadelphia . Among the businesses constructing their own skyscrapers was Wanamaker 's department store . Under direction of Wanamaker President William L. Nevin , Wanamaker 's decided to expand its Philadelphia store by constructing a new building that would contain a store catering to the " Philadelphia gentleman " . Nevin directed Wanamaker 's to buy property on South Broad Street across the street from Philadelphia City Hall . The land was the site of two late @-@ 19th @-@ century 13 @-@ story high @-@ rises . On the corner of Broad and Penn Square stood the Lincoln Building , originally called the Betz Building . South of that stood the Liberty Building on the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets . Both buildings were demolished in 1926 to make way for the Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building .
The Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building , completed in 1932 , was intended to partly house a large men 's department store and offices . The building 's cornerstone was set on October 1 , 1932 with a ceremony attended by William L. Nevin and Wanamaker executives from New York City , Paris and London . The Wanamaker Men 's Store opened on October 12 , 1932 , with four Wanamaker buglers blowing a reveille and the ringing of the building 's Founders Bell . Opening during the Great Depression , Nevin said the new building was a sign of the store 's faith that the economy would improve . Intended to rival European department stores in size and selection , the men 's store ordered US $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of merchandise and was the largest store of its kind in the world . As early as 1939 there were rumors the men 's store would close , but Wanamaker 's would not close the store unless a replacement tenant would agree to rent the space . When a new tenant was ready to take the store 's place in the 1950s , the men 's store was relocated to the Wanamaker Building down the street .
In the early 1950s , the Philadelphia National Bank ( PNB ) needed to expand into a larger space than it currently occupied . On November 3 , 1952 , the bank bought the Lincoln @-@ Liberty Building for US $ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 . PNB president Frederic A. Potts said , " The purchase of this building will enable the Philadelphia National Bank more adequately and efficiently to support the large @-@ scale industrial and commercial expansion under way in this city . " The bank spent millions of dollars modernizing the building and converting the former department store floors to banking space . Among the changes was the addition of a sign with the bank 's initials in 1955 . The bank officially opened in what was now called the PNB Building on January 16 , 1956 . The opening included turning on a rooftop weather indicator and celebration of the 250th anniversary of Benjamin Franklin 's birth .
The building was owned by the PNB and later its parent company CoreStates until it was sold to the JPMorgan Strategic Property Fund in 1996 for almost US $ 28 @.@ 5 million . In 1998 the building 's second @-@ largest tenant , law firm Drinker Biddle & Reath , left for One Logan Square . The resulting vacancy prompted the owners to renovate the building , renamed One South Broad , at a cost of US $ 10 million . Renovations included modernizing the elevators , security and safety systems and converting the lower floors to retail and restaurant space . The renovations took eighteen months and One South Broad was officially rededicated on May 3 , 2000 .
In April 2003 JPMorgan sold One South Broad to real @-@ estate investor David Werner for US $ 48 million . Ninety @-@ percent occupied in 2003 , One Broad Street 's largest tenant was Wachovia . Wachovia had gained office space in the tower after merging with First Union Corporation , which had merged with CoreStates in 1998 . In 2006 Wachovia re @-@ negotiated its lease , which was set to expire in 2010 . After looking at other potential space in Center City , Wachovia made a deal to stay in One South Broad and three nearby properties , the Witherspoon Building , Wells Fargo Building , and the neighboring Widener Building , until the 2020s .
= = Architecture = =
One South Broad is a 28 @-@ story 472 feet ( 144 m ) art deco office tower on south Broad Street in Center City Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Designed by architect John Torrey Windrim , the skyscraper contains 465 @,@ 000 square feet ( 43 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space . One South Broad originally had an ornate lower facade with a lot of detail and fluting that was removed in the 1950s renovation . Philadelphia National Bank 's renovations included the addition of granite black slabs on the street level facade . These were removed in the 2000 renovation and replaced with imported Italian granite to better match the skyscraper 's original architecture . The 2000 renovation also created a new entrance on the building 's Broad Street front , which leads to a three @-@ story gallery lobby . The lobby was expanded by demolishing a wall and connecting it to the lobby of the neighboring Widener Building .
Containing 9 @,@ 000 square feet ( 840 m2 ) each , the 24th and 25th floors were used as a penthouse apartment for Rodman Wanamaker , consisting of five bedrooms , six baths , and outdoor terraces . The rooms featured hardwood floors , marble fireplaces , and detailed cast @-@ plaster crown molding . Originally the penthouse apartment was to be for Rodman Wanamaker and his wife but Wanamaker died in 1928 before the building was completed . Rodman Wanamaker 's wife lived there only briefly , as she did not like the ringing bell in the tower overhead . The penthouse floors were converted to office use in 2000 by creative agency Red Tettemer + Partners . The firm Agoos / Lovera Architects modernized the basic office space on the 24th floor while preserving the ornate molding and materials that decorate the rest of the former penthouse space .
The Philadelphia National Bank 's initials adorned the top of the building , surrounding the top of the structure 's bell tower , until 2014 . The letters , which were made of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) stainless steel , each weighed 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) . Until the 1970s , PNB used the sign to forecast weather by lighting the letters in red to indicate a warming trend , or green to predict the opposite . Wachovia considered removing the PNB sign in 2003 to replace it with its own signage , but , in response , some Philadelphians expressed nostalgia for the name of the former Philadelphia institution and hoped the sign would stay . The Philadelphia Historical Commission stated that the sign was not an integral part of the building 's design or as significant to the city as the nearby PSFS Building 's sign . On August 17 , 2014 , three of the PNB letters were removed from the building by helicopter , and the remaining nine were removed the following November 16 .
= = = Founder 's Bell = = =
Within the bell tower is the 17 @-@ ton Founder 's Bell . The bell was cast in 1925 under a commission by Rodman Wanamaker to honor his father John Wanamaker , founder of the department store . Cast by Gillett & Johnston in the United Kingdom , the bell is 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) at the rim and 7 feet 9 inches ( 2 @.@ 36 m ) high and is one of the largest bells in the world . The bell was brought in 1926 by the Cunard liner Ascania to New York City , from which it was conveyed to Philadelphia by rail . The bell was carried on a flatcar and had clearance of only 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) in some of the tunnels the train passed through .
Tuned to a low D bass clef , the bell 's original home was the Wanamaker Building , a block from One South Broad . It hung 325 feet ( 99 m ) above the street in a specially built tower on the building 's roof . Hung on December 23 , 1926 , the bell was first rung on New Year 's Eve of that year . The bell is rung every hour , except on Sundays . The bell was originally intended to swing in the tower on top of One South Broad , but when it was it shook the building . A hammer driven by a 230 @-@ volt electric motor was later installed and currently rings the bell . The ringing of the bell , which can be heard for 25 miles ( 40 km ) , is often mistakenly assumed to come from City Hall 's clock tower across the street .
Philadelphia Orchestra conductor Leopold Stokowski wrote in 1962 that the bell had " one of the finest sounds I have heard anywhere in America , Europe or Russia " . In June 2000 the Founder 's Bell was added to the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places by the Philadelphia Historical Commission .
= = Tenants = =
The Wanamaker 's Men 's Store occupied the first seven floors of the skyscraper until 1952 when the Philadelphia National Bank moved into the building . Over the years PNB became
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After Shishakli came into conflict with the Ba 'athists that year as a result of the former 's authoritarian manner of governance , Atrash moved to Homs , a hotbed of opposition to Shishakli 's rule , where he helped coordinate the supply of arms to insurgents in Jabal al @-@ Druze . He was arrested by the authorities for a second time in May , during the peak of the unrest . He had been released both times because of his father 's popularity at the national level ; by releasing Atrash , Shishakli attempted to gain the appeasement of Sultan . In response to Atrash 's second release from prison , Sultan said " I didn 't ask Shishakli for the freedom of my son . I asked him for the freedom of my country . "
According to Moubayed , Atrash 's anti @-@ government activities significantly contributed to Shishakli 's resignation and departure from Syria in February 1954 amid the countrywide unrest . In the first post @-@ Shishakli democratic election later that year , Atrash was elected to parliament . Atrash was offered a cabinet position in Said al @-@ Ghazzi 's September 1955 government , but he rejected the offer because of the Ba 'ath Party 's opposition to the government 's makeup .
= = UAR period and Ba 'athist Syria = =
Atrash supported formation of the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) , a union between Syria and Egypt , in 1958 . During the UAR years , Atrash became a devoted Nasserite — a supporter of President Gamal Abdel Nasser 's policies — and wrote several articles in Nasserite daily newspaper Al Jamahir ( " The People . " ) Atrash opposed the break @-@ up of the union after a secessionist coup in September 1961 , and opposed playing a political role in the anti @-@ unionist governments that succeeded the UAR ; Prime Minister Bashir al @-@ Azma ( term in 1962 ) offered him a cabinet post , but he turned down the offer , citing his ideological opposition to a secessionist government . Prime Minister Khalid al @-@ Azm ( term in 1962 – 63 ) appointed him minister of social affairs without asking him , but Atrash turned down that job as well .
His seclusion from Syrian politics ended after the Military Committee of the Ba 'ath Party took power in a coup d 'état on 8 March 1963 . The Military Committee 's stated goal was to reestablish a pan @-@ Arab state ; a goal Atrash shared . He was appointed Minister of Labor and Social Affairs in Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar 's first government , and became a member of the Presidential Council , an organ responsible for running day @-@ to @-@ day state affairs . In February 1964 Atrash was elected to the 12 @-@ member Ba 'ath Party National Command , which was nominally the highest policy @-@ making body of the party .
Differences between Bitar and the Regional Command had developed in 1964 , with the latter viewing Bitar 's cabinet as being right @-@ leaning and soft on " reactionary " elements within Syria in the aftermath of Hama uprising in April of that year by the Muslim Brotherhood . President Amin al @-@ Hafiz had been prime minister at the time of the unrest and stepped down in response to countrywide strikes and demonstrations in protest at the severity of the uprising 's suppression . Bitar replaced Hafiz to serve a second term as prime minister in May , publicly promising to protect civil liberties . Intra @-@ party tensions culminated with the Regional Command withdrawing its confidence from Bitar 's government on 25 September , and Bitar and Atrash ( an associate of Bitar ) subsequently resigning from the Presidential Council . Their positions were filled by Salah Jadid and Yusuf Zuaiyin , respectively , and effectively brought the Presidential Council under the full control of the Military Committee and the Regional Command . Hafiz also replaced Bitar as premier in October , although Atrash remained in his ministerial post .
On 1 September 1965 Atrash was appointed Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council ( RCC ) , but acquired little de facto power because of the Military Committee 's overarching control , with Atrash later remarking " the officers let us do the talking although , as we later discovered , they had agreed beforehand ... what the decisions would be . " The RCC played the role of parliament and Atrash was its speaker . In December tensions between the National Command ( loyal to Aflaq and Bitar ) and the Regional Command ( loyal to Jadid and backed by the military ) grew worse as elements of the former attempted to align with Military Committee member Muhammad Umran in an effort to split the military 's support ( and according to Syria expert Itamar Rabinovich , the Alawite officers ' solid backing ) of Jadid . However , Atrash , along with Munif al @-@ Razzaz of Jordan and Jubran al @-@ Majdalani and Ali al @-@ Khalil of Lebanon , was a part of the group in the National Command that opposed confrontation with the Regional Command , citing the National Command 's lack of military support and political power as well as the fundamental weakness of an alliance with Umran and Amin al @-@ Hafiz . The latter two had been engaged in an antagonistic rivalry over leadership of the Military Committee .
Atrash continued to hold the office of RCC , and was reelected as speaker on 15 February 1966 , shortly before the 1966 Syrian coup d 'état ( 21 – 23 February ) , which brought the left @-@ wing neo @-@ Ba 'athist government of Jadid to power and caused an internal party split . The Jadid government 's coming to power resulted in the self @-@ imposed exile of the leading Ba 'ath ideologue Michel Aflaq . Atrash , a partisan of Aflaq , was arrested and jailed in the Mezzeh Prison during the coup . The new defense minister and future president Hafez al @-@ Assad later paid him a visit to discuss Syria 's political situation and check on his health .
On 9 June 1967 , when the Israeli Army occupied the Golan Heights during the Six @-@ Day War , Atrash and other Aflaq loyalists were released from their detention . Atrash later remarked that " It was not agreeable to know that we owed our freedom to defeat . " In collaboration with dissenting Ba 'athist officer Salim Hatum , Atrash attempted to overthrow Jadid 's government in 1967 , but failed . Following this unsuccessful coup attempt , he moved into self @-@ imposed exile in Lebanon and lived there until the death of Abd al @-@ Karim al @-@ Jundi , the head of Syria 's secret intelligence service . He returned to Syria in 1969 and lived much of the remainder of his life in seclusion .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1978 Atrash hosted a dinner aimed at healing the rift between the ruling Ba 'ath governments of Syria and neighboring Iraq . The dinner was attended by such notables as Iraqi foreign minister Tariq Aziz and Syrian defense minister Mustafa Tlass . Between 2000 and 2006 Atrash was a member of an organization in support of the Palestinian uprising against Israel . Between 2001 and 2006 he presided over the Syrian Arab Committee , which aimed to end the sanctions against Iraq and later support it after the 2003 invasion .
In August 1956 Atrash married teacher Hind al @-@ Shuwayri , an Christian and the daughter of Yusuf al @-@ Shuwayri , Sultan 's partner in the grain trade , who was based in al @-@ Midan and owned a house in al @-@ Qurayya . Atrash had a son named Tha 'er and a daughter named Rim . Because Atrash 's wife was not from the Druze community , the marriage caused a temporary schism between Atrash and his father . Eventually the two bridged their differences . Following Sultan 's death in 1982 , Mansur gained the latter 's role as the major spokesman for the al @-@ Atrash clan .
Atrash died at 6 : 30 am on 14 November 2006 , at the age of 80 . His funeral was held in the city of al @-@ Suwayda , and according to one of his relatives , Talal al @-@ Atrash , the ceremony was attended by " hundreds of thousands " of Druze from Syria , Lebanon and Jordan as well as some " prominent Arab personalities . " Atrash was buried in the woodland area of Hushus which he owned , near his native al @-@ Qurayya .
= Delaware Route 7 =
Delaware Route 7 ( DE 7 ) is a two- to four @-@ lane north – south highway in New Castle County , Delaware that connects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) and DE 72 near Delaware City to the Pennsylvania border near Hockessin , where the road continues into Pennsylvania as State Route 3013 ( SR 3013 ) , intersecting Pennsylvania Route 41 ( PA 41 ) at an interchange . Between Delaware City and Christiana , DE 7 runs to the west of the DE 1 freeway through suburban areas , passing through Bear . By the Christiana Mall , DE 7 joins the DE 1 freeway and comes to an interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) before the DE 1 freeway ends at the DE 58 interchange . After the freeway segment , DE 7 continues north as a surface road concurrent with DE 4 through Stanton . From Stanton to the Pennsylvania border , DE 7 heads northwest through suburban areas , passing through Pike Creek .
What is now DE 7 was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , the route was designated to run along its present alignment between US 13 near Red Lion , Delaware and the Pennsylvania border . From the 1950s to the 1970s , DE 7 became a divided highway between Christiana and Milltown Road . With the construction of the DE 1 freeway in the 1990s , DE 7 was shifted to a portion of the freeway near the Christiana Mall . The route was also extended south to an intersection with US 13 and DE 72 as a result of the relocation of US 13 onto a portion of the freeway . The road also became a divided highway between Milltown Road and DE 72 in the 1990s . In 1999 , an interchange was built at DE 58 as a result of a northward extension of DE 1 along DE 7 . The interchange with I @-@ 95 was reconstructed to include flyover ramps in 2013 .
= = Route description = =
DE 7 begins at an intersection with US 13 and DE 72 in the community of Wrangle Hill to the west of Delaware City , where the road continues south as part of US 13 . From the southern terminus , the route heads north on four @-@ lane divided South Dupont Highway . The road runs through farmland and crosses Norfolk Southern 's Reybold Running Track railroad line before passing under the US 13 / DE 1 freeway . After this , DE 7 narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road called Bear @-@ Corbitt Road , with the former alignment of Dupont Highway branching off to the northeast . The route continues north through woodland and homes , reaching an intersection with DE 71 in Red Lion . The road crosses Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary railroad line and heads into Bear . Here , DE 7 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it enters commercial areas and intersects US 40 .
After this intersection , the route becomes Bear @-@ Christiana Road and passes through suburban residential development with some farm fields . Farther north , DE 7 narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road . The highway comes to an intersection with DE 273 , where it is briefly a four @-@ lane divided highway . Following this , DE 7 becomes East Main Street and narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road , heading through woods and curving to the northwest as it crosses Christina River . The route enters Christiana and passes homes , intersecting Old Baltimore Pike . At this point , DE 7 turns north onto North Old Baltimore Pike , with the name changing to Stanton @-@ Christiana Road . The route turns east onto a four @-@ lane divided highway and comes to an interchange with the DE 1 freeway southwest of the Christiana Mall , a super @-@ regional shopping mall that is the largest in Delaware .
At this point , DE 7 heads north concurrent with DE 1 on a four @-@ lane freeway . The freeway comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance that serves the Christiana Mall to the east . DE 1 / DE 7 continues to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) . The road continues through more commercial areas and interchanges with DE 58 , at which point the freeway segment and DE 1 ends . Past DE 58 , DE 7 continues north at @-@ grade as six @-@ lane divided Stanton @-@ Christiana Road , heading to the west of the Stanton Campus of Delaware Technical Community College before intersecting DE 4 . At this point DE 4 turns north for a concurrency with DE 7 , running through wooded areas with nearby development , including the Hale @-@ Byrnes House , and passing over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line and White Clay Creek . The road heads to the east of Delaware Park Racetrack , a thoroughbred horse racetrack and casino , and curves northeast to enter Stanton . At this point the two routes continue into a commercial area and split into the one @-@ way pair of Mitch Road eastbound and Main Street westbound .
DE 7 splits from DE 4 by heading northwest on four @-@ lane divided Limestone Road . The road runs through suburban residential neighborhoods , coming to a bridge over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line . The route continues into business areas and comes to an intersection with DE 2 . Past this intersection , DE 7 heads into residential and commercial areas and becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road . The route becomes a divided highway again as it comes to the Milltown Road intersection and enters the Pike Creek area . The road curves west before turning northwest again and running to the southwest of Goldey @-@ Beacom College , a private non @-@ profit college . DE 7 turns to the north and comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 72 .
Following this , the road continues through suburban development . At the intersection with Little Baltimore Road / Brackenville Road , the route curves to the northwest and narrows to a three @-@ lane undivided road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes , heading into the Hockessin area . DE 7 becomes a two @-@ lane divided highway as it intersects Valley Road . Past this , the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that runs through fields and residential areas . DE 7 reaches its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania border , where Limestone Road continues north into that state as SR 3013 , heading to an interchange with PA 41 .
DE 7 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 65 @,@ 874 vehicles at the south end of the DE 4 concurrency to a low of 3 @,@ 777 vehicles at the Old Baltimore Pike intersection . The portion of DE 7 from the south end of the DE 1 concurrency to the Pennsylvania border is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What would become DE 7 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1924 , the road was paved between Christiana and Stanton and was upgraded to a state highway between Capitol Trail and New Linden Hill Road . A year later , the road was upgraded to a state highway between Bear and Christiana and between Paper Mill Road and Brackenville Road , with all the sections south of Bear , between New Linden Hill Road and Paper Mill Road and Brackenville Road and the Pennsylvania border proposed as a state highway . By 1931 , these sections of state highway had been completed . DE 7 was designated to run from US 13 south of Red Lion north to the Pennsylvania border by 1936 , following its present alignment . In 1937 , the narrow swing bridge over the Christina River in Christiana was replaced with a stone bridge . A concrete tied arch bridge was built over the White Clay Creek in Stanton in 1941 . By 1959 , DE 7 was widened into a divided highway between Stanton and DE 2 . The divided highway was extended north to Milltown Road by 1966 . By 1985 , DE 273 was realigned to bypass Christiana , removing it from a portion of DE 7 through the town . Also at this time , the route was widened into a divided highway from the Christiana Mall north to Stanton . The route was shifted west to a new alignment passing over the Amtrak tracks and the White Clay Creek .
In the 1980s , a freeway relief route for DE 7 was proposed to run between US 13 in Tybouts Corner and I @-@ 95 in Christiana in order to reduce congestion along DE 7 . In 1988 , this relief route would become part of DE 1 , a freeway connecting the Wilmington area to Dover . The first section of the DE 1 freeway opened in August 1991 between US 13 in Tybouts Corner and US 40 in Bear . Three months later , the freeway opened north to DE 273 in Christiana . The section of DE 1 between DE 273 and I @-@ 95 in Christiana opened in April 1993 . As a result , DE 7 was relocated onto the DE 1 freeway for a short distance near the Christiana Mall . The DE 1 freeway was extended from US 13 in Tybouts Corner to St. Georges in December 1995 , in which it incorporated a portion of the existing US 13 near Red Lion . US 13 was moved to the new freeway between DE 72 and Tybouts Corner , and DE 7 was extended south along the former alignment of US 13 to end at US 13 and DE 72 to the west of Delaware City . The divided highway portion of DE 7 was extended north from Milltown Road to DE 72 by 1999 . DE 7 from I @-@ 95 to north of DE 58 became an extension of the DE 1 freeway in 1999 with an interchange built at DE 58 .
The Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) reconstructed the cloverleaf interchange at I @-@ 95 to include flyover ramps between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound I @-@ 95 , aiming to reduce merging and congestion at the interchange . Construction began in 2011 with work to replace the bridge over DE 1 / DE 7 leading to the Christiana Mall in order to allow room for the flyover ramps ; this bridge was completed in March 2012 . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 / DE 7 opened on August 27 , 2013 and the ramp from northbound DE 1 / DE 7 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened on October 17 , 2013 , with a ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Governor Jack Markell and DelDOT secretary Shailen Bhatt . A project widening DE 7 to four lanes between Newtown Drive and DE 273 in Bear was completed in early 2014 .
= = Future = =
DelDOT is planning to widen DE 1 and part of this involves reconstructing its interchange with DE 273 . One version of the plan involves moving DE 7 onto DE 1 from DE 273 northward and disconnecting East Main Street from the DE 273 interchange . New ramps would connect the southbound lanes of DE 1 directly to DE 7 where East Main Street once did , and the park and ride lot north of DE 273 would be removed . Local opposition to this project is strong as the nearby Christina River frequently floods and some local residents would not be able to evacuate . Also the Christiana Fire House is located in the center of Christiana and would not be able to continue directly onto DE 7 south , thus adding about 1 mile and sending trucks onto a frequently congested DE 273 east to reach DE 7 south . This was later revised to have the ramps to and from the southbound lanes of DE 1 merge with DE 7 using a roundabout located at the present entrance to the park and ride lot . This project has been placed on hold indefinitely by DelDOT due to budget shortfalls .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Dunster Butter Cross =
The Butter Cross in Dunster within the English county of Somerset is a Grade II * listed building and ancient monument . The cross was originally erected in the late 14th or early 15th century in the main street and moved to its current site in the late 18th or early 19th century . Although the head of the cross is missing the shaft and socket stone are original . The cross is in the care of English Heritage for the state and managed by the National Trust .
= = History = =
The name Buttercross originates from their location in market places , where people from neighbouring villages would gather around the market cross to buy locally produced products . The fresh produce was laid out and displayed on the stepped bases of the cross . The market in Dunster attracted people from surrounding villages and towns as far away as Taunton and Bodmin . The Dunster Butter Cross was erected in the late 14th or early 15th century and originally stood in the High Street , possibly at the southern end of the high street , near the Yarn Market . A cross , which was later known as the high cross , was recorded in 1461 ; by 1689 it was known as the Butter Cross .
It was moved to its current location on the edge of the village by Alcombe Road , although the date when this was done is unclear . The site where the cross now stands was leveled in 1776 by workman , paid by Henry Fownes Luttrell , and it may have been on this occasion that the cross was moved . An alternative local tradition is that it was moved in 1825 , although a drawing by J. M. W. Turner made in 1811 suggests it was in its present position by then .
The cross is in the care of English Heritage for the state and managed by the National Trust .
= = Architecture = =
The cross comprises a shaft with a plinth and socket stone forming the base . The cross 's octagonal base and polygonal shaft have survived , however the head of the cross has been lost . It stands on a small area of raised ground on a plinth . The socket stone is 0 @.@ 85 metres ( 2 ft 9 in ) wide and 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) high . The surviving shaft is 1 @.@ 1 metres ( 3 ft 7 in ) high and changes from square to octagonal as it rises . There is an inscription on the northern face which says " WC , 1871 , WS " recording a restoration .
= Japanese battleship Settsu =
Settsu ( 摂津 ) was the second and last of the Kawachi @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century . Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions , Settsu was named after Settsu Province , now a part of Osaka prefecture . During World War I she bombarded German fortifications at Tsingtao during the Battle of Tsingtao in 1914 , but saw no other combat . She was placed in reserve in 1919 and was disarmed in 1922 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
Two years later , Settsu was converted into a target ship and she played a minor role at the beginning of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 . At the beginning of the Pacific War in 1941 , the ship was used in an attempt to deceive the Allies as to the locations and activities of the Japanese aircraft carriers . Settsu reverted to her normal role as a target ship for the rest of the war ; she was badly damaged when Allied aircraft carriers struck the naval base at Kure Naval District in July 1945 . The ship was refloated after the war and scrapped in 1946 – 47 .
= = Background = =
The Kawachi @-@ class was ordered on 22 June 1907 under the 1907 Warship Supplement Program after the Russo @-@ Japanese War as Japan 's first dreadnoughts , although their construction was delayed by a severe depression . Their design was based on the Aki with a uniform 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main @-@ gun armament , although cost considerations prevented all the guns from having the same barrel length .
= = Design and description = =
Unlike her sister ship , Kawachi , Settsu had a clipper bow that made her 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) longer than her sister . The ship had an overall length of 533 feet ( 162 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 84 feet 2 inches ( 25 @.@ 7 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 21 @,@ 443 long tons ( 21 @,@ 787 t ) at normal load . Her crew ranged from 999 to 1100 officers and enlisted men . Settsu was fitted with a pair of license @-@ built Curtis steam turbine sets , each set driving one propeller , using steam from 16 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were rated at a total of 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried enough coal and fuel oil to give her a range of 2 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Settsu 's main armament consisted of four 50 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure , and eight 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns mounted in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two on each side of the superstructure . Settsu 's secondary armament was ten 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull , and eight 40 @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns . The ship was also equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type guns and four others were used as saluting guns . In addition , the battleship was fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
The waterline main belt of the ship had a maximum thickness of 12 inches amidships . It tapered to a thickness of 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 9 – 11 inches ( 229 – 279 mm ) thick . The armor of Settsu 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 11 inches . The deck armor was 1 @.@ 1 inches ( 29 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by 6 to 10 inches of armor .
= = Construction and career = =
Settsu was laid down at Kure Naval Arsenal on 18 January 1909 . She was launched on 30 March 1911 and completed on 1 July 1912 at a cost of ¥ 11 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 . Captain Morihide Tanaka assumed command on 1 December and the ship was assigned to the First Squadron . She spent most of the following year training and patrolling off the coast of China . When World War I began in August 1914 , Settsu was at Kure . Together with her sister Kawachi , she bombarded German fortifications in October – November 1914 during the final stage of the Battle of Tsingtao . Settsu was assigned to the First Squadron until 1 December 1916 when she was placed in reserve for a refit at Kure . Upon its completion on 1 December 1917 , the ship was assigned to the Second Squadron until 23 July 1918 when she rejoined the First Squadron . By this time , all 12 of the 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type guns were removed and four 3 @-@ inch 4th Year Type anti @-@ aircraft guns were added . Two of the torpedo tubes were also removed . On 28 October 1918 , Settsu was the flagship for Emperor Taishō for the naval review held off Yokohama as well as the review held on 9 July 1919 .
Settsu was placed in reserve on 6 November 1919 and reboilered during an overhaul that lasted from 1 April 1920 to 21 August 1921 . While transporting Empress Teimei back to Tokyo after she toured several shrines where she prayed for the health of her husband , the ship was caught in a typhoon that forced her escorting destroyer , Warabi , ashore , but did not damage the battleship . She was disarmed in Kure in 1922 under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and stricken from the navy list on 1 October 1923 . The following year , she was converted into a target ship with the removal of one boiler room and her center funnel . Her armor was reinforced to be able to absorb hits from 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 in ) shells and 30 @-@ kilogram ( 66 lb ) practice bombs . These changes reduced her maximum speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) and her displacement to 16 @,@ 130 long tons ( 16 @,@ 390 t ) In early February 1925 , Settsu towed the incomplete hulk of the battleship Tosa , which had been used for gunnery and torpedo damage experiments , from Kure to the Bungo Channel where it was scuttled on 8 February .
Between October 1935 and 1937 , Settsu was converted to radio @-@ control which allowed her to be maneuvered by operators aboard the destroyer Yakaze . Armor on the deck , funnels , and bridge was added to strengthen her ability to survive hits . In late August 1937 , Settsu , under the command of Captain Naomasa Sakonju , transported a battalion of the Sasebo 4th Special Naval Landing Force to the Shanghai area in the early stages of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . The troops were transferred offshore to the light cruiser Natori and the Yakaze for transportation up the Yangtze River . During 1940 , the ship was modified to make it suitable to train carrier pilots , and was used extensively by bomber pilots practicing for the attack on Pearl Harbor . She participated in the fleet review by Emperor Hirohito on 11 October 1940 in Tokyo Bay .
At the beginning of the Pacific War , Settsu , under the command of Captain Chiaki Matsuda sailed from Taiwan to the vicinity of the Philippines and simulated the radio traffic of all six aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet as well as the light carriers Zuihō and Ryūjō in an effort to deceive Allied intelligence as to the locations and activities of the Japanese carriers . For most of the rest of the war , she was stationed in the Inland Sea and used for bomb and torpedo training . In March – June 1944 , she served as a target for the 522nd and 762nd Naval Air Groups . During this time , she was fitted with a number of license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , depth charges and a hydrophone .
During the U.S. Navy carrier air attack on Kure on 24 July 1945 , Settsu was attacked by 30 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters near Etajima . She was struck by one bomb that killed two men and wounded another two ; five near misses started a serious leak in the starboard engine room . Captain Masanano Ofuji decided to run his ship aground on Etajima to prevent her from sinking . All of Settsu 's 25 mm guns were subsequently removed and the ship was used as a floating barracks . Four days later , the ship was again attacked by carrier aircraft that hit her twice more with bombs . She was abandoned the next day . Settsu was stricken from the navy list on 20 November and her hulk was raised in June 1946 and towed to Kure where scrapping was completed in August 1947 .
= Are You Lonesome Tonight ? ( song ) =
" Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " is a song which was written by Roy Turk and Lou Handman in 1926 . It was recorded several times in 1927 — first by Charles Hart , with successful versions by Vaughn De Leath and the duet of Jerry Macy and John Ryan . In 1950 the Blue Barron Orchestra version reached the top twenty on the Billboard 's Pop Singles chart .
In April 1960 , after Elvis Presley 's two @-@ year service in the United States Army , he recorded the song at the suggestion of manager Colonel Tom Parker ; " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was Parker 's wife , Marie Mott 's , favorite song . Its release was delayed by RCA Records executives , who thought the song did not fit Presley 's new ( and publicized ) style . When " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was released in November 1960 it was an immediate success in the U.S. , topping Billboard 's Pop Singles chart and reaching number three on the R & B chart . A month after the song 's release , it topped the UK Singles Chart . Presley 's version was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1961 and upgraded to double platinum in 1992 .
" Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was later recorded by several other artists , with versions by Donny Osmond and Merle Haggard becoming top @-@ twenty hits on the pop and country charts respectively . Billboard ranked " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " number 81 on its " Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Songs " list in 2008 .
= = Composition and early versions = =
The song was written in 1926 by vaudevillians Lou Handman and Roy Turk with three verses , followed by a spoken bridge . They based the bridge on a line in Ruggero Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci , and " You know someone said that the world 's a stage . And each must play a part " refers to " All the world 's a stage " from William Shakespeare 's As You Like It . This recitation is printed on the inside back cover of the original 1927 sheet music , and is sung on Stanley Kirbys recording in 1928 , Al Jolson 's recording in 1949 and Blue Barrron recording in 1950 ( US top 20 hit ) . Billboard reported in 1960 its discovery that it was written by songwriter and vaudeville pianist Dave Dreyer .
Several versions of " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " were recorded in 1927 . The first , by Charles Hart , was recorded on May 9 and released on Harmony Records ( 431 @-@ H ) as the B @-@ side of " Sweet Marie " . On June 13 , Vaughn De Leath recorded the song as the B @-@ side of " It 's a Million to One You 're in Love " for Edison Records ( Ed @-@ 52044 ) . De Leath had the first hit version of the song , which peaked at number four in November . On July 10 , 1927 , the Newport Society Orchestra recorded the song with Irving Kaufman the vocalist ; it was released on Harmony Records ( 511 @-@ H ) with " I 'm Walkin ' On Air " . A version by the duet of Jerry Macy and John Ryan was released on Okeh Records ( Ok @-@ 40866 ) as the B @-@ side of " Carolina Mine " . Henry Burr 's version peaked at number ten , and Little Jack Little had a hit with the song for Columbia Records . The Carter Family recorded it in 1936 , changing several elements of the original version . Although Gene Austin included the song in his shows during the 1930s , he never recorded it .
In March 1950 , the Blue Barron Orchestra released " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " with " Penny Wise and Love Foolish " on the B @-@ side , and it peaked at number nineteen on Billboard 's Top Pop Singles chart . In April Don Cornell released a version without the narrative bridge as the B @-@ side of his RCA Victor single , " Stay With the Happy People " . Billboard called it a : " dreamy waltz ... ( that ) gets effective treatment ( on the recording ) " . Based on votes sent to Billboard , the song received 78 points from disc jockeys , 78 from record dealers , 79 from jukebox operators and 78 points overall ; on the magazine 's 100 @-@ point scale , it was rated " Good " . Al Jolson recorded a version with the spoken bridge on April 28 , 1950 , in Los Angeles ; Gordon Jenkins conducted the orchestra . With " No Sad Songs For Me " on the B @-@ side , it was released by Decca Records in June . According to Billboard , although the version was " revived " by Jolson 's " schmaltz style " his recitation of the bridge was " hamboned " . Based on votes sent to the magazine , the song received 71 points from disc jockeys , 71 from record dealers and 71 from jukebox operators ; with an overall score of 71 , it was rated " Good " . In 1959 , Jaye P. Morgan released the song on MGM Records , with " Miss You " on the B @-@ side , and her version peaked at number 65 on Billboard 's Pop Singles chart .
= = Elvis Presley 's version = =
At the peak of his success in 1957 , Elvis Presley received his draft notice and was inducted into the Army on March 24 , 1958 . During the final months of his service , Presley began experimenting with new material in anticipation of his return to recording . Friend Charlie Hodge taught him to improve his breathing and expand his vocal range , and by the end of his deployment in Germany , Presley had added a full octave to his range . He returned to the United States on March 2 , 1960 , and was honorably discharged ( with the rank of sergeant ) on March 5 .
Presley 's first recording session after his return was scheduled for March 20 , and RCA 's Studio B had recently been equipped with a new three @-@ track recorder . To improve the recording of Presley 's voice , engineer Bill Porter had Telefunken U @-@ 47 microphones installed in the studio . A follow @-@ up session was scheduled for April , and the singer left for Miami to tape The Frank Sinatra Timex Show : Welcome Home Elvis .
During the selection of material for the sessions Presley 's manager , Colonel Tom Parker , suggested that he record " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " . The favorite song of Parker 's wife , Marie Mott , the manager 's suggestion was the first and only time he intervened in his singer 's choice of repertoire . Mott knew the song from Gene Austin 's act , since he was managed at the time by her husband . Presley returned to the studio with his band , consisting of Scotty Moore , drummer D. J. Fontana , pianist Floyd Cramer , guitarist Hank Garland , bassist Bobby Moore , percussionist Buddy Harman and The Jordanaires , on April 3 .
After the eight songs Parker needed for Elvis Is Back ! were recorded , Presley moved on to his manager 's request . At 4 am on April 4 the singer began recording " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " , accompanied by acoustic guitar , drums , bass and the backup group . He asked everyone else in the studio to leave the session , told Chet Atkins to turn the lights out and performed the song with the spoken bridge . After the second take Presley said to producer Steve Sholes , " Throw that tune out ; I can 't do it justice " . Sholes told engineer Bill Porter to ignore Presley 's order and asked the singer to do a new take , explaining that the Jordanaires had bumped into their microphone stand while recording in the dark . Presley performed the song once more , and that take became the master for the single .
= = = Release and reception = = =
" Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was not released for several months while RCA executives decided if the ballad reflected Presley 's new style , but they and Parker ultimately decided to release the song . It was released as a single on November 1 , 1960 , with " I Gotta Know " on the B @-@ side , and pressing was assigned to plants in New Jersey , Indianapolis and Los Angeles . Copies ( with a sleeve featuring a smiling Presley in a chartreuse shirt against a blue background ) were sent to 5 @,@ 000 disc jockeys . Orders for the single began at 900 @,@ 000 copies the first week and climbed to 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 during the second .
The song debuted on Billboard 's Top 40 at number 35 on November 14 , moved a week later to number two and topped the chart by November 28 ( replacing Maurice Williams and the Zodiacs ' " Stay " ) . Presley 's 15th chart @-@ topping single , it held the top position until January 9 , 1961 . " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " peaked at number three on the R & B chart , remaining on it for ten weeks . The song topped the Cash Box singles chart and reached number 45 on the Cash Box country singles chart . A month after its UK release it topped the UK Singles Chart . Three months after its release , the single had sales of two million copies worldwide ; that year , the Recording Industry Association of America certified it gold .
A November 7 , 1960 Billboard review called Presley 's rendition a " warm and touching performance " . In a later review , AllMusic praised Presley 's vocal range , calling " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " a " tender ... sugary ballad ... full of soul and intense and intimate power " defining " one of Presley 's darkest moments " .
= = = Legacy = = =
The success of " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " made the song one of Presley 's live staples . He performed it live for the first time on March 25 , 1961 , at a Bloch Arena benefit in Honolulu for the USS Arizona Memorial , Presley 's one of four live performances between his return from the Army and his shift in career focus to acting .
Returning to music in 1968 , Presley included the song on his playlist for the NBC special Elvis and performed it live the following year during his first Las Vegas engagement . A version of the song , recorded on August 26 and documenting Presley altering the words of the narration and laughing through the rest of the bridge , was released in 1980 as part of the Elvis Aaron Presley box set . In 1982 , " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was a radio hit in the United Kingdom and reached number 25 on the British Singles Chart . Presley included the song in his 1972 documentary , Elvis on Tour , and the 1977 CBS special Elvis in Concert .
On March 27 , 1992 , the RIAA certified " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " double platinum . In 2008 ( the 50th anniversary of Billboard 's Hot 100 ) , the song was number 81 on the magazine 's " Hot 100 All @-@ Time Top Songs " list .
= = Later versions = =
Frank Sinatra recorded " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " without the spoken bridge for his 1962 album , All Alone , and the Lettermen included the song on their 1964 album She Cried . Pat Boone recorded a version ( also without the spoken bridge ) in 1966 for his album , Memories . Doris Day recorded the song on June 6 , 1967 , for The Love Album .
Italian singer , Bobby Solo , recorded it both in English and Italian in the 1960s . " Ti senti sola stasera ? " can be viewed on YouTube.com.
Donny Osmond 's 1973 version is a B @-@ side to When I Fall in Love. and Merle Haggard 's cover on his 1977 album My Farewell to Elvis peaked at number 12 on Billboard 's Top Country Singles . A 1983 version by John Schneider peaked at number 53 on the Country Singles chart . In 1989 Sam Kinison performed a version of the song on The Tonight Show , substituting a bitter rant for the Shakespeare @-@ inspired bridge . Bryan Ferry 's version of " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " was part of the soundtrack for 1992 's Honeymoon in Vegas .
= = Chart performance = =
= Tropical Storm Laura ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Laura was a large but short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that developed over the north @-@ central Atlantic Ocean in late September during the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season . The 12th named storm of the season , Laura formed out of a large extratropical area of low pressure located about 1015 miles ( 1635 km ) west of the Azores on September 29 . Laura slowly developed tropical characteristics throughout the day as it moved over warmer waters . On the afternoon of September 30 , Laura had acquired enough tropical characteristics to be designated a Tropical Storm . Shortly after being declared tropical , Laura began to undergo an extratropical transition , which did not fully take place until the morning of October 1 . Laura degenerated into a post @-@ tropical cyclone later that morning , and the final advisory by the National Hurricane Center was issued . The remnants of Laura contributed to heavy rainfall and power outages in the British Isles , the Netherlands , and Norway on October 5 to 8 .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 26 , an extratropical area of low pressure developed along a quasi @-@ stationary frontal system a few hundred miles west of the Azores . The low intensified into the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 12 : 00 UTC on September 27 . Over the following days , the low began to lose its frontal features and began to transition into a subtropical cyclone as it traveled in a general westward direction . By September 29 , the low had developed sufficient convection and was declared Subtropical Storm Laura . Upon being upgraded , cold cloud tops began to wrap around the center of Laura and consolidate near the center of circulation . The convection organized around the center quickly and a satellite pass over the storm revealed that it could be intensifying . A later satellite pass disregarded the possibility of intensification as the intensity was confirmed to be at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The overall structure of Laura remained subtropical but there were indications that it was acquiring tropical characteristics .
During the afternoon , satellites revealed that Laura had developed a deep warm core , a characteristic of a tropical cyclone , but the wind field remained subtropical in nature . By the nighttime hours , the radius of the strongest winds contracted to 80 mi ( 130 km ) , much smaller than what is typical of a subtropical cyclone . However , Laura was still under the influence of an upper @-@ level low and cloud tops remained shallow . However , the cloud tops became colder overnight and Laura was on the verge of becoming a tropical cyclone by the morning of September 30 , but strong interaction with the upper @-@ level low meant it was still subtropical . Despite moving over colder waters , a water vapor satellite image determined that Laura had separated itself from the upper @-@ level low , signifying it had developed into a tropical cyclone . Laura was re @-@ classified as a tropical storm at a relatively high latitude , 40 @.@ 6 ° N. Not long after being declared tropical , early signs of an extratropical transition appeared . Cold air began to enter the storm on the west side and forecast models showed Laura becoming extratropical the next morning and non @-@ tropical later the next day .
Overnight , convection associated with Laura began to diminish and lose tropical characteristics , but still retained its status . Early on October 1 , the extratropical transition was fully apparent . Laura remained tropical but the cloud pattern was becoming frontal and there was little convection around the center of the system . With minimal shower and thunderstorm activity remaining around the center of Laura , the storm degenerated into a remnant @-@ low pressure area on October 1 while still producing tropical storm @-@ force winds . The next day , the remnant system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and began to re @-@ intensify as it rapidly tracked towards the north . Early on October 3 , the system slowed down as it turned towards the east and strengthened into a hurricane @-@ force cyclone with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . After accelerating towards the east , another large extratropical cyclone absorbed the remnants of Laura while located several hundred miles west of the British Isles on October 4 .
= = Impact = =
As a tropical cyclone , Laura never approached land , and no damages or fatalities occurred . Since the storm remained over open waters for most of its life , several ships and oil platforms recorded tropical storm @-@ force winds . The highest recorded winds were at an oil platform with the call sign VEP717 at 03 : 00 UTC on October 1 . Winds were recorded up to 47 knots ( 54 mph ; 87 km / h ) . Despite the lack of impact , the storm 's remnants were caught in an upper @-@ level jet stream , and steered towards Europe . There , they contributed to heavy rainfall across portions of Britain on October 5 , causing localized accumulation of flood waters . As a result , Glebe Road near Windermere , England was closed in both directions , and along the A65 road between Old Hutton and Kirkby Lonsdale , previously saturated soil , combined with overwhelmed storm drains resulted in localized flooding . Traffic on the M6 Motorway was slowed due to poor driving conditions . One person had to be rescued from her car after driving into a flooded street . The UK Environment Agency issued 76 flood watches and 21 severe flood warnings as a result of the rainfall .
On October 8 , the remnants of Laura reached the Netherlands . At the time , its rain bands began interacting with a cold front associated with a well @-@ developed low west of Norway , dropping up
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the film was erroneously claimed to be an adaptation of Charles Dickens serial novel Little Dorrit by H. Philip Bolton in Novels on Stage - Dickens dramatized . Bolton writes , " [ t ] he first film in some sense from the novel - albeit indirectly - would appear to have been a " Two Roses " movie produced in 1910 by Thanhouser . "
A mostly complete print of the film survives and has been preserved in its 35 mm state by the Deutsche Kinemathek - Museum für Film und Fernsehen in Berlin . The surviving print had only a French language title card " Les Deux Roses " and was devoid of intertitles . New German intertitles were added by Urte Alfs and Anke Mebold of the Deutsches Filminstitut based on the published synopsis from The Moving Picture World . The restored work uses an original music composition composed and performed by Günter A. Buchwald . Ned Thanhouser made available an English language translation of the new German intertitles . The film is also released as part of a two @-@ disc DVD set , Screening the Poor , published in the Edition Filmmuseum Series .
= Operation Southeast Croatia =
Operation Southeast Croatia ( German : Unternehmen Südost Kroatien ) was a large @-@ scale German @-@ led counter @-@ insurgency operation conducted in the southeastern parts of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , ( modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina ) during World War II . It was the first of two German @-@ led operations targeting mainly Yugoslav Partisans in eastern Bosnia between 15 January and 4 February 1942 . Several days after the conclusion of Operation Southeast Croatia , a follow @-@ up operation known as Operation Ozren was carried out between the Bosna and Spreča rivers . Both operations also involved Croatian Home Guard and Italian troops and are associated with what is known as the Second Enemy Offensive ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Druga neprijateljska ofenziva ) in Yugoslav historiography .
The insurgents in the area of operations included some groups led by communist Partisans and some led by Serb – chauvinist Chetniks . Although the Partisans and Chetniks had already irrevocably split in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia following Operation Uzice , this had not yet happened in eastern Bosnia and in some areas they were still cooperating . As a result , differentiating between the rank and file of the two groups was difficult , as even the communist @-@ led insurgent groups consisted mainly of Serb peasants who had little understanding of the political aims of their leaders . While there were 20 @,@ 000 Chetnik @-@ led insurgents located within the area of operations , they offered no resistance to the German – NDH forces and many withdrew east across the Drina river to avoid being engaged . This contributed to the complete unravelling of Chetnik – Partisan cooperation in eastern Bosnia . The Partisan main force was able to evade the Germans , infiltrate through the Italian cordon to the south and establish itself around Foča .
The failure of the Axis forces to decisively engage the Partisans during these operations necessitated a further major offensive , Operation Trio , in the area immediately south of where Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren had taken place .
= = Background = =
On 6 April 1941 the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia from multiple directions , rapidly overwhelming the under @-@ prepared Royal Yugoslav Army which capitulated 11 days later . In the aftermath of the invasion Yugoslavia was partitioned between the Axis powers through a combination of annexations and occupation zones . Outside of these areas , an Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) was established on the territory of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina . The NDH was divided by a German – Italian demarcation line , known as the " Vienna Line " , with the Germans occupying the north and northeastern parts of the NDH , and the Italians the south and southwestern sections . The NDH immediately implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani population . Armed resistance to the occupation and the NDH initially formed into two loosely cooperating factions , the Partisans who were led by communists , and the Chetniks who were mostly led by Serb – chauvinist officers of the defeated Yugoslav Army . In November and December 1941 , almost all Partisan forces from the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia had been forced to withdraw into eastern Bosnia where they combined with local Partisan forces . Most of the Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia were local Serb peasants . The insurgency in eastern Bosnia meant that NDH authorities were unable to retain control of the region .
At the end of 1941 , there were six Partisan detachments in eastern Bosnia , with about 7 @,@ 300 fighters operating in the Majevica , Ozren , Birač , Romanija , Zvijezda and Kalinovik areas . According to Enver Redžić , in early January 1942 , the Chetniks controlled a large portion of eastern Bosnia , including the towns of Zvornik , Višegrad , Vlasenica , Srebrenica , Drinjača , Bratunac , Foča , Ustikolina , Goražde and Čajniče . Due to continuing cooperation between the two groups , the Chetniks also shared control of the towns of Rogatica , Olovo and Han Pijesak with the Partisans .
= = Planning = =
The orders from General der Artillerie ( Lieutenant General ) Paul Bader , the German Military Commander in Serbia , directed that Operation Southeast Croatia was to be an encirclement operation . All persons encountered within the area of operations were to be treated as the enemy . The population within the area to be targeted by the operation were almost all either Orthodox Serbs or Bosnian Muslims , although there was a small Catholic Croat minority . Bader believed that the Partisans and Chetniks were using the area as winter quarters , and that their presence there was a threat to major transport routes through eastern Bosnia .
The operation itself was led by the German 342nd Infantry Division , which had been relieved of its occupation duties in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia by Bulgarian troops . The commander of the 342nd Infantry Division , Generalmajor ( Brigadier ) Paul Hoffman , also had the 718th Infantry Division of Generalmajor Johann Fortner under his command for the duration of the operation . The German force was assisted by Croatian Home Guard units including seven infantry battalions and nine artillery batteries . The Axis and allied NDH forces available for the operation were 30 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 troops in total . Luftwaffe support included reconnaissance aircraft and a combat squadron . The offensive targeted areas held by the Romanija , Zvijezda , Birač , and Ozren Partisan detachments , between Sarajevo , Tuzla , Zvornik and Višegrad . To the south , along the " Vienna Line " separating the German @-@ occupied zone of the NDH from the Italian @-@ occupied zone , the Italians placed a cordon . In total , the area targeted by the operation was estimated by the Germans to contain around 8 @,@ 000 Partisans and 20 @,@ 000 Bosnian Chetniks .
On 9 January 1942 , the 718th Infantry Division issued orders to both its regiments that defined the following groups as hostile : all non @-@ residents and residents that had been absent from their localities until recently ; all identifiable Chetniks or communists with or without weapons or ammunition ; and anyone concealing , supplying or providing information to those groups . Any captured Partisans were to be briefly interrogated and summarily shot , as were any other insurgents that had attacked the Germans , been caught carrying ammunition or messages , or who resisted or fled . Also , any houses from which shots were fired at German troops were to be burned .
= = = 15 – 18 January = = =
Operation Southeast Croatia commenced on 15 January 1942 . The 342nd Infantry Division approached the area of operations from the Drina valley to the east , with the 718th Infantry Division striking east from assembly areas in Sarajevo and Tuzla .
In the first days of the operation , the 697th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division , supported by NDH units , thrust out of their bridgehead over the Drina at Zvornik and cleared the high ground southwest and south of that town , and south along the Drina valley road , hindered by roadblocks and destroyed bridges . It then followed up the retreating insurgents , mopping up the Drinjača valley , before pushing southwest through the mountains and reaching Vlasenica on 18 January . Parts of the 698th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division fought southwest from Višegrad along the upper Drina valley to Međeđa , while other elements pushed west towards Rogatica , followed by an Italian Alpini battalion . The 699th Regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division advanced along the Drina valley past the confluence with the Drinjača to the area west of Ljubovija , clearing roadblocks as they went . In the area of Milići , they captured about 400 insurgents , mostly Chetniks loyal to Jezdimir Dangić , along with a tank , two machine guns , about 160 rifles and a large amount of ammunition . The regiment then mopped up the area west to Vlasenica and one battalion cleared the route to Srebrenica .
The 738th Regiment of the 718th Infantry Division was reinforced by pioneers , four NDH battalions , four NDH artillery batteries and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half German mountain gun batteries . It pushed east from Sarajevo along the Prača valley then through the Romanija mountains towards Rogatica . Fighting in very difficult terrain , it captured 240 insurgents and significant amounts of weapons and ammunition . It also freed 10 Italian and 57 NDH soldiers . The other regiment of the 718th Infantry Division , the 750th Regiment , was reinforced by a German artillery battery , an NDH infantry battalion and an NDH mountain battery . It moved south from an assembly area southwest of Tuzla towards Olovo . It reached Kladanj on 16 January , and spent the following days clearing both sides of the road west towards Vlasenica . It had been planned that the Italian 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Ravenna would provide a cordon to the south , blocking any southerly withdrawal by the insurgents . This did not occur , as the Italians claimed the railroad near Mostar had been damaged , resulting in several weeks delay .
When the Chetnik leaders appointed by Draža Mihailović , Majors Boško Todorović and Dangić , became aware of the commencement of Operation Southeast Croatia , they advised other Chetnik commanders that the operation was targeted at the Partisans , and there was no need for the Chetniks to get involved . Following this , their units withdrew from their positions on the front line , let the Germans pass through their areas , or went home . Many withdrew across the Drina into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to avoid being engaged , which severely weakened the Partisan defences with the result that they suffered significant casualties and lost a great deal of territory . These actions severed any remaining cooperative links that remained between the Chetniks and Partisans in eastern Bosnia .
The insurgents in the area of operations destroyed villages to deny supplies and shelter to the Germans who were operating in mountainous terrain with snow up to one metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep and facing extreme temperatures approaching − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) . The Partisans proved very difficult to pin down , aided by excellent communication and supported by the local populace . During the operation , the decisive engagements with the Partisans were mainly in the Romanija region . The Romanija Detachment made up forty percent of all Partisans in eastern Bosnia and bore the brunt of most of the fighting during the operation .
= = = 19 – 23 January = = =
After their initial advances , the 342nd Infantry Division spent the next few days mopping up the areas they had entered . The 697th Regiment advanced south from Vlasenica through the Javor Mountains , meeting little resistance and capturing Han Pijesak on 22 January . Elements of the 697th Regiment pushed west towards Olovo the same day . The 698th Regiment cleared the area around Rogatica , killing 50 and capturing 200 insurgents , and liberating 63 captured Croatian Home Guard soldiers . The 699th Regiment patrolled the area as far as Vlasenica and Srebrenica . These mopping up operations achieved little , as most of the insurgents had escaped the encirclement before it was completed .
The 718th Infantry Division was assisted in their subsequent operations by air support from the ZNDH , which bombed Sokolac on 20 January . On 21 January , the 738th Regiment captured the village of Podromanija south of Sokolac , and on the following day elements of the regiment drove through Sokolac and closed on Han Pijesak . On the same day , the 750th Regiment reached Olovo , but the insurgents had withdrawn from the area .
On 21 January , Bader dramatically altered his previous orders regarding the treatment of those encountered in the area of operations , directing that those who did not resist and surrendered or merely had weapons in their houses , were to be treated as prisoners of war . It is likely that this change was intended to assist Chetniks in the area of operations to avoid destruction . By the end of January , Bader 's chief of staff was attempting to negotiate a cooperation agreement with Dangić , and in turn Dangić ordered the 4 @,@ 500 – 10 @,@ 000 Chetniks under his command to avoid the Germans or surrender their weapons immediately if they were unable to do so .
After temporarily improving the Partisan defences against the German and NDH forces , the Partisan Supreme Headquarters and the 1st Proletarian Brigade were unable to salvage the situation and retreated south towards Foča . The 1st Proletarian Brigade , less two battalions that were accompanying the Supreme Headquarters , crossed the Igman mountain plateau near Sarajevo with temperatures reaching − 32 ° C ( − 26 ° F ) . According to the commander of the 1st Proletarian Brigade , Koča Popović , 172 Partisans suffered severe hypothermic injury and six died . When they approached the German @-@ Italian demarcation line south of Sarajevo , the Partisans were able to infiltrate through the weak Italian cordon . Montenegrin Partisans crossed into the NDH to attack the Chetniks , capturing Foča on 20 January and Goražde on 22 January . The German and NDH forces were successful in recapturing Sokolac , Rogatica , Bratunac , Srebrenica , Vlasenica , Han Pijesak , Olovo , Bosansko Petrovo Selo , and some smaller settlements , and inflicted significant losses on the Partisans .
Because the Chetniks failed to assist the Partisans in the battle , the Yugoslav Central Committee ceased all further attempts to cooperate with them and issued a declaration on 22 January to " Bosnians ! Serbs , Muslims , Croats ! " that Chetnik leaders Boško Todorović , Aćim Babić , and others were traitors . It further proclaimed that the Partisans fought alone " all across Bosnia and Herzegovina " and ended with " long live the united people 's liberation struggle of all the peoples of Bosnia ! " . The Romanija Detachment 's commander , Slaviša Vajner @-@ Čiča , was killed in combat against the Germans . A member of the Supreme Headquarters of the Partisans , Svetozar Vukmanović @-@ Tempo , reported that detachment had completely collapsed .
However , faced with overly ambitious objectives and atrocious weather , the combined operation failed to destroy the Partisan forces and was called off on 23 January 1942 , with the Germans having suffered casualties of 25 dead , 131 wounded , and one missing , as well as around 300 cases of frostbite . The NDH forces lost 50 soldiers killed or seriously wounded . The Germans captured 855 rifles , 22 machine guns and four artillery pieces , along with livestock and draft animals . The Partisans had lost 531 killed and between 1 @,@ 331 and 1 @,@ 400 captured , in addition to the frostbite casualties suffered by the 1st Proletarian Brigade while crossing Mt . Igman . A total of 168 NDH and 104 Italian troops that had been captured by the Partisans were freed during the operation . The Supreme Headquarters entered Foča on 25 January and stayed there for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months .
= = Operation Ozren = =
Operation Ozren ( German : Unternehmen Ozren ) was aimed at clearing an estimated 2 @,@ 000 Partisans from the area between the Bosna and Spreča rivers , and was effectively an extension of Operation Southeast Croatia employing elements of the force used in that operation . The main force used was Fortner 's 718th Infantry Division reinforced by a regiment of the 342nd Infantry Division , supported by a number of NDH units ( including a battalion of the Ustaše Black Legion ) . The force was also supported by five tank platoons and an armoured train . Around 20 @,@ 000 Axis troops were committed to the operation . It commenced several days after Operation Southeast Croatia ended on 23 January 1942 .
The Germans advanced north and west from Kladanj towards a cordon established by ten Croatian Home Guard battalions supported by their own artillery . The Germans believed they had thoroughly sealed off the area , and checked the Croatian cordon every night , but the majority of Partisans were able to evade the cordon and escape by breaking up into small groups and infiltrating through the cordon through seemingly impassable terrain . The Germans also believed that some Partisans merely withdrew into the mountains , concealing their numbers by walking in each other 's snowprints , in order to return to the valleys when the Axis forces left . The operation concluded on 4 February 1942 .
= = Aftermath = =
Both operations were hampered by the German need to rely on their Croatian allies as well as the fact that both forces were ill @-@ equipped for operations in mountainous terrain during extreme winter conditions . The Croatian units had proven not to be a useful addition to the operation , as they possessed little in the way of fighting power , had little unit cohesion and suffered from serious supply problems .
Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren were early opportunities for the Germans to learn lessons about the challenges their poorly equipped and often substandard occupation troops faced fighting in the difficult terrain and weather conditions of Bosnia . However , these lessons were to be repeated many more times in the following years as German commanders persisted with their encirclement tactics and unreasonable expectations of what could be achieved in a given time and space .
Following the conclusion of Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren , German and NDH forces conducted Operation Prijedor in northwest Bosnia . The Germans inflicted considerable losses on the Partisans and captured extensive territory and population centres from them ; however , they failed to eliminate them as a military factor and shortly afterwards had to undertake Operation Trio in the region immediately south of the area of operations for Operations Southeast Croatia and Ozren .
= William the Conqueror =
William I ( Old Norman : Williame I ; Old English : Willelm I ; c . 1028 – 9 September 1087 ) , usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard , was the first Norman King of England , reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087 . The descendant of Viking raiders , he had been Duke of Normandy since 1035 . After a long struggle to establish his power , by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure , and he launched the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son .
William was the son of the unmarried Robert I , Duke of Normandy , by Robert 's mistress Herleva . His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father , as did the anarchy that plagued the first years of his rule . During his childhood and adolescence , members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other , both for control of the child duke and for their own ends . In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy , a process that was not complete until about 1060 . His marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders . By the time of his marriage , William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and abbots in the Norman church . His consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons , and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine .
In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England , then held by the childless Edward the Confessor , his first cousin once removed . There were other potential claimants , including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson , who was named the next king by Edward on the latter 's deathbed in January 1066 . William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him , and that Harold had sworn to support William 's claim . William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066 , decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 . After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 , in London . He made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy . Several unsuccessful rebellions followed , but by 1075 William 's hold on England was mostly secure , allowing him to spend the majority of the rest of his reign on the continent .
William 's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains , troubles with his eldest son , and threatened invasions of England by the Danes . In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book , a survey listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings . William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France , and was buried in Caen . His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles , the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land , and change in the composition of the English clergy . He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire , but instead continued to administer each part separately . William 's lands were divided after his death : Normandy went to his eldest son , Robert , and his second surviving son , William , received England .
= = Background = =
Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century . Permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911 , when Rollo , one of the Viking leaders , and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo . The lands around Rouen became the core of the later duchy of Normandy . Normandy may have been used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century , which would have worsened relations between England and Normandy . In an effort to improve matters , King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy , sister of Duke Richard II , as his second wife in 1002 .
Danish raids on England continued , and Æthelred sought help from Richard , taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein I of Denmark drove Æthelred and his family from England . Swein 's death in 1014 allowed Æthelred to return home , but Swein 's son Cnut contested Æthelred 's return . Æthelred died unexpectedly in 1016 , and Cnut became king of England . Æthelred and Emma 's two sons , Edward and Alfred , went into exile in Normandy while their mother , Emma , became Cnut 's second wife .
After Cnut 's death in 1035 the English throne fell to Harold Harefoot , his son by his first wife , while Harthacnut , his son by Emma , became king in Denmark . England remained unstable . Alfred returned to England in 1036 to visit his mother and perhaps to challenge Harold as king . One story implicates Earl Godwin of Wessex in Alfred 's subsequent death , but others blame Harold . Emma went into exile in Flanders until Harthacnut became king following Harold 's death in 1040 , and his half @-@ brother Edward followed Harthacnut to England ; Edward was proclaimed king after Harthacnut 's death in June 1042 .
= = Early life = =
William was born in 1027 or 1028 at Falaise , Normandy , most likely towards the end of 1028 . He was the only son of Robert I , Duke of Normandy , son of Richard II , Duke of Normandy . His mother , Herleva , was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise ; Fulbert may have been a tanner or embalmer . She was possibly a member of the ducal household , but did not marry Robert . Instead , she later married Herluin de Conteville , with whom she had two sons – Odo of Bayeux and Robert , Count of Mortain – and a daughter whose name is unknown . One of Herleva 's brothers , Walter , became a supporter and protector of William during his minority . Robert also had a daughter , Adelaide of Normandy , by another mistress .
Robert became Duke of Normandy on 6 August 1027 , succeeding his elder brother Richard III , who had only succeeded to the title the previous year . Robert and his brother had been at odds over the succession , and Richard 's death was sudden . Robert was accused by some writers of killing his brother , a plausible but now unprovable charge . Conditions in Normandy were unsettled , as noble families despoiled the Church and Alan III of Brittany waged war against the duchy , possibly in an attempt to take control . By 1031 Robert had gathered considerable support from noblemen , many of whom would become prominent during William 's life . They included Robert 's uncle , Robert the archbishop of Rouen , who had originally opposed the duke , Osbern , a nephew of Gunnor the wife of Duke Richard I , and Count Gilbert of Brionne , a grandson of Richard I. After his accession , Robert continued Norman support for the English princes Edward and Alfred , who were still in exile in northern France .
There are indications that Robert may have been briefly betrothed to a daughter of King Cnut , but no marriage took place . It is unclear if William would have been supplanted in the ducal succession if Robert had had a legitimate son . Earlier dukes had been illegitimate , and William 's association with his father on ducal charters appears to indicate that William was considered Robert 's most likely heir . In 1034 Duke Robert decided to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem . Although some of his supporters tried to dissuade him from undertaking the journey , Robert convened a council in January 1035 and had the assembled Norman magnates swear fealty to William as his heir before leaving for Jerusalem . He died in early July at Nicea , on his way back to Normandy .
= = Duke of Normandy = =
= = = Challenges = = =
William faced several challenges on becoming duke , including his illegitimate birth and his youth : the evidence indicates that he was either seven or eight years old at the time . He enjoyed the support of his great @-@ uncle , Archbishop Robert , as well as the king of France , Henry I , enabling him to succeed to his father 's duchy . The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke 's guardians were attempting to continue his father 's policies , but Archbishop Robert 's death in March 1037 removed one of William 's main supporters , and conditions in Normandy quickly descended into chaos .
The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047 , and control of the young duke was one of the priorities of those contending for power . At first , Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke , but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040 , Gilbert of Brionne took charge of William . Gilbert was killed within months , and another guardian , Turchetil , was also killed around the time of Gilbert 's death . Yet another guardian , Osbern , was slain in the early 1040s in William 's chamber while the duke slept . It was said that Walter , William 's maternal uncle , was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants , although this story may be an embellishment by Orderic Vitalis . The historian Eleanor Searle speculates that William was raised with the three cousins who later became important in his career – William fitzOsbern , Roger de Beaumont , and Roger of Montgomery . Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William 's minority , the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government , and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William .
King Henry continued to support the young duke , but in late 1046 opponents of William came together in a rebellion centred in lower Normandy , led by Guy of Burgundy with support from Nigel , Viscount of the Cotentin , and Ranulf , Viscount of the Bessin . According to stories that may have legendary elements , an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes , but he escaped under cover of darkness , seeking refuge with King Henry . In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were victorious at the Battle of Val @-@ ès @-@ Dunes near Caen , although few details of the actual fighting are recorded . William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William 's efforts , but earlier accounts claim that King Henry 's men and leadership also played an important part . William assumed power in Normandy , and shortly after the battle promulgated the Truce of God throughout his duchy , in an effort to limit warfare and violence by restricting the days of the year on which fighting was permitted . Although the Battle of Val @-@ ès @-@ Dunes marked a turning point in William 's control of the duchy , it was not the end of his struggle to gain the upper hand over the nobility . The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare , with lesser crises continuing until 1060 .
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
William 's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy , who retreated to his castle at Brionne , which William besieged . After a long effort , the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050 . To address the growing power of the Count of Anjou , Geoffrey Martel , William joined with King Henry in a campaign against him , the last known cooperation between the two . They succeeded in capturing an Angevin fortress , but accomplished little else . Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of Maine , especially after the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051 . Central to the control of Maine were the holdings of the family of Bellême , who held Bellême on the border of Maine and Normandy , as well as the fortresses at Alençon and Domfort . Bellême 's overlord was the king of France , but Domfort was under the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel and Duke William was Alençon 's overlord . The Bellême family , whose lands were quite strategically placed between their three different overlords , were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves .
On the death of Hugh of Maine , Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine in a move contested by William and King Henry ; eventually they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county , and in the process , William was able to secure the Bellême family strongholds at Alençon and Domfort for himself . He was thus able to assert his overlordship over the Bellême family and compel them to act consistently in Norman interests . But in 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William at the same time as some Norman nobles began to contest William 's increasing power . Henry 's volte @-@ face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy , which was now threatened by William 's growing mastery of his duchy . William was engaged in military actions against his own nobles throughout 1053 , as well as with the new Archbishop of Rouen , Mauger . In February 1054 the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy . Henry led the main thrust through the county of Évreux , while the other wing , under the French king 's brother Odo , invaded eastern Normandy .
William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two groups . The first , which he led , faced Henry . The second , which included some who became William 's firm supporters , such as Robert , Count of Eu , Walter Giffard , Roger of Mortemer , and William de Warenne , faced the other invading force . This second force defeated the invaders at the Battle of Mortemer . In addition to ending both invasions , the battle allowed the duke 's ecclesiastical supporters to depose Mauger from the archbishopric of Rouen . Mortemer thus marked another turning point in William 's growing control of the duchy , although his conflict with the French king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060 . Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057 but were defeated by William at the Battle of Varaville . This was the last invasion of Normandy during William 's lifetime , and the deaths of the count and the king in 1060 cemented the shift in the balance of power towards William .
One factor in William 's favour was his marriage to Matilda of Flanders , the daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders . The union was arranged in 1049 , but Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council of Rheims in October 1049 . The marriage nevertheless went ahead some time in the early 1050s , possibly unsanctioned by the pope . According to a late source not generally considered to be reliable , papal sanction was not secured until 1059 , but as papal @-@ Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good , and Norman clergy were able to visit Rome in 1050 without incident , it was probably secured earlier . Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen – one by William and one by Matilda . The marriage was important in bolstering William 's status , as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories , with ties to the French royal house and to the German emperors . Contemporary writers considered the marriage , which produced four sons and five or six daughters , to be a success .
= = = Appearance and character = = =
No authentic portrait of William has been found ; the contemporary depictions of him on the Bayeux Tapestry and on his seals and coins are conventional representations designed to assert his authority . There are some written descriptions of a burly and robust appearance , with a guttural voice . He enjoyed excellent health until old age , although he became quite fat in later life . He was strong enough to draw bows that others were unable to pull and had great stamina . Geoffrey Martel described him as without equal as a fighter and as a horseman . Examination of William 's femur , the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed , showed he was approximately 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) in height , quite tall for the time .
There are records of two tutors for the young duke during the late 1030s and early 1040s , but the extent of William 's literary education is unclear . He was not known as a patron of authors , and there is little evidence that he sponsored scholarship or other intellectual activities . Orderic Vitalis records that William tried to learn to read Old English late in life , but he was unable to devote sufficient time to the effort and quickly gave up . William 's main hobby appears to have been hunting . His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate , and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her – unusual in a medieval monarch . Medieval writers criticised William for his greed and cruelty , but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries .
= = = Norman administration = = =
Norman government under William was similar to the government that had existed under earlier dukes . It was a fairly simple administrative system , built around the ducal household , which consisted of a group of officers including stewards , butlers , and marshalls . The duke travelled constantly around the duchy , confirming charters and collecting revenues . Most of the income came from the ducal lands , as well as from tolls and a few taxes . This income was collected by the chamber , one of the household departments .
William cultivated close relations with the church in his duchy . He took part in church councils and made several appointments to the Norman episcopate , including the appointment of Maurilius as Archbishop of Rouen . Another important appointment was that of William 's half @-@ brother Odo as Bishop of Bayeux in either 1049 or 1050 . He also relied on the clergy for advice , including Lanfranc , a non @-@ Norman who rose to become one of William 's prominent ecclesiastical advisors in the late 1040s and remained so throughout the 1050s and 1060s . William gave generously to the church ; from 1035 to 1066 , the Norman aristocracy founded at least 20 new monastic houses , including William 's two monasteries in Caen , a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy .
= = English and continental concerns = =
In 1051 the childless King Edward of England appears to have chosen William as his successor to the English throne . William was the grandson of Edward 's maternal uncle , Richard II , Duke of Normandy . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , in the " D " version , states that William visited England in the later part of 1051 , perhaps to secure confirmation of the succession , or perhaps William was attempting to secure aid for his troubles in Normandy . The trip is unlikely given William 's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time . Whatever Edward 's wishes , it was likely that any claim by William would be opposed by Godwin , the Earl of Wessex , a member of the most powerful family in England . Edward had married Edith , Godwin 's daughter , in 1043 , and Godwin appears to have been one of the main supporters of Edward 's claim to the throne . By 1050 , however , relations between the king and the earl had soured , culminating in a crisis in 1051 that led to the exile of Godwin and his family from England . It was during this exile that Edward offered the throne to William . Godwin returned from exile in 1052 with armed forces , and a settlement was reached between the king and the earl , restoring the earl and his family to their lands and replacing Robert of Jumièges , a Norman whom Edward had named Archbishop of Canterbury , with Stigand , the Bishop of Winchester . No English source mentions a supposed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the succession , and the two Norman sources that mention it , William of Jumièges and William of Poitiers , are not precise in their chronology of when this visit took place .
Count Herbert II of Maine died in 1062 , and William , who had betrothed his eldest son Robert to Herbert 's sister Margaret , claimed the county through his son . Local nobles resisted the claim , but William invaded and by 1064 had secured control of the area . William appointed a Norman to the bishopric of Le Mans in 1065 . He also allowed his son Robert Curthose to do homage to the new Count of Anjou , Geoffrey the Bearded . William 's western border was thus secured , but his border with Brittany remained insecure . In 1064 William invaded Brittany in a campaign that remains obscure in its details . Its effect , though , was to destabilise Brittany , forcing the duke , Conan II , to focus on internal problems rather than on expansion . Conan 's death in 1066 further secured William 's borders in Normandy . William also benefited from his campaign in Brittany by securing the support of some Breton nobles who went on to support the invasion of England in 1066 .
In England , Earl Godwin died in 1053 and his sons were increasing in power : Harold succeeded to his father 's earldom , and another son , Tostig , became Earl of Northumbria . Other sons were granted earldoms later : Gyrth as Earl of East Anglia in 1057 and Leofwine as Earl of Kent some time between 1055 and 1057 . Some sources claim that Harold took part in William 's Breton campaign of 1064 and that Harold swore to uphold William 's claim to the English throne at the end of the campaign , but no English source reports this trip , and it is unclear if it actually occurred . It may have been Norman propaganda designed to discredit Harold , who had emerged as the main contender to succeed King Edward . Meanwhile , another contender for the throne had emerged – Edward the Exile , son of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of Æthelred II , returned to England in 1057 , and although he died shortly after his return , he brought with him his family , which included two daughters , Margaret and Christina , and a son , Edgar the Ætheling .
In 1065 Northumbria revolted against Tostig , and the rebels chose Morcar , the younger brother of Edwin , Earl of Mercia , as earl in place of Tostig . Harold , perhaps to secure the support
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of Edwin and Morcar in his bid for the throne , supported the rebels and persuaded King Edward to replace Tostig with Morcar . Tostig went into exile in Flanders , along with his wife Judith , who was the daughter of Count Baldwin IV of Flanders . Edward was ailing , and he died on 5 January 1066 . It is unclear what exactly happened at Edward 's deathbed . One story , deriving from the Vita Edwardi , a biography of Edward , claims that Edward was attended by his wife Edith , Harold , Archbishop Stigand , and Robert FitzWimarc , and that the king named Harold as his successor . The Norman sources do not dispute the fact that Harold was named as the next king , but they declare that Harold 's oath and Edward 's earlier promise of the throne could not be changed on Edward 's deathbed . Later English sources stated that Harold had been elected as king by the clergy and magnates of England .
= = Invasion of England = =
= = = Harold 's preparations = = =
Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 in Edward 's new Norman @-@ style Westminster Abbey , although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony . English sources claim that Ealdred , the Archbishop of York , performed the ceremony , while Norman sources state that the coronation was performed by Stigand , who was considered a non @-@ canonical archbishop by the papacy . Harold 's claim to the throne was not entirely secure , however , as there were other claimants , perhaps including his exiled brother Tostig . King Harald Hardrada of Norway also had a claim to the throne as the uncle and heir of King Magnus I , who had made a pact with Harthacnut in about 1040 that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs , the other would succeed . The last claimant was William of Normandy , against whose anticipated invasion King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations .
Harold 's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066 , landing at the Isle of Wight using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders . Tostig appears to have received little local support , and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the River Humber met with no more success , so he retreated to Scotland , where he remained for a time . According to the Norman writer William of Jumièges , William had meanwhile sent an embassy to King Harold Godwinson to remind Harold of his oath to support William 's claim , although whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear . Harold assembled an army and a fleet to repel William 's anticipated invasion force , deploying troops and ships along the English Channel for most of the summer .
= = = William 's preparations = = =
William of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke William , in which the writer gives an account of a great debate that took place between William 's nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England . Although some sort of formal assembly probably was held , it is unlikely that any debate took place , as the duke had by then established control over his nobles , and most of those assembled would have been anxious to secure their share of the rewards from the conquest of England . William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained the consent of Pope Alexander II for the invasion , along with a papal banner . The chronicler also claimed that the duke secured the support of Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and King Sweyn II of Denmark . Henry was still a minor , however , and Sweyn was more likely to support Harold , who could then help Sweyn against the Norwegian king , so these claims should be treated with caution . Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded , no other source claims papal support prior to the invasion . Events after the invasion , which included the penance William performed and statements by later popes , do lend circumstantial support to the claim of papal approval . To deal with Norman affairs , William put the government of Normandy into the hands of his wife for the duration of the invasion .
Throughout the summer , William assembled an army and an invasion fleet in Normandy . Although William of Jumièges 's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3 @,@ 000 ships is clearly an exaggeration , it was probably large and mostly built from scratch . Although William of Poitiers and William of Jumièges disagree about where the fleet was built – Poitiers states it was constructed at the mouth of the River Dives , while Jumièges states it was built at Saint @-@ Valery @-@ sur @-@ Somme – both agree that it eventually sailed from Valery @-@ sur @-@ Somme . The fleet carried an invasion force that included , in addition to troops from William 's own territories of Normandy and Maine , large numbers of mercenaries , allies , and volunteers from Brittany , northeastern France , and Flanders , together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe . Although the army and fleet were ready by early August , adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September . There were probably other reasons for William 's delay , including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast . William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing . Harold kept his forces on alert throughout the summer , but with the arrival of the harvest season he disbanded his army on 8 September .
= = = Tostig and Hardrada 's invasion = = =
Harold 's brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada invaded Northumbria in September 1066 and defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the Battle of Fulford near York . King Harold received word of their invasion and marched north , defeating the invaders and killing Tostig and Hardrada on 25 September at the Battle of Stamford Bridge . The Norman fleet finally set sail two days later , landing in England at Pevensey Bay on 28 September . William then moved to Hastings , a few miles to the east , where he built a castle as a base of operations . From there , he ravaged the interior and waited for Harold 's return from the north , refusing to venture far from the sea , his line of communication with Normandy .
= = = Battle of Hastings = = =
After defeating Harald Hardrada and Tostig , Harold left much of his army in the north , including Morcar and Edwin , and marched the rest south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion . He probably learned of William 's landing while he was travelling south . Harold stopped in London , and was there for about a week before marching to Hastings , so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south , averaging about 27 miles ( 43 kilometres ) per day , for the distance of approximately 200 miles ( 320 kilometres ) . Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans , William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke . The exact events preceding the battle are obscure , with contradictory accounts in the sources , but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy . Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill ( present @-@ day Battle , East Sussex ) , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ) from William 's castle at Hastings .
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October and lasted all day , but while a broad outline is known , the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources . Although the numbers on each side were about equal , William had both cavalry and infantry , including many archers , while Harold had only foot soldiers and few , if any , archers . The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties . Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled , and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry . During the Bretons ' flight rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed , but William succeeded in rallying his troops . Two further Norman retreats were feigned , to once again draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry . The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon , but it appears that the decisive event was Harold 's death , about which differing stories are told . William of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke . The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye , but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th @-@ century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head .
Harold 's body was identified the day after the battle , either through his armour or marks on his body . The English dead , who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls , were left on the battlefield . Gytha , Harold 's mother , offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody , but her offer was refused . William ordered that Harold 's body was to be thrown into the sea , but whether that took place is unclear . Waltham Abbey , which had been founded by Harold , later claimed that his body had been secretly buried there .
= = = March on London = = =
William may have hoped the English would surrender following his victory , but they did not . Instead , some of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar the Ætheling as king , though their support for Edgar was only lukewarm . After waiting a short while , William secured Dover , parts of Kent , and Canterbury , while also sending a force to capture Winchester , where the royal treasury was . These captures secured William 's rear areas and also his line of retreat to Normandy , if that was needed . William then marched to Southwark , across the Thames from London , which he reached in late November . Next he led his forces around the south and west of London , burning along the way . He finally crossed the Thames at Wallingford in early December . Archbishop Stigand submitted to William there , and when the duke moved on to Berkhamsted soon afterwards , Edgar the Ætheling , Morcar , Edwin , and Archbishop Ealdred also submitted . William then sent forces into London to construct a castle ; he was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066 .
= = Consolidation = =
= = = First actions = = =
William remained in England after his coronation and tried to reconcile the native magnates . The remaining earls – Edwin ( of Mercia ) , Morcar ( of Northumbria ) , and Waltheof ( of Northampton ) – were confirmed in their lands and titles . Waltheof was married to William 's niece Judith , daughter of Adelaide , and a marriage between Edwin and one of William 's daughters was proposed . Edgar the Ætheling also appears to have been given lands . Ecclesiastical offices continued to be held by the same bishops as before the invasion , including the uncanonical Stigand . But the families of Harold and his brothers did lose their lands , as did some others who had fought against William at Hastings . By March , William was secure enough to return to Normandy , but he took with him Stigand , Morcar , Edwin , Edgar , and Waltheof . He left his half @-@ brother Odo , the Bishop of Bayeux , in charge of England along with another influential supporter , William fitzOsbern , the son of his former guardian . Both men were also named to earldoms – fitzOsbern to Hereford ( or Wessex ) and Odo to Kent . Although he put two Normans in overall charge , he retained many of the native English sheriffs . Once in Normandy the new English king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp , and then attended the consecration of new churches at two Norman monasteries .
While William was in Normandy , a former ally , Eustace , the Count of Boulogne , invaded at Dover but was repulsed . English resistance had also begun , with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter , where Harold 's mother Gytha was a focus of resistance . FitzOsbern and Odo found it difficult to control the native population and undertook a programme of castle building to maintain their hold on the kingdom . William returned to England in December 1067 and marched on Exeter , which he besieged . The town held out for 18 days , and after it fell to William he built a castle to secure his control . Harold 's sons were meanwhile raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland . Their forces landed near Bristol but were defeated by Eadnoth . By Easter , William was at Winchester , where he was soon joined by his wife Matilda , who was crowned in May 1068 .
= = = English resistance = = =
In 1068 Edwin and Morcar revolted , supported by Gospatric . The chronicler Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin 's reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of William 's daughters had not taken place , but other reasons probably included the increasing power of William fitzOsbern in Herefordshire , which affected Edwin 's power within his own earldom . The king marched through Edwin 's lands and built a castle at Warwick . Edwin and Morcar submitted , but William continued on to York , building castles at York and Nottingham before returning south . On his southbound journey , the king began constructing castles at Lincoln , Huntingdon , and Cambridge . William placed supporters in charge of these new fortifications – among them William Peverel at Nottingham and Henry de Beaumont at Warwick . Then the king returned to Normandy late in 1068 .
Early in 1069 , Edgar the Ætheling rose in revolt and attacked York . Although William returned to York and built another castle , Edgar remained free , and in the autumn he joined up with King Sweyn of Denmark . The Danish king had brought a large fleet to England and attacked not only York , but Exeter and Shrewsbury . York was captured by the combined forces of Edgar and Sweyn . Edgar was proclaimed king by his supporters , but William responded swiftly , ignoring a continental revolt in Maine . William symbolically wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069 , and then proceeded to buy off the Danes . He marched to the River Tees , ravaging the countryside as he went . Edgar , having lost much of his support , fled to Scotland , where King Malcolm III was married to Edgar 's sister Margaret . Waltheof , who had joined the revolt , submitted , along with Gospatric , and both were allowed to retain their lands . But William was not finished ; he marched over the Pennines during the winter and defeated the remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before building castles at Chester and Stafford . This campaign , which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through , is usually known as the " Harrying of the North " ; it was over by April 1070 , when William wore his crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester .
= = = Church affairs = = =
While at Winchester in 1070 , William met with three papal legates – John Minutus , Peter , and Ermenfrid of Sion – who had been sent by Pope Alexander . The legates ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court . The historian David Bates sees this coronation as the ceremonial papal " seal of approval " for William 's conquest . The legates and the king then proceeded to hold a series of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganising the English church . Stigand and his brother , Æthelmær , the Bishop of Elmham , were deposed from their bishoprics . Some of the native abbots were also deposed , both at the council held near Easter and at a further one near Whitsun . The Whitsun council saw the appointment of Lanfranc as the new Archbishop of Canterbury , and Thomas of Bayeux as the new Archbishop of York , to replace Ealdred , who had died in September 1069 . William 's half @-@ brother Odo perhaps expected to be appointed to Canterbury , but William probably did not wish to give that much power to a family member . Another reason for the appointment may have been pressure from the papacy to appoint Lanfranc . Norman clergy were appointed to replace the deposed bishops and abbots , and at the end of the process , only two native English bishops remained in office , along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor . In 1070 William also founded Battle Abbey , a new monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings , partly as a penance for the deaths in the battle and partly as a memorial to those dead .
= = Troubles in England and the continent = =
= = = Danish raids and rebellion in the north = = =
Although Sweyn had promised to leave England , he returned in spring 1070 , raiding along the Humber and East Anglia toward the Isle of Ely , where he joined up with Hereward the Wake , a local thegn . Hereward 's forces attacked Peterborough Abbey , which they captured and looted . William was able to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in 1070 , allowing him to return to the continent to deal with troubles in Maine , where the town of Le Mans had revolted in 1069 . Another concern was the death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders in July 1070 , which led to a succession crisis as his widow , Richilde , was ruling for their two young sons , Arnulf and Baldwin . Her rule , however , was contested by Robert , Baldwin 's brother . Richilde proposed marriage to William fitzOsbern , who was in Normandy , and fitzOsbern accepted . But after he was killed in February 1071 at the Battle of Cassel , Robert became count . He was opposed to King William 's power on the continent , thus the Battle of Cassel not only lost the king an important supporter , but also upset the balance of power in northern France .
In 1071 William defeated the last rebellion of the north . Earl Edwin was betrayed by his own men and killed , while William built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely , where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding . Hereward escaped , but Morcar was captured , deprived of his earldom , and imprisoned . In 1072 William invaded Scotland , defeating Malcolm , who had recently invaded the north of England . William and Malcolm agreed to peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy , and Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace . Perhaps another stipulation of the treaty was the expulsion of Edgar the Ætheling from Malcolm 's court . William then turned his attention to the continent , returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin , the Count of Anjou . With a swift campaign , William seized Le Mans from Fulk 's forces , completing the campaign by 30 March 1073 . This made William 's power more secure in northern France , but the new count of Flanders accepted Edgar the Ætheling into his court . Robert also married his half @-@ sister Bertha to the king of France , Philip I , who was opposed to Norman power .
William returned to England to release his army from service in 1073 but quickly returned to Normandy , where he spent all of 1074 . He left England in the hands of his supporters , including Richard fitzGilbert and William de Warenne , as well as Lanfranc . William 's ability to leave England for an entire year was a sign that he felt that his control of the kingdom was secure . While William was in Normandy , Edgar the Ætheling returned to Scotland from Flanders . The French king , seeking a focus for those opposed to William 's power , then proposed that Edgar be given the castle of Montreuil @-@ sur @-@ Mer on the Channel , which would have given Edgar a strategic advantage against William . Edgar was forced to submit to William shortly thereafter , however , and he returned to William 's court . Philip , although thwarted in this attempt , turned his attentions to Brittany , leading to a revolt in 1075 .
= = = Revolt of the Earls = = =
In 1075 , during William 's absence , Ralph de Gael , the Earl of Norfolk , and Roger de Breteuil , the Earl of Hereford , conspired to overthrow William in the " Revolt of the Earls " . Ralph was at least part Breton and had spent most of his life prior to 1066 in Brittany , where he still had lands . Roger was a Norman , son of William fitzOsbern , but had inherited less authority than his father held . Ralph 's authority seems also to have been less than his predecessors in the earldom , and this was likely the cause of the revolt .
The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear , but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger , held at Exning in Suffolk . Another earl , Waltheof , although one of William 's favourites , was also involved , and there were some Breton lords who were ready to rebel in support of Ralph and Roger . Ralph also requested Danish aid . William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt . Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan , the Bishop of Worcester , and Æthelwig , the Abbot of Evesham . Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux , Geoffrey de Montbray , Richard fitzGilbert , and William de Warenne . Ralph eventually left Norwich in the control of his wife and left England , finally ending up in Brittany . Norwich was besieged and surrendered , with the garrison allowed to go to Brittany . Meanwhile , the Danish king 's brother , Cnut , had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships , but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered . The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home . William returned to England later in 1075 to deal with the Danish threat , leaving his wife Matilda in charge of Normandy . He celebrated Christmas at Winchester and dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion . Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison , where Waltheof was executed in May 1076 . Before this , William had returned to the continent , where Ralph had continued the rebellion from Brittany .
= = = Troubles at home and abroad = = =
Earl Ralph had secured control of the castle at Dol , and in September 1076 William advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle . King Philip of France later relieved the siege and defeated William at Dol , forcing him to retreat back to Normandy . Although this was William 's first defeat in battle , it did little to change things . An Angevin attack on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077 , with Count Fulk le Rechin wounded in the unsuccessful attack . More serious was the retirement of Simon de Crépy , the Count of Amiens , to a monastery . Before he became a monk , Simon handed his county of the Vexin over to King Philip . The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king , and Simon had been a supporter of William . William was able to make peace with Philip in 1077 and secured a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078 .
In late 1077 or early 1078 trouble began between William and his eldest son , Robert . Although Orderic Vitalis describes it as starting with a quarrel between Robert and his two younger brothers , William and Henry , including a story that the quarrel was started when William and Henry threw water at Robert , it is much more likely that Robert was feeling powerless . Orderic relates that he had previously demanded control of Maine and Normandy and had been rebuffed . The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men , many of them the sons of William 's supporters . Included among them was Robert of Belleme , William de Breteuil , and Roger , the son of Richard fitzGilbert . This band of young men went to the castle at Remalard , where they proceeded to raid into Normandy . The raiders were supported by many of William 's continental enemies . William immediately attacked the rebels and drove them from Remalard , but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi , where they were joined by new supporters . William then laid siege to Gerberoi in January 1079 . After three weeks , the besieged forces sallied from the castle and managed to take the besiegers by surprise . William was unhorsed by Robert and was only saved from death by an Englishman . William 's forces were forced to lift the siege , and the king returned to Rouen . By 12 April 1080 , William and Robert had reached an accommodation , with William once more affirming that Robert would receive Normandy when he died .
Word of William 's defeat at Gerberoi stirred up difficulties in northern England . In August and September 1079 King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed , devastating the land between the River Tees and the Tweed in a raid that lasted almost a month . The lack of Norman response appears to have caused the Northumbrians to grow restive , and in the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of Walcher , the Bishop of Durham and Earl of Northumbria . The bishop was killed on 14 May 1080 , and William dispatched his half @-@ brother Odo to deal with the rebellion . William departed Normandy in July 1080 , and in the autumn William 's son Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots . Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms , building a fortification at Newcastle @-@ on @-@ Tyne while returning to England . The king was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun in 1081 , ceremonially wearing his crown on both occasions . A papal embassy arrived in England during this period , asking that William do fealty for England to the papacy , a request that William rejected . William also visited Wales during 1081 , although the English and the Welsh sources differ on the exact purpose of the visit . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle states that it was a military campaign , but Welsh sources record it as a pilgrimage to St Davids in honour of Saint David . William 's biographer David Bates argues that the former explanation is more likely , explaining that the balance of power had recently shifted in Wales and that William would have wished to take advantage of the changed circumstances to extend Norman power . By the end of 1081 , William was back on the continent , dealing with disturbances in Maine . Although he led an expedition into Maine , the result was instead a negotiated settlement arranged by a papal legate .
= = = Last years = = =
Sources for William 's actions between 1082 and 1084 are meagre . According to the historian David Bates , this probably means that little happened of note , and that because William was on the continent , there was nothing for the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle to record . In 1082 William ordered the arrest of his half @-@ brother Odo . The exact reasons are unclear , as no contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half @-@ brothers . Orderic Vitalis later recorded that Odo had aspirations to become pope . Orderic also related that Odo had attempted to persuade some of William 's vassals to join Odo on an invasion of southern Italy . This would have been considered tampering with the king 's authority over his vassals , which William would not have tolerated . Although Odo remained in confinement for the rest of William 's reign , his lands were not confiscated . More difficulties struck in 1083 , when William 's eldest son Robert rebelled once more with support from the French king . A further blow was the death of Matilda , William 's wife , on 2 November 1083 . William was always described as close to his wife , and her death would have added to his problems .
Maine continued to be difficult , with a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont @-@ au @-@ Maine , probably in 1084 . Hubert was besieged in his castle at Sainte @-@ Suzanne by William 's forces for at least two years , but he eventually made his peace with the king and was restored to favour . William 's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear – he was in Normandy at Easter 1084 but may have been in England before then to collect the danegeld assessed that year for the defence of England against an invasion by King Cnut IV of Denmark . Although English and Norman forces remained on alert throughout 1085 and into 1086 , the invasion threat was ended by Cnut 's death in July 1086 .
= = William as king = =
= = = Changes in England – castles , forests , and nobles = = =
As part of his efforts to secure England , William ordered many castles , keeps , and mottes built – among them the central keep of the Tower of London , the White Tower . These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside . The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions , later replaced with stone structures .
At first , most of the newly settled Normans kept household knights and did not settle their retainers with fiefs of their own , but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own , a process known as subinfeudation . William also required his newly created magnates to contribute fixed quotas of knights towards not only military campaigns but also castle garrisons . This method of organising the military forces was a departure from the pre @-@ Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units such as the hide .
By William 's death , after weathering a series of rebellions , most of the native Anglo @-@ Saxon aristocracy had been replaced by Norman and other continental magnates . Not all of the Normans who accompanied William in the initial conquest acquired large amounts of land in England . Some appear to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that did not always appear pacified . Although some of the newly rich Normans in England came from William 's close family or from the upper Norman nobility , others were from relatively humble backgrounds . William granted some lands to his continental followers from the holdings of one or more specific Englishmen ; at other times , he granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower , often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle .
The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land ( 36 parishes ) , turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting . Modern historians have come to the conclusion that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated . Most of the lands of the New Forest are poor agricultural lands , and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that the New Forest was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest . William was known for his love of hunting , and he introduced the forest law into areas of the country , regulating who could hunt and what could be hunted .
= = = Administration = = =
After 1066 , William did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws . His seal from after 1066 , of which six impressions still survive , was made for him after he conquered England and stressed his role as king , while separately mentioning his role as Duke . When in Normandy , William acknowledged that he owed fealty to the French king , but in England no such acknowledgement was made – further evidence that the various parts of William 's lands were considered separate . The administrative machinery of Normandy , England , and Maine continued to exist separate from the other lands , with each one retaining its own forms . For example , England continued the use of writs , which were not known on the continent . Also , the charters and documents produced for the government in Normandy differed in formulas from those produced in England .
William took over an English government that was more complex than the Norman system . England was divided into shires or counties , which were further divided into either hundreds or wapentakes . Each shire was administered by a royal official called a sheriff , who roughly had the same status as a Norman viscount . A sheriff was responsible for royal justice and collecting royal revenue . To oversee his expanded domain , William was forced to travel even more than he had as duke . He crossed back and forth between the continent and England at least 19 times between 1067 and his death . William spent most of his time in England between the Battle of Hastings and 1072 , and after that he spent the majority of his time in Normandy . Government was still centred on William 's household ; when he was in one part of his realms , decisions would be made for other parts of his domains and transmitted through a communication system that made use of letters and other documents . William also appointed deputies who could make decisions while he was absent , especially if the absence was expected to be lengthy . Usually this was a member of William 's close family – frequently his half @-@ brother Odo or his wife Matilda . Sometimes deputies were appointed to deal with specific issues .
William continued the collection of danegeld , a land tax . This was an advantage for William , as it was the only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period . It was an annual tax based on the value of landholdings , and it could be collected at differing rates . Most years saw the rate of two shillings per hide , but in crises , it could be increased to as much as six shillings per hide . Coinage between the various parts of his domains continued to be minted in different cycles and styles . English coins were generally of high silver content , with high artistic standards , and were required to be re @-@ minted every three years . Norman coins had a much lower silver content , were often of poor artistic quality , and were rarely re @-@ minted . Also , in England no other coinage was allowed , while on the continent other coinage was considered legal tender . Nor is there evidence that many English pennies were circulating in Normandy , which shows little attempt to integrate the monetary systems of England and Normandy .
Besides taxation , William 's large landholdings throughout England strengthened his rule . As King Edward 's heir , he controlled all of the former royal lands . He also retained control of much of the lands of Harold and his family , which made the king the largest secular landowner in England by a wide margin .
= = = Domesday Book = = =
At Christmas 1085 , William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings held by himself and by his vassals throughout the kingdom , organised by counties . It resulted in a work now known as the Domesday Book . The listing for each county gives the holdings of each landholder , grouped by owners . The listings describe the holding , who owned the land before the Conquest , its value , what the tax assessment was , and usually the number of peasants , ploughs , and any other resources the holding had . Towns were listed separately . All the English counties south of the River Tees and River Ribble are included , and the whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086 , when the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that William received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath , a renewal of their oaths of allegiance . William 's exact motivation in ordering the survey is unclear , but it probably had several purposes , such as making a record of feudal obligations and justifying increased taxation .
= = Death and aftermath = =
William left England towards the end of 1086 . Following his arrival back on the continent he married his daughter Constance to Alan Fergant , the Duke of Brittany , in furtherance of his policy of seeking allies against the French kings . William 's son Robert , still allied with the French king Philip I , appears to have been active in stirring up trouble , enough so that William led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1087 . While seizing Mantes , William either fell ill or was injured by the pommel of his saddle . He was taken to the priory of Saint Gervase at Rouen , where he died on 9 September 1087 . Knowledge of the events preceding his death is confused because there are two different accounts . Orderic Vitalis preserves a lengthy account , complete with speeches made by many of the principals , but this is likely more of an account of how a king should die than of what actually happened . The other , the De Obitu Willelmi , or On the Death of William , has been shown to be a copy of two 9th @-@ century accounts with names changed .
William left Normandy to Robert , and the custody of England was given to William 's second surviving son , also called William , on the assumption that he would become king . The youngest son , Henry , received money . After entrusting England to his second son , the elder William sent the younger William back to England on 7 or 8 September , bearing a letter to Lanfranc ordering the archbishop to aid the new king . Other bequests included gifts to the Church and money to be distributed to the poor . William also ordered that all of his prisoners be released , including his half @-@ brother Odo .
Disorder followed William 's death ; everyone who had been at his deathbed left the body at Rouen and hurried off to attend to their own affairs . Eventually , the clergy of Rouen arranged to have the body sent to Caen , where William had desired to be buried in his foundation of the Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Hommes . The funeral , attended by the bishops and abbots of Normandy as well as his son Henry , was disturbed by the assertion of a citizen of Caen who alleged that his family had been illegally despoiled of the land on which the church was built . After hurried consultations the allegation was shown to be true , and the man was compensated . A further indignity occurred when the corpse was lowered into the tomb . The corpse was too large for the space , and when attendants forced the body into the tomb it burst , spreading a disgusting odour throughout the church .
William 's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription dating from the early 19th century . The tomb has been disturbed several times since 1087 , the first time in 1522 when the grave was opened on orders from the papacy . The intact body was restored to the tomb at that time , but in 1562 , during the French Wars of Religion , the grave was reopened and the bones scattered and lost , with the exception of one thigh bone . This lone relic was reburied in 1642 with a new marker , which was replaced 100 years later with a more elaborate monument . This tomb was again destroyed during the French Revolution , but was eventually replaced with the current marker .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate consequence of William 's death was a war between his sons Robert and William over control of England and Normandy . Even after the younger William 's death in 1100 and the succession of his youngest brother Henry as king , Normandy and England remained contested between the brothers until Robert 's capture by Henry at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106 . The difficulties over the succession led to a loss of authority in Normandy , with the aristocracy regaining much of the power they had lost to the elder William . His sons also lost much of their control over Maine , which revolted in 1089 and managed to remain mostly free of Norman influence thereafter .
The impact on England of William 's conquest was profound ; changes in the Church , aristocracy , culture , and language of the country have persisted into modern times . The Conquest brought the kingdom into closer contact with France and forged ties between France and England that lasted throughout the Middle Ages . Another consequence of William 's invasion was the sundering of the formerly close ties between England and Scandinavia . William 's government blended elements of the English and Norman systems into a new one that laid the foundations of the later medieval English kingdom . How abrupt and far @-@ reaching were the changes is still a matter of debate among historians , with some such as Richard Southern claiming that the Conquest was the single most radical change in European history between the Fall of Rome and the 20th century . Others , such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles , see the changes brought about by the Conquest as much less radical than Southern suggests . The historian Eleanor Searle describes William 's invasion as " a plan that no ruler but a Scandinavian would have considered " .
William 's reign has caused historical controversy since before his death . William of Poitiers wrote glowingly of William 's reign and its benefits , but the obituary notice for William in the Anglo @-@ Saxon
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. Today , the endemic primate fauna of Madagascar contains over three @-@ quarters of the extant species of the suborder Strepsirrhini , which had been abundant throughout Laurasia and Africa during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs .
= = = Taxonomic classification = = =
The ruffed lemur genus , Varecia , is a member of the family Lemuridae . The extinct genus , Pachylemur most closely resembled the ruffed lemurs but died out after the arrival of humans . The genus Varecia contains two species , red ruffed lemurs and black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , the latter having three subspecies .
Family Lemuridae
Genus Eulemur : true lemurs
Genus Hapalemur : lesser bamboo lemurs
Genus Lemur : the ring @-@ tailed lemur
Genus † Pachylemur
Genus Prolemur : the greater bamboo lemur
Genus Varecia : ruffed lemurs
Black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata
Variegated black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata variegata
Southern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata editorum
Northern black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , Varecia variegata subcincta
Red ruffed lemur , Varecia rubra
= = = Changes in taxonomy = = =
Ruffed lemurs , along with several species of brown lemur were once included in the genus Lemur . In 1962 , the ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia .
The red ruffed lemur and the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur were formerly recognized as subspecies , Varecia variegata rubra and Varecia variegata variegata respectively . In 2001 both were elevated to species status , a decision that was later supported by genetic research . Three subspecies of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , which had been published decades earlier , were also recognized as variegata , editorum , and subcincta , although studies have not been entirely conclusive .
Subfossil remains of two extinct lemur species were previously classified under the genus Varecia . Found at sites in central and southwestern Madagascar , Varecia insignis and V. jullyi were very similar to modern ruffed lemurs , but more robust and assumed to be more terrestrial , and thus more prone to predation by early human settlers . More recent studies have shown that these extinct species had a diet similar to that of modern ruffed lemurs , and that they were also arboreal in nature . Enough differences were demonstrated to merit a separate genus , Pachylemur . These close relatives of ruffed lemurs are now named Pachylemur insignis and P. jullyi .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Ruffed lemurs are the largest extant members of the family Lemuridae , with an average head @-@ body length between 43 to 57 cm ( 17 to 22 in ) and a total length from 100 to 120 cm ( 39 to 47 in ) , while ranging in weight from 3 @.@ 1 to 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 0 lb ) . The thick , furry tail is longer than the body , averaging 60 and 65 cm ( 24 and 26 in ) in length and is used primarily for balance while moving through the trees . Ruffed lemurs exhibit neither sexual dimorphism nor sexual dichromatism , and females have three pairs of mammary glands .
Ruffed lemurs are characterized by their long , canine @-@ like muzzle , which includes a significant overbite . The face is mostly black , with furry " ruffs " running from the ears to the neck . Depending on the species , these ruffs are either white ( V. variegata ) or deep reddish ( V. rubra ) . Likewise , the coloration of the fluffy fur also varies by species , while the coloration pattern varies by subspecies in the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur . There are also intermediates in color variation between the two species .
As with all lemurs , the ruffed lemur has special adaptations for grooming , including a toilet @-@ claw on its second toe , and a toothcomb .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Ruffed lemurs are considered arboreal quadrupeds , with the most common type of movement being above @-@ branch quadrupedalism . While in the canopy leaping , vertical clinging , and suspensory behavior , are also common , while bridging , bimanual movement , and bipedalism are infrequently seen . When moving from tree to tree , ruffed lemurs will look over the shoulder while clinging , launch themselves into the air , and twist mid @-@ air so that their ventral surface lands on the new tree or limb . Suspensory behavior is more common in ruffed lemurs than in other lemur species . When ruffed lemurs come down to the ground , they continue to move quadrupedally , running with bounding hops and the tail held high .
= = Ecology = =
Being highly arboreal and the most frugivorous of the lemurs , they thrive only in primary forest with large fruiting trees , where they spend most of their time in the upper canopy . By spending the majority of their time in the crown of tall forest trees , they are relatively safe from predators such as the fossa .
Ruffed lemurs are active primarily during the day ( diurnal ) , during which time they feed primarily on fruits and nectar , often adopting suspensory postures while feeding . The seeds of the fruit they eat pass through their digestive tract and are propagated throughout the rainforests in their feces , helping to ensure new plant growth and a healthy forest ecosystem . These lemurs are also significant pollinators of the traveller 's tree ( Ravenala madagascariensis ) . Without destroying the inflorescence , they lick the nectar from deep inside the flower using their long muzzles and tongues , collecting and transferring pollen on their snouts and fur from plant to plant . This relationship is thought to be a result of co @-@ evolution .
= = = Geographic range and habitat = = =
Like all lemurs , this genus is found only on the island of Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa . Confined to the island 's seasonal eastern tropical rainforests , it is uncommon to rare throughout its range , which historically ran from the Masoala Peninsula in the northeast to the Mananara River in the south . Today , the black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur has a much larger range than the red ruffed lemur , although it is very patchy , extending from slightly northwest of Maroantsetra , on Antongil Bay , in the north down the coast to the Mananara River near Vangaindrano in the south . Additionally , a concentrated population of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , of the subspecies Varecia variegata subcincta , can also be found on the island reserve of Nosy Mangabe in Antongil Bay . It is suspected that this population was introduced to the island in the 1930s . The red ruffed lemur , on the other hand , has a very restricted range on the Masoala Peninsula .
Historically , the confluence of the Vohimara and Antainambalana Rivers may have been a zone of hybridization between these two species , although no conclusive results have indicated current interbreeding . In general , the Antainambalana River appears to isolate the red ruffed lemurs from the neighboring subspecies of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur , V. v. subcincta . The subspecies V. v. variegata can be found further south , and V. v. editorum is the southernmost subspecies . The ranges of these two southern subspecies overlap and intermediate forms are reported to exist , although this has not been confirmed .
The rainforests in which these animals live are seasonal , with two primary seasons : the hot , wet season ( November through April ) , and the cool , dry season ( May through October ) . The primary habitat for both species , at any season , is in the crowns of trees , where they spend the majority of their time 15 and 25 m ( 49 and 82 ft ) above ground . With the seasonal availability of resources being similar regardless of location , there is little to no difference in tree usage between species . From September through April , more fruit is available , so females prefer the lianas in the crowns of trees . Both sexes prefer the lower , major branches during the hot , rainy season . The tree crowns are predominantly used from May through August , when young leaves and flowers are in abundance .
= = = Sympatric relations = = =
The following lemur species can be found within the same geographic range as ruffed lemurs :
Greater dwarf lemur ( Cheirogaleus major )
Eastern lesser bamboo lemur ( Hapalemur griseus griseus )
Weasel sportive lemur ( Lepilemur mustelinus )
Diademed sifaka ( Propithecus diadema )
Common brown lemur ( Eulemur fulvus )
Red @-@ bellied lemur ( Eulemur rubriventer )
Eastern woolly lemur ( Avahi laniger )
Indri ( Indri indri )
Brown mouse lemur ( Microcebus rufus )
Aye @-@ aye ( Daubentonia madagascariensis )
White @-@ headed lemur ( Eulemur albifrons )
Ruffed lemurs either demonstrate feeding dominance or divide resources by using different forest strata . They are dominant over red @-@ bellied lemurs , while eastern lesser bamboo lemurs avoid encountering them altogether . White @-@ headed lemurs , on the other hand , prefer the understory and lower canopy , below 15 m ( 49 ft ) , while the ruffed lemurs mainly keep to the upper canopy , above 15 m ( 49 ft ) . Play has even been observed between infant ruffed lemurs and white @-@ headed lemurs .
= = Behavior = =
Ruffed lemurs , on average , spend 28 % of the day feeding , 53 % resting , and 19 % traveling , although differences in resting and feeding durations have been observed between males and females , with females resting less and feeding more . They are diurnal ; although peak activity occurs during the early morning and late afternoon or evening , resting usually occurs around midday . When resting , ruffed lemurs often sit hunched or upright . They are also frequently seen lying prone over a branch or sunbathing in a supine position with the limbs outstretched . When feeding , they will often hang upside @-@ down by their hind feet , a type of suspensory behavior , which allows them to reach fruits and flowers .
Being highly arboreal , they spend the majority of their time in the high canopy throughout the day . Ruffed lemurs spend the majority of their time between 15 to 20 m ( 49 to 66 ft ) above the forest floor , followed by 20 to 25 metres ( 66 to 82 ft ) up , and are least frequently seen at 10 to 15 metres ( 33 to 49 ft ) . During the hot season , they will relocate to the lower canopy to help regulate their body temperature . In the cold season , ruffed lemurs are least active and may dedicate 2 % of their resting time to sunbathing in order to warm up .
Long @-@ term field research has shown that range size , group size , social systems , and territorial behavior vary widely , and may be greatly affected by food distribution and quality . It is generally agreed that the ruffed lemur social system is multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female with a fission @-@ fusion society , although some populations of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur have been reported as monogamous . This social flexibility is suspected to improve survivability despite an inflexible feeding ecology .
= = = Diet = = =
Being the most frugivorous members of the family Lemuridae , consuming an average of 74 – 90 % fruit , ruffed lemurs also consume nectar ( 4 – 21 % ) , and supplement the rest of their diet with young leaves ( 3 – 6 % ) , mature leaves ( 1 % ) , flowers ( 3 – 6 % ) , and some seeds . Ruffed lemurs have also been reported to come to the ground to eat fungi and exhibit geophagy .
The majority of their diet is made up of relatively few common plant species , with a few species providing more than 50 % of the diet . Fig species of the genus Ficus , for example , account for 78 % of the fruit consumed by red ruffed lemurs on the Masoala Peninsula . Although plant species and diets vary by location , the most common food plants reported from the field include the following :
Canarium
Cryptocarya
Ocotea
Ravensara ( family Lauraceae )
Ficus
Eugenia / Syzygium
Grewia
Fruit trees do not appear to be selected by species , but by availability and accessibility of edible fruit . And despite predominance of a few plant species in the ruffed lemur diet , the remainder of their diet consists of between 80 and 132 other species from 36 plant families .
The availability of food reflects the seasonal nature of the forests in which they live . During the hot season , fruit , flowers , and young leaves are more abundant , whereas the cold , wet season offers more young leaves and flowers . Despite this , the diet changes little between seasons , except that females will consume more high @-@ protein , low @-@ fiber items , such as young leaves and flowers , during pregnancy and lactation in order to offset the energy costs of reproduction . Nectar is only available sporadically , yet constitutes a major food source when the flowers bloom . The nectar of the traveller 's palm ( Ravenala madagascariensis ) is a favorite among ruffed lemurs .
= = = Social systems = = =
The social organization of ruffed lemurs is widely variable in both group organization and group composition , although no notable difference can be seen between the two species . Ruffed lemurs are typically described as multi @-@ male groups with a fission @-@ fusion social structure , although this can vary by season and locality .
In a study done at Masoala Peninsula on red ruffed lemurs three levels of organization were identified and defined : communities , core groups , and subgroups . Communities are individuals that affiliated regularly with each other , but rarely with conspecifics outside of the community . Although the entire multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female community lives within a discrete home range , all individuals are never seen in the same location at the same time . Instead , individuals form dispersed social networks , known as core groups , within the community . Core groups are individuals that shared the same core area within a community territory throughout the year . Core groups typically consist of two reproductive females , as well as reproductive males and subadults , ranging in size from two individuals to nine . Females within the groups are cooperative , but male encounters are often agonistic . Subgroups , on the other hand , vary daily in size , composition , and duration , and consist of associated individuals from either the same core group or different core groups , depending on the season . It is from the consistent , daily changes in these subgroups that occur throughout the year , as well as the seasonal formations of core groups in core areas , that demonstrate the fission @-@ fusion nature of ruffed lemur social structure .
In another study done at Nosy Mangabe on black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs a fourth level or organization was defined : affiliates . Affiliates were individuals with more persistent social bonds and more frequent interactions , usually within a core group , but sometimes also between core groups within a subgroup . Adult females typically had many affiliates , whereas adult males rarely interacted with conspecifics , living a more solitary existence .
Past studies have reported other social organizations in ruffed lemurs including monogamous pair bonding . This may have been due to the use of short @-@ term , seasonal field studies instead of yearlong studies that take into consideration the effects that changing seasons have on ruffed lemur communities . For instance , during the cold , rainy season , which corresponds with the breeding season , interactions between core groups within a community are significantly reduced . During this time small subgroups form consisting of a mature female , a mature male , and sometimes offspring . This can be misinterpreted as monogamous pair bonding .
Ranging behavior can also exhibit seasonal variability . During the hot , wet season , females range widely , either alone or in groups of up to six individuals . In the cool , dry season , smaller core groups stabilize in order to occupy concentrated areas . Therefore , during seasons when fruit is abundant , subgroups are larger while scarcity is met with more solitary behavior . This suggests that although their feeding ecology is inflexible , being tied to widely distributed , patchy , and sometimes scarce fruit , ruffed lemurs instead adapt the social system in order to survive .
In terms of dominance , the ruffed lemur 's social structure is not as clear @-@ cut as other lemur societies where female dominance is the norm . Although it is historically reported that " males were subordinate to females , " especially with captive and free @-@ ranging ruffed lemur populations demonstrating this , wild populations cannot be definitively labeled as matriarchal due to inter @-@ group variation .
There are also social differences between males and females . Females typically have many affiliates and bond strongly with other females both within and outside their core areas , but do not affiliate with individuals outside the community range , except during mating season . Males , on the other hand , are more solitary , interact with only a couple of conspecifics , have weak social bonds with other males , and rarely associate with others outside their core group . Furthermore , field studies suggest that only females play a role in communal home range defense . Males may scent @-@ mark and remain relatively silent , but otherwise show little involvement during disputes .
Community range or territory size can vary widely , from 16 to 197 ha ( 0 @.@ 16 to 2 @.@ 0 km2 ; 0 @.@ 062 to 0 @.@ 76 sq mi ) while group size can range from a single pair to 31 individuals . Population density is also noticeably variable . These wide ranges can be attributed to differing levels of protection and degree of environmental degradation , with better protection and a less degraded environment resulting in higher population density and more moderately sized community ranges . ( The duration and seasonality of the studies involved may also have contributed to low group size estimates and community ranges . A study at the Betampona Reserve , for instance , observed monogamous pairs with two to five infants maintaining ranges of 16 to 43 ha ( 0 @.@ 16 to 0 @.@ 43 km2 ; 0 @.@ 062 to 0 @.@ 17 sq mi ) . ) Core areas at Ambatonikonilahy constituted approximately 10 % of the overall community range and showed a close relationship with the location of the largest fruiting trees .
The average daily traveling distance for ruffed lemurs varies between 436 to 2 @,@ 250 metres ( 1 @,@ 430 to 7 @,@ 382 ft ) , averaging 1 @,@ 129 metres ( 3 @,@ 704 ft ) per day . Activity patterns within the community range vary by gender and season . Males generally stay within a core area all year , whereas females only confine themselves to a core area during the cold wet season , then expand their range throughout the community range during the hot , rainy season . Females expand their traveling range slightly after giving birth , still staying within the core area , but gradually range further in December when they begin stashing their infants with other community members while they look for food . Females range the furthest later during the hot , rainy season . Both activity level and reproductive activity can be summarized in the following table .
Although males demonstrate little involvement in territorial disputes between neighboring communities , and ruffed lemur communities lack cohesiveness , females communally defend the community range against females of other communities . These disputes occur mostly during the hot , rainy season , when resources are more abundant and occur near the boundaries of community ranges . Spacing is maintained by scent marking and vocal communication . Ruffed lemurs are known for their loud , raucous calls that are answered by neighboring communities and subgroups within the same community .
During agonistic encounters between communities , chasing , scent @-@ marking , calling , and occasional physical contact can be seen . Other social behaviors appear to vary between wild and captive ruffed lemurs , as illustrated by the following table .
Some affiliative behaviors are seasonal or gender @-@ specific , such as the male squeal approach and anogenital inspections performed during the mating season . Another example is the female greeting behavior , where two females will use their anogenital scent glands to mark each other 's backs , jump over one another , writhe together , and emit squealing vocalizations . This behavior is not seen during the end of the cool , dry season or around gestation . The frequency of other affiliative behaviors can be affected by age . All ruffed lemurs over five months of age allogroom , and , in captivity , subadults participate in play more frequently than adults .
= = = Cognitive abilities = = =
Historically , relatively few studies of learning and cognition have been performed on strepsirrhine primates , including ruffed lemurs . However , a study at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve demonstrated that ruffed lemurs , along with several other members of the family Lemuridae , could understand the outcome of simple arithmetic operations .
= = = Communication = = =
= = = = Olfactory communication = = = =
As with all strepsirrhine primates , olfactory communication is used extensively by ruffed lemurs – scent marking in territorial defense and disputes , as well as female greeting displays . The scents communicate the sex , location , and identity of their owner .
Females predominantly scent mark with their anogenital scent glands , by squatting to rub their anogenital region along horizontal surfaces , such as tree limbs . Males , on the other hand , favor using the glands on their neck , muzzle , and chest , by embracing horizontal and vertical surfaces and rubbing themselves over them . Both sexes will occasionally scent mark in ways characteristic of the opposite sex .
In greeting displays , female ruffed lemurs will leap over one another , scent marking the other individual 's back in the process .
= = = = Auditory communication = = = =
Ruffed lemurs are highly vocal , with an extensive vocal repertoire with calls being used in multiple contexts . Calls can also vary seasonally . During the hot , rainy season , the loud , raucous calls that are a hallmark of ruffed lemurs allow groups to remain in contact and maintain spacing . These loud calls can be heard up to 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) away .
Ruffed lemurs use alarm calls that differentiate between ground and aerial predators . For instance an abrupt roar or huff alerts the group to an avian predator , and a pulsed squawk or growl @-@ snort communicates the existence of a mammalian ground predator . When sounding these calls , such as the pulsed squawk , adults direct them at the predator after moving to a safe position . Once the alarm call is sounded by one individual , the resulting chorus can even reach the furthest ranging community members .
In captivity , ruffed lemur vocalizations have been studied and divided into three general groups : high- , medium- , and low @-@ amplitude calls .
The well @-@ known roar / shriek chorus is spontaneous , occurring most often during period of high activity , as well as being contagious , involving communal participation including infants three to four months old . Abrupt roars are also more common during high activity and aside from alerting group members to the presence of an avian predator , they probably also help maintain contact with individuals outside of visual range or indicate an aggressive / defensive response to a disturbance . In the wild , both of these calls are emitted more during the hot , rainy season due to heighten activity . All high @-@ amplitude calls are delivered with from a " taut " body posture .
Medium @-@ amplitude calls operate over a shorter range or often involve moderately arousing situations , such as frustration or submission . Low @-@ amplitude calls also generally operate over a short range , yet also cover a wider range of aggravation levels .
Whines are highly variable between individual ruffed lemurs . Cough , grumble , squeak , and squeal have only been observed and researched in the wild .
The calls of ruffed lemurs vary only slightly between the two species . In fact , in captivity , it has been documented that red ruffed lemurs understand and even join in the alarm calls of black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs . One minor difference between the vocal repertoires of these two species is in the pulse rate and frequency of the pulsed squawk , which is much faster and higher in red ruffed lemurs than in black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs . The difference in this vocalization is only interspecific , showing no signs of significant sexual dimorphism within each species .
In black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs , pulsed squawks sometimes slow down as the group calms down , and integrate with the wail , creating pulsed squawk @-@ wail intermediates listen .
= = = Breeding and reproduction = = =
Contrary to initial reports of monogamy , ruffed lemurs in the wild exhibit seasonal polygamous breeding behavior , with both males and females mating with more than one partner within a single season . Mating is not restricted to just community members , but also involves members of neighboring communities . Females mate primarily with males with whom they had affiliative relations prior to mating season , although some matings occurred with roaming males from other communities .
Shortly before mating season begins , females exhibit swelling of the sex skin , which reaches its peak around the middle of their 14 @.@ 8 day estrous cycle . Male sexual physiology also undergoes its own change , with testicular volume increasing during mating season , peaking around the time of breeding . Aggression also increases during the mating season , both between members of the same sex and by females towards the male attempting to mate with her . Females have been observed grappling , cuffing , and biting the male during copulation . Either sex may approach the other when the female is in estrus . Initially they may roar @-@ shriek with each other . When a male approaches a female he often lowers his head and squeals , inspecting the female 's genitalia by licking or sniffing , scent @-@ marking , and offering a submissive chattering vocalization . When a female approaches a male , she may posture herself for mounting . Mating pairs often copulate many times during the course of a mating bout .
The mating season lasts from May through July , during the cold , rainy season , resulting in birth and peak lactation coinciding with the time that fruit is the most plentiful . The gestation period of ruffed lemurs is the shortest of the family Lemuridae , averaging 102 days ( with a range of 90 to 106 days ) . Gestation in the wild last slightly longer than in captivity , averaging 106 days . Just like the mating season , parturition is also seasonal , synchronized to the end of the cold , dry season and the start of the productive hot , rainy season .
In addition to an abnormally short gestation period , ruffed lemurs share another feature with small , nocturnal lemurs by producing the largest litters of the family Lemuridae . Litters typically include two or three infants , although up to five have been reported . Birth weights in captivity average between 83 to 101 @.@ 7 g ( 2 @.@ 93 to 3 @.@ 59 oz ) and range from 70 to 140 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 9 oz ) . Ruffed lemur infants are altricial , and are born with their eyes open and a full coat of fur .
Ruffed lemurs are the only known primates to build arboreal nests , used exclusively for birth and for the first week or two of life . Starting three weeks prior to birth , females begin constructing the nest from twigs , branches , leaves , and vines , locating it within her core area and 10 to 25 metres ( 33 to 82 ft ) above ground . The nests have only one apparent entry point , and are shallow and dish @-@ shaped . During the first couple of weeks , the mother is mostly solitary and does not travel far from the nest , spending as much as 70 – 90 % of her time with the newborns ( in captivity ) . In order to find food , she will leave the infants alone in the nest or , after the first couple of weeks , will carry them in her mouth and stash them in concealed locations in the canopy while she forages . Since this early developmental period corresponds with the end of the cold , dry season , which offers the least amount of fruit , energy is conserved for lactation while travel is limited . As the hot , rainy season begins , fruit availability rises , lactation demands rise as well , and females increase their travel distance in search of food .
Unlike other diurnal primates , which usually carry their infants with them , ruffed lemur mothers will stash their young by concealing them in the canopy foliage , leaving them to rest and sit quietly for several hours while she forages and performs other activities . Mothers continue to transport their offspring by mouth , moving them one at a time by grasping the infant 's belly crosswise . This form of transport usually stops around 2 @.@ 5 months of age when the infants become too heavy to carry .
Ruffed lemurs are cooperative breeders , with parental care being shared by all community members . For example , mothers will stash their offspring with other mothers or leave them to be guarded by other community members , including non @-@ breeding individuals of both genders . While the mother is away , community members will not only care for and guard them , but also sound alarm calls if danger is detected or if leaving the infant alone . They will also respond to alarm calls by others . These coordinated vigilance displays further involve communal transmission of the alarm call , with nearby community members repeating the alarm call , potentially summoning the mother back to her offspring . Infant transport by other members of the community has also been recorded . Females have been observed nursing infants of their close relatives , while close kin have adopted rejected infants , acting as foster parents .
Male care for infants has been documented in ruffed lemur societies . During early development , adult males may guard the nests of multiple core group females , as well as help care for the infants that were likely fathered by other males . During the season when females practice infant stashing , males effectively lighten the reproductive burden of up to several mothers by guarding , huddling , grooming , travelling , playing with and feeding the young .
Female ruffed lemurs produce relatively rich milk compared to other lemurs , and consequently , their young develop faster than those of other lemurs . Infants develop rapidly , attaining approximately 70 – 75 % adult weight by the age of four months . They begin climbing and clinging at one month of age , advancing to the point of independently following their mother and group members through the canopy at heights of 50 to 100 metres ( 160 to 330 ft ) by two to three months . Full adult mobility is attained at three to four months of age . Socially , they begin exchanging contact calls with their mother at three weeks , and select their mother as their play partner 75 – 80 % of the time during the first three months . Participation in greeting displays and more extensive vocalizations commences around four months , while scent marking does not start until six months of age . Infants begin testing solid food starting around 40 days to two months with weaning occurring between four and six months in the wild , although some individuals have continued to nurse until seven to eight months .
Infant mortality is often high among ruffed lemurs , but can also be highly variable . In some seasons , as many as 65 % are unable to reach three months of age , possibly due to falls and related injuries , although in some seasons infant mortality is as low as 0 % . For those that do survive to adulthood , sexual maturity is attained at 18 to 20 months in females and 32 to 48 months in males . Sexual maturity may take longer to reach in the wild compared to captivity . For females , the inter @-@ birth interval , or time between successive offspring , is typically one year , and in captivity , females can remain reproductively active until the age of 23 . The life expectancy for both species of ruffed lemur is estimated at 36 years in captivity .
= = Conservation status = =
In a land where approximately 90 % of the original island forest has been destroyed , ruffed lemurs cling to only a small fraction of their original range . Completely dependent upon large fruiting trees , neither species appears to be flexible with its habitat choice , with selective logging resulting in significantly lower population densities . Although they can survive in very disturbed habitats with lower population densities , they are still especially vulnerable to habitat disturbance . Decreased genetic diversity , in tandem with hunting , natural disasters , predation , and disease , can easily wipe out small populations .
The black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur was elevated by the IUCN to critically endangered ( A2cd ) status from endangered status in 2008 . They cite that " the species is believed to have undergone a decline of 80 % over a period of 27 years , due primarily to a decline in area and quality of habitat within the known range of the species and due to levels of exploitation . " The total area of all known localities in which black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs exist is estimated at less than 8 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 100 sq mi ) , while the total wild population is estimated between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 .
The red ruffed lemur was downgraded to endangered status from critically endangered status by the IUCN in 2008 . The justification given includes its limited range , its restriction to only the Masoala Peninsula , and its risk from ongoing habitat loss and hunting . This species occupies a range of no more than 4 @,@ 000 km2 ( 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ) , while the total wild population is estimated between 29 @,@ 000 and 52 @,@ 000 individuals . Red ruffed lemurs are only protected within the boundaries of the Masoala National Park . Historically , this species has been considered more threatened due to its highly restricted range , compared to the widely distributed black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemur . However , its protection within the island 's largest national park has slightly improved its chances at survival . Despite this , an assessment done in 2012 and published in 2014 reinstated the critically endangered status for the red ruffed lemur , largely due to the surge in illegal logging in Masoala National Park following the 2009 Malagasy political crisis .
There are several organizations involved in ruffed lemur conservation , including the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust , the Lemur Conservation Foundation ( LCF ) , the Madagascar Fauna Group ( MFG ) , Monkeyland Primate Sanctuary in South Africa , Wildlife Trust , and the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) . To conservation organizations , the ruffed lemurs are considered indicator , umbrella , and flagship species .
= = = Threats in the wild = = =
As with other primates , one of the principal threats to both ruffed lemur species is habitat loss due to slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , logging , and mining . Both species appear to be very sensitive to logging , and are thought to be the most vulnerable of rainforest lemurs . The hardwoods that are favored for construction materials and selectively logged are also preferred by ruffed lemurs for their fruits and potentially affect their travel routes through the canopy . Deforestation , on the other hand , is a result of the need to provide firewood and to support subsistence agriculture and cash crops . For red ruffed lemurs , Slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , known locally as tavy , is practiced seasonally on the Masoala peninsula between October and December , and its practice is expanding . Additionally , cattle are sometimes allowed to free @-@ range over these former agricultural clearings , preventing forest re @-@ growth .
Another principal threat to the survival of ruffed lemurs is hunting . Local human populations still hunt and trap ruffed lemurs with traditional weapons , using them as a source of subsistence . Studies from villages in the Makira Forest have revealed that ruffed lemur meat is not only a desired food , but is being hunted unsustainably . On the Masoala peninsula , the calls of red ruffed lemurs help hunters locate them . On this peninsula , firearms are used in addition to traditional traps , known as laly , which involve a 5 metres ( 16 ft ) strip of cleared forest with snares set on the few remaining branches that allow the lemurs to cross . Although hunting is illegal , the laws are generally not enforced and the local inhabitants show little concern about their hunting practices , which occur mostly from May to September . Hunting is the biggest concern in the Masoala peninsula because it is likely to continue , whereas logging and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture could be curtailed . In other regions , hunters can scare away ruffed lemurs from their favorite food sources , even if they are hunting other prey . Lastly , these animals are taken from their natural habitats to display for tourists or are sold as exotic pets .
Frequent cyclones also pose a threat , particularly to concentrated or small populations . In late January 1997 , Cyclone Gretelle destroyed 80 % of the Manombo forest canopy . With their habitat , including most of their food resources , effectively destroyed , the ruffed lemurs of the forest broadened their diet , remaining surprisingly frugivorous . Their body weights dropped and no births were reported for four years , but they managed to stave off starvation . This event demonstrated not only their flexibility in the face of natural disasters , which may highlight the evolutionary reasons behind their reproductive capacity and litter size , but also the threat faced by already stressed populations .
Predation in the wild appears to be very rare for ruffed lemurs , probably because living in the high canopy makes them challenging to catch . Evidence of predation by raptors , such as the Henst 's goshawk ( Accipiter henstii ) suggests it occurs at a low rate . The fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) could present a potential risk if it found an individual lower in the forest canopy , but no confirmation has been presented to indicate that they prey upon ruffed lemurs . Instead , only re @-@ introduced , captive @-@ bred ruffed lemurs have been killed by fossa , likely due to their inexperience with predators . Nesting behavior poses the biggest risk of predation , making them susceptible to carnivorous mammals , such as the ring @-@ tailed mongoose ( Galidia elegans ) and brown @-@ tailed mongoose ( Salanoia concolor ) .
= = = Captive breeding and reintroductions = = =
Captive populations of both ruffed lemur species exist in American and European zoos , representing a safeguard against extinction . In the United States , captive breeding is managed by the Species Survival Plan ( SSP ) , a program developed by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums ( AZA ) . Although the populations are very limited in their genetic diversity , these species thrive in captivity , making them an ideal candidate for reintroduction into protected habitat , if it is available . Although reintroduction is seen as a last resort among conservationists , a combination of in situ conservation efforts , such as legal protection , public education , the spread of sustainable livelihoods , and reforestation offer hope for ruffed lemurs . In the meantime , reintroductions offer conservation research opportunities and allow the limited genetic diversity maintained by the SSP to improve the genetic diversity of dwindling Malagasy ruffed lemur populations .
A captive release first occurred in November 1997 , when five black @-@ and @-@ white ruffed lemurs ( Varecia variegata variegata ) born in the United States were returned to Madagascar for release in the Betampona Strict Nature Reserve in eastern Madagascar . Popularly known as the Carolina Five , these individuals had lived their entire lives in the Natural Habitat Enclosures at the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) . Since then , two more groups totaling 13 captive @-@ born ruffed lemurs have been reintroduced into the same reserve , once in November 1998 and again in January 2001 . These latter two groups also received " boot camp training " in the DLC forested free @-@ range enclosures prior to release . So far , the results have shown some success , with 10 surviving longer than one year , 3 individuals integrating into wild groups , and 4 offspring have been born to or sired by released lemurs , all of which were parent @-@ raised . Saraph , a male released with the first group , was reported to be doing well seven years post @-@ release , living in a social group with a wild female and their offspring . Research has been ongoing since the initial release , as illustrated in the 1998 BBC documentary In the Wild : Operation Lemur with John Cleese . The research has provided useful information about their adaptation to life in the wild .
= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia =
The effects of Hurricane Dennis in Georgia included two deaths and $ 24 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage . On June 29 , 2005 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa . Gradually , the system organized on July 2 and formed a broad low pressure area . The system continued to organize , and it became a tropical depression on July 4 . Tracking westward , it became a tropical storm on July 5 and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall on Cuba . The storm weakened to Category 1 status before re @-@ emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and intensifying . Dennis made landfall on the Florida Panhandle on July 10 , then tracked over southeast Alabama .
Dennis had moderate effects in the state , primarily from flooding . One rainband in particular stalled in southwest portions of the state and produced 4 – 8 inches ( 100 – 200 mm ) of rain , with isolated reports of up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) . Flash flooding occurred in several areas , damaging hundreds of homes and businesses . Light to moderate wind gusts of 42 miles per hour ( 68 km / h ) combined with saturated ground downed several trees , one of which fell into a house , killing a man near Atlanta . A man also died while working with utility crews to restore power . One tornado was reported , downing 200 trees .
= = Preparations = =
In anticipation of the storm , the National Weather Service placed much of central , north and western Georgia under a flood watch . A wind advisory was also in effect for Clayton , Cobb , DeKalb and Fulton Counties . As the hurricane 's outer rainbands approached the state , a tornado watch was put into effect for central portions of the state . The Red Cross provided 80 shelters in the state , in addition to hundreds of volunteers . Due to large evacuations in the state , construction projects on Interstates 75 , 85 , and 185 , were postponed .
= = Flooding = =
Damage from Hurricane Dennis in Georgia was mostly minor to moderate . Moderate to heavy rainfall began on July 10 and persisted into the morning hours of July 11 . One rainband in particular stalled in southwest portions of the state and produced 4 – 8 inches ( 100 – 200 mm ) of rain , with isolated reports of up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) . Flash flooding occurred in Colquitt County , flooding the Okapilco Creek which damaged numerous homes , washed out several roads , and forced people from more than 100 homes to evacuate . Minor flooding occurred along the Flint and Withlacoochee River basins with a few homes affected by high water . In Worth County , a total of 300 homes were evacuated due to rising flood water , with 80 homes being flooded . In Dougherty County , dozens of homes and businesses in lost electric power . Additionally , flooding was confined to both sides of State Highway 82 near the Worth County border . Fishpond Drain in Seminole County flooded with several homes surrounded by rising water . A dam burst caused a torrent of water to overwash a road in Tift County , Georgia . Several rescues were required , particularly in Douglas and Cobb counties .
In Baldwin County , torrential rainfall and flooding led to the collapse of a fitness center ; two employees were injured . In Carroll County , more than 20 roads were either washed out or damaged by raging flood waters . A man in Upson County sustained injuries when he drove onto a washed @-@ out road . His vehicle was subsequently swept down the creek .
Georgia State Route 279 was also flooded over with more than one foot ( 300 mm ) of water . The Lamar County Emergency Management Director reported that several dirt roads in the county were flooded and some were washed out . De Kalb County had many of its streams and creeks surpass flood stage , causing minor damage to businesses and homes . Spalding County also reported 15 roads with extensive flooding damage . Fourteen mobile homes in Clayton County were damaged beyond repair by the flooding ; 52 residents were evacuated . In Riverdale , several homes were flooded , although damage was generally limited to the basements of the homes . In Fayette County , the historic Starrs Mill was inundated , and water rose to the bridge level on McDonough Road . There was also a dam breach on Lake Fowler , causing $ 300 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in damage .
One of the worst @-@ hit areas was Douglas County , where rainfall reached 10 in ( 250 mm ) . Ten roads in the county required major repair and seven others were flooded and closed for some period of time . 42 trailer homes were either submerged or heavily damaged by flood waters , and six homes sustained minor damage from flood waters . A car dealership was also flooded , damaging about 100 used cars and 20 – 30 new cars . Damage across the county was placed as $ 6 million ( 2005 USD ) . There were unofficial reports that Kings Highway between Interstate 20 southwest of Douglasville and Fouts Mill was flooded . Minor structural damage occurred as up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of rain fell in the county .
An apartment building in Cherokee County received extensive damage from flooding , forcing the evacuation of its residents by boat . Water was up to the first floor level of many of the apartments of the complex . Also , businesses and hotels were flooded along Interstate 575 near Georgia State Route 92 . About 15 homes suffered severe damage in the area . The Noonday Creek reached a record stage of 16 @.@ 3 ft ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) feet at 1200 UTC , exceeding the previous record stage of 13 @.@ 8 ft ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) feet on September 17 , 2004 during Hurricane Ivan . At least one road in the county was closed due to high waters . Damage in Cherokee County was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( 2005 USD ) , primarily from damage to the apartment building .
In Worth County , 78 people were displaced by the flooding . A total of 300 homes were evacuated and 80 damaged by the flood waters , causing $ 1 @.@ 8 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage . $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage was also reported in Colquitt County due to the flooding of several homes and businesses . In total , over 100 buildings had to be evacuated .
= = Wind damage = =
The highest winds associated with the storm occurred at Albany , and were clocked at 42 miles per hour ( 68 km / h ) . The lowest barometric pressure also occurred at Albany , dropping to 1007 @.@ 5 mb . A large number counties in western parts of the state reported downed trees and powerlines , with widespread power outages across the region . In Decatur , a man was killed when a large tree fell onto his bedroom . Near the city of Atlanta , there were closures on two major interstate highways due to high water ; at least one bridge was closed south of the city . Also , a tractor trailer overturned on a two @-@ lane road , sending the driver to the hospital and closing the road for several hours . In total , about 55 @,@ 000 customers lost electricity , with 38 @,@ 000 of them being from the Atlanta area . A man also died while working with utility crews to restore power . Also , a large tree fell on a woman 's house , trapping her . Emergency crews managed to safely remove her , although damage to her home was extensive .
A large structure in Bartow County was significantly damaged by wind gusts , causing almost $ 10 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) in damage . In Douglas County , a tree fell on a car on Interstate 20 causing damage to the vehicle , although no injuries were reported . In another incident , a tree was blown onto a home on Campbellton Street , causing damage to the structure . Several trees and power lines down in Fulton County , with the worst damage in the southwest portions of the county . Several of trees were also down in the Roswell area . The Roswell Cat Clinic was forced to close when a large tree damaged the facility . Also , a home in North Atlanta was damaged when a large oak tree fell on its deck . U.S. Route 100 had to be closed for a brief period because of downed trees in Hall County . In all , wind damage totaled up to $ 246 @,@ 000 dollars ( 2005 USD ) .
= = Tornadoes = =
The White County Emergency Management Director reported that an F0 tornado touched down in the southwest corner of White County near the Hall County line at the Wauka Valley Farms area , which formed on the tail end of a feeder band associated with the remnants of Hurricane Dennis . The tornado path width was estimated to be approximately 1 / 8 to 1 / 4 mile wide . Significant damage was reported at the Wauka Valley Farms facility . Hundreds of trees were uprooted , and two barns were completely destroyed . One structure sustained room damage and a number of trees and power lines were also down along Town Creek road . Overall , in excess of 200 trees were down in the southwest part of the county .
= Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) =
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " is a song by the rock band U2 and the tenth track from their 1991 album Achtung Baby . Ostensibly about love and dependency , the song also lends itself to religious interpretations , with listeners finding allusions to the Book of Job and writers finding spiritual meaning in its invocation of the light spectrum .
The song 's composition and recording incorporate both serious and throwaway elements , in keeping with the rest of Achtung Baby . While not released as a single , the song has appeared in two films and a U2 business venture was named after it . " Ultraviolet " played a featured role during the encores of the group 's 1992 – 1993 Zoo TV and 2009 – 2011 U2 360 ° Tours .
= = Recording = =
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " began as two different demos , one variously called " Ultraviolet " and " 69 " ( which eventually evolved into the B @-@ side " Lady with the Spinning Head " ) and an alternately arranged demo called " Light My Way " . Over the course of the recording sessions , U2 added various overdubs to the song , but producer Brian Eno believed these additions negatively impacted the track . Eno aided the group in editing down the song , and he explained his assistance as such : " I 'd go in and say , ' The song has gone , whatever it is you liked about this song is not there anymore . Sometimes , for example , the song would have disappeared under layers of overdubs . "
= = Composition and interpretation = =
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " is written in a 4 / 4 time signature . The lyrics of " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " are addressed to a lover , and imply that their relationship is threatened by some sort of personal or spiritual crisis , coupled with a sense of unease over obligations . Indeed , lead vocalist Bono has called the song " a little disturbed " .
The song opens with 45 seconds of soft synthesizers and ethereal vocals , somewhat akin in atmospherics to the group 's early 1980s songs " Tomorrow " and " Drowning Man " ; during this , Bono laments that " sometimes I feel like checking out . " This is followed by the entrance of drums and guitar in a familiar U2 rhythm , as Bono describes the burdens of love and how he is " in the black ; can 't see or be seen . " Each verse culminates with the refrain " Baby , baby , baby , light my way . " Flood , who engineered and mixed the recording , noted that there was considerable laughter and debate during the sessions about whether Bono could get away with singing the repeated " baby " s , one of the most heavily @-@ used clichés in pop songs and one that he had avoided up to that point in his songwriting ; Flood later commented that " he got away with it alright . "
Although the song is ostensibly about love and dependency , like many U2 songs , it also lends itself to religious interpretations . Listeners have heard an allusion to the Book of Job 29 : 2 – 3 and its tale of God serving as a lamp upon Job 's head walking through the darkness . Robyn Brothers suggests that ultraviolet light is " a metaphor for a divine force both unseen to the naked eye and ultimately unknowable to the human intellect . " Conversely , Steve Stockman , author of Walk On : The Spiritual Journey Of U2 , sees " Ultraviolet " as being about Bono 's wife Ali Hewson , and " how when he feels like trash , she makes him clean , " but says there is good reason to interpret the song as being just as much about God . The song 's title supports this view : indigo and violet rarely appear in song lyrics as frequently as other colours , while ultraviolet represents an unseen wavelength beyond the visible spectrum .
As such , the title evokes the image of black light or an invisible force permeating the darkness , whose connotations are spiritual and personal , as well as technological , reflecting themes of modern alienation explored elsewhere on Achtung Baby and its follow @-@ up album , Zooropa . Dianne Ebertt Beeaff , author of A Grand Madness : Ten Years on the Road with U2 , sees the song 's narrator as longing for assistance from any source , religious or secular : " This is a real plea , a bleary worn @-@ down drained wish to disappear . A drowning man desperate to hold hands in the darkness , to have someone else point the way , to be safe and obscure . " Atara Stein sees " Ultraviolet " as one of several selections on the album in which the protagonist in crisis has elevated his lover into an object of worship , desperate for her to " return to her initial role as his guide and salvation . "
" Ultraviolet " is also one of several songs Bono has written on the theme of woman as spirit , and it echoes the band 's 1980 song " Shadows and Tall Trees " by juxtaposing love with the image of ceilings . A line in Raymond Carver 's late 1980s poem " Suspenders " , about the quiet that comes into a house where no one can sleep , was subconsciously recycled by Bono into the lyric . In Achtung Baby 's running order , " Ultraviolet " serves , with the other two songs at the album 's end , " Acrobat " and " Love Is Blindness " , to explore how couples face the task of reconciling the suffering they have imposed on each other .
The song features a Motown sound @-@ style " telegraph key " rhythm , which gave it the feeling of a pop song . This and the " baby , baby " refrain gave the song a throwaway quality that fit in with Achtung Baby 's mission of deconstructing U2 's image . Paradoxically , the arrangement also featured U2 's 1980s " repeato @-@ riff " guitar style and the rest of the lyric was a serious love song that dealt with themes of anxiety and despair . Bono has described " Ultraviolet " as " an epic U2 song [ but ] the key of it left my voice in a conversational place and allowed a different kind of lyric writing . " Producer Eno wrote that a combination of opposites within each song was a signature characteristic of Achtung Baby and that as part of that , " Ultraviolet " had a " helicopterish melancholy " . In Achtung Baby 's album package , " Ultraviolet " is presented next to a photograph of a crumbling Berlin building that has a Trabant parked in front of it .
= = Reception = =
Rolling Stone noted that " Ultraviolet " was one of the album 's songs that hearkened more to the group 's past than their new sound , saying that Edge 's " soaring peals on [ it ] are instantly recognizable " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that compared to much of the album 's grim depictions of personal relations , " Ultraviolet " depicts love as a haven . In contrast , U2 write John Jobling sees " Ultraviolet " as continuing the album 's theme of " two people tearing each other apart " , despite its " spectral pop " arrangement .
The Boston Globe heard echoes of The Rolling Stones ' 1966 song " Out of Time " in the chorus of " Ultraviolet " . Entertainment Weekly called it the album 's highlight , " where Bono 's soaring voice and the Edge 's pointillistic guitar meld to create one of those uplifting moments we listen to U2 for " . Cedarville University literature professor Scott Calhoun says of one lyrical portion of " Ultraviolet " , " That 's so evocative and works as beautiful writing away from the music . It can stand on its own on the page and , of course , it 's even more effective when accompanied by the music . "
Other writers were less enthusiastic . Q magazine felt that the song was weak and that " Bono falls back on his old habit of trying to be ' inspirational ' by banging up the heat from simmer to meltdown between the verse and chorus . " U2 chroniclers Bill Graham and Caroline van Oosten de Boer also see the song as a throwback to the group 's earlier sound , but say that " the band doesn 't sufficiently develop the initial idea to warrant the five minutes of ' Ultra Violet ' " .
While " Ultraviolet " was not released as a single , it was used in a scene in the 2006 Adam Sandler film Click , and was featured in the 2007 film The Diving Bell and the Butterfly .
The name Ultra Violet was also given to one of U2 's improvised mid @-@ 1990s business initiatives , a joint merchandising venture with MCA Inc . ' s Winterland division ; the partnership soon dissolved , but not before producing several hundred thousand pairs of Bono " Fly " glasses .
= = Live performances = =
" Ultraviolet " is unusual in that the band has only ever played it in concert as part of an encore , usually preceding " With or Without You " . It was first performed at Lakeland Arena in Lakeland , Florida on 29 February 1992 at the start of the Zoo TV Tour , and it remained a staple of the band 's set lists for the first four legs of the
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to the selection issues and injury problems surrounding England , Bangladesh came into the tour with a relatively stable squad . Uncapped players Nasir Hossain and Suhrawadi Shuvo were both named in the ODI squad , and Mashrafe Mortaza was fit to play after making it through the warm @-@ up game against England for the BCB XI , having not played since July 2009 due to a knee injury . After playing in the first ODI , Mortaza withdrew from the squad for the remaining ODIs and Test matches , citing a disagreement over his fitness . The Bangladesh chairman of selectors , Rafiqul Alam , announced that Mortaza had withdrawn himself " to be by the side of his ailing mother " . Mohammad Ashraful , Bangladesh 's most @-@ capped player , was omitted from the Test squad as he had failed to convince the selectors that he was in the right frame of mind for international cricket . The day after the squad had been announced , Bangladesh 's preparations for the opening Test match were " thrown into disarray " when Raqibul Hasan announced his retirement from international cricket at the age of 22 . It was reported that the retirement was due to Raqibul 's displeasure at being omitted from the provisional squad for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20 . Uncapped Jahurul Islam was called into the squad to replace him .
= = ODI series = =
= = = 1st ODI = = =
After winning the toss , England opted to put Bangladesh into bat , but their new @-@ ball bowlers failed to maintain a good line and length , providing opener Tamim Iqbal with plenty of bad deliveries to put away for boundaries . Their breakthrough came in the 10th over , when Bresnan bowled a slower ball to Imrul Kayes who found a leading edge and was caught by Luke Wright at mid @-@ on . Two more wickets followed closely as Junaid Siddique hit a half @-@ volley softly to the fielder at square leg in the next over , and then Aftab Ahmed was run out in the 13th over , leaving Bangladesh with 82 runs for the loss of three wickets ( 82 / 3 ) . Captain Shakib Al Hasan and vice @-@ captain Mushfiqur Rahim both provided Tamim with some support , but both were undone by their own rashness ; Shakib advanced down the wicket to Graeme Swann and provided an edge for Matt Prior to catch behind the stumps , while Mushfiqur attempted a run which was never available and presented Kevin Pietersen with his second run out of the match . Tamim alone provided resistance , showing " imperious strokeplay all around the ground " and a measure of maturity in his innings . His 125 came off 120 balls , including 13 fours and 3 sixes , eventually being dismissed in the 43rd over , bowled by Broad , with Bangladesh on 214 / 9 . The final two batsmen lasted three overs , adding 14 to score , leaving England requiring 229 to win .
In England 's reply , captain Alastair Cook played in a fashion reminiscent of the man he had replaced for the tour , Strauss , as he played an accumulatory innings to score 64 . Kieswetter , who had been brought into the team to provide firepower at the start of the innings was outscored by Cook 4 to 1 , and was nearly dismissed twice in his first over , offering an edge to wicket @-@ keeper Mushfiqur Rahim , and two balls later he was caught in front , but umpire Rod Tucker ruled that he was not out . Kieswetter was dismissed in the 13th over for 19 , completely missing a drive ; presenting Mushfiqur with an easy stumping . An over later , Kevin Pietersen fell for just one run , leaving England on 74 / 2 . Cook and new man Collingwood put on 22 runs before the opener was adjudged leg before wicket ( LBW ) though replays indicated that the ball was missing the stumps on the leg side . Collingwood then anchored the chase with Eoin Morgan , the pair adding 88 runs to the score . After the dismissal of Morgan on 33 , it was left to Prior to join Collingwood to add the required runs , and England won with four overs to spare .
= = = 2nd ODI = = =
Both sides made changes going into the second ODI ; for England , Sidebottom made way as England opted to hand a debut to Tredwell in order to play two spinners , while Bangladesh called on Shuvo and Rubel Hossain , dropping Siddique and Mortaza . For the second consecutive match , England won the toss and chose to field . The match began in similar fashion to the first ODI , with two quick wickets in the 10th and 11th overs taking Bangladesh from 46 / 0 to 56 / 2 . However , a third @-@ wicket partnership of 90 between Kayes and Rahim steadied the innings and helped Bangladesh to gain confidence . After Imrul Kayes ' dismissal , Rahim increased his scoring @-@ rate with a series of boundaries to take the score past 200 , and was dismissed by a slower ball from Bresnan with the score at 211 / 5 . Some late swinging from the tail saw Bangladesh finish on 260 / 6 , their highest total in ODIs against England .
England lost opener Kieswetter in the first over ; caught at first slip off the third ball of the innings , having been dropped by the keeper the ball before . Pietersen and Collingwood were both trapped LBW by Abdur Razzak without passing 20 , and Morgan joined Cook in the middle with the score at 68 / 3 . Initially , Morgan supported his captain by rotating the strike , but when Cook was dismissed for a 61 @-@ ball 60 , he played with more freedom . A partnership of 90 with wicket @-@ keeper Prior brought England close to 200 , but Wright , Bresnan and Swann all fell cheaply , leaving England requiring 31 runs off 26 balls with only two wickets remaining . With England " seemingly in disarray " , Morgan took control of the match , and completed the run @-@ chase with three boundaries in five balls . Morgan finished the game with 110 not out , his first century for England .
= = = 3rd ODI = = =
The third ODI saw a change of venue ; the teams moving from Dhaka to the coastal town of Chittagong . England again made two bowling changes , seamers Shahzad and Liam Plunkett coming into the team with the injured Broad and spinner Tredwell making way . Bangladesh remained unchanged from the second ODI . The hosts won their first toss of the series , and put England into bat . Kieswetter bucked his natural game and played cautiously : when partner Cook was dismissed for 32 in the 13th over , he had scored 20 off 33 balls . The opener continued to accumulate runs carefully until he reached his half @-@ century in the 33rd over . After passing the milestone , he began to score quicker , cutting and driving as he shared a 74 @-@ run partnership with Collingwood . He reached his century with a scampered run off Rubel Hossain , his first in international cricket , in his third ODI appearance . At 22 years and 97 days old , he became the second youngest England batsman to score an ODI century after David Gower . In contrast to the " all @-@ action " style that had been expected from him , Kieswetter accrued his century with resolve , saying after the match that : " In the first two games I wasn 't quite aware tactically of how I was going to pace my innings , [ in terms of ] helping the team win the game . Today I tried to pace myself a bit more , and try to get myself in more before playing big shots . " His dismissal soon after his century brought Wright to the crease with the freedom to make an aggressive cameo , notching 32 runs off just 13 balls to help England towards a total of 284 .
In response , Bangladesh lost Tamim Iqbal for a duck in the first over , giving debutant Ajmal Shahzad his first ODI wicket from his third ball of the match . Bresnan removed the other Bangladeshi opener in the 10th over , the first of his four wickets in the match . This wicket brought together Mushfiqur Rahim and Aftab Ahmed , who both played aggressively , putting on 56 together in the next ten overs , but when Aftab Ahmed was run out looking for a non @-@ existent run , Bangladesh started to struggle . Rahim and Shakib Al Hasan both fell after making good starts and the required run rate started to rise , making a Bangladeshi victory look improbable . Slow scoring between Naeem Islam and Mahmudullah took victory further away , and Bangladesh eventually finished 45 runs short of their target , granting England a series whitewash .
= = Test series = =
= = = 1st Test = = =
The teams remained in Chittagong for the first Test , in which England gave Test debuts to Finn and Carberry . Bangladesh 's preparations for the match were disrupted when middle @-@ order batsman Hasan announced his retirement from international cricket two days earlier , and although Jahurul Islam was called into the squad to replace him , it was Aftab Ahmed who took his place in the team for the Test . Bangladesh won the toss , and made " among the most unfathomable calls " , putting England into bat on a surface that looked certain to deteriorate . Cook capitalised on the decision , being " barely troubled " as he remained 158 not out at the close of the first day , having faced 244 balls . Debutant Carberry out @-@ scored Cook early on , but fell on 30 going for an ambitious sweep against Mahmudullah . His wicket brought in Jonathan Trott who scored slowly but confidently until he was wrongly dismissed on 39 . A bouncing ball hit his helmet and was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Rahim , prompting the umpire to give him out caught . Pietersen , who had been struggling against left @-@ arm spin bowling , adjusted his style of play during his innings , staying more leg @-@ side of the ball . He scored 99 runs , falling just short of a century when he was bowled by left @-@ arm spinner Razzak . Collingwood , who scored 145 runs , and Ian Bell , who added 84 runs , increased the run rate during the second day to propel England to 599 for 6 , at which point they declared , half an hour before the tea interval .
England took advantage of bowling at their hosts before tea , with Broad dismissing Kayes and Siddique with bouncers . Shortly after the break , Swann claimed the wicket of Aftab Ahmed in his first over ; caught at short leg . Bangladesh had lost three wickets with only 51 runs scored , but a partnership of 94 by Iqbal and Mahmudullah brought their side back into the match . Mahmudullah was caught in the slips just after reaching his half @-@ century , and his captain Shakib Al Hasan followed before the end of the day . Iqbal was dismissed in the third over of the following day , and nine overs later Shahadat Hossain was also dismissed , leaving Bangladesh 416 runs behind with only three wickets remaining . Thoughts of a quick victory were quashed by a Bangladesh record partnership for the eighth @-@ wicket by Rahim and Naeem Islam , who added 113 runs together . Rahim played defiantly , batting for 152 balls to reach score his 79 runs , and was described by ESPNcricinfo 's Andrew McGlashan as a " lesson to the more impetuous of his team @-@ mates " . The partnership was eventually broken by a run out by Carberry , and Bangladesh added no more runs for the final two wickets to finish on 296 : over 300 runs behind .
As they were playing a four @-@ man bowling attack , and had spent longer in the field than they had wanted , England opted not to enforce the follow @-@ on . Batting again , England pressed to score quickly , but were pegged back by regular dismissals : no batsman scored more than 40 runs , and the run rate was much the same as their first innings . Shakib Al Hasan claimed four wickets , and England batting 50 minutes into the fourth morning before declaring on 209 for 7 , leaving Bangladesh requiring 513 runs in their second innings to win .
Bangladesh lost wickets at regular intervals at the start of their innings ; by the end of the 38th over , they had lost five wickets . Rahim joined Siddique after the fifth wicket fell , and the pair batted patiently together to see their side through to force the match into its final day . The partnership continued to battle during the fifth morning of the match , and Siddique reached his first Test century , coming from 262 deliveries . Shortly after , Prior failed to take a difficult catch , but Siddique did not capitalise on the mistake , adding no more runs before he was caught in the slips shortly after lunch . The bowler , Swann , swore at Siddique as he walked off the pitch , something he later apologised for , saying that it was " a testament to him that he did get everyone frustrated . " Rahim was bowled by Swann four overs later , and despite a late assault by Naeem Islam , who scored three fours and three sixes before being becoming Swann 's 10th victim of the match , England won by 181 runs . Swann , who took five wickets in each innings , was the first English off spinner since Jim Laker in 1956 to take 10 wickets in a match . His performance in the match led to him rising to second place in the ICC Test bowling rankings .
= = = 2nd Test = = =
The teams returned to Dhaka for the second Test , and made three changes ; Bangladesh selected Shafiul Islam and Jahurul Islam to replace Aftab Ahmed and Shahadat Hossain , while England added a second spinner , with Carberry making way for Tredwell . The toss was once again won by Bangladesh , who opted to bat first . Tamim Iqbal , on his 21st birthday , scored runs with freedom on the first morning , reaching a half @-@ century from 34 balls . He was dropped twice before that , by Collingwood and Cook , but his innings was described by David Hopps in Wisden Cricketers ' Alamanack as " taking something normally sedate and slightly forbidding , and making it wild and intoxicating . " Tamim 's batting drew interest that he could become the fifth player in Test history to score a century on the first morning , but he was dismissed by Tredwell for 85 , attempting a sweep . Swann , who had been particularly expensive against Tamim , took wickets either side of lunch to leave Bangladesh on 167 for 4 . Shakib and Mahmudullah steadied the innings , scoring 59 runs together , before both were dismissed in close succession . Another patient partnership between Mushfiqur Rahim and Naeem Islam took Bangladesh past 300 runs . On the second morning , Bangladesh pressed aggressively , particularly through Shafiul Islam , who scored a half @-@ century at just quicker than a run @-@ a @-@ ball . Cook 's captaincy was criticised in Wisden where Hopps claimed that Cook 's fields " defied logic " , while ESPNcricinfo 's Sahil Dutta described his captaincy as " more robotic than insightful " . Naeem Islam remained 59 not out as Bangladesh were bowled out for 419 .
In England 's response , Shakib opted to use his spinners to minimise scoring opportunities , a tactic which led to Cook 's dismissal for 21 . His fellow opener , Trott , scored his first run from his 33rd delivery , and continued to bat circumspectly throughout the second day . Pietersen attempted to score more quickly , though it took a bad over from Razzak to allow him to do so . A misjudged shot after leaving his crease resulted in him being caught , and Collingwood followed soon after , leg before wicket from his third delivery . Bell joined Trott in the middle , and the pair added 67 runs together before Trott was dismissed for 64 . Prior capitalised on more bad bowling from Razzak to reach his half @-@ century , but fell shortly after , giving Bangladesh hope of a first @-@ innings lead . Bell and Bresnan took England to the brink of a lead , adding 143 runs together , including a century for Bell . It was the first occasion on which Bell had scored a century in Test cricket without a team @-@ mate having already done so in the innings , a statistic that had been used to suggest he could not score run in tough conditions . Speaking about his century , Bell alluded to that statistic , stating that he had " put a few things to bed . " After his dismissal , Bresnan batted with the tail , taking his score to 91 , and England 's to 496 , a lead of 77 runs . After the third day , Bangladesh 's captain , Shakib , criticised the Bangladesh Cricket Board for not paying for the use of the Umpire Decision Review System . He believed that a number of the umpiring decisions had gone against his side , and the technology could have given his side a better chance of their first Test win over England .
Bangladesh 's second innings started in similar fashion to their first ; they lost the early wicket of Imrul Kayes , and Tamim scored a quick half @-@ century . The latter was dropped three times before being caught by Broad for 52 runs . Junaid and Jahurul both made good starts for Bangladesh , but were out for 34 and 43 respectively , which along with low scores for Mahmudullah and Mushfiqur left Bangladesh on 172 for six at the end of the fourth day . On the final morning , Shakib batted resiliently with the lower @-@ order batsmen and narrowly missed out on a century ; he was the last man out , stumped attempting to score a boundary to reach the landmark . His batting had helped establish a 208 run lead for Bangladesh , which resulted in England requiring just under four runs per over to reach the total .
In England 's chase , Trott was the only batsman dismissed , run out for 19 , although replays suggested that it was possibly the wrong decision . Cook scored his second century of the series , and Pietersen finished on 74 , scored at just under a run @-@ a @-@ ball . Bangladesh 's bowling attack was tired , and rarely threatened England ; Pietersen even opted to switch hit some deliveries . In Wisden , Hopps , who had described the second morning as being possibly " England 's lowest point of a long winter " , contrastingly said of the final day ; " England 's supremacy had rarely looked so marked . " Despite England 's victory , which maintained their one hundred percent winning record against Bangladesh , Shakib was named as man of the match .
= = Tour matches = =
= = = 50 @-@ over tour matches : Bangladesh Cricket Board XI v England XI = = =
England won both of their one @-@ day warm @-@ up matches against the Bangladesh Cricket Board XI comfortably . In the first match , England batted first and scored 370 runs , during which Kieswetter and Collingwood both posted centuries while scoring quicker than a @-@ run @-@ a @-@ ball . ESPNcricinfo described Kieswetter 's century as ensuring " he will be making his England debut in the first ODI " . In the next match , which was shortened to 37 overs per side , England bowled first and restricted their hosts to 151 runs . Tredwell bowled particularly economically , allowing just 17 runs from his seven overs . In their response , England reached the winning total with 70 balls to spare . Cook and Prior both scored half @-@ centuries .
= = = 3 @-@ day tour match : Bangladesh A v England XI = = =
= Jimmy Greaves =
James Peter " Jimmy " Greaves ( born 20 February 1940 ) is a former England international footballer . He is England 's fourth highest international goalscorer ( 44 goals ) , Tottenham Hotspur 's highest ever goalscorer ( 266 goals ) , the highest goalscorer in the history of English top @-@ flight football ( 357 goals ) , and has also scored more hat @-@ tricks ( six ) for England than anyone else . He finished as the First Division 's top scorer in six seasons . He is a member of the English Football Hall of Fame .
Greaves began his professional career at Chelsea in 1957 , and played in the following year 's FA Youth Cup final . He scored 124 First Division goals in just four seasons before being sold on to Italian club A.C. Milan for £ 80 @,@ 000 in April 1961 . His stay in Italy was not a happy one and he returned to England with Tottenham Hotspur for a fee of £ 99 @,@ 999 in December 1961 . Whilst with Spurs he won the FA Cup in 1961 – 62 and 1966 – 67 , the Charity Shield in 1962 and 1967 , and the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1962 – 63 ; he never won a league title but did help Spurs to a second @-@ place finish in 1962 – 63 . He moved to West Ham United in a player @-@ exchange in March 1970 and retired the following year . After a four @-@ year absence he returned to football at the non @-@ league level , despite suffering from alcoholism . In a five @-@ year spell he played for Brentwood , Chelmsford City , Barnet , and Woodford Town .
Greaves scored 13 goals in 12 England under @-@ 23 internationals and scored 44 goals in 57 full England internationals between 1959 and 1967 . He played in the 1962 and 1966 FIFA World Cup , but was injured in the group stage of the 1966 World Cup and lost his first team place to Geoff Hurst , who kept Greaves out of the first team in the final . England won the World Cup , but Greaves was not given his medal until a change of FIFA rules in 2009 .
After retiring as a player Greaves went on to enjoy a career in broadcasting , most notably working alongside Ian St. John on Saint and Greavsie from 1985 to 1992 . During this period , he also made regular appearances on TV @-@ am . He worked on a number of other sport shows on ITV during this period , including Sporting Triangles .
= = Club career = =
= = = Chelsea = = =
Greaves was born in Manor Park and raised in Hainault . He was scouted playing football while a schoolboy by Chelsea 's Jimmy Thompson , and in 1955 was signed on as an apprentice to become one of " Drake 's Ducklings " ( Drake 's Ducklings were named after manager Ted Drake in response to Manchester United 's " Busby Babes " ) . He soon made an impression at youth level , scoring 51 goals in the 1955 – 56 season and 122 goals in the 1956 – 57 season under the tutelage of youth team coach Dickie Foss . Greaves scored in the 1958 FA Youth Cup final , but Chelsea lost the two @-@ legged tie 7 – 6 on aggregate after Wolverhampton Wanderers turned round a four @-@ goal deficit with a 6 – 1 win in the second leg . He turned professional in the summer of 1957 , though spent eight weeks working at a steel company to supplement his income during the summer break .
Aged 17 , Greaves scored on his First Division debut on 24 August 1957 against Tottenham Hotspur in a 1 – 1 draw at White Hart Lane . He was an instant success , as the News Chronicle reported that he " showed the ball control , confidence and positional strength of a seasoned campaigner " and compared his debut to the instant impact the young Duncan Edwards had as a teenager . The " Blues " played attacking football during the 1957 – 58 campaign , resulting in high @-@ scoring matches , and Greaves ended the season as the club 's top scorer with 22 goals in 37 appearances . Drake rested him for six weeks from mid @-@ November as he did not wish the praise Greaves was receiving to go to his head ; Greaves marked his return to the first team at Stamford Bridge with four goals in a 7 – 4 victory over Portsmouth on Christmas Day .
Greaves scored five goals in a 6 – 2 win against league champions Wolverhampton Wanderers in the third match of the 1958 – 59 season . Chelsea remained inconsistent , though despite his team finishing in 14th place Greaves managed to finish as the division 's top scorer with 32 goals in 44 league games . Greaves scored 29 goals in 40 league matches in the 1959 – 60 campaign , five of which came in a 5 – 4 victory over Preston North End . Despite his goalscoring exploits , the club could manage only an 18th @-@ place finish , three places and three points above the relegation zone .
In the 1960 – 61 season , Greaves scored hat @-@ tricks against Wolves , Blackburn Rovers and Manchester City ; he scored four goals against Newcastle United and Nottingham Forest ; and hit five goals in a 7 – 1 win over West Bromwich Albion . His hat @-@ trick against Manchester City on 19 November included his 100th league goal , making him the youngest player to pass the 100 @-@ goal mark , at the age of 20 years and 290 days . However , he became increasingly disillusioned at Chelsea as , despite his goals , the team also conceded goals with regularity , and were never consistent enough to mount a title challenge . They also exited the FA Cup by losing 2 – 1 at home to Fourth Division side Crewe Alexandra . Club chairman Joe Mears agreed to sell Greaves as Chelsea were in need of extra cash . His last game was the final game of the 1960 – 61 season on 29 April ; he was made captain for the day and scored all four goals in a 4 – 3 win against Nottingham Forest . This took his tally for the season to a club record 41 goals in 40 league games , making him the division 's top scorer .
= = = A.C. Milan = = =
Greaves was signed by Italian Serie A club A.C. Milan in June 1961 for an £ 80 @,@ 000 fee , and was given a three @-@ year contract on £ 140 a week with a £ 15 @,@ 000 signing bonus . He became unhappy at the thought of leaving London and tried to cancel the move before it was fully confirmed , but " Rossoneri " manager Giuseppe Viani refused to annul the deal . Greaves scored on his debut in a 2 – 2 draw with Botafogo at the San Siro . However , he did not get on well with new head coach Nereo Rocco , who insisted on keeping the players in a strict training regime with little personal freedom . Greaves scored nine goals in 14 appearances , including one against Inter Milan in the Milan derby . During a match against Sampdoria , Greaves kicked a player who had spat in his face . Sampdoria equalised from the resulting free kick , for which Rocco blamed Greaves , despite him having scored Milan 's opener and set up the second . Due to his low morale , Greaves was transfer @-@ listed and Brazilian attacker Dino Sani was signed as his replacement . Both Tottenham Hotspur and Chelsea made £ 96 @,@ 500 bids , which were both accepted . After he left , the club went on to win the league title in 1961 – 62 .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
After protracted negotiations , Bill Nicholson signed Greaves for Tottenham Hotspur in December 1961 for £ 99 @,@ 999 – the unusual fee was intended to relieve Greaves of the pressure of being the first £ 100 @,@ 000 player in British football . He joined Spurs just after they became the first club in England to complete the First Division and FA Cup double during the 20th century . He played his first game in a Spurs shirt for the reserve team on 9 December 1961 , and scored twice in a 4 – 1 win over Plymouth Argyle Reserves at Home Park . He scored a hat @-@ trick on his first team debut , including a flying scissor kick , in a 5 – 2 win over Blackpool at White Hart Lane . He went on to feature against Benfica in the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup ; in the first leg at the Estádio da Luz he had a goal disallowed for offside , and in the return fixture he had another goal another disallowed for offside . He played in all seven games of the club 's FA Cup run , scoring nine goals in the competition as they beat Birmingham City ( after a replay ) , Plymouth Argyle , West Bromwich Albion , Aston Villa and Manchester United to reach the 1962 FA Cup Final against Burnley at Wembley . Greaves opened the scoring against Burnley on 3 minutes when he hit a low shot past goalkeeper Adam Blacklaw from a tight angle , and Spurs went on to win the game 3 – 1 . They finished the league in third place in 1961 – 62 , four points behind champions Ipswich Town .
Greaves scored twice in the 1962 FA Charity Shield , as Spurs secured the trophy with a 5 – 1 win over Ipswich at Portman Road . In the 1962 – 63 season Greaves scored hat @-@ tricks in victories over Manchester United , Ipswich Town and Liverpool , as well as four goals in a 9 – 2 win over Nottingham Forest . Spurs finished the league campaign in second place , six points behind champions Everton . Greaves scored 37 goals in 41 league games , finishing as the division 's top scorer . In the European Cup Winners ' Cup , Tottenham beat Rangers ( Scotland ) , ŠK Slovan Bratislava ( Czechoslovakia ) and OFK Beograd ( Yugoslavia ) to reach the final , where they met Spanish club Atlético Madrid at De Kuip . In the first leg of the semi @-@ final against Beograd in Belgrade , Greaves was sent off for violent conduct ( his first and only red card ) after attempting to punch centre @-@ back Blagomir Krivokuća . Greaves served a one match ban and was able to play in the final , where he opened the scoring after an assist from Cliff Jones and later added a fourth in a 5 – 1 victory ( John White and Terry Dyson getting the other goals ) . In winning the competition , Tottenham Hotspur became the first British team to win a European trophy .
Manager Bill Nicholson and his assistant Eddie Baily then began a period of transition at White Hart Lane – key players such as Danny Blanchflower , John White and Dave Mackay would all leave the club within the space of a few years and had to be replaced . Greaves remained a consistent goalscorer though , and in the 1963 – 64 season he scored hat @-@ tricks in victories over Nottingham Forest , Blackpool , Birmingham City and Blackburn Rovers . Spurs finished in fourth place , six points behind champions Liverpool , and exited the FA Cup and Cup Winners ' Cup at the opening stages . Greaves scored 35 goals in 41 league games to again finish as the division 's top scorer . Strike partner Bobby Smith left the club in the summer , though Greaves felt the partnership he went on to form with new signing Alan Gilzean was even more effective .
Spurs finished sixth in 1964 – 65 , though Greaves scored 29 goals in 41 league games to finish as the division 's joint top scorer ( with Andy McEvoy ) . He also scored two hat @-@ tricks in the FA Cup – against Torquay United and Ipswich Town – to take his total tally to 35 goals in 45 appearances . He missed three months at the start of the 1965 – 66 season after being diagnosed with hepatitis , but recovered to end the campaign with 16 goals in 31 matches , remaining the club 's top scorer as they finished the league campaign in eighth place whilst failing to make it past the Fifth Round of the FA Cup .
Greaves scored 31 goals in 47 appearances in the 1966 – 67 campaign , helping Spurs to launch a title challenge that ended with a third @-@ place finish , four points behind Manchester United . They also won the FA Cup after knocking out Millwall , Portsmouth , Bristol City , Birmingham City and Nottingham Forest to reach the 1967 FA Cup Final with Chelsea . Though he did not score in the final itself , a 2 – 1 victory , with six goals in eight games Greaves was the competition 's leading scorer . The 1967 – 68 season was a disappointing one for Spurs following their 3 – 3 draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford in the 1967 FA Charity Shield . They finished seventh in the league , exited the FA Cup in the Fifth Round and were knocked out of the Cup Winners ' Cup in the Second Round . Greaves had a poor season by his own standards , though with 29 goals in 48 appearances he was still the club 's top scorer . Nicholson bought Greaves a new strike partner in Martin Chivers from Southampton for a club record £ 125 @,@ 000 fee , with Gilzean dropping further back into midfield to accommodate , but Greaves and Chivers were not as effective together as Nicholson had hoped .
In 1968 – 69 , Greaves scored 27 goals in 42 league games to finish as the First Division 's leading scorer for the sixth and final time . He scored four of his goals in one match against Sunderland , and also scored hat @-@ tricks against Burnley and Leicester City . His nine goals in cup competitions , including a hat @-@ trick against Exeter City , left him with an overall goal tally of 36 in 52 games . Spurs performed inconsistently in the 1969 – 70 season , and Greaves was dropped from the first team after playing in an FA Cup defeat to Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park on 28 January 1970 . He was never recalled to the starting line @-@ up , but still ended the season as the club 's joint top scorer ( with Martin Chivers ) , having scored 11 goals in 33 matches .
Greaves was given a testimonial match by Spurs on 17 October 1972 in a 2 – 1 win over Feyenoord at White Hart Lane ; he made £ 22 @,@ 000 from the occasion . He was inducted into the Tottenham Hotspur Hall of Fame in 2015 .
= = = West Ham United = = =
In March 1970 , Greaves joined West Ham United as part @-@ exchange in Martin Peters ' transfer to White Hart Lane . Brian Clough 's Derby County had also been interested in Greaves , but he did not want to move away from London . In hindsight Greaves felt that Clough may have helped him revive his career , as he had done for Greaves ' former Tottenham team mate Dave Mackay . Greaves later admitted his regret in making the move to Upton Park . He scored two goals on his " Hammers " debut on 21 March , in a 5 – 1 win against Manchester City at Maine Road .
In January 1971 , with Bobby Moore , Brian Dear and Clyde Best , Greaves was involved in late @-@ night drinking , against the wishes of manager Ron Greenwood , prior to an FA Cup tie away to Blackpool . On arriving in Blackpool , Greaves and his team @-@ mates had been informed by members of the press that the game , the following day , was unlikely to go ahead due to a frozen pitch and the likelihood of frost that night . Believing that there would be no game the following day , Greaves drank 12 lagers in a club owned by Brian London and did not return to the team hotel until 1.45am. In fact , the match went ahead and West Ham lost 4 – 0 . Greaves claimed the defeat was not a result of the late night , the drinking or the frozen pitch , but because the West Ham team in which he was playing was not good enough . As a result , the players were fined and dropped by the club .
Greaves was struggling with his fitness and his motivation . He felt he had become a journeyman footballer and lost motivation as he believed that apart from Moore , Geoff Hurst , Billy Bonds and Pop Robson , few of his team @-@ mates could play good football . Towards the end of his career with West Ham Greaves began to drink more and more alcohol , often going straight from training in Chadwell Heath to a pub in Romford , where he would remain until closing time . He later admitted that he was in the early stages of alcoholism . His final game came on 1 May 1971 in a 1 – 0 home defeat to Huddersfield Town . Greaves scored 13 goals in 40 games in all competitions for West Ham .
= = = Later career and alcoholism = = =
After leaving West Ham , Greaves put on weight and did not attend a match as either a player or a spectator for two years . Drinking formed a large part of his life and he became an alcoholic ; at times he was drinking 20 pints of lager during the day and consuming a bottle of vodka in the evening . He later admitted that he was also regularly driving whilst drunk during this period . Seeking an answer to his alcoholism , Greaves decided to return to football at a lower level where he would not be required to be as fit as he had been whilst playing in the Football League . He started playing for his local side , Brentwood , and made his debut on 27 December 1975 in a 2 – 0 defeat to Witham Town .
His return to football was successful enough that he signed for Chelmsford City in the Southern League for the 1976 – 77 season . He played for only a few months with Chelmsford . He was still struggling with alcoholism and delirium tremens and sought out help from Alcoholics Anonymous . He was also hospitalised in the alcoholics ' ward of Warley Psychiatric Hospital .
In August 1977 and still coping with alcoholism , Greaves made his debut for Barnet in a 3 – 2 win against Atherstone Town . Playing from midfield in 1977 – 78 , Greaves netted 25 goals ( 13 in the Southern League ) and was their player of the season . He chose to leave the " Bees " early in the 1978 – 79 season to focus on his business interests and beating his alcoholism , despite manager Barry Fry 's attempts to get him to stay at Underhill . Greaves went on to make several appearances for semi @-@ professional side Woodford Town before retiring .
= = International career = =
Greaves made his debut for the England under @-@ 23 team in a 6 – 2 win over Bulgaria at Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1957 ; he scored two goals , and missed out on a hat @-@ trick after failing to convert a penalty .
Greaves won his first England cap on 17 May 1959 against Peru at the Estadio Nacional , scoring England 's only goal in a 4 – 1 defeat . The tour of the American continents was not considered a success by the British media , as England also lost to Brazil and Mexico , but Greaves mostly escaped criticism in the press as he was still a teenager and showed promise with his performances . He scored consecutive hat @-@ tricks on 8 October 1960 and 19 October , in victories at Northern Ireland and Luxembourg . On 15 April 1961 , Greaves scored another hat @-@ trick in a 9 – 3 victory over Scotland at Wembley , and also had a fourth goal disallowed for offside .
He played in all four of England 's games at the 1962 FIFA World Cup in Chile , scoring one goal in the 3 – 1 victory over Argentina before playing in the quarter @-@ final defeat to Brazil . During the defeat to Brazil a stray dog ran onto the pitch and evaded all of the players ' efforts to catch it until Greaves got down on all fours to beckon the animal . The Brazilian player Garrincha thought the incident was so amusing that he took the dog home as a pet .
On 20 November 1963 , he scored four goals in an 8 – 3 win over Northern Ireland . The following year , on 3 October , he scored another hat @-@ trick against the same team . He scored four goals again on 29 June 1966 , in a 6 – 1 friendly win over Norway , and in doing so ensured himself a starting place in the 1966 FIFA World Cup .
At the World Cup he played all three group games against Uruguay , Mexico and France , however in the win against France midfielder Joseph Bonnel racked his studs down Greaves ' shin , causing a wound that required 14 stitches and left a permanent scar . His replacement , Geoff Hurst , scored the winner in the quarter @-@ final against Argentina and kept his place all the way to the final , where Hurst scored a hat @-@ trick as England won the tournament . Greaves was fit to play in the final , but manager Alf Ramsey opted against changing a winning team . Only the 11 players on the pitch at the end of the 4 – 2 win over West Germany received medals . Following a Football Association @-@ led campaign to persuade FIFA to award medals to all the winners ' squad members , Greaves was presented with his medal by Gordon Brown at a ceremony at 10 Downing Street on 10 June 2009 . In November 2014 , Greaves ' medal was sold at auction for £ 44 @,@ 000 .
Greaves played only three more times for England after the 1966 World Cup , scoring a single goal . His final cap came in a 1 – 0 win over Austria on 27 May 1967 . He retired from international football early the following year after telling Ramsey that he had no intention of becoming a bit @-@ part player in the England squad . In total he scored 44 goals in 57 appearances for England . He is in fourth place on the all @-@ time list of England goalscorers , behind Bobby Charlton , Gary Lineker and Wayne Rooney . Greaves holds the record for most hat @-@ tricks for England – six in all .
= = Style of play = =
Greaves was a prolific goalscorer , and cited his relaxed attitude as the reason for his assured composure and confidence . He also had great acceleration and pace , as well as great positional skills .
= = Broadcasting career = =
Greaves became a columnist at The Sun newspaper in the early 1980s . He continued to write his column for 30 years until it was cancelled , at which point he began working as a columnist for The Sunday People . He worked as a pundit on Star Soccer from 1980 , and later worked on The Saturday Show before he was selected as a pundit for ITV 's coverage of the 1982 FIFA World Cup . From there he worked on World of Sport and On the Ball , where he struck up a partnership with Ian St. John . Greg Dyke also hired Greaves to work as a television reviewer and presenter on TV @-@ am in what Dyke admitted was a way of " dumbing down " the programme to attract more viewers . From October 1985 to April 1992 he and St. John presented a popular Saturday lunchtime football show called Saint and Greavsie . He went on to work as a team captain on Sporting Triangles , opposite Andy Gray and Emlyn Hughes . His career in television came to an end as the Premier League was starting up , and he believed that his light @-@ hearted approach to football was not considered serious enough for television bosses at the time .
Greaves went into semi @-@ retirement after Saint and Greavsie was cancelled , making only occasional television appearances and after @-@ dinner speeches . He released his autobiography , Greavsie , in 2003 . Greaves has also written numerous books in partnership with his lifelong friend , the journalist and author Norman Giller .
= = Personal life = =
Greaves married Irene Barden at Romford register office on 26 March 1958 , and though the pair went through a divorce process during the height of his alcoholism , it was never finalised and they reunited after three months apart . They had four children , Lynn , Mitzi , Danny ( who was a professional footballer with Southend United ) , and Andrew . They also had another son , Jimmy Greaves Jr , who died before his first birthday .
Whilst playing for Tottenham Hotspur Greaves took out a £ 1 @,@ 000 bank loan to start a packing business with his brother @-@ in @-@ law . By the end of his playing career this company had an annual turnover of over £ 1 million . He had a number of different business interests , including a travel agency . Greaves entered the 1970 London to Mexico World Cup Rally . In his first ever rally , alongside co @-@ driver , Tony Fall , Greaves drove a Ford Escort to a sixth @-@ place finish out of the 96 entrants .
Greaves underwent surgery on an artery in his neck after suffering a mild stroke in February 2012 . After a full recovery , he experienced a severe stroke in May 2015 which left him unable to speak . He was placed in intensive care and , according to doctors , was expected to undergo a slow recovery . He left hospital after a month , his health having " improved considerably " according to Greaves ' friend and agent Terry Baker . In February 2016 , although slowly recovering from the stroke , Greaves was in a wheelchair and had been told that he would never walk again .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club statistics = = =
= = = International caps and goals = = =
England 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Chelsea
FA Youth Cup runner @-@ up : 1958
AC Milan
Serie A winner : 1961 – 62
Tottenham Hotspur
FA Cup winner : 1961 – 62 & 1966 – 67
Football League First Division runner @-@ up : 1962 – 63
FA Charity Shield winner : 1962 & 1967 ( shared )
European Cup Winners Cup winner : 1962 – 63
= = = International = = =
England
British Home Championship winner : 1959 – 60 ( shared ) , 1960 – 61 , 1963 – 64 ( shared ) , 1964 – 65 & 1965 – 66
British Home Championship runner @-@ up : 1961 – 62 , 1962 – 63 & 1966 – 67
FIFA World Cup winner : 1966 ( medal awarded retrospectively in 2009 )
= Annie Hall =
Annie Hall is a 1977 American romantic comedy film directed by Woody Allen from a screenplay he co @-@ wrote with Marshall Brickman . Produced by Allen 's manager , Charles H. Joffe , the film stars the director as Alvy " Max " Singer , who tries to figure out the reasons for the failure of his relationship with the film 's eponymous female lead , played by Diane Keaton in a role written specifically for her .
Principal photography for the film began on May 19 , 1976 on the South Fork of Long Island , and filming continued periodically for the next ten months . Allen has described the result , which marked his first collaboration with cinematographer Gordon Willis , as " a major turning point " , in that unlike the farces and comedies that were his work to that point , it introduced a new level of seriousness . Academics have noted the contrast in the settings of New York City and Los Angeles , the stereotype of gender differences in sexuality , the presentation of Jewish identity , and the elements of psychoanalysis and modernism .
Annie Hall was screened at the Los Angeles Film Festival in March 1977 , before its official release on April 20 , 1977 . The film received widespread critical acclaim , and along with winning the Academy Award for Best Picture , it received Oscars in three other categories : two for Allen ( Best Director and , with Brickman , Best Original Screenplay ) , and Keaton for Best Actress . The film additionally won four BAFTA awards and a Golden Globe , the latter being awarded to Keaton . Its North American box office receipts of $ 38 @,@ 251 @,@ 425 are fourth @-@ best in the director 's oeuvre when not adjusted for inflation . Often listed among the greatest film comedies , it ranks 31st on AFI 's list of the top feature films in American cinema , fourth on their list of top comedy films and number 28 on Bravo 's " 100 Funniest Movies . " Film critic Roger Ebert called it " just about everyone 's favorite Woody Allen movie " . The film has been named the funniest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America in its list of the " 101 Funniest Screenplays . "
= = Plot = =
The comedian Alvy Singer ( Woody Allen ) is trying to understand why his relationship with Annie Hall ( Diane Keaton ) ended a year ago . Growing up in New York , he vexed his mother with impossible questions about the emptiness of existence , but he was precocious about his innocent sexual curiosity .
Annie and Alvy , in a line for The Sorrow and the Pity , overhear another man deriding the work of Federico Fellini and Marshall McLuhan ; McLuhan himself steps in at Alvy 's invitation to criticize the man 's comprehension . That night , Annie shows no interest in sex with Alvy . Instead , they discuss his first wife ( Carol Kane ) , whose ardor gave him no pleasure . His second marriage was to a New York writer who didn 't like sports and was unable to reach orgasm .
With Annie , it is different . The two of them have fun making a meal of boiled lobster together . He teases her about the unusual men in her past . He met her playing tennis doubles with friends . Following the game , awkward small talk led her to offer him first a ride up town and then a glass of wine on her balcony . There , what seemed a mild exchange of trivial personal data is revealed in " mental subtitles " as an escalating flirtation . Their first date follows Annie 's singing audition for a night club ( " It Had to be You " ) . He suggests they kiss first , to get it out of the way . After their lovemaking that night , Alvy is " a wreck " , while she relaxes with a joint .
Soon Annie admits she loves him , while he buys her books on death and says that his feelings for her are more than just love . When she moves in with him , things become very tense . Eventually , he finds her arm in arm with one of her college professors and the two begin to argue whether this is the " flexibility " they had discussed . They eventually break up , and he searches for the truth of relationships , asking strangers on the street about the nature of love , questioning his formative years , until he casts himself in Snow White opposite Annie 's Evil Queen .
Alvy returns to dating , but the effort is marred by neurosis , bad sex , and finally an interruption from Annie , who insists he come over immediately . It turns out she needs him to kill a spider . A reconciliation follows , coupled with a vow to stay together come what may . However , their separate discussions with their therapists make it evident there is an unspoken divide . When Alvy accepts an offer to present an award on television , they fly out to Los Angeles , with Alvy 's friend , Rob ( Tony Roberts ) . However , on the return trip , they agree that their relationship is not working . After losing her to her record producer , Tony Lacey ( Paul Simon ) , he unsuccessfully tries rekindling the flame with a marriage proposal . Back in New York , he stages a play of their relationship but changes the ending : now she accepts .
The last meeting for them is a wistful coda on New York 's Upper West Side , when they have both moved on to someone new . Alvy 's voice returns with a summation : love is essential , especially if it is neurotic . Annie sings " Seems Like Old Times " and the credits roll .
= = Cast = =
Truman Capote has a cameo as the Winner of the Truman Capote look @-@ alike contest .
Several actors who went on to more fame had small parts in the movie : John Glover as Annie 's actor boyfriend , Jerry ; Jeff Goldblum as a man who " forgot [ his ] mantra " at Tony Lacey 's Christmas party ; and Sigourney Weaver in the closing sequence as Alvy 's date at the movie theater .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The idea for what would become Annie Hall was developed as Allen walked around New York City with co @-@ writer Marshall Brickman . The pair discussed the project on alternate days , sometimes becoming frustrated and rejecting the idea . Allen wrote a first draft of a screenplay within a four @-@ day period , sending it to Brickman to make alterations . According to Brickman , this draft centered on a man in his forties , someone whose life consisted " of several strands . One was a relationship with a young woman , another was a concern about the banality of life we all live , and a third an obsession with proving himself and testing himself to find out what kind of character he had . " Allen himself turned forty in 1975 , and Brickman suggests that " advancing age " and " worries about his death " had influenced Allen 's philosophical , personal approach to complement his " commercial side " . Allen made the conscious decision to " sacrifice some of the laughs for a story about human beings " . He recognized that for the first time he had the courage to abandon the safety of complete broad comedy and had the will to produce a film of deeper meaning which would be a nourishing experience for the audience . He was also influenced by Federico Fellini 's 1963 comedy @-@ drama 8 ½ , created at a similar personal turning point , and similarly colored by each director 's psychoanalysis .
Brickman and Allen sent the screenplay back and forth until they were ready to ask United Artists for $ 4 million . Many elements from the early drafts did not survive . It was originally a drama centered on a murder mystery with a comic and romantic subplot . According to Allen , the murder occurred after a scene that remains in the film , the sequence in which Annie and Alvy miss the Ingmar Bergman film Face to Face . Although they decided to drop the murder plot , Allen and Brickman made a murder mystery many years later : 1993 's Manhattan Murder Mystery , also starring Diane Keaton . The draft that Allen presented to the film 's editor , Ralph Rosenblum , concluded with the words , " ending to be shot . " It was " like a first draft of a novel ... from which two or three films could possibly be assembled , " Rosenblum says . Allen suggested Anhedonia , a term for the inability to experience pleasure , as a working title , but United Artists considered this and Brickman 's suggested alternatives : It Had to Be Jew , Rollercoaster Named Desire and Me and My Goy unmarketable . An advertising agency , hired by UA , embraced Allen 's choice of an obscure word by suggesting advertising in tabloid newspapers using vague slogans such as " Anhedonia Strikes Cleveland " . However , Allen experimented with several titles over five test screenings , including Anxiety and Alvy and Me , before settling on Annie Hall .
= = = Casting = = =
Several references in the film to Allen 's own life have invited speculation that it is autobiographical . Both Alvy and Allen were comedians . His birthday appears on the blackboard in a school scene ; certain features of his childhood are found in Alvy Singer 's ; Allen went to New York University and so did Alvy . Diane Keaton 's real surname is " Hall " and " Annie " was her nickname , and she and Allen were once romantically involved . However , Allen is quick to dispel these suggestions . " The stuff that people insist is autobiographical is almost invariably not , " Allen said . " It 's so exaggerated that it 's virtually meaningless to the people upon whom these little nuances are based . People got it into their heads that Annie Hall was autobiographical , and I couldn 't convince them it wasn 't " . Contrary to various interviewers and commentators , he says , Alvy is not the character that is closest to himself ; he identified more with the mother ( Eve , played by Geraldine Page ) in his next film , Interiors . Despite this , Keaton has stated that the relationship between Alvy and Annie was partly based on her relationship with the director .
The role of Annie Hall was written specifically for Keaton , who had worked with Allen on Play It Again , Sam ( 1972 ) , Sleeper ( 1973 ) and Love and Death ( 1975 ) . She considered the character an " affable version " of herself — both were " semi @-@ articulate , dreamed of being a singer and suffered from insecurity " — and was surprised to win an Oscar for her performance . The film also marks the second film collaboration between Allen and Tony Roberts , their previous project being Play It Again , Sam .
Federico Fellini was Allen 's first choice to appear in the cinema lobby scene because his films were under discussion , but Allen chose cultural academic Marshall McLuhan after both Fellini and Luis Buñuel declined the cameo . Some cast members , Baxter claims , were aggrieved at Allen 's treatment of them . The director " acted coldly " towards McLuhan , who had to return from Canada for reshooting , and Mordecai Lawner , who played Alvy 's father , claimed that Allen never spoke to him . However , during the production , Allen began a two @-@ year relationship with Stacey Nelkin , who appears in a single scene .
= = = Filming , editing and music = = =
Principal photography began on May 19 , 1976 on the South Fork of Long Island with the scene in which Alvy and Annie boil live lobsters ; filming continued periodically for the next ten months , and deviated frequently from the screenplay . There was nothing written about Alvy 's childhood home lying under a roller coaster , but when Allen was scouting locations in Brooklyn with Willis and art director Mel Bourne , he " saw this roller @-@ coaster , and ... saw the house under it . And I thought , we have to use this . " Similarly , there is the incident where Alvy scatters a trove of cocaine with an accidental sneeze : although not in the script , the joke emerged from a rehearsal happenstance and stayed in the movie . In audience testing , this laugh was so big that a re @-@ edit had to add a hold so that the following dialogue was not lost .
Rosenblum 's first assembly of the film in 1976 left Brickman disappointed . At two hours and twenty minutes , it dwelt " on issues just touched in passing in the version we know " , featuring the " surrealistic and abstract adventures of a neurotic Jewish comedian who was reliving his highly flawed life and in the process satirizing much of our culture , ... a visual monologue , a more sophisticated and visual version of Take the Money and Run " . Annie Hall herself didn 't stand out , and Brickman found it " nondramatic and ultimately uninteresting , a kind of cerebral exercise . " He suggested a more linear narrative . Fortunately , the shooting schedule was budgeted for two weeks of post @-@ production photography , so even though the first cut had " some of the free @-@ est , funniest and most sophisticated material that Woody had ever created , and it hurt him to lose it " , late 1976 saw three separate shoots for the final segment , two of which appear in some form . One featured Annie Hall taking her new boyfriend to The Sorrow and the Pity , which she had reluctantly seen with Alvy ; the other , Alvy 's monologue featuring the joke about ' we all need the eggs ' , was conceived during a cab journey to an early preview .
The credits call the film " A Jack Rollins and Charles H. Joffe Production " ; the two men were Allen 's managers and received this same credit on his films from 1969 to 1993 . However , for this film Joffe took producer credit and therefore received the Academy Award for Best Picture . The title sequence features a black background with white text in the Windsor Light Condensed typeface , a design that Allen would use on his subsequent films . Stig Björkman sees some similarity to Ingmar Bergman 's simple and consistent title design , although Allen says that his own choice is a cost @-@ saving device .
Very little background music is heard in the film , a departure for Allen influenced by Ingmar Bergman . Diane Keaton performs twice in the jazz club : " It Had to be You " and " Seems Like Old Times " ( the latter reprises in voiceover on the closing scene ) . The other exceptions include a boy 's choir " Christmas Medley " played while the characters drive through Los Angeles , the Molto allegro from Mozart 's Jupiter Symphony ( heard as Annie and Alvy drive through the countryside ) , Tommy Dorsey 's performance of " Sleepy Lagoon " , and the anodyne cover of the Savoy Brown song " A Hard Way to Go " playing at a party in the mansion of Paul Simon 's character .
= = Style and technique = =
Technically , the film marked an advance for the director . He selected Gordon Willis as his cinematographer — for Allen " a very important teacher " and a " technical wizard , " saying , " I really count Annie Hall as the first step toward maturity in some way in making films . " At the time , it was considered an " odd pairing " by many , Keaton among them . The director was known for his comedies and farces , while Willis was known as " the prince of darkness " for work on dramatic films like The Godfather . Despite this , the two became friends during filming and continued the collaboration on several later films , including Zelig , which earned Willis his first Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography .
Willis described the production for the film as " relatively easy . " He shot in varying styles ; " hot golden light for California , grey overcast for Manhattan and a forties Hollywood glossy for ... dream sequences , " most of which were cut . It was his suggestion which led Allen to film the dual therapy scenes in one set divided by a wall instead of the usual split screen method . He tried long takes , with some shots , unabridged , lasting an entire scene , which , for Ebert , add to the dramatic power of the film : " Few viewers probably notice how much of Annie Hall consists of people talking , simply talking . They walk and talk , sit and talk , go to shrinks , go to lunch , make love and talk , talk to the camera , or launch into inspired monologues like Annie 's free @-@ association as she describes her family to Alvy . This speech by Diane Keaton is as close to perfect as such a speech can likely be ... all done in one take of brilliant brinksmanship . " He cites a study that calculated the average shot length of Annie Hall to be 14 @.@ 5 seconds , while other films made in 1977 had an average shot length of 4 – 7 seconds . Peter Cowie suggests that " Allen breaks up his extended shots with more orthodox cutting back and forth in conversation pieces , so that the forward momentum of the film is sustained . " Bernd Herzogenrath notes the innovation in the use of the split screen during the dinner scene to powerfully exaggerate the contrast between the Jew and the gentile family .
Although the film is not essentially experimental , at several points it undermines the narrative reality . James Bernardoni notes Allen 's way of opening the film by facing the camera , which immediately intrudes upon audience involvement in the film . In one famous scene , Allen 's character , in line to see a movie with Annie , listens to a man behind him deliver misinformed pontifications on the significance of Fellini 's and Marshall McLuhan 's work . Allen pulls McLuhan himself from just off camera to personally correct the man 's errors . Later in the film , when we see Annie and Alvy in their first extended talk , " mental subtitles " convey to the audience the characters ' nervous inner doubts . An animated scene — with artwork based on the comic strip Inside Woody Allen — depicts Alvy and Annie in the guise of the Wicked Queen from Snow White . Although Allen uses each of these techniques only once , the " fourth wall " is broken several other times when characters address the camera directly . In one , Alvy stops several passers @-@ by to ask questions about love , and in another he shrugs off writing a happy ending to his relationship with Annie in his autobiographical first play as forgivable " wish @-@ fulfillment . " Allen chose to have Alvy break the fourth wall , he explained , " because I felt many of the people in the audience had the same feelings and the same problems . I wanted to talk to them directly and confront them . "
= = Critical analysis = =
= = = Love , sexuality , and Jewish identity = = =
Sociologists Virginia Rutter and Pepper Schwartz consider Alvy and Annie 's relationship to be a stereotype of gender differences in sexuality . The nature of love is a repeating subject for Allen and co @-@ star Tony Roberts described this film as " the story of everybody who falls in love , and then falls out of love and goes on . " Alvy searches for love 's purpose through his effort to get over his depression about the demise of his relationship with Annie . Sometimes he sifts through his memories of the relationship , at another point he stops people on the sidewalk , with one woman saying that " It 's never something you do . That 's how people are . Love fades , " a suggestion that it was no one 's fault , they just grew apart and the end was inevitable . By the end of the film , Alvy accepts this and decides that love is ultimately " irrational and crazy and absurd " , but a necessity of life . Christopher Knight points out that Annie Hall is framed through Alvy 's experiences . " Generally , what we know about Annie and about the relationship comes filtered through Alvy , an intrusive narrator capable of halting the narrative and stepping out from it in order to entreat the audience 's interpretative favor . " He suggests that because Allen 's films blur the protagonist with " past and future protagonists as well as with the director himself " , it " makes a difference as to whether we are most responsive to the director 's or the character 's framing of events " . Knight believes Alvy 's quest upon meeting Annie is carnal , whereas hers is on an emotional note . Despite the narrative 's framing , " the joke is on Alvy . "
Richard Brody of The New Yorker notes the film 's " Eurocentric art @-@ house self @-@ awareness " and Alvy Singer 's " psychoanalytic obsession in baring his sexual desires and frustrations , romantic disasters , and neuro
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tic inhibitions " . Annie Hall is viewed as the definitive Woody Allen film in displaying neurotic humor . Singer is identified with the stereotypical neurotic Jewish male , and the differences between Alvy and Annie are often related to the perceptions and realities of Jewish identity . Vincent Brook notes that " Alvy dines with the WASP @-@ y Hall family and imagines that they must see him as a Hasidic Jew , complete with payess ( ear locks ) and a large black hat . " Robert M. Seltzer and Norman J. Cohen highlight the scene in which Annie remarks that Annie 's grandmother " hates Jews . She thinks they just make money , but she ’ s the one . Is she ever , I ’ m telling you . " , revealing the hypocrisy in her grandmother 's stereotypical American view of Jews by arguing that " no stigma attaches to the love of money in America " . Bernd Herzogenrath also considers Allen 's joke , " I would like to but we need the eggs " , to the doctor at the end when he suggests putting him in a mental institution , to be a paradox of not only the persona of the urban neurotic Jew but also of the film itself .
Emanuel Levy believes that Alvy Singer became synonymous with the public perception of Woody Allen in the United States .
= = = Location = = =
Annie Hall " is as much a love song to New York City as it is to the character , " reflecting Allen 's adoration of the island of Manhattan . It was a relationship he explored repeatedly , particularly in films like Manhattan ( 1979 ) and Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) . Annie Hall 's apartment , which still exists on East 70th Street between Lexington Avenue and Park Avenue is by Allen 's own confession his favorite block in the city . Peter Cowie argues that the film shows " a romanticized view " of the borough , with the camera " linger [ ing ] on the Upper East Side [ ... and where ] the fear of crime does not trouble its characters . " By contrast , California is presented less positively , and David Halle notes the obvious " invidious intellectual comparison " between New York City and Los Angeles . While Manhattan 's movie theaters show classic and foreign films , Los Angeles theaters run less @-@ prestigious fare such as House of Exorcism and Messiah of Evil . Rob 's demonstration of adding canned laughter to television demonstrates the " cynical artifice of the medium " . New York serves as a symbol of Alvy 's personality ( " gloomy , claustrophobic , and socially cold , but also an intellectual haven full of nervous energy " ) while Los Angeles is a symbol of freedom for Annie .
= = = Psychoanalysis and modernism = = =
Annie Hall has been cited as a film which uses both therapy and analysis for comic effect . Sam B. Girgus considers Annie Hall to be a story about memory and retrospection , which " dramatizes a return via narrative desire to the repressed and the unconscious in a manner similar to psychoanalysis " . He argues that the film constitutes a self @-@ conscious assertion of how narrative desire and humor interact in the film to reform ideas and perceptions and that Allen 's deployment of Freudian concepts and humor forms a " pattern of skepticism toward surface meaning that compels further interpretation " . Girgus believes that proof of the pervasiveness of Sigmund Freud in the film is demonstrated at the beginning through a reference to a joke in Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious , and makes another joke about a psychiatrist and patient , which Girgus argues is also symbolic of the dynamic between humor and the unconscious in the film . Further Freudian concepts are later addressed in the film with Annie 's recall of a dream to her psychoanalyst in which Frank Sinatra is smothering her with a pillow , which alludes to Freud 's belief in dreams as " visual representations of words or ideas " .
Peter Bailey in his book The Reluctant Film Art of Woody Allen , argues that Alvy displays a " genial denigration of art " which contains a " significant equivocation " , in that in his self @-@ deprecation he invites the audience to believe that he is leveling with them . Bailey argues that Allen 's devices in the film , including the subtitles which reveal Annie 's and Alvy 's thoughts " extend and reinforce Annie Hall ' s winsome ethos of plain @-@ dealing and ingenuousness " . He muses that the film is full of antimimetic emblems such as Mcluhan 's magical appearance which provide quirky humor , and that the " disparity between mental projections of reality and actuality " drives the film . He considers self @-@ reflective cinematic devices to intelligently dramatize the difference between surface and substance , with visual emblems " incessantly distilling the distinction between the world mentally constructed and reality " .
In his discussion of the film 's relation to modernism , Thomas Schatz finds the film an unresolved " examination of the process of human interaction and interpersonal communication " and " immediately establishes [ a ] self @-@ referential stance " that invites the spectator " to read the narrative as something other than a sequential development toward some transcendent truth " . For him , Alvy " is the victim of a tendency toward overdetermination of meaning -- or in modernist terms ' the tyranny of the signified ' -- and his involvement with Annie can be viewed as an attempt to establish a spontaneous , intellectually unencumbered relationship , an attempt which is doomed to failure . " Marcus Geduld cites the flashback to Alvy as a child ( in a therapist 's office with his mother ) as an example of basic problems ( poverty , discordant parents ) being masked by a supposed existential crisis .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Annie Hall was shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival in March 1977 , before its official release on April 20 , 1977 . The film ultimately earned $ 38 @,@ 251 @,@ 425 ( $ 143 @,@ 228 @,@ 400 in 2013 dollars ) in the United States against a $ 4 @-@ million budget , making it the 11th highest @-@ grossing picture of 1977 . On raw figures , it currently ranks as Allen 's fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film , after Manhattan , Hannah and Her Sisters and Midnight in Paris ; when adjusted for inflation , the gross figure makes it Allen 's biggest box office hit . It was first released on Blu @-@ ray on January 24 , 2012 alongside Allen 's 1979 film Manhattan . Both releases include the films ' original theatrical trailers .
= = = Critical response = = =
Annie Hall was met with widespread critical acclaim upon its release . Tim Radford of The Guardian called the film " Allen 's most closely focused and daring film to date " . The New York Times ' Vincent Canby preferred Annie Hall to Allen 's second directorial effort , Take the Money and Run , since the former is more " humane " while the latter is more a " cartoon " . Several critics have compared the film favorably to Bergman 's Scenes from a Marriage ( 1973 ) , including Joseph McBride in Variety , who found it Allen 's " most three @-@ dimensional film to date " with an ambition equal to Bergman 's best even as the co @-@ stars become the " contemporary equivalent of ... Tracy @-@ Hepburn . "
More critically , Peter Cowie commented that the film " suffers from its profusion of cultural references and asides " . Writing for New York Magazine , the hard @-@ to @-@ please critic John Simon called the film " unfunny comedy , poor moviemaking , and embarrassing self @-@ revelation , " and wrote that Keaton 's performance was " in bad taste to watch and indecency to display , " saying the part should have been played by Robin Mary Paris , the actress who appears briefly in the scene where Alvy Singer has written a two @-@ character play nakedly based on himself and Annie Hall . Simon 's review of Annie Hall made a general assessment that didn 't pan out : " It is a film so shapeless , sprawling , repetitious , and aimless as to seem to beg for oblivion . "
After more than a quarter century , the film has continued to receive positive reviews . In his 2002 lookback , Roger Ebert noted with surprise that the film had " an instant familiarity " despite its age , and Slant writer Jaime N. Christley found the one @-@ liners " still gut @-@ busting after 35 years " . A later Guardian critic , Peter Bradshaw , named it the best comedy film of all time , commenting that " this wonderfully funny , unbearably sad film is a miracle of comic writing and inspired film @-@ making " . John Marriott of the Radio Times believed that Annie Hall was the film where Allen " found his own singular voice , a voice that echoes across events with a mixture of exuberance and introspection " , referring to the " comic delight " derived from the " spirited playing of Diane Keaton as the kooky innocent from the Midwest , and Woody himself as the fumbling New York neurotic " . Empire magazine rated the movie five out of five stars , calling it a " classic " . At Rotten Tomatoes , the film has an approval rating of 98 % based on 65 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 . The site 's consensus reads " Filled with poignant performances and devastating humor , Annie Hall represents a quantum leap for Woody Allen and remains an American classic " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Annie Hall won four Oscars at the 50th Academy Awards on April 3 , 1978 , and was nominated for five in total . Producer Charles H. Joffe received the statue for Best Picture , Allen for Best Director and , with Brickman , for Best Original Screenplay , and Keaton for Best Actress . Allen was also nominated for Best Actor . Many had expected Star Wars to win the major awards , including Brickman and Executive Producer Robert Greenhut .
The film was also honored four times at the BAFTA awards . Along with the top award for Best Film , Keaton won for Best Actress , Allen won for Best Direction and Best Original Screenplay alongside Brickman . The film received only one Golden Globe Award , for Best Film Actress in a Musical or Comedy ( Diane Keaton ) , despite nominations for three other awards : Best Motion Picture ( Musical or Comedy ) , Best Director , and Best Film Actor in a Musical or Comedy ( Woody Allen ) .
In 1992 , the United States ' Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in its National Film Registry that includes " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " films . The film is often mentioned among the greatest comedies of all time . The American Film Institute lists it 31st in American cinema history . In 2000 , they named it second greatest romantic comedy in American cinema . Keaton 's performance of " Seems Like Old Times " was ranked 90th on their list of greatest songs included in a film , and her line " La @-@ dee @-@ da , la @-@ dee @-@ da . " was named the 55th greatest movie quote . The screenplay was named the sixth greatest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America , West while IGN named it the seventh greatest comedy film of all time . In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted it the forty @-@ second greatest comedy film of all time , and the seventh greatest romantic comedy film of all time . Several lists ranking Allen 's best films have put Annie Hall among his greatest work .
In June 2008 , AFI revealed its 10 Top 10 — the best ten films in ten classic American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community and Annie Hall was placed second in the romantic comedy genre . AFI also ranked Annie Hall on multiple other lists . In November 2008 , Annie Hall was voted in at No. 68 on Empire magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . It is also ranked # 2 on Rotten Tomatoes ' 25 Best Romantic Comedies , second only to The Philadelphia Story . In 2012 , the film was listed as the 127th best film of all time by the Sight & Sound critics ' poll . The film was also named the 132nd best film by the Sight & Sound directors ' poll . In October 2013 , the film was voted by the Guardian readers as the second best film directed by Woody Allen . In November 2015 , the film was named the funniest screenplay by the Writers Guild of America in its list of 101 Funniest Screenplays .
= = = = American Film Institute recognition = = = =
1998 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 31
2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – # 4
2002 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions – # 11
2004 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" Seems Like Old Times " – # 90
2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
Annie Hall : " La @-@ dee @-@ da , la @-@ dee @-@ da . " – # 55
Alvy Singer : " I don 't want to move to a city where the only cultural advantage is being able to make a right turn on a red light . " – Nominated
Alvy Singer : " Don 't knock masturbation . It 's sex with someone I love . " – Nominated
2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 35
2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 :
# 2 Romantic Comedy Film
= = = Legacy and influence = = =
Although the film received critical acclaim and several awards , Allen himself was disappointed with it , and said in an interview , " When Annie Hall started out , that film was not supposed to be what I wound up with . The film was supposed to be what happens in a guy 's mind ... Nobody understood anything that went on . The relationship between myself and Diane Keaton was all anyone cared about . That was not what I cared about ... In the end , I had to reduce the film to just me and Diane Keaton , and that relationship , so I was quite disappointed in that movie " . Allen has repeatedly declined to make a sequel , and in a 1992 interview stated that " Sequelism has become an annoying thing . I don 't think Francis Coppola should have done Godfather III because Godfather II was quite great . When they make a sequel , it 's just a thirst for more money , so I don 't like that idea so much " .
Diane Keaton has stated that Annie Hall was her favorite role and that the film meant everything to her . When asked if being most associated with the role concerned her as an actress , she replied , " I 'm not haunted by Annie Hall . I 'm happy to be Annie Hall . If somebody wants to see me that way , it 's fine by me " . Costume designer Ruth Morley , working with Keaton , created a look which had an influence on the fashion world during the late @-@ 70s , with women adopting the style : layering oversized , mannish blazers over vests , billowy trousers or long skirts , a man 's tie , and boots . The look was often referred to as the " Annie Hall look " . Some sources suggest that Keaton herself was mainly responsible for the look , and Ralph Lauren has often claimed credit , but only one jacket and one tie were purchased from Ralph Lauren for use in the film . Allen recalled that Lauren and Keaton 's dress style almost did not end up in the film . " She came in , " he recalled in 1992 , " and the costume lady on Annie Hall said , ' Tell her not to wear that . She can 't wear that . It 's so crazy . ' And I said , ' Leave her . She 's a genius . Let 's just leave her alone , let her wear what she wants . ' "
James Bernardoni states that the film is " one of the very few romantic comedy @-@ dramas of the New Hollywood era and one that has rightly taken its place among the classics of that reverted genre " , likening the seriocomic meditation on the couple relationship to George Cukor 's Adam 's Rib ( 1949 ) , starring Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy . Since its release , other romantic comedies have inspired comparison . When Harry Met Sally ... ( 1989 ) , Chasing Amy ( 1997 ) , 500 Days of Summer ( 2009 ) and Allen 's 2003 film , Anything Else , are among them , while film director Rian Johnson said in an interview for the book , The Film That Changed My Life , that Annie Hall inspired him to become a film director . Karen Gillan stated that she watched Annie Hall as part of her research for her lead role in Not Another Happy Ending .
= William Burnet ( colonial administrator ) =
William Burnet ( March 1687 / 8 – 7 September 1729 ) was a British civil servant and colonial administrator who served as governor of New York and New Jersey ( 1720 – 1728 ) and Massachusetts and New Hampshire ( 1728 – 1729 ) . Born into a position of privilege ( his godfather became William III of England not long after his birth , and his father Gilbert Burnet was later Bishop of Salisbury ) , Burnet was well educated , tutored among others by Isaac Newton .
Active for most of his life in intellectual pursuits ( he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1705 / 6 ) , he occupied no posts of importance until financial considerations and political connections brought him the governorships of New York and New Jersey . His tenure in New Jersey was without major controversies , although he set a precedent there for accepting what were effectively bribes in exchange for his assent to legislation . In New York he sought unsuccessfully to end the fur trade between Albany and Montreal in order to implement a colonial policy preferring direct trade with the Native Americans in central North America . His New York rule was marked by an increase in political divisions between land owners ( with whom Burnet sided ) and merchants . After the death of King George I , King George II appointed Burnet governor of New Hampshire and Massachusetts .
Although his New Hampshire tenure was inconsequential , he engaged in a nasty dispute with the Massachusetts assembly over the issue of his salary , holding the legislative body in session for six months and relocating it away from Boston . The dispute held up other colonial business , and was ongoing in September 1729 when Burnet died ; his death was apparently caused by illness contracted after his carriage overturned and dumped him in water .
= = Early life = =
William Burnet was born in The Hague , a leading city of the Dutch Republic , in March 1687 / 8 . He was the first child of Mary ( Scott ) Burnet and Gilbert Burnet , the leading theologian in the Dutch court of William , Prince of Orange ( who was Burnet 's godfather ) and his wife Mary . Mary Scott Burnet was the heiress of a Scottish family which had settled in the Netherlands and acquired great wealth : her marriage to Gilbert however was generally agreed not to be for money , but a genuine love match on both sides . There were six younger children , of whom four survived infancy .
Later in 1688 William led an army across the English Channel in the Glorious Revolution , and William and Mary ascended to the English throne as corulers . Burnet 's father gave the coronation sermon , was later elevated to Bishop of Salisbury , and was an ongoing influence in the English court during King William 's reign . He fell out of favour when Queen Anne took the throne in 1702 .
Burnet 's mother died of smallpox in 1698 ; in accordance with her dying request his father two years later remarried her close friend Elizabeth Blake , who proved a kindly stepmother to William and his siblings . All of them were devoted to Gilbert , " the best of fathers " . On Gilbert 's death in 1715 William inherited one third of the estate , which given his mother 's wealth , must have been considerable .
Burnet was an excellent but undisciplined scholar . He entered Oxford at the age of 13 , but was dismissed for disciplinary reasons . His later education came from private tutoring ( including Isaac Newton as a tutor ) , and he was ultimately admitted to the bar . In 1712 he married Mary , the daughter of George Stanhope , the Dean of Canterbury . They had one child , a boy , before she died in 1717 .
= = Intellectual pursuits = =
Burnet 's rarefied education brought him a lifelong interest in scientific and mathematical pursuits . He was proposed for membership in the Royal Society by Isaac Newton in 1705 , and was enrolled as a fellow in February 1705 / 6 . He was acquainted with the mathematician Gottfried Leibniz , and was a regular correspondent on a wide array of scientific subjects with Philadelphia merchant and politician James Logan . He reported to the Royal Society observations of the Grindelwald Glacier in Switzerland , and on an unusual instance of Hungarian conjoined twins he saw while resident in The Hague in 1708 . Observations he made of eclipses of the moons of Jupiter while he was governor of New York were used to more precisely determine New York City 's longitude . During his tenure in New York he was relatively starved for intellectual discourse ; he briefly met a young Benjamin Franklin and encouraged him in his intellectual pursuits .
Like his teacher Isaac Newton , Burnet also wrote on religious subjects . In 1724 he anonymously published An Essay on Scripture Prophecy , Wherein it is Endeavoured to Explain the three periods Contain 'd in the Xii Chapter of the Prophet Daniel With some Arguments to make it Probable that the FIRST of the PERIODS did Expire in the Year 1715 . In this work he put forward a Millennialist argument that Jesus Christ would return to Earth in 1790 , based on his numerological interpretation of the Book of Daniel .
= = Governor of New York and New Jersey = =
Burnet 's connections to the court procured for him an appointment as the Comptroller of Customs in Great Britain . He also invested heavily in the South Sea Company , whose collapse in 1720 led him to consider more lucrative positions in the North American colonies . Correspondence with a longtime friend , Robert Hunter , who returned to England in 1719 provided an opportunity : Hunter was then the governor of New York and New Jersey , and he had returned to England for a variety of personal reasons , intending to divest himself of those posts . Hunter and Burnet were both well @-@ connected to the Whig government then in power , so an exchange of their offices was readily approved .
= = = New Jersey = = =
Burnet 's tenure as New Jersey governor was marked by disputes over the issuance of bills of credit and the granting of a permanent salary . Bills of credit , in addition to providing funding for the province 's expenses , also circulated as local currency . Issuance of large quantities of such bills had an inflationary tendency to devalue them relative to the pound sterling . Burnet was under instructions to disallow their issuance except under certain conditions . When the provincial assembly in 1721 approved a bill that called for the issuance of £ 40 @,@ 000 in bills secured by property mortgages Burnet dissolved the assembly . However , he approved similar legislation in 1723 in exchange for the legislature 's approval of a five @-@ year salary plan . When the assembly began appropriating funds from the bills in unapproved ways a few years later , Burnet was again convinced to sign in exchange for a grant of £ 500 for " incidental expenses " . This method by which the assembly essentially bribed the governor for his agreement in violation of instructions became somewhat normal practice in New Jersey with later governors .
= = = New York = = =
In New York Burnet sided with the large landowners of the province ; based on their advice he refused to call elections for the provincial assembly , keeping an assembly dominated by " court party " members for five years . His relationship with the New York assembly only deteriorated after several special elections resulted in the addition of enough " country party " members to elect a hostile speaker . Although he sought to broaden the province 's tax base to include larger real estate holdings , the powerful property owners who dominated the assembly and the court party were successful in deflecting these efforts into taxes on merchant interests . One tax , levied on the tonnage of ships docking in New York , led to a rise in smuggling between New Jersey and New York .
Eight months after his arrival in New York , in May 1721 , Burnet married again . His bride was Anna Maria Van Horne , the daughter of Abraham and Mary Van Horne and a relative by marriage of Robert Livingston , a powerful New York landowner and one of Burnet 's chief advisors . They had four children ; she and the last child died not long after its birth in 1727 .
= = = Indian trading policy = = =
One of the more important aspects of Burnet 's tenure in New York was his attempts to strengthen the colony 's position on the frontier , and its relations with the Iroquois who then controlled most of what is now upstate New York . Since the Iroquois had achieved peace with New France in 1701 , a vibrant trade had begun between New York merchants in Albany and French merchants in Montreal . English goods were sold to French traders , who bartered those goods for furs with Native American tribes in central North America . British colonial administrators sought to alter this method of trade , instructing Burnet to direct the trade through the Iroquois lands instead of through Montreal , bringing an end to the Albany @-@ Montreal trade .
Not long after his arrival in New York , Burnet had the assembly pass a law banning the Albany @-@ Montreal trade . This action earned him opposition from merchant interests that traded directly with New France , including the Huguenot Stephen DeLancey and other Albany merchants . Two vocal merchants , Adolph Philipse and Pieter Schuyler , sat on the governor 's council , and were removed by Burnet in 1721 . The law was fairly easily circumvented : the merchants routed the trade goods through nearby Mohawks who then carried goods to and from Montreal . A law stiffening enforcement of the trade ban was passed in 1722 . These policies caused protest not only in New York , but also in London , where British merchants argued that they were having a negative impact on trade volume to Europe .
In 1723 Burnet was informed that the French had begun construction of Fort Niagara at the western end of Lake Ontario ; this action presented a clear threat to British attempts to more directly access and control the fur trade . He consequently ordered the construction of Fort Oswego at the mouth of the Oswego River . This decision not only upset Albany traders , who would lose their monopoly on the fur trade , but also upset the French ( because it gave the British direct access to Lake Ontario ) and the Iroquois , who had wanted a fort sited at Lake Oneida instead . Burnet tried to placate the Iroquois by stationing militia forces in the Oneida area , but they also resented this intrusion .
Burnet 's attempts to implement the trade policy were ultimately unsuccessful . In 1725 the merchant interests , Stephen DeLancey among them , succeeded in gaining seats in the assembly through special elections , and Burnet 's decision to question the citizenship of the Huguenot DeLancey ( and thus his right to a seat in the assembly ) angered many moderates in that body . In the following years the assembly was noticeably more hostile to his rule . The trade ban was repealed in 1726 and replaced by a system of taxation designed to prefer western trade over the Albany @-@ Montreal trade . By the time of his departure in 1727 it was clear that this policy was also not working , and in some cases was having negative effects . All laws respecting Indian trade that passed during his administration were repealed in 1729 ; the only long @-@ term effects were the establishment of the British military presence at Oswego , and the breaking of Albany 's monopoly on trade . Burnet also left New York more factionally divided between merchants and landowners than when he arrived .
= = = Replacement = = =
In 1727 King George I died , an event that required the renewal of royal commissions . George II decided to give the New York and New Jersey governorships to Colonel John Montgomerie , who had served him as a Groom of the Bedchamber . Burnet was instead given appointment as governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire .
After it became known in New York that Burnet would be replaced , the assembly , at the instigation of Stephen DeLancey , as a parting shot formally protested Burnet 's actions as a chancery court judge , declaring that his judgments would be null and void . Montgomerie arrived in New York on 15 April 1728 , carrying Burnet 's commissions ; Burnet left New York in July for Boston .
= = Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire = =
Burnet was only briefly in New Hampshire during his short tenure , where unlike Massachusetts he was readily granted a salary for three years or the duration of his administration . At the time of his appointment to the Massachusetts seat , the province had been governed for a number of years by Lieutenant Governor William Dummer , acting for Governor Samuel Shute . Burnet made a hardnosed attempt to force the Massachusetts assembly to grant him a permanent salary . Since the institution of the royal charter in 1692 , the assembly had steadfastly resisted this , choosing instead to make periodic grants to the governor . Local politicians found this an effective mechanism for influencing the governor to approve their policies , since the governor would never know when the next grant would be made , or how large it would be . The salary matter was one of many that had vexed Governor Shute during his time in the province . Dummer , a wealthy Massachusetts native , had been more conciliatory , only insisting that control of the provincial militia remain in his hands .
Burnet chose to take an extremely hard line on the subject of the salary : he refused to conduct any other business , or to dissolve the legislature , until the salary was decided . The legislature in turn refused to enact a salary bill , although it offered generous one @-@ time grants that Burnet refused on principle . He further raised tensions by implicitly suggesting that the assembly 's failure to act on the salary might jeopardize the colonial charter . In order to make life as difficult as possible for the legislators , Burnet relocated the assembly from Boston first to Salem and then Cambridge , increasing the costs of the legislators and forcing many of them from the comforts of their Boston @-@ area properties . In November 1728 the assembly voted to send agents to London to argue their side of the issue with the Board of Trade . Its attempts to appropriate funds for the agents were denied by the governor 's council , and the agents ended up being paid from funds raised by subscription .
In May 1729 the Board of Trade ruled , siding with Governor Burnet , but the assembly still refused to yield . Attempts to conduct business on other matters invariably became caught up in the salary dispute , and thus stalled . The dispute was still ongoing when Burnet , en route from Cambridge to Boston on 31 August , was thrown into water when his carriage accidentally overturned . He fell ill , and died on 7 September 1729 . He was interred in the King 's Chapel Burying Ground in Boston .
Lieutenant Governor Dummer again acted as governor until Burnet 's replacement ( Jonathan Belcher , one of the agents who had been sent to London ) was selected and returned to the province . He took a similar position as Burnet , refusing annual grants until he was replaced as lieutenant ( and acting ) governor by William Tailer , who acquiesced to annual grants . Jonathan Belcher , who became governor later in 1730 , was at first instructed as Burnet was on the matter of the salary , but during his tenure the Boards of Trade finally abandoned the instruction , and allowed him to receive annual grants .
= The Pioneer Mother Memorial =
The Pioneer Mother Memorial , also known as Pioneer Mother and Pioneer Mothers , is a 1928 bronze sculpture by American artist Avard Fairbanks , installed at Esther Short Park in Vancouver , Washington , in the United States . The memorial depicts a mother and three children , and commemorates pioneer mothers who settled in the Pacific Northwest . The main female figure may depict Esther Short , one of the first U.S. citizens to arrive in Fort Vancouver . Commissioned by Vancouver banker Edward Crawford and his wife Ida for $ 10 @,@ 000 , it is one of the city 's oldest works of public art , acquired in 1928 and unveiled in 1929 . The sculpture was renovated around the start of the 21st century and is maintained by the City of Vancouver 's Parks & Recreation department .
= = Description = =
The Pioneer Mother Memorial is installed at Esther Short Park 's north entrance , at the intersection of West 8th and Daniel Street ( between Columbia and Esther Streets ) in Vancouver , Washington . The park commemorates the pioneer woman and her husband Amos , who were among the first U.S. citizens to arrive in Fort Vancouver . Some sources say the memorial sculpture commemorates Esther Short specifically , while also " [ typifying ] all the brave mothers of the frontier " who settled in the Pacific Northwest . Some sources say the sculpture 's main female figure is Short herself , per the dedication ceremony 's program . The sculpture was cast in Florence , Italy , where Fairbanks was working on his Guggenheim Fellowship .
The memorial features a full @-@ length bronze figure depicting a mother and three children . The woman wears traditional pioneer clothing , including a long dress , shawl , and shoes . She stands , facing forward , and holds a flintlock rifle in her proper right hand . The woman 's opposite hand rests on the head of the taller of two girls at her proper left side . The taller girl holds the shorter one with her proper left hand , while the shorter girl faces the taller one and rests against the mother 's proper left knee . A young boy clings to the mother 's dress and leans against her rifle . The sculpture measures approximately 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) × 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) × 21 inches ( 53 cm ) and rests on a concrete and granite base that measures approximately 102 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) × 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) × 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) .
Behind the figure group is a concrete backdrop . Its reverse side includes a bronze medallion with a bas @-@ relief depicting a team of oxen pulling a covered wagon . The animals are led by a man , and an " anxious " woman and baby are in the wagon . A large barrel is attached to the wagon . The bottom of the medallion includes a relief of a cattle skull . The medallion has a diameter of approximately 36 inches ( 91 cm ) .
The memorial includes several inscriptions . One by the woman 's foot reads , Avard Fairbanks / 1928 . The medallion has two inscriptions : one below the wagon displays a copyright symbol and reads , 1928 Avard Fairbanks , while another says , THE / PIONEER / MOTHERS . On the concrete backdrop below the medallion is the signed inscription : ERECTED IN MEMORY OF / THE PIONEER MOTHERS / THROUGH THE GIFT OF / MR. & MRS. E. G. CRAWFORD / 1928 .
= = History = =
The Pioneer Mother Memorial is one of Vancouver 's oldest works of public art ( the oldest , according to the Clark County Historical Museum ) , acquired in 1928 and unveiled on July 21 , 1929 ( or September 7 , according to some sources ) . Fairbanks attended the ceremony . The artist was commissioned to create the memorial by Vancouver banker Edward Crawford and his wife Ida , who donated $ 10 @,@ 000 to its creation .
The work was classified as needing treatment by the Smithsonian Institution 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in May 1995 . It was renovated as part of park improvement efforts around the start of the 21st century . The memorial is maintained by the City of Vancouver 's Parks & Recreation department .
= Al @-@ Jarrah ibn Abdallah =
Abu ʿUqba al @-@ Jarrah ibn ʿAbdallah al @-@ Hakami ( Arabic : أبو عقبة الجراح بن عبد الله الحكمي ) was an Arab nobleman and general of the Hakami tribe . During the course of the early 8th century , he was at various times governor of Basra , Sistan and Khurasan , Armenia and Azerbaijan . A legendary warrior already during his lifetime , he is best known for his campaigns against the Khazars on the Caucasus front , culminating in his death in the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730 .
= = Early career = =
According to Baladhuri , al @-@ Jarrah was born in Jordan , and probably followed Sufyan ibn al @-@ Abrad al @-@ Kalbi and Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Habib al @-@ Hakami to Iraq in 696 . In 701 , he fought against the rebellion of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath .
In 706 or a few years later he was appointed as governor of Basra under the governor of Iraq , al @-@ Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , and remained in the post until al @-@ Hajjaj 's replacement by Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab in 715 . Yazid in turn named al @-@ Jarrah as his deputy for Iraq , before he himself left for Khurasan , and in 717 , Caliph Umar II ( r . 717 – 720 ) appointed al @-@ Jarraj as Yazid 's successor in the governorship of Khurasan and Sistan . Al @-@ Jarrah remained in Khurasan until March / April 719 , when he was dismissed after 17 months in office due to complaints of his mistreatment of the native converts to Islam ( mawali ) , who , despite their conversion , were still obliged to pay the poll @-@ tax ( jizya ) . He was replaced by his deputy , Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Nu 'aym al @-@ Ghamidi . The most notable event of his tenure was the beginning of the covert missionary activity ( da 'wah ) by the agents of the Abbasids in Khurasan . After his return to Iraq , in 720 , he seems to have fought alongside Maslamah ibn Abd al @-@ Malik in the suppression of the rebellion of Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab .
= = In the Caucasus = =
In 721 / 2 , the main phase of the Second Arab – Khazar War began on the Caucasus front . In the winter of this year , 30 @,@ 000 Khazars launched an invasion of Armenia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the army of the local governor Mi 'laq ibn Saffar al @-@ Bahrani at Marj al @-@ Hijara in February / March 722 . In response , Caliph Yazid II ( r . 720 – 724 ) sent al @-@ Jarrah with 25 @,@ 000 Syrian troops to Armenia , placing him in command of the Umayyad offensive against the Khazars . Al @-@ Jarrah was swiftly successful in driving the Khazars back across the Caucasus , and fought his way north along the western coast of the Caspian Sea , recovering Derbent and advancing onto the Khazar capital of Balanjar . The Khazars tried to defend the city by ringing the citadel with a laager of wagons , but the Arabs broke it apart and stormed the city on 21 August 722 ( or 723 ) . Most of Balanjar 's inhabitants were killed or enslaved , but a few managed to flee north . The Arabs also took the town of Wabandar , and even approached Samandar ( near modern Kizlyar ) .
Despite these successes , the Arabs could not achieve a decisive result . The main Khazar army remained intact and a constant threat , since like all nomad forces it was not dependent on cities for supplies . Coupled with the fact that his rear was still insecure , al @-@ Jarrah was forced to abandon any attempt at capturing Samandar as well , and to retreat to Warthan south of the Caucasus . From there he asked for reinforcements from Yazid , but although the Caliph promised to send more troops , he failed to do so . The sources are obscure on al @-@ Jarrah 's activity in 723 , but he seems to have led another campaign north ( which may indeed be the true date of the Balanjar campaign ) . In response , the Khazars raided south of the Caucasus , but in February 724 , al @-@ Jarrah inflicted a crushing defeat on them in a battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes that lasted for several days . Al @-@ Jarrah followed up his success by capturing Tiflis , whose inhabitants were obliged to pay the kharaj but received a charter of rights in return . This campaign brought Caucasian Iberia and the lands of the Alans under Muslim suzerainty , and al @-@ Jarrah became the first Muslim commander to march through the Darial Pass in the process . This expedition secured the Muslims ' own flank against a possible Khazar attack through the Darial , while conversely it gave the Muslim army a second invasion route into Khazar territory .
In 725 , however , the new Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 724 – 743 ) replaced al @-@ Jarrah with his own brother Maslamah ibn Abd al @-@ Malik .
= = Recall to the Caucasus and death = =
In 729 , after a mixed performance against the Khazars , Maslamah was replaced yet again as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan by al @-@ Jarrah . For all his energy , Maslamah 's campaigning failed to produce the desired results : by the time of his dismissal , the Arabs had lost control of northeastern Transcaucasia and been thrust once more into the defensive , with al @-@ Jarrah again having to defend Adharbayjan against a Khazar invasion .
In 730 , al @-@ Jarrah returned to the offensive through Tiflis and the Darial Pass . Arab sources report that he reached as far as the Khazar capital , al @-@ Bayda , on the Volga , but modern historians such as Khalid Yahya Blankinship consider this improbable . Soon after , he was forced back to Bardha 'a to defend Arran from invasion by the Khazar general Tharmach . It is unclear whether the Khazars moved through the Darial Pass or the Caspian Gates , but they succeeded in outmanoeuvring al @-@ Jarrah , bypassing the Arab forces and laying siege to Ardabil , the capital of Adharbayjan , where 30 @,@ 000 Muslim troops and their families were gathered . News of this development forced al @-@ Jarrah to hastily withdraw from Bardha 'a and march south in a rapid march to Ardabil 's rescue . Outside the city walls , after a three @-@ day battle on 7 – 9 December 730 , al @-@ Jarrah 's army of 25 @,@ 000 was all but annihilated by the Khazars under Barjik , with al @-@ Jarrah himself falling in the field . Command passed to al @-@ Jarrah 's brother al @-@ Hajjaj , who was unable to prevent the sacking of Ardabil , or to check Khazar raids that reached as far as south as Mosul . The experienced general Sa 'id ibn Amr al @-@ Harashi was put in command and soon succeeded in driving back the invasion , while under the leadership of Marwan ibn Muhammad ( the future Marwan II ) the war was concluded in a nominal Arab victory in 737 .
Al @-@ Jarrah 's death caused widespread lamentation in the Muslim world , particularly among the soldiers , as he had achieved a legendary status already during his lifetime : the " paradigmatic general " ( Patricia Crone ) , he had an impressive physical presence — according to tradition , he was so tall that when he entered the Great Mosque of Damascus , his head seemed to be suspended from the lamps — and his military prowess was celebrated with the sobriquets " hero of Islam " ( Baṭal al @-@ Islām ) and " Cavalier of the Syrians " ( Fāris Ahl al @-@ Shām ) .
= It 's On Bitch =
" It 's On Bitch " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of The Hills . It originally aired on September 29 , 2009 , on MTV . In the episode , Kristin Cavallari and Audrina Patridge begin a feud involving the latter 's ex @-@ boyfriend Justin Brescia , while newlyweds Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt disagree about having children . It is the first episode in which Cavallari appears as the series ' lead , and also marks the first episode in which her predecessor Lauren Conrad does not appear .
" It 's On Bitch " was produced by Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . After the season was retroactively divided into Part I and Part II , respectively separating installments featuring Conrad and Cavallari , the episode became the premiere of Part II .
" It 's On Bitch " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the decision to replace Conrad with Cavallari . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode was released on DVD on April 27 , 2010 , packaged with the remainder of Part II of the fifth season .
= = Plot = =
Newlyweds Heidi and Spencer plan a " welcome back party " upon returning from their honeymoon . Audrina , Lo , and Stephanie become concerned after learning that Kristin was invited , recalling earlier confrontations between her and Lauren . Brody 's girlfriend Jayde Nicole is concerned that he still has residual feelings for Kristin , though he dismisses their relationship as being too young and maintains that they are still friendly .
Audrina is dismayed to see that Justin is flirting with Kristin during the party , and Stephanie tells Justin to be respectful of Audrina . Kristin learns of the conflict , and begins yelling at Audrina and Stephanie . As the developing fight almost becomes physical , Kristin yells " if it 's going to be like this it 's on , bitch ! " as the others walk away .
The following day , Audrina rejects an invitation to Frankie 's birthday party when she realizes that Kristin will be in attendance . Lo and Stephanie are shocked that Justin tells Kristin that he and Audrina were not officially a couple , but decide against confronting Kristin . Audrina is saddened after hearing of Justin 's comments , and is worried that he and Kristin are seeing each other . During a later date with Justin , Kristin confesses that she thought he still has feelings for Audrina , and understands that Audrina looks at her as a threat .
Meanwhile , while looking for houses with Heidi , Spencer is alarmed that she wants have children . Heidi is excited to decorate a nursery in a suburban neighborhood , but is upset that Spencer secured another , more modern rental property without her prior knowledge . She tells him that they should have selected a home together , though Spencer refuses to take her concerns seriously .
= = Production = =
" It 's On Bitch " was produced by Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . The episode was filmed throughout May and June 2009 .
The series ' original lead Lauren Conrad first indicated that she wished to leave The Hills upon the conclusion of its fourth season in December 2008 , looking to pursue other career opportunities . She commented that " five years on TV is a really , really long time " , adding that she was " ready to walk away " . However , per the producers ' requests , Conrad filmed ten episodes for the fifth season , in which she closed her storylines . She added that the season was potentially its last , stating that series personnel felt her presence would " give the show some sort of closure " .
The tenth episode of the season , " Something Old , Something New " , aired on May 31 , 2009 , and was initially billed as the fifth season finale . However , in April 2009 , MTV announced an extension of the season , and confirmed Cavallari as Conrad 's replacement the following month . Consequentially , the first ten episodes of the season were retroactively labeled Part I , while Cavallari 's forthcoming episodes were titled Part II . In January 2014 , Patridge revealed that the conflict between her and Cavallari had been fabricated at the producers ' request , elaborating that " [ she ] had to leave early for another event , [ they ] were there for about three hours and [ the producers ] were like , ' You can 't leave until you and Kristin get into a fight . ' ... It was about Justin and [ they ] did it and [ they ] got to leave . "
= = Reception and release = =
" It 's On Bitch " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards the decision to replace Conrad with Cavallari . A writer from PopSugar criticized Cavallari 's " sassy , bad @-@ girl attitude " for lacking originality and preferred Conrad for " [ keeping ] it real " . Rachel Krasnow from the Weekend Watchers was disappointed in the " overdone " and " ridiculous " scenes involving Cavallari and Brescia , and suggested that they had been staged by producers . Brian Moylan from Jezebel felt that Conrad 's departure " doomed the show " and added that he " just [ doesn 't ] get The Hills " despite " [ watching ] a lot of really trashy television " .
In contrast , Amy Kaufman from Los Angeles Times opined that Cavallari was more intriguing than Conrad , whose storylines she felt had been overshadowed as the series progressed . Tracie Egan Morrissey of Jezebel commented that she " kind of [ loves ] Kristin " , and was glad to see her replacing Conrad . Julie Miller from Movieline was critical of the episode 's " staged showdowns " , but nonetheless noted that the series " continues to compel " like professional wrestling and enjoyed a scene in which Jenner became irritated with Nicole , labeling it the sole genuine reaction of the episode . Writing for Homorazzi , Patrick " loved this episode " , and expressed an interest in the love triangle that seemingly develops between Cavallari , Jenner , and Nicole . Furthermore , a writer from The Hollywood Gossip opined that The Hills " can annoy the crap out of you sometimes " but " still entertains " despite appearing to be heavily scripted .
In its original broadcast in the United States on September 29 , 2009 , " It 's On Bitch
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of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 83 million viewers and placed as the 24th most @-@ watched episode for the week in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic .
IGN columnist Brian Zoromski rated " Grief Counseling " 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . Writing that the opening sequence " excellently set " the tone of the episode , he found a " ton of great moments " , such as Michael 's " totally awkward speeches on Ed Truck 's death " and his conversation with Dwight over a robot statue . Zoromski saved the most praise for Pam and her pranks , particularly her " completely ridiculous bird funeral ... It was all so brilliantly over @-@ the @-@ top it becomes clear that the Scranton office will continue to be enjoyable to watch , as Pam takes over the mocking of the office all on her own , to a hilarious extreme . " AOL TV 's Michael Sciannamea also lauded Pam and her pranks , especially highlighting her actions during the opening sequence and her song during the bird funeral . Sciannamea assumed that " she feels liberated from Roy ( and Jim , to some extent ) [ and ] is allowing her personality and sense of humor to come out even more . " He concluded that it was " another solid episode with Steve Carell at his best . "
Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West expressed praise for an episode that " restored balance and order to our favorite paper @-@ pushers while still nicely forwarding the storylines of TV 's plainest super @-@ non @-@ couple . " West was also pleased " to have Michael back to his usual insanity " , and wrote that Pam " was priceless tonight , from the spot @-@ on reaction shots to the movie @-@ plotlines @-@ as @-@ my @-@ pain gag she started to the almost @-@ believably tender eulogy she delivered for the singing , er , impressionist bird , complete with the most tricked @-@ out pencil @-@ case coffin you 've ever seen . " Television Without Pity graded the episode with a B – . Michael 's monologue about the five stages of grief has also been isolated for praise ; Michael Sciannamea called it " the best line of the night , " and in 2011 , IGN 's Cindy White selected it as one of the series ' best .
= Miniopterus zapfei =
Miniopterus zapfei is a fossil bat in the genus Miniopterus from the middle Miocene of France . First described in 2002 , it is known only from the site of La Grive M , where it occurs with another fossil Miniopterus species , the smaller and more common Miniopterus fossilis . M. zapfei is known from five mandibles ( lower jaws ) and an isolated fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) . The fourth lower premolar is more slender than in M. fossilis and the cingulum shelf surrounding the P4 is less well @-@ developed than in living Miniopterus . The length of the first lower molar is 1 @.@ 57 to 1 @.@ 60 mm .
= = Taxonomy = =
Miniopterus zapfei was described by Pierre Mein and Léonard Ginsburg in a 2002 paper on the ages and faunas of the fossil sites of La Grive @-@ Saint @-@ Alban in southeastern France . Mein and Ginsburg wrote that it was the second fossil Miniopterus species to be described , after Miniopterus fossilis from Slovakia , but did not mention Miniopterus approximatus from the Pliocene of Poland or Miniopterus tao from the Pleistocene of China . Another fossil species , Miniopterus rummeli , was described from the Miocene of Germany in 2003 . The specific name , zapfei , honors Helmuth Zapfe , who described M. fossilis . Miniopterus also includes about 20 living species of small , insectivorous bats distributed in southern Eurasia , Africa , and Australia . Although the genus was historically placed in the family Vespertilionidae , it is now classified in its own family , Miniopteridae .
= = Description = =
The known material ( hypodigm ) of Miniopterus zapfei includes a mandible ( lower jaw ) with the fourth premolar ( p4 ) , first molar ( m1 ) , and second molar ( m2 ) ; a mandible with m1 ; a mandible with m1 and m2 ; a mandible with m2 and the third molar ( m3 ) ; a mandible without any teeth ; and an isolated fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) . Some of the mandibles also preserve the alveoli ( openings ) for teeth that have not been preserved . The dimensions of the p4 ( length and width ) are 1 @.@ 03 x 0 @.@ 88 mm ; m1 is 1 @.@ 57 to 1 @.@ 60 x 1 @.@ 01 to 1 @.@ 07 mm ; m2 is 1 @.@ 51 to 1 @.@ 64 x 0 @.@ 95 to 1 @.@ 05 mm ; the single m3 is 1 @.@ 41 mm long ; and the single P4 is 1 @.@ 38 x 1 @.@ 52 mm . In a well @-@ preserved mandible , the length from the alveolus for the first incisor to the end of m3 is 8 @.@ 80 mm and the depth of the mandible at m1 is 1 @.@ 50 mm . Miniopterus zapfei can be identified as a Miniopterus on the basis of the possession of three lower premolars ( designated p2 , p3 , and p4 , because the original first premolar has been lost ) ; a two @-@ rooted p3 ; and the nyctalodont molars , with the posterolophid ( a crest at the back of the molar ) behind the entoconid cusp . M. zapfei is about 30 % larger than M. fossilis and has a more slender p4 . Compared to living Miniopterus , the cingulum ( shelf ) that surrounds the P4 is less well @-@ developed and the parastyle crest is weaker .
= = Range and ecology = =
Miniopterus zapfei is known only from the site La Grive M in the village of Saint @-@ Alban @-@ de @-@ Roche , department of Isère , southeastern France . La Grive M is one of several fissure filling sites in the area , collectively known as La Grive @-@ Saint @-@ Alban , which have yielded rich fossil faunas . La Grive M is the reference locality for the MN zone MN 7 / 8 , about 13 to 11 million years ago . La Grive M is one of the older sites of La Grive , and Mein and Ginsburg proposed taking it as the reference locality for a separate zone MN 7 . M. zapfei is rare in La Grive M ; Miniopterus fossilis is much more common in the same site , and has also been found in La Grive L7 and other European localities ranging from MN 6 to MN 13 .
= Wank Week =
Wank Week was a controversial season of television programming that was due to be broadcast in the United Kingdom by Channel 4 , expected to consist of a series of three documentary programmes about masturbation . However , plans to broadcast it in March 2007 came under public attack from senior television figures , and the planned broadcasts were pulled amid claims of declining editorial standards and controversy over the channel 's public service broadcasting credentials . While Wank Week itself was cancelled , the films it was meant to showcase may yet be broadcast by the channel at a later date .
= = Commissioning and programming = =
The season was commissioned by James Hindle , the channel 's factual entertainment commissioning editor , and announced in July 2006 . It was to consist of three films broadcast in the 11pm slot , headlined by a documentary on mass public masturbation . This kind of programming was not unprecedented : the Channel had previously screened a ' Penis Week ' , reportedly described by MacKenzie as a " success " in a Guardian article . He continued on the subject of Wank Week , " we feel this is exactly the type of provocative and mischievous programming that Channel 4 should be covering in the 11pm slot " In the United Kingdom , the 11pm slot is considered post @-@ watershed , defined by the regulator Ofcom in the Broadcasting Code as later than 9pm ( although transition to more adult material " must not be unduly abrupt at the watershed or after the time when children are particularly likely to be listening " according to section 1 @.@ 6 ) . This allows the broadcasting of more sexually explicit content .
The first show to be announced centred on a Masturbate @-@ a @-@ thon held in Clerkenwell , London in August 2006 . This was a public mass masturbation event organised to raise money for the sexual health charity Marie Stopes International . A press release from Zig @-@ Zag , the independent production company behind the recording of the event , promised that the film would reveal " if the only things allowed to be stiff in Britain are upper lips " . The programme 's working title was Wank @-@ a @-@ thon .
A week later , plans for an as yet unnamed second documentary about compulsive male masturbators were announced , to be produced by the independent company Spun Gold . The film was to be an hour long and focus on men trying to cut down excessive masturbatory habits of up to twenty times a day , using methods developed in the United States . In September 2006 , the final film in the series was announced . Entitled Masturbation For Girls , it was also to be produced by Spun Gold , and focus on female masturbation . It was to feature the sex educationalist Dr Betty Dodson , although the format had yet not been finalised . It was reported after the postponement of their airing that the second and third films were to be entitled I Can 't Stop Wanking and Masturbation for Women respectively .
= = Controversy and cancellation = =
Wank Week was criticised in the prestigious James MacTaggart Memorial Lecture at the 2006 Edinburgh International Television Festival on 25 August , only a month after Channel 4 's initial announcement . Charles Allen , the outgoing Chief Executive of Channel 4 's commercial rival ITV , attacked Channel 4 for deterioration of output and adopting a " begging " approach to finances in the run @-@ up to terrestrial digital switchover ( requesting subsidies for public service output while pursuing a path of commercialism ) . Wank Week 's mention came as part of a critique of programming that Channel 4 was counting towards its " educational " content . Allen joked that he was expecting Wank Week to be included , " but that could be a hard one to pull off even for Channel 4 . " The pun was subsequently repeated in the press .
Criticisms of Wank Week were echoed later in 2006 by Sir Jeremy Isaacs , the first Chief Executive of Channel 4 , in an article for Prospect magazine . Isaacs argued that Channel 4 's increased commercialisation led to a targeting of the 16- to 34 @-@ year @-@ old audience , and the subsequent " obsession with adolescent transgression and sex " could be seen in programming such as Designer Vaginas , The World 's Biggest Penis and Wank Week .
Although these public attacks led to reports of concern in Channel 4 management , postponement of Wank Week did not take place until early February 2007 , only a month before its planned screening . There had been a major racism controversy during January 's Celebrity Big Brother contest , and the launch of Wank Week raised the prospect of further embarrassment at a critical time : Ofcom was reviewing the channel 's finances ahead of the digital switchover , with the continued nature of Channel 4 's existence as a state @-@ owned but advertisement @-@ funded public service broadcaster at stake . Broadcast magazine reported that several senior figures at Channel 4 had felt uncomfortable about Wank Week , including deputy chairman David Puttnam and chairman Luke Johnson , although they had originally not intended to formally object . The atmosphere following the Celebrity Big Brother racism row was suggested to have influenced the decision .
According to the media section of The Guardian , the films commissioned for Wank Week are likely to be broadcast at a later date , but probably not as part of a dedicated season of programming , and certainly not under the Wank Week banner . Dan Wootton , senior reporter at Broadcast , criticised the decision , calling it " wimpy " . Contrasting it with the way that Channel 4 executives had been prepared to defend Celebrity Big Brother , he concluded they had acted hypocritically .
= New York State Route 360 =
New York State Route 360 ( NY 360 ) was an east – west state highway located in northwestern Monroe County , New York , in the United States . It extended for 4 @.@ 87 miles ( 7 @.@ 84 km ) through the town of Hamlin from an intersection with NY 272 at the Monroe – Orleans county line to a junction with NY 19 north of the hamlet of Hamlin . NY 360 intersected the former southern terminus of NY 215 1 @.@ 50 miles ( 2 @.@ 41 km ) east of the county line at its northern junction with Redman Road . Most of NY 360 passed through rural areas ; however , the easternmost portion of the route was located in a residential neighborhood that comprises the northernmost portion of the hamlet of Hamlin .
The highways that NY 360 followed were originally improved to state highway standards in the 1900s and 1910s and first designated as part of NY 18 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , the NY 360 designation was assigned to what is now NY 18 between NY 272 and NY 19 . The alignments of NY 18 and NY 360 between those two routes were flipped c . 1933 . Ownership and maintenance of NY 360 was transferred from the state of New York to Monroe County on November 26 , 2007 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . NY 360 overlapped with four different county routes at various points along its routing until the route was officially deleted as a touring route in February 2012 .
= = Route description = =
NY 360 began at an intersection with NY 272 at the Monroe – Orleans county line in the town of Hamlin . The route proceeded east on Morton Road , passing through a lightly populated area and crossing a pair of tributaries that feed into Yanty Creek . After 1 @.@ 50 miles ( 2 @.@ 41 km ) , Morton Road ended at an intersection with Redman Road . This junction was once the southern terminus of NY 215 ; however , it is now merely a junction between two county @-@ maintained routes . NY 360 turned south here to follow Redman Road for 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before resuming its eastward progression on Church Road .
Like on Morton Road before it , the portion of Church Road that is part of NY 360 was sparsely populated , save for a portion of the road near its junction with Lake Road West Fork . Roughly halfway between Redman Road and Lake Road West Fork , NY 360 passed over Sandy Creek . At Lake Road West Fork , NY 360 veered southeast . As NY 360 continued along the roadway , the amount of development increased as the route approached of the hamlet of Hamlin . North of the hamlet 's center , NY 360 met NY 19 ( Lake Road East Fork ) at a Y @-@ shaped intersection . NY 360 ended here , and NY 19 continued southward into Hamlin as Lake Road .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and designation = = =
On September 20 , 1907 , the state of New York let a contract for a project to improve Church Road , the section of Redman Road north of Church Road , and the portion of Lake Road West Fork between Church Road and Lake Road to state highway standards . The project was completed by mid @-@ 1909 , and the highways , collectively inventoried as State Highway 286 ( SH 286 ) , were added to the state highway system on July 20 , 1909 . On June 8 , 1915 , the state awarded another contract to bring Morton Road up to state highway standards . Work on the road , internally designated as SH 1282 , was completed that year , allowing for the highway to be added to the state highway system on December 8 , 1915 . The first set of posted state routes in New York were assigned in 1924 ; however , no designations were assigned to either of the aforementioned highways at this time .
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , several of the routes assigned during the 1920s were renumbered or modified . At the same time , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways that did not yet have a route number were assigned one . This included both SH 1282 and the section of SH 286 south of Morton Road as both became part of NY 18 , a highway that was extended eastward from Buffalo to Rochester as part of the renumbering . At the time , NY 18 entered the hamlet of Morton on Kenmore Road and followed Morton , Redman , and Church Roads and Lake Road West Fork into Hamlin , where it overlapped with NY 63 ( modern NY 19 ) south along Lake Road to rejoin its modern alignment at Hamlin Center Road . By the following year , NY 360 was assigned to what is now NY 18 between NY 272 and Lake Road ( then @-@ NY 63 ) in Hamlin . The alignments of NY 18 and NY 360 between Morton and Hamlin were flipped c . 1933 , placing both highways on their modern routings .
= = = Transfer of maintenance = = =
In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of NY 360 was transferred from the state of New York to Monroe County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 .
As a result of the change in maintenance , NY 360 became part of four unsigned county routes . On Morton Road , NY 360 was co @-@ designated as County Route 279 ( CR 279 ) . The portion on Redman Road was part of CR 236 , which extends from NY 31 west of Brockport to Cook Road near the Lake Ontario State Parkway . The section of NY 360 on Church Road overlapped with CR 277 . Finally , the part of NY 360 on Lake Road West Fork was concurrent with CR 234 , which extends north past NY 360 to Moscow Road ( CR 211 ) . All four overlaps were eliminated when the NY 360 designation was officially removed in February 2012 , and the NY 360 shields were removed by June of that year .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Hamlin , Monroe County .
= Star Wars Headspace =
Star Wars Headspace is an electronic music compilation album executively produced by Rick Rubin and Kevin Kusatsu . It compiles electronic dance tracks of acts including Claude VonStroke , Flying Lotus and Röyksopp . It featured sound effects and samples from the Star Wars films , but does not contain any sample of John Williams ' soundtrack for the series . Hollywood Records and American Recordings released Star Wars Headspace in digital forms on February 19 , 2016 and in physical forms on March 18 , to decent commercial performance , beginning at number one on the United States Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums chart and becoming the second various artists compilation to top the chart . However , it also garnered a mixed response from music critics , praise going towards its eccentric concept and criticism that it would likely only be enjoyed by fans of the film series .
= = Composition = =
Star Wars Headspace is a compilation album of electronic dance music featuring sound effects and samples from the Star Wars films . Musicians Rick Rubin and Kevin Kusatsu , who executively produced the album , gave the producers files of these sounds , but were also instructed by Lucasfilm to not sample any of John Williams ' score from the films . Flying Lotus , who said that he was proud of being a part of the project , felt that the concept made sense given that the sounds used in the Star Wars would be a precursor of what was yet to come in electronic music . Therefore , he felt " close " to the sounds he was using to reflect the universe of the films .
Critic Jonah Bromwich analyzed that the beginning half of Star Wars Headspace consists of the producers sampling from the movie while making music in their common style , making it feel like " obvious tribute material " . The first track , Kaskade 's " C @-@ 3P0 's Plight " , represents Star Wars ' humor and C @-@ 3PO 's melodramatic character aspect , featuring sounds of Wookiee 's roar and shots from a Blaster weapon . Rubin 's house remix of " Jabba Flow " , a composition by J.J. Abrams and Lin @-@ Manuel Miranda used in Star Wars : The Force Awakens , is the fifth track on the compilation , which is followed by Claude VonStroke 's " R2 Knows " , featuring vocals from Barry Drift and described in a review by Pitchfork Media as a silly anthem similar to releases from Todd Terje . Another track by Rubin , " NR @-@ G7 " , has many samples such as R2 @-@ D2 blips playing over a " driving " four on the floor instrumental with " dazzling jet @-@ stream " synthesizers . However , Bromwich also wrote that the later songs on the track list focus less on the artists making music in their typical trend and more on replicating what made John Williams score so great . Consequence of Sound 's Derek Staples noted Norwegian duo Röyksopp 's “ Bounty Hunters ” to be less of a bright song and more of a dark synthwave track than their usual material . " Sunset Over Manaan " by ATTLAS , a producer signed under the label mau5trap , has a melody reminiscent of " Leia 's Theme " , and has a more " cinematic " atmosphere than his previous work . The record closes with " Star Tripper " by French producer Breakbot , a downtempo funk song featuring orchestration reflecting the neo @-@ romantic aspect of Williams ' soundtrack .
= = Promotion and release = =
On February 8 , 2016 , the release date and cover art of Star Wars Headspace was announced , and pre @-@ ordering of the record began . That same day , Beats 1 , an Apple Music radio show by New Zealand DJ and producer Zane Lowe , promoted the compilation with an interview with Flying Lotus about his involvement , as well as premiering three tracks , " Cantina Boys " , " NR @-@ G7 " and " R2 Where R U ? " ; the latter song was a " World Record " premiere . " Help Me ! " was released on Beats 1 a day later , while on February 18 the channel Freeform premiered " Force " shortly before the album 's midnight release . Hollywood Records issued the album in digital form on February 19 , 2016 , followed by a physical release on March 18 . Selling 3 @,@ 000 copies in the United States on its first Billboard chart week , Star Wars Headspace topped the Dance / Electronic Albums chart , the first various artists compilation to do so on the chart since 2008 's High School Musical 2 : Non @-@ Stop Dance Party . It also landed at number 197 on the nation 's Billboard 200 and at number eight on the magazine 's Compilation Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , the album landed on the Official Charts Company 's UK Dance Albums Charts at number twenty and number twenty @-@ two on the Official Charts Company 's Soundtrack Albums Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Critical response to Star Wars Headspace was mixed , holding a weighted mean of a 48 out of 100 on the site Metacritic based on seven reviews . Drew Mcweeny reviewed it for One Thing I Love Today , his daily column on HitFix which is meant to highlight certain aspects of modern @-@ day popular culture . He honored the compilation 's concept of a EDM Star Wars tribute as funny : " I 'm not sure how long I 'll listen to it , because in the end , it 's still an hour or so of EDM , but it was a delightful soundtrack to a busy weekend , and all of the small surprises built into it should make it something that any Star Wars fan will be able to easily enjoy . " A correspondent for The Boston Globe wrote that it was much better than he expected it to be , giving all credit to the producers who contributed to the compilation . Los Angeles Times critic Randall Roberts spotlighted the distinguishing characteristic of each song . Bromwich , who wrote a review for Pitchfork Media , scored the release a 6 @.@ 9 out of ten , highlighting the record 's goal of just being " simple fun " and " Neither [ a ] stale tribute nor sloppy lovefest " . At the same time , however , he also disliked that the nostalgic style was seemingly " a way of avoiding risk " .
The album also garnered numerous mixed reviews that felt that it would only be enjoyed by fans of the franchise ; Staples described the tracks as " musical fan fiction ready for both celestial dance floors and distant forgotten landscapes " , while Jon Dolan , reviewing for Rolling Stone magazine , rated it two and a half stars out of five , feeling that many of the producers involved with the project didn 't experiment enough with the concept that it was " hard to get beyond timid fanboy reverence . " The harshest review came from Sam Goldner of Tiny Mix Tapes , who bashed the album as a major contributing factor to " the nasty details , the blemishes , the facts of this world that truly corrupt our collective sense of well @-@ being and hope " in regards to how the Star Wars franchise has been marketed .
= = Track listing and credits = =
All tracks mastered by Vlado Meller with assistance from Jeremy Lubsey .
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies an additional producer not credited as the main artist
= = Charts = =
= Hugo von Pohl =
Hugo von Pohl ( 25 August 1855 – 23 February 1916 ) was a German admiral who served during the First World War . He joined the Navy in 1872 and served in various capacities , including with the new torpedo boats in the 1880s , and in the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) in the 1890s . He eventually reached the rank of Vizeadmiral and held the position of Chief of the Admiralty Staff in 1913 . He commanded the German High Seas Fleet from February 1915 until January 1916 . As the commander of the surface fleet , he was exceedingly cautious , and did not engage the High Seas Fleet in any actions with the British Grand Fleet . Pohl was an outspoken advocate of unrestricted submarine warfare , and he put the policy into effect once he took command of the fleet on 4 February 1915 . Seriously ill from liver cancer by January 1916 , Pohl was replaced by Reinhard Scheer that month . Pohl died a month later .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early career = = =
Hugo von Pohl was born in Breslau , Prussian Silesia , on 25 August 1855 . He entered the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) as a cadet in April 1872 . At the age of 24 , Pohl was promoted and given command of the sailing corvette SMS Carola . In the 1880s , he served with then @-@ Korvettenkapitän Alfred von Tirpitz in his so @-@ called " Torpedo Gang " , which advocated a greater emphasis on torpedo boats in the German fleet . Pohl took command of the spar torpedo vessel Ulan , an early , experimental torpedo boat , in 1882 . Two years later , in late September 1884 , he was involved in an experiment with new torpedo boat designs from Schichau , Thornycroft , AG Vulcan , and AG Weser ; Pohl commanded one of the Schichau boats . During the exercises , Pohl 's boat collided with the boat commanded by August von Heeringen . The former 's boat sprung a leak , while the latter 's rudder was damaged , but both safely returned to port .
By the 1890s , Pohl had been transferred to the Reichsmarineamt ( Imperial Navy Office ) , where he would again work with Tirpitz after the latter was appointed as the State Secretary of the Navy . In 1900 , Pohl was assigned to the fleet that was sent to China to help suppress the Boxer Rebellion . While in China , he commanded the protected cruiser SMS Hansa , which bombarded the Taku Forts . In May of that year , Pohl was promoted to Korvettenkapitän . He was promoted to the rank of Konteradmiral in 1906 . Thereafter he served as the commander of the reconnaissance forces of the German fleet . Pohl was promoted again , to Vizeadmiral , in January 1913 . That year , he was elevated to the nobility and , in April , became the Chief of the Admiralty Staff , a position he would hold for two years .
As Chief of the Admiralty Staff , Pohl was involved in the German deliberations during the July Crisis in the aftermath of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian terrorists the previous month . Pohl , Helmuth von Moltke , the Chief of the German General Staff , and Theobald von Bethmann @-@ Hollweg , the Chancellor , met the Kaiser after the monarch returned from a cruise to Norway with the bulk of the High Seas Fleet . Pohl and the others were present at several meetings with the Kaiser , which ultimately produced the " blank check " Wilhelm II extended to Austria @-@ Hungary ; this decision ultimately helped to push Europe into the First World War by the end of the month .
= = = First World War = = =
At the outbreak of war , Pohl , along with Georg von Müller , the Chief of the Imperial Naval Cabinet , and Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , believed that since the war would be over quickly , the fleet should be preserved intact . Together , they agreed that the fleet should be restrained to provide local defense of the German coast , rather than seek a decisive battle against the numerically superior British Grand Fleet . Pohl argued that U @-@ boats should be used to attack British merchant shipping . He pushed for fewer restrictions on the conduct of the commerce war beginning in late 1914 ; he further advocated abandoning the cruiser rules that handicapped the German effort , in favor of unrestricted submarine warfare . He presented his first plans for an unlimited commerce war in November 1914 , but these were rejected by the Kaiser and Bethmann @-@ Hollweg so as not to antagonize neutral nations , in particular the United States .
After the Battle of Dogger Bank , Pohl replaced Ingenohl as commander of the High Seas Fleet ; throughout his tenure as its commander , Pohl adopted a very cautious strategy in order to preserve the strength of the fleet . Pohl was a controversial choice to replace Ingenohl , in large part owing to his caution with the employment of the surface fleet . Two days after taking command , on 4 February 1915 , Pohl gave the order to use unrestricted submarine warfare against the Allies ; he had managed to convince Bethmann @-@ Hollweg by falsely promising him that U @-@ boat commanders could distinguish between enemy and neutral steamers , and thus avoid provoking the United States . The policy was short @-@ lived , however , as on 7 May 1915 , the U @-@ boat U @-@ 20 torpedoed and sank the passenger liner RMS Lusitania , causing a diplomatic crisis with the United States . To avoid drawing America into the war , Germany reinstated restrictions on the U @-@ boat fleet .
Aboard his flagship , SMS Friedrich der Grosse , Pohl conducted a series of short operations into the North Sea over the course of 1915 . None of these operations ventured outside of the southern end of the North Sea , and the fleet never encountered any British forces . Pohl became seriously ill from liver cancer on 8 January 1916 and was taken to a hospital ship . He was subsequently moved to Berlin for surgery . He was relieved of command due to his poor health on 23 January ; his replacement as fleet commander was Reinhard Scheer . Pohl died a month later , on 23 February . Shortly before his death , he was awarded the Order of the Red Eagle with oak leaves and swords for his command of the fleet . In 1920 , Pohl 's widow Ella published some of his papers in an effort to defend his reputation from postwar criticisms .
= Unser Mund sei voll Lachens , BWV 110 =
Unser Mund sei voll Lachens ( May our mouth be full of laughter ) , BWV 110 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the Christmas cantata in Leipzig for Christmas Day and first performed it on 25 December 1725 .
Bach composed the cantata in his third year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig . He used a text by Georg Christian Lehms , which was published already in 1711 . The text has no recitatives alternating with arias , but instead three biblical quotations , opening with verses from Psalm 26 , then a verse from the Book of Jeremiah about God 's greatness , and finally the angels ' song from the Nativity according to the Gospel of Luke . The closing chorale is taken from Caspar Füger 's " Wir Christenleut " .
Bach scored the work festively for four vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of trumpets and timpani , transverse flutes , different kinds of oboe , strings and basso continuo including bassoon . He derived the first chorus , in the style of a French overture , from the overture to his fourth Orchestral Suite , embedding vocal parts in its fast middle section . The song of the angels is based on the Christmas interpolation Virga Jesse Floruit of his Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a . He chose obbligato instruments to differentiate the character of the three arias : two flutes with the tenor expressing the " lowly birth " , oboe d 'amore with the alto , representing God 's love , and trumpet , oboes and strings with the bass for his call to sing songs of joy together . Bach led the Thomanerchor in the first performances on Christmas Day , one in the Nikolaikirche and one in the Thomaskirche .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in his third year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig for Christmas Day , the first day of a Christmas celebration which lasted for three days . The prescribed readings for the feast day were from the Epistle of Titus , " God 's mercy appeared " ( Titus 2 : 11 – 14 ) or from Isaiah , " Unto us a child is born " ( Isaiah 9 : 2 – 7 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the Nativity , Annunciation to the shepherds and the angels ' song ( Luke 2 : 1 – 14 ) .
In 1723 , his first year in Leipzig , Bach had composed no new cantata for Christmas Day , but revived Christen , ätzet diesen Tag , BWV 63 , on a text of free poetry without any biblical or chorale content . That year , he composed new works for the second and third feast day . In 1724 , his second year , he composed three chorale cantatas for the three feast days , beginning with Gelobet seist du , Jesu Christ , BWV 91 . In his third year , Bach used a cantata text by Georg Christian Lehms , which was published already in 1711 in Darmstadt in the collection Gottgefälliges Kirchen @-@ Opffer . The librettist began with a quotation of two verses from Psalm 126 which deals with the hope for delivery of Jerusalem , " When the Lord turned again the captivity of Zion , we were like them that dream . " , and the joyful reaction ( Psalms 126 : 2 – 3 ) . The poet included for a recitative a verse from the Book of Jeremiah , praising God 's greatness ( Jeremiah 10 : 6 ) , and he quoted from the Christmas story in the Gospel of Luke the singing of the angels ( Luke 2 : 14 ) . In this early text , three biblical quotations alternate with arias . The closing chorale is the fifth stanza of Caspar Füger 's hymn " Wir Christenleut " .
Bach led the Thomanerchor in the first performance in the morning of Christmas Day in the Nikolaikirche , repeated in the afternoon in the Thomaskirche . He led at least one more performance between 1728 and 1731 .
Some Bach scholars believed that the cantata was written in 1734 for the end of the War of the Polish Succession , but the discovery of the printed text showed that it was not related . The cantata was not published until 1876 when it appeared in the Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe , the first complete edition of the composer 's works .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements . An opening chorus and a closing chorale frame a sequence of arias , a recitative and a duet . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three trumpets and timpani ( Ti ) , two transverse flutes ( Ft ) , three oboes ( Ob ) ( also oboe d 'amore and oboe da caccia ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo including bassoon . The heading of the original parts reads : " J.J. Feria 1 Nativitatis Xsti . Concerto. a 3 Trombe , Tamburi . 3 Hautb . / Baßon . 2 Violini e Viola , 4 Voci è Continuo . " , which means " Jesus help . First feast day of the birth of Christ . Concerto for 3 trumpets , timpani , 3 oboes , bassoon , 2 violins and viola , 4 voices and continuo " . The duration is given as 27 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbols for common time ( 4 / 4 ) and alla breve ( 2 / 2 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
In 1725 , Bach typically composed alternating recitatives and arias in his cantatas , both on contemporary poetry . The text for this work is in an older style , with biblical texts interspersed with arias . Bach followed it , using different musical forms for the biblical quotations . The opening chorus on psalm verses is an adaptation of his overture to his fourth Orchestral Suite in D major , BWV 1069 . The duet " Ehre sei Gott in der Höhe " is based on the Christmas interpolation Virga Jesse floruit from Bach 's Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a , of 1723 , performed for his first Christmas in Leipzig .
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus is " Unser Mund sei voll Lachens " ( May our mouth be full of laughter ) . It calls for all instruments to perform . The text " concludes with acknowledgement that the Lord has achieved great things for his people " . Bach based the music on the overture to his fourth Orchestral Suite in D major , adding festive trumpets and timpani as well as flutes to the original music and embedding the voices . He followed the format of the French overture by instrumental slow sections framing the fast choral section . The French overture , normally played upon the arrival of the king to a performance , seemed suitable to greet the King of Heaven . The laughter mentioned in the text is " often made quite graphically audible " , as the Bach Scholar Alfred Dürr words it . When Bach performed the work again later , he marked some vocal sections as " ripieno " , achieving even more variety in the " concerto " . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage , interprets it as Bach 's vote against a strict one voice per part concept . He chose this cantata in one of three Christmas concerts to conclude the endeavour of a full year , and notes the first movement 's " marvellous rendition of laughter @-@ in @-@ music " and " innate elegance and lightness of touch " .
= = = 2 = = =
A tenor aria , " Ihr Gedanken und ihr Sinnen " ( You thoughts and musings ) , is accompanied by two transverse flutes . Dürr interprets the choice of the flutes as a symbol for the " lowly birth " .
= = = 3 = = =
A bass recitative , " Dir , Herr , ist niemand gleich " ( There is no one like You , Lord ) , is accompanied by the strings , which accompany the expressive line of the bass voice by " upward @-@ pointing gestures " .
= = = 4 = = =
The alto aria , " Ach Herr , was ist ein Menschenkind " ( Ah , Lord , what is a human being ) , is accompanied by a solo oboe d 'amore that " expresses wonder about the nature of man " and God 's interest in him . The aria , as the first one , is not a da capo aria , but in two parts . The idea of man in a sinful condition which is presented first , is changed to redemption . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann relates the choice of the oboe d 'amore to the answer to the singer 's question " Why do you do all this for man ? " : " Aus Liebe " ( through love ) .
= = = 5 = = =
The duet " Ehre sei Gott in der Höhe " ( Glory to God in the highest ) , combines two high voices over a simple continuo accompaniment , singing of God 's glory in the highest and peace on Earth . The music is based on the Virga Jesse floruit from the Magnificat , changing the vocal lines to the different text but retaining the " essentially lyrical character " . Gardiner notes that " goodwill towards men " is expressed in pastoral style , with the voices in parallels of tenths .
= = = 6 = = =
The bass aria " Wacht auf , ihr Adern und ihr Glieder " ( Awaken , veins and limbs ) , is a final call to wake up and join the praise of the angels . Trumpet and oboe add to energetic music . The oboes double the strings or rest , for more dynamic effect . Virtuoso passages in the trumpets are reminiscent of the first movement . The first triad call of the trumpet is of martial character , and imitated by the voice . When the text refers to the strings , the winds have a rest .
= = = 7 = = =
The closing chorale , " Alleluja ! Gelobt sei Gott , " ( Alleluia ! Praise be to God ) , is a four @-@ part setting of the tune by an anonymous composer . Bach set the same tune again to close Part III of his Christmas Oratorio with another stanza fromthe hymn , " Seid froh , dieweil " ( Be glad , therefore ) .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
= Hasvik Airport =
Hasvik Airport ( Norwegian : Hasvik lufthavn ; IATA : HAA , ICAO : ENHK ) is a regional airport serving Hasvik Municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The airport
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on roads was eventually prohibited .
The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , a New Deal relief agency for young men , played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities . CCC projects included reforestation , campground development of many of the park 's trails and campgrounds , trail construction , fire hazard reduction , and fire @-@ fighting work . The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers , campgrounds and the current system of park roads .
During World War II , tourist travel fell sharply , staffing was cut , and many facilities fell into disrepair . By the 1950s , visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks . To accommodate the increased visitation , park officials implemented Mission 66 , an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities . Planned to be completed by 1966 , in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service , Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style . During the late 1980s , most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs . After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village , structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style . The visitor center at Canyon Village , which opened in 2006 , incorporates a more traditional design as well .
The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park . In the northwest section of the park , new geysers were found , and many existing hot springs became turbid . It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history .
In 1963 , after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone , United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks . In a paper known as the Leopold Report , the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective , and recommended management of Yellowstone 's elk population .
The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park . Approximately 793 @,@ 880 acres ( 321 @,@ 272 ha ; 1 @,@ 240 sq mi ) or 36 % of the parkland was impacted by the fires , leading to a systematic re @-@ evaluation of fire management policies . The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid @-@ July contributed to an extreme fire danger . On " Black Saturday " , August 20 , 1988 , strong winds expanded the fires rapidly , and more than 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 ha ; 230 sq mi ) burned .
The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1 @,@ 000 archeological sites that have been discovered . The park has 1 @,@ 106 historic structures and features , and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks . Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26 , 1976 , and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8 , 1978 . The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism , infection of wildlife , and issues with invasive species . In 2010 , Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program .
Justin Ferrell explores three moral sensibilities that motivated activists in dealing with Yellowstone . First came the utilitarian vision of maximum exploitation of natural resources , characteristic of developers in the late 19th century . Second was the spiritual vision of nature inspired by the Romanticism and the transcendentalists the mid @-@ 19th century . The twentieth century saw the biocentric moral vision that focuses on the health of the ecosystem as theorized by Aldo Leopold , which leds to the expansion of federally protected areas and to the surrounding ecosystems .
= = = Heritage and Research Center = = =
The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner , Montana , near the north entrance to the park . The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park 's museum collection , archives , research library , historian , archeology lab , and herbarium . The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service . The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone , as well as resource management records , records from major projects , and donated manuscripts and personal papers . The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration .
= = Geography = =
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming . Another three percent is within Montana , with the remaining one percent in Idaho . The park is 63 miles ( 101 km ) north to south , and 54 miles ( 87 km ) west to east by air . Yellowstone is 2 @,@ 219 @,@ 789 acres ( 898 @,@ 317 ha ; 3 @,@ 468 @.@ 420 sq mi ) in area , larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware . Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area , with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87 @,@ 040 acres ( 35 @,@ 220 ha ; 136 @.@ 00 sq mi ) . Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet ( 120 m ) deep and has 110 miles ( 180 km ) of shoreline . At an elevation of 7 @,@ 733 feet ( 2 @,@ 357 m ) above sea level , Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America . Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park ; most of the rest is grassland .
The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park . The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages . About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide . The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide . As a result , the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean , while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico .
The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau , at an average elevation of 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) above sea level . The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains , which range from 9 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 to 3 @,@ 400 m ) in elevation . The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak ( 11 @,@ 358 feet or 3 @,@ 462 metres ) and the lowest is along Reese Creek ( 5 @,@ 282 feet or 1 @,@ 610 metres ) . Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest , the Beartooth Mountains in the north , the Absaroka Range to the east , and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west . The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10 @,@ 243 feet ( 3 @,@ 122 m ) .
Yellowstone National Park has one of the world 's largest petrified forests , trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials . This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself . This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano . There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in the park , the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet ( 94 m ) .
Three deep canyons are located in the park , cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640 @,@ 000 years . The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south , and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons , the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north .
= = Geology = =
= = = History = = =
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain , a great U @-@ shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise , Idaho some 400 miles ( 640 km ) to the west . This feature traces the route of the North American Plate over the last 17 million years as it was transported by plate tectonics across a stationary mantle hotspot . The landscape of present @-@ day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the crust of the Earth .
The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America . It has been termed a " supervolcano " because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions . The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber , about 37 miles ( 60 km ) long , 18 miles ( 29 km ) wide , and 3 to 7 miles ( 5 to 12 km ) deep . The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640 @,@ 000 years ago , which released more than 240 cubic miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ³ ) of ash , rock and pyroclastic materials . This eruption was more than 1 @,@ 000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile ( 1 km ) deep and 45 by 28 miles ( 72 by 45 km ) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff , a welded tuff geologic formation . The most violent known eruption , which occurred 2 @.@ 1 million years ago , ejected 588 cubic miles ( 2 @,@ 450 km ³ ) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera . A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles ( 280 km ³ ) of material 1 @.@ 3 million years ago , forming the Henry 's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff .
Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America , falling many hundreds of miles away . The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species , primarily in North America .
A subsequent caldera @-@ forming eruption occurred about 160 @,@ 000 years ago . It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake . Since the last supereruption , a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 years ago , has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with > 80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff . Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone , where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows . The canyon is a classic V @-@ shaped valley , indicative of river @-@ type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation .
Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano 's partially emptied magma chamber . This creates a collapsed depression , called a caldera , and releases vast amounts of volcanic material , usually through fissures that ring the caldera . The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 years , but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events .
= = = Geysers and the hydrothermal system = = =
The most famous geyser in the park , and perhaps the world , is Old Faithful Geyser , located in Upper Geyser Basin . Castle Geyser , Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin . The park contains the largest active geyser in the world — Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin . A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone . Of these , an average of 465 are active in a given year . Yellowstone contains at least 10 @,@ 000 geothermal features altogether . Half the geothermal features and two @-@ thirds of the world 's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone .
In May 2001 , the U.S. Geological Survey , Yellowstone National Park , and the University of Utah created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory ( YVO ) , a partnership for long @-@ term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field , for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region .
In 2003 , changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin . New fumaroles were observed , and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures . Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features ; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally . This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past . Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption , since they may have developed long ago , and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts . On March 10 , 2004 , a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion . This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004 . In 2006 , it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome — areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement — had risen at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 1 cm ) per year from mid – 2004 through 2006 . As of late 2007 , the uplift has continued at a reduced rate . These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region . Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future . However , these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system .
= = = Earthquakes = = =
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year , virtually all of which are undetectable to people . There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times , including a 7 @.@ 5 ‑ magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959 . This quake triggered a huge landslide , which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake ; immediately downstream , the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake , known as Earthquake Lake . Twenty @-@ eight people were killed , and property damage was extensive in the immediate region . The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt , large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam , and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy . A 6 @.@ 1 ‑ magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30 , 1975 , but damage was minimal .
For three months in 1985 , 3 @,@ 000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park , during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm , and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera . Beginning on April 30 , 2007 , 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2 @.@ 7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days . These swarms of earthquakes are common , and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008 . In December 2008 , over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four @-@ day span under Yellowstone Lake , the largest measuring a magnitude of 3 @.@ 9 . In January 2010 , more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two @-@ day period . Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey .
On March 30 , 2014 , a magnitude 4 @.@ 8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6.34am ; reports indicated no damage . This was the largest earthquake to hit the park since February 22 , 1980 .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acre / 31 @,@ 250 square @-@ mile ( 8 @,@ 093 @,@ 712 ha / 80 @,@ 937 km2 ) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , a region that includes Grand Teton National Park , adjacent National Forests and expansive wilderness areas in those forests . The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the continental United States , considered the world 's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone ( although the area is mostly not temperate but subalpine , and all the national forest lands surrounding the National Park are not intact ) . With the successful wolf reintroduction program , which began in the 1990s , virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can still be found there .
= = = Flora = = =
Over 1 @,@ 700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park . Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non @-@ native . Of the eight conifer tree species documented , Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80 % of the total forested areas . Other conifers , such as Subalpine Fir , Engelmann Spruce , Rocky Mountain Douglas @-@ fir and Whitebark Pine , are found in scattered groves throughout the park . As of 2007 , the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust ; however , this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west . In Yellowstone , about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus , compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana . Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees . The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century , but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk .
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified , most of which bloom between the months of May and September . The Yellowstone Sand Verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone . It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates , making the sand verbena an enigma . The estimated 8 @,@ 000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake , well above the waterline .
In Yellowstone 's hot waters , bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals . These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth . Flies and other arthropods live on the mats , even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters . Initially , scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from sulfur . In 2005 researchers from the University of Colorado at Boulder discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse hyperthermophilic species is molecular hydrogen .
Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme ( Taq polymerase ) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) process . The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem . Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases . In 2016 , researchers from Uppsala University reported the discovery of a class of thermophiles , Hadesarchaea , in Yellowstone 's Culex Basin . These organisms are capable of converting carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and oxygen .
Non @-@ native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources . Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation , such as near roads and at major tourist areas , they have also spread into the backcountry . Generally , most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying , both of which are time consuming and expensive .
= = = Fauna = = =
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states . There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park , including the gray wolf , the threatened lynx , and grizzly bears . Other large mammals include the bison ( often referred to as buffalo ) , black bear , elk , moose , mule deer , white @-@ tailed deer , mountain goat , pronghorn , bighorn sheep , and mountain lion .
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States . The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers , who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins . In fact , about half of Yellowstone 's bison have been exposed to brucellosis , a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry . The disease has little effect on park bison , and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed . However , the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) has stated that bison are the " likely source " of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota . Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle . Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America , and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds . Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4 @,@ 000 by 2003 . The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4 @,@ 900 animals . Despite a summer estimated population of 4 @,@ 700 in 2007 , the number dropped to 3 @,@ 000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter . The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America . The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah , at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and in Elk Island National Park in Alberta .
To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle , national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area 's borders . During the winter of 1996 – 97 , the bison herd was so large that 1 @,@ 079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter . Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain . Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing , some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers . APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means , brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone .
Starting in 1914 , in an effort to protect elk populations , the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of " destroying wolves , prairie dogs , and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry " on public lands . Park Service hunters carried out these orders , and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves , and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone . Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935 . With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 , the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed . After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone , the coyote then became the park 's top canine predator . However , the coyote is not able to bring down large animals , and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna .
By the 1990s , the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves . In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( which oversees threatened and endangered species ) , northwestern wolves , imported from Canada , were reintroduced into the park . Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable . A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs , totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem . These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval . Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995 – 96 . The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming , Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27 , 2008 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list .
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone . The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species , however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully . Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population . Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910 . Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods . Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears . Black bear observations occur most often in the park 's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park 's southwestern corner .
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30 @,@ 000 — the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone . The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid ‑ 1990s ; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation , consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them . The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter . The southern herd migrates southward , and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge , immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park . The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska .
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx . No visual confirmation was made , however . Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998 , though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park . Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine . The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide . The wolverine is another rare park mammal , and accurate population figures for this species are not known . These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats .
Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone , including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout — a fish highly sought by anglers . The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s , including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout , an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout . Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890 , it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage . The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought , as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite — whirling disease — which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish . Since 2001 , all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law . Yellowstone is also home to six species of reptiles , such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake , and four species of amphibians , including the Boreal Chorus Frog .
311 species of birds have been reported , almost half of which nest in Yellowstone . As of 1999 , twenty @-@ six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented . Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded , however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains , out of 385 known worldwide . Other birds , considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone , include the common loon , harlequin duck , osprey , peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan .
= = Forest fires = =
As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems , plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways . Douglas @-@ fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires . Lodgepole Pines — the most common tree species in the park — generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire . Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin , and fire assists in melting the resin , allowing the seeds to disperse . Fire clears out dead and downed wood , providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish . Subalpine Fir , Engelmann Spruce , Whitebark Pine , and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas , where fire is less likely to occur . Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots , and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground , the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil . The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions , grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years , while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years .
About thirty @-@ five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning , while another six to ten are started by people — in most cases by accident . Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers , each staffed by trained fire fighters . The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn , though it is closed to the public . The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and / or flames . Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid @-@ September — the primary fire season . Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening . Few fires burn more than 100 acres ( 40 ha ) , and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre ( 0 @.@ 5 ha ) before they burn themselves out . Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities , soil and tree moisture , and the weather , to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite . Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires , examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem . If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures , or will burn out of control , then fire suppression is performed .
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures , park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire . Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed . Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn . In Yellowstone , unlike some other parks , there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns . However , over the last 30 years , over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally . In addition , fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property , reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas . Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger . The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad . Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem . Consequently , until the 1970s , when a better understanding of wildfire was developed , all fires were suppressed . This led to an increase in dead and dying forests , which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder , and in some cases , impossible to control . Fire Management Plans were implemented , detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property .
1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer , drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies , creating the driest year on record to that point . Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass , which soon turned to dry tinder . The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control , but the extreme drought made suppression difficult . Between July 15 and 21 , 1988 , fires quickly spread from 8 @,@ 500 acres ( 3 @,@ 400 ha ; 13 @.@ 3 sq mi ) throughout the entire Yellowstone region , which included areas outside the park , to 99 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 ha ; 155 sq mi ) on the park land alone . By the end of the month , the fires were out of control . Large fires burned together , and on August 20 , 1988 , the single worst day of the fires , more than 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 ha ; 230 sq mi ) were consumed . Seven large fires were responsible for 95 % of the 793 @,@ 000 acres ( 321 @,@ 000 ha ; 1 @,@ 239 sq mi ) that were burned over the next couple of months . A total of 25 @,@ 000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts , at a cost of 120 million dollars . By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames , the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage . Though no civilian lives were lost , two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed .
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time , the fires killed very few park animals — surveys indicated that only about 345 elk ( of an estimated 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 ) , 36 deer , 12 moose , 6 black bears , and 9 bison had perished . Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States , based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields . By 1992 , Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires .
= = Climate = =
Yellowstone climate is greatly influenced by altitude , with lower elevations generally found to be warmer year round . The record high temperature was 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) in 2002 , while the coldest temperature recorded is − 66 ° F ( − 54 ° C ) in 1933 . During the summer months of June through early September , daytime highs are normally in the 70 to 80 ° F ( 21 to 27 ° C ) range , while night time lows can go to below freezing ( 0 ° C ) especially at higher altitudes . Summer afternoons are frequently accompanied by thunderstorms . Spring and fall temperatures range between 30 and 60 ° F ( − 1 and 16 ° C ) with nights in the teens to single digits ( − 5 to − 20 ° C ) . Winter in Yellowstone is accompanied by high temperatures usually between zero and 20 ° F ( − 20 to − 5 ° C ) and nighttime temperatures below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) for most of the winter .
Precipitation in Yellowstone is highly variable and ranges from 15 inches ( 380 mm ) annually near Mammoth Hot Springs , to 80 inches ( 2 @,@ 000 mm ) in the southwestern sections of the park . The precipitation of Yellowstone is greatly influenced by the moisture channel formed by the Snake River Plain to the west that was , in turn , formed by Yellowstone itself . Snow is possible in any month of the year , but most common between November and April , with averages of 150 inches ( 3 @,@ 800 mm ) annually around Yellowstone Lake , to twice that amount at higher elevations .
Tornadoes in Yellowstone are rare ; however , on July 21 , 1987 , the most powerful tornado recorded in Wyoming touched down in the Teton Wilderness of Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest and hit Yellowstone National Park . Called the Teton – Yellowstone tornado , it was classified as an F4 , with wind speeds estimated at between 207 and 260 miles per hour ( 333 and 418 km / h ) . The tornado left a path of destruction 1 to 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide , and 24 miles ( 39 km ) long , and leveled 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ; 23 sq mi ) of mature pine forest .
Both high elevation areas are classified as humid continental ( Dfb ) , according to Köppen @-@ Geiger climate classification .
= = Recreation = =
Yellowstone ranks among the most popular national parks in the United States . Since the mid @-@ 1960s , at least 2 million tourists have visited the park almost every year . In 2010 , a record number of visitors came to the park in July : 975 @,@ 000 . July is the busiest month for Yellowstone National Park . At peak summer levels , 3 @,@ 700 employees work for Yellowstone National Park concessionaires . Concessionaires manage nine hotels and lodges , with a total of 2 @,@ 238 hotel rooms and cabins available . They also oversee gas stations , stores and most of the campgrounds . Another 800 employees work either permanently or seasonally for the National Park Service .
Park service roads lead to major features ; however , road reconstruction has produced temporary road closures . Yellowstone is in the midst of a long term road reconstruction effort , which is hampered by a short repair season . In the winter , all roads aside from the one which enters from Gardiner , Montana , and extends to Cooke City , Montana , are closed to wheeled vehicles . Park roads are closed to wheeled vehicles from early November to mid April , but some park roads remain closed until mid @-@ May . The park has 310 miles ( 500 km ) of paved roads which can be accessed from five different entrances . There is no public transportation available inside the park , but several tour companies can be contacted for guided motorized transport . In the winter , concessionaires operate guided snowmobile and snow coach tours , though their numbers and access are based on quotas established by the National Park Service . Facilities in the Old Faithful , Canyon and Mammoth Hot Springs areas of the park are very busy during the summer months . Traffic jams created by road construction or by people observing wildlife can result in long delays .
The National Park Service maintains 9 visitor centers and museums and is responsible for maintenance of historical structures and many of the other 2 @,@ 000 buildings . These structures include National Historical Landmarks such as the Old Faithful Inn built from 1903 to 1904 and the entire Fort Yellowstone – Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District . An historical and educational tour is available at Fort Yellowstone which details the history of the National Park Service and the development of the park . Campfire programs , guided walks and other interpretive presentations are available at numerous locations in the summer , and on a limited basis during other seasons .
Camping is available at a dozen campgrounds with more than 2 @,@ 000 campsites . Camping is also available in surrounding National Forests , as well as in Grand Teton National Park to the south . Backcountry campsites are accessible only by foot or by horseback and require a permit . There are 1 @,@ 100 miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) of hiking trails available . The park is not considered to be a good destination for mountaineering because of the instability of volcanic rock which predominates . Visitors with pets are required to keep them on a leash at all times and are limited to areas near roadways and in " frontcountry " zones such as drive in campgrounds . Around thermal features , wooden and paved trails have been constructed to ensure visitor safety , and most of these areas are handicapped accessible . The National Park Service maintains a year @-@ round clinic at Mammoth Hot Springs and provides emergency services throughout the year .
Hunting is not permitted , though it is allowed in the surrounding national forests during open season . Fishing is a popular activity , and a Yellowstone Park fishing license is required to fish in park waters . Many park waters are fly fishing only and all native fish species are catch and release only . Boating is prohibited on rivers and creeks except for a 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) stretch of the Lewis River between Lewis and Shoshone Lake , and it is open to non @-@ motorized use only . Yellowstone Lake has a marina , and the lake is the most popular boating destination .
In the early history of the park , visitors were allowed , and sometimes even encouraged , to feed the bears . Visitors welcomed the chance to get their pictures taken with the bears , who had learned to beg for food . This led to numerous injuries to humans each year . In 1970 , park officials changed their policy and started a vigorous program to educate the public on the dangers of close contact with bears , and to try to eliminate opportunities for bears to find food in campgrounds and trash collection areas . Although it has become more difficult to observe bears in recent years , the number of human injuries and deaths has taken a significant drop and visitors are in less danger . The eighth recorded bear @-@ related death in the park 's history occurred in August 2015 .
Other protected lands in the region include Caribou @-@ Targhee , Gallatin , Custer , Shoshone and Bridger @-@ Teton National Forests . The National Park Service 's John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway is to the south and leads to Grand Teton National Park . The famed Beartooth Highway provides access from the northeast and has spectacular high altitude scenery . Nearby communities include West Yellowstone , Montana ; Cody , Wyoming ; Red Lodge , Montana ; Ashton , Idaho ; and Gardiner , Montana . The closest air transport is available by way of Bozeman , Montana ; Billings , Montana ; Jackson ; Cody , Wyoming , or Idaho Falls , Idaho . Salt Lake City , 320 miles ( 510 km ) to the south , is the closest large metropolitan area .
= = Legal jurisdiction = =
The entire park is within the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming , making it the only federal court district that includes portions of more than one state ( Idaho , Montana , and Wyoming ) . Law professor Brian C. Kalt has argued that it may be impossible to impanel a jury in compliance with the Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment for a crime committed solely in the unpopulated Idaho portion of the park ( and that it would be difficult to do so for a crime committed solely in the lightly populated Montana portion ) . One defendant , who was accused of a wildlife @-@ related crime in the Montana portion of the park , attempted to raise this argument but eventually pleaded guilty .
= Manley Power =
Lieutenant General Sir Manley Power , KCB , ComTE ( 1773 – 7 July 1826 ) was a British military leader who fought in a number of campaigns for Britain and rose to the rank of Lieutenant General . He is chiefly remembered for leading a brigade of Portuguese troops under The Duke of Wellington in the Iberian Peninsular War . He is also remembered for jointly causing the removal of Sir George Prevost , governor @-@ in @-@ chief of British North America , for Prevost 's refusal to press the attack on Plattsburgh , New York , in 1814 , during the War of 1812 . After his active military service Sir Manley Power was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Malta .
= = Early life = =
His grandfather , Sir Henry Power , was a captain of the Battle @-@ Axe Guards . His father , Captain Lieutenant Bolton Power , served in the 20th Regiment of Foot and fought in all battles of the Seven Years ' War , and later in the American Revolutionary War under Guy Carleton and John Burgoyne . Manley Power followed in his forefather 's footsteps and was a career soldier , starting as an ensign in his father 's old regiment , the 20th Regiment of Foot , on 27 August 1783 , when he was either 9 or 10 years old . He served in Halifax , Nova Scotia ( 1795 – 1797 ) , Holland ( 1799 ) , and Minorca ( 1800 ) . He was part of the force under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby at the Battle of Alexandria ( 1801 ) , and later served with the Royal Horse Guards ( 1803 – 1805 ) . After rising to Lieutenant Colonel of the 32nd Regiment of Foot , he entered the Peninsular War and was attached to the Portuguese army under the command of Sir William Beresford and was promoted to Lieutenant General in 1813 .
= = Peninsular war = =
One of Portugal 's strategies during the Peninsular War was to place troops under British command . Portuguese troops were poorly trained , but under Manley Power 's leadership , Power 's Portuguese were eventually regarded as equivalent to hardened British units , and saw much action , including the Battle of Salamanca , the Battle of Vitoria , the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro , the Battle near Torres Vedras , and the Battle of Nivelle . Power 's Portuguese formed part of the 3rd Division when it was led by Pakenham at Torres Vedras and Salamanca , and when it was led by Sir Thomas Picton at Fuentes de On
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. Two years before this , on April 1 , 1882 , Dickinson 's " Shepherd from ' Little Girl 'hood " , Charles Wadsworth , also had died after a long illness .
= = = Decline and death = = =
Although she continued to write in her last years , Dickinson stopped editing and organizing her poems . She also exacted a promise from her sister Lavinia to burn her papers . Lavinia , who also never married , remained at the Homestead until her own death in 1899 .
The 1880s were a difficult time for the remaining Dickinsons . Irreconcilably alienated from his wife , Austin fell in love in 1882 with Mabel Loomis Todd , an Amherst College faculty wife who had recently moved to the area . Todd never met Dickinson but was intrigued by her , referring to her as " a lady whom the people call the Myth " . Austin distanced himself from his family as his affair continued and his wife became sick with grief . Dickinson 's mother died on November 14 , 1882 . Five weeks later , Dickinson wrote " We were never intimate ... while she was our Mother – but Mines in the same Ground meet by tunneling and when she became our Child , the Affection came . " The next year , Austin and Sue 's third and youngest child , Gilbert — Emily 's favorite — died of typhoid fever .
As death succeeded death , Dickinson found her world upended . In the fall of 1884 , she wrote that " The Dyings have been too deep for me , and before I could raise my Heart from one , another has come . " That summer she had seen " a great darkness coming " and fainted while baking in the kitchen . She remained unconscious late into the night and weeks of ill health followed . On November 30 , 1885 , her feebleness and other symptoms were so worrying that Austin canceled a trip to Boston . She was confined to her bed for a few months , but managed to send a final burst of letters in the spring . What is thought to be her last letter was sent to her cousins , Louise and Frances Norcross , and simply read : " Little Cousins , Called Back . Emily " . On May 15 , 1886 , after several days of worsening symptoms , Emily Dickinson died at the age of 55 . Austin wrote in his diary that " the day was awful ... she ceased to breathe that terrible breathing just before the [ afternoon ] whistle sounded for six . " Dickinson 's chief physician gave the cause of death as Bright 's disease and its duration as two and a half years .
Dickinson was buried , laid in a white coffin with vanilla @-@ scented heliotrope , a Lady 's Slipper orchid , and a " knot of blue field violets " placed about it . The funeral service , held in the Homestead 's library , was simple and short ; Higginson , who had met her only twice , read " No Coward Soul Is Mine " , a poem by Emily Brontë that had been a favorite of Dickinson 's . At Dickinson 's request , her " coffin [ was ] not driven but carried through fields of buttercups " for burial in the family plot at West Cemetery on Triangle Street .
= = Publication = =
Despite Dickinson 's prolific writing , fewer than a dozen of her poems were published during her lifetime . After her younger sister Lavinia discovered the collection of nearly 1800 poems , Dickinson 's first volume was published four years after her death . Until Thomas H. Johnson published Dickinson 's Complete Poems in 1955 , Dickinson 's poems were considerably edited and altered from their manuscript versions . Since 1890 Dickinson has remained continuously in print .
= = = Contemporary = = =
A few of Dickinson 's poems appeared in Samuel Bowles ' Springfield Republican between 1858 and 1868 . They were published anonymously and heavily edited , with conventionalized punctuation and formal titles . The first poem , " Nobody knows this little rose " , may have been published without Dickinson 's permission . The Republican also published " A narrow Fellow in the Grass " as " The Snake " , " Safe in their Alabaster Chambers – " as " The Sleeping " , and " Blazing in the Gold and quenching in Purple " as " Sunset " . The poem " I taste a liquor never brewed – " is an example of the edited versions ; the last two lines in the first stanza were completely rewritten .
In 1864 , several poems were altered and published in Drum Beat , to raise funds for medical care for Union soldiers in the war . Another appeared in April 1864 in the Brooklyn Daily Union .
In the 1870s , Higginson showed Dickinson 's poems to Helen Hunt Jackson , who had coincidentally been at the Academy with Dickinson when they were girls . Jackson was deeply involved in the publishing world , and managed to convince Dickinson to publish her poem " Success is counted sweetest " anonymously in a volume called A Masque of Poets . The poem , however , was altered to agree with contemporary taste . It was the last poem published during Dickinson 's lifetime .
= = = Posthumous = = =
After Dickinson 's death , Lavinia Dickinson kept her promise and burned most of the poet 's correspondence . Significantly though , Dickinson had left no instructions about the 40 notebooks and loose sheets gathered in a locked chest . Lavinia recognized the poems ' worth and became obsessed with seeing them published . She turned first to her brother 's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd , her brother 's mistress , for assistance . A feud ensued , with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and Dickinson houses , preventing complete publication of Dickinson 's poetry for more than half a century .
The first volume of Dickinson 's Poems , edited jointly by Mabel Loomis Todd and T. W. Higginson , appeared in November 1890 . Although Todd claimed that only essential changes were made , the poems were extensively edited to match punctuation and capitalization to late 19th @-@ century standards , with occasional rewordings to reduce Dickinson 's obliquity . The first 115 @-@ poem volume was a critical and financial success , going through eleven printings in two years . Poems : Second Series followed in 1891 , running to five editions by 1893 ; a third series appeared in 1896 . One reviewer , in 1892 , wrote : " The world will not rest satisfied till every scrap of her writings , letters as well as literature , has been published " .
Nearly a dozen new editions of Dickinson 's poetry , whether containing previously unpublished or newly edited poems , were published between 1914 and 1945 . Martha Dickinson Bianchi , the daughter of Susan and Edward Dickinson , published collections of her aunt 's poetry based on the manuscripts held by her family , whereas Mabel Loomis Todd 's daughter , Millicent Todd Bingham , published collections based on the manuscripts held by her mother . These competing editions of Dickinson 's poetry , often differing in order and structure , ensured that the poet 's work was in the public 's eye .
The first scholarly publication came in 1955 with a complete new three @-@ volume set edited by Thomas H. Johnson . Forming the basis of later Dickinson scholarship , Johnson 's variorum brought all of Dickinson 's known poems together for the first time . Johnson 's goal was to present the poems very nearly as Dickinson had left them in her manuscripts . They were untitled , only numbered in an approximate chronological sequence , strewn with dashes and irregularly capitalized , and often extremely elliptical in their language . Three years later , Johnson edited and published , along with Theodora Ward , a complete collection of Dickinson 's letters , also presented in three volumes .
In 1981 , The Manuscript Books of Emily Dickinson was published . Using the physical evidence of the original papers , the poems were intended to be published in their original order for the first time . Editor Ralph W. Franklin relied on smudge marks , needle punctures and other clues to reassemble the poet 's packets . Since then , many critics have argued for thematic unity in these small collections , believing the ordering of the poems to be more than chronological or convenient .
Dickinson biographer Alfred Habegger wrote in My Wars Are Laid Away in Books : The Life of Emily Dickinson ( 2001 ) that " The consequences of the poet 's failure to disseminate her work in a faithful and orderly manner are still very much with us " .
= = Poetry = =
See : Emily Dickinson at Wikisource for complete poetic works
Dickinson 's poems generally fall into three distinct periods , the works in each period having certain general characters in common .
Pre @-@ 1861 . These are often conventional and sentimental in nature . Thomas H. Johnson , who later published The Poems of Emily Dickinson , was able to date only five of Dickinson 's poems before 1858 . Two of these are mock valentines done in an ornate and humorous style , and two others are conventional lyrics , one of which is about missing her brother Austin . The fifth poem , which begins " I have a Bird in spring " , conveys her grief over the feared loss of friendship and was sent to her friend Sue Gilbert .
1861 – 1865 . This was her most creative period — these poems are more vigorous and emotional . Johnson estimated that she composed 86 poems in 1861 , 366 in 1862 , 141 in 1863 , and 174 in 1864 . He also believed that this is when she fully developed her themes of life and death .
Post @-@ 1866 . It is estimated that two @-@ thirds of the entire body of her poetry was written before this year .
= = = Structure and syntax = = =
The extensive use of dashes and unconventional capitalization in Dickinson 's manuscripts , and the idiosyncratic vocabulary and imagery , combine to create a body of work that is " far more various in its styles and forms than is commonly supposed " . Dickinson avoids pentameter , opting more generally for trimeter , tetrameter and , less often , dimeter . Sometimes her use of these meters is regular , but oftentimes it is irregular . The regular form that she most often employs is the ballad stanza , a traditional form that is divided into quatrains , using tetrameter for the first and third lines and trimeter for the second and fourth , while rhyming the second and fourth lines ( ABCB ) . Though Dickinson often uses perfect rhymes for lines two and four , she also makes frequent use of slant rhyme . In some of her poems , she varies the meter from the traditional ballad stanza by using trimeter for lines one , two and four , while only using tetrameter for line three .
Since many of her poems were written in traditional ballad stanzas with ABCB rhyme schemes , some of these poems can be sung to fit the melodies of popular folk songs and hymns that also use the common meter , employing alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter . Familiar examples of such songs are " O Little Town of Bethlehem " and " Amazing Grace ' " .
Dickinson scholar and poet Anthony Hecht finds resonances in Dickinson 's poetry not only with hymns and song @-@ forms but also with psalms and riddles , citing the following example : " Who is the East ? / The Yellow Man / Who may be Purple if he can / That carries the Sun . / Who is the West ? / The Purple Man / Who may be Yellow if He can / That lets Him out again . "
Late 20th @-@ century scholars are " deeply interested " by Dickinson 's highly individual use of punctuation and lineation ( line lengths and line breaks ) . Following the publication of one of the few poems that appeared in her lifetime – " A narrow Fellow in the Grass " , published as " The Snake " in the Republican – Dickinson complained that the edited punctuation ( an added comma and a full stop substitution for the original dash ) altered the meaning of the entire poem .
As Farr points out , " snakes instantly notice you " ; Dickinson 's version captures the " breathless immediacy " of the encounter ; and The Republican 's punctuation renders " her lines more commonplace " . With the increasingly close focus on Dickinson 's structures and syntax has come a growing appreciation that they are " aesthetically based " . Although Johnson 's landmark 1955 edition of poems was relatively unaltered from the original , later scholars critiqued it for deviating from the style and layout of Dickinson 's manuscripts . Meaningful distinctions , these scholars assert , can be drawn from varying lengths and angles of dash , and differing arrangements of text on the page . Several volumes have attempted to render Dickinson 's handwritten dashes using many typographic symbols of varying length and angle . R. W. Franklin 's 1998 variorum edition of the poems provided alternate wordings to those chosen by Johnson , in a more limited editorial intervention . Franklin also used typeset dashes of varying length to approximate the manuscripts ' dashes more closely .
= = = Major themes = = =
Dickinson left no formal statement of her aesthetic intentions and , because of the variety of her themes , her work does not fit conveniently into any one genre . She has been regarded , alongside Emerson ( whose poems Dickinson admired ) , as a Transcendentalist . However , Farr disagrees with this analysis , saying that Dickinson 's " relentlessly measuring mind ... deflates the airy elevation of the Transcendental " . Apart from the major themes discussed below , Dickinson 's poetry frequently uses humor , puns , irony and satire .
Flowers and gardens : Farr notes that Dickinson 's " poems and letters almost wholly concern flowers " and that allusions to gardens often refer to an " imaginative realm ... wherein flowers [ are ] often emblems for actions and emotions " . She associates some flowers , like gentians and anemones , with youth and humility ; others with prudence and insight . Her poems were often sent to friends with accompanying letters and nosegays . Farr notes that one of Dickinson 's earlier poems , written about 1859 , appears to " conflate her poetry itself with the posies " : " My nosegays are for Captives – / Dim – long expectant eyes – / Fingers denied the plucking , / Patient till Paradise – / To such , if they sh 'd whisper / Of morning and the moor – / They bear no other errand , / And I , no other prayer " .
The Master poems : Dickinson left a large number of poems addressed to " Signor " , " Sir " and " Master " , who is characterized as Dickinson 's " lover for all eternity " . These confessional poems are often " searing in their self @-@ inquiry " and " harrowing to the reader " and typically take their metaphors from texts and paintings of Dickinson 's day . The Dickinson family themselves believed these poems were addressed to actual individuals but this view is frequently rejected by scholars . Farr , for example , contends that the Master is an unattainable composite figure , " human , with specific characteristics , but godlike " and speculates that Master may be a " kind of Christian muse " .
Morbidity : Dickinson 's poems reflect her " early and lifelong fascination " with illness , dying and death . Perhaps surprisingly for a New England spinster , her poems allude to death by many methods : " crucifixion , drowning , hanging , suffocation , freezing , premature burial , shooting , stabbing and guillotinage " . She reserved her sharpest insights into the " death blow aimed by God " and the " funeral in the brain " , often reinforced by images of thirst and starvation . Dickinson scholar Vivian Pollak considers these references an autobiographical reflection of Dickinson 's " thirsting @-@ starving persona " , an outward expression of her needy self @-@ image as small , thin and frail . Dickinson 's most psychologically complex poems explore the theme that the loss of hunger for life causes the death of self and place this at " the interface of murder and suicide " .
Gospel poems : Throughout her life , Dickinson wrote poems reflecting a preoccupation with the teachings of Jesus Christ and , indeed , many are addressed to him . She stresses the Gospels ' contemporary pertinence and recreates them , often with " wit and American colloquial language " . Scholar Dorothy Oberhaus finds that the " salient feature uniting Christian poets ... is their reverential attention to the life of Jesus Christ " and contends that Dickinson 's deep structures place her in the " poetic tradition of Christian devotion " alongside Hopkins , Eliot and Auden . In a Nativity poem , Dickinson combines lightness and wit to revisit an ancient theme : " The Savior must have been / A docile Gentleman – / To come so far so cold a Day / For little Fellowmen / The Road to Bethlehem / Since He and I were Boys / Was leveled , but for that twould be / A rugged billion Miles – " .
The Undiscovered Continent : Academic Suzanne Juhasz considers that Dickinson saw the mind and spirit as tangible visitable places and that for much of her life she lived within them . Often , this intensely private place is referred to as the " undiscovered continent " and the " landscape of the spirit " and embellished with nature imagery . At other times , the imagery is darker and forbidding — castles or prisons , complete with corridors and rooms — to create a dwelling place of " oneself " where one resides with one 's other selves . An example that brings together many of these ideas is : " Me from Myself – to banish – / Had I Art – / Impregnable my Fortress / Unto All Heart – / But since myself — assault Me – / How have I peace / Except by subjugating / Consciousness . / And since We 're mutual Monarch / How this be / Except by Abdication – / Me – of Me ? " .
= = = Reception = = =
The surge of posthumous publication gave Dickinson 's poetry its first public exposure . Backed by Higginson and with a favorable notice from William Dean Howells , an editor of Harper 's Magazine , the poetry received mixed reviews after it was first published in 1890 . Higginson himself stated in his preface to the first edition of Dickinson 's published work that the poetry 's quality " is that of extraordinary grasp and insight " , albeit " without the proper control and chastening " that the experience of publishing during her lifetime might have conferred . His judgment that her opus was " incomplete and unsatisfactory " would be echoed in the essays of the New Critics in the 1930s .
Maurice Thompson , who was literary editor of The Independent for twelve years , noted in 1891 that her poetry had " a strange mixture of rare individuality and originality " . Some critics hailed Dickinson 's effort , but disapproved of her unusual non @-@ traditional style . Andrew Lang , a British writer , dismissed Dickinson 's work , stating that " if poetry is to exist at all , it really must have form and grammar , and must rhyme when it professes to rhyme . The wisdom of the ages and the nature of man insist on so much " . Thomas Bailey Aldrich , a poet and novelist , equally dismissed Dickinson 's poetic technique in The Atlantic Monthly in January 1892 : " It is plain that Miss Dickinson possessed an extremely unconventional and grotesque fancy . She was deeply tinged by the mysticism of Blake , and strongly influenced by the mannerism of Emerson ... But the incoherence and formlessness of her — versicles are fatal ... an eccentric , dreamy , half @-@ educated recluse in an out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way New England village ( or anywhere else ) cannot with impunity set at defiance the laws of gravitation and grammar " .
Critical attention to Dickinson 's poetry was meager from 1897 to the early 1920s . By the start of the 20th century , interest in her poetry became broader in scope and some critics began to consider Dickinson as essentially modern . Rather than seeing Dickinson 's poetic styling as a result of lack of knowledge or skill , modern critics believed the irregularities were consciously artistic . In a 1915 essay , Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant called the poet 's inspiration " daring " and named her " one of the rarest flowers the sterner New England land ever bore " . With the growing popularity of modernist poetry in the 1920s , Dickinson 's failure to conform to 19th @-@ century poetic form was no longer surprising nor distasteful to new generations of readers . Dickinson was suddenly referred to by various critics as a great woman poet , and a cult following began to form .
In the 1930s , a number of the New Critics – among them R. P. Blackmur , Allen Tate , Cleanth Brooks and Yvor Winters – appraised the significance of Dickinson 's poetry . As critic Roland Hagenbüchle pointed out , their " affirmative and prohibitive tenets turned out to be of special relevance to Dickinson scholarship " . Blackmur , in an attempt to focus and clarify the major claims for and against the poet 's greatness , wrote in a landmark 1937 critical essay : " ... she was a private poet who wrote as indefatigably as some women cook or knit . Her gift for words and the cultural predicament of her time drove her to poetry instead of antimacassars ... She came ... at the right time for one kind of poetry : the poetry of sophisticated , eccentric vision . "
The second wave of feminism created greater cultural sympathy for her as a female poet . In the first collection of critical essays on Dickinson from a feminist perspective , she is heralded as the greatest woman poet in the English language . Biographers and theorists of the past tended to separate Dickinson 's roles as a woman and a poet . For example , George Whicher wrote in his 1952 book This Was a Poet : A Critical Biography of Emily Dickinson , " Perhaps as a poet [ Dickinson ] could find the fulfillment she had missed as a woman . " Feminist criticism , on the other hand , declares that there is a necessary and powerful conjunction between Dickinson being a woman and a poet . Adrienne Rich theorized in Vesuvius at Home : The Power of Emily Dickinson ( 1976 ) that Dickinson 's identity as a woman poet brought her power : " [ she ] chose her seclusion , knowing she was exceptional and knowing what she needed ... She carefully selected her society and controlled the disposal of her time ... neither eccentric nor quaint ; she was determined to survive , to use her powers , to practice necessary economics . "
Some scholars question the poet 's sexuality , theorizing that the numerous letters and poems that were dedicated to Susan Gilbert Dickinson indicate a lesbian romance , and speculating about how this may have influenced her poetry . Critics such as John Cody , Lillian Faderman , Vivian R. Pollak , Paula Bennett , Judith Farr , Ellen Louise Hart , and Martha Nell Smith have argued that Susan was the central erotic relationship in Dickinson 's life .
= = = Legacy = = =
In the early 20th century , Dickinson 's legacy was promoted in particular by Martha Dickinson Bianchi and Millicent Todd Bingham . Bianchi , who had inherited The Evergreens as well as the copyright for her aunt 's poetry from her parents , published works such as Emily Dickinson Face to Face and Letters of Emily Dickinson , which stoked public curiosity about her aunt . Her books perpetrated the myths surrounding her aunt , while combining family tradition , personal recollections , and pieces of correspondence . In comparison , Millicent Todd Bingham 's works provided a more distant and realistic perspective of the poet .
Emily Dickinson is now considered a powerful and persistent figure in American culture . Although much of the early reception concentrated on Dickinson 's eccentric and secluded nature , she has become widely acknowledged as an innovative , pre @-@ modernist poet . As early as 1891 , William Dean Howells wrote that " If nothing else had come out of our life but this strange poetry , we should feel that in the work of Emily Dickinson , America , or New England rather , had made a distinctive addition to the literature of the world , and could not be left out of any record of it . " Twentieth @-@ century critic Harold Bloom has placed her alongside Walt Whitman , Wallace Stevens , Robert Frost , T. S. Eliot , and Hart Crane as a major American poet , and in 1994 listed her among the 26 central writers of Western civilization .
Dickinson is taught in American literature and poetry classes in the United States from middle school to college . Her poetry is frequently anthologized and has been used as texts for art songs by composers such as Aaron Copland , Nick Peros , John Adams and Michael Tilson Thomas . Several schools have been established in her name ; for example , two Emily Dickinson Elementary Schools exist in Bozeman , Montana , and Redmond , Washington . A few literary journals — including The Emily Dickinson Journal , the official publication of the Emily Dickinson International Society — have been founded to examine her work . An 8 @-@ cent commemorative stamp in honor of Dickinson was issued by the United States Postal Service on August 28 , 1971 as the second stamp in the " American Poet " series . A one @-@ woman play entitled The Belle of Amherst first appeared on Broadway in 1976 , winning several awards ; it was later adapted for television .
Dickinson 's herbarium , which is now held in the Houghton Library at Harvard University , was published in 2006 as Emily Dickinson 's Herbarium by Harvard University Press . The original work was compiled by Dickinson during her years at Amherst Academy , and consists of 424 pressed specimens of plants arranged on 66 pages of a bound album . A digital facsimile of the herbarium is available online . The town of Amherst Jones Library 's Special Collections department has an Emily Dickinson Collection consisting of approximately seven thousand items , including original manuscript poems and letters , family correspondence , scholarly articles and books , newspaper clippings , theses , plays , photographs and contemporary artwork and prints . The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College has substantial holdings of Dickinson 's manuscripts and letters as well as a lock of Dickinson 's hair and the original of the only positively identified image of the poet . In 1965 , in recognition of Dickinson 's growing stature as a poet , the Homestead was purchased by Amherst College . It opened to the public for tours , and also served as a faculty residence for many years . The Emily Dickinson Museum was created in 2003 when ownership of the Evergreens , which had been occupied by Dickinson family heirs until 1988 , was transferred to the college .
= = Modern influence and inspiration = =
Emily Dickinson 's life and works have been the source of inspiration to artists , particularly to feminist orientated artists , of a variety of mediums . A few notable examples are as follows :
The feminist artwork The Dinner Party , by Judy Chicago , first exhibited in 1979 , features a place setting for Dickinson .
Jane Campion 's film The Piano and its novelization ( co @-@ authored by Kate Pullinger ) were inspired by the poetry of Emily Dickinson as well as the novels by the Bronte Sisters . The soundtrack to the film , written and composed by Michael Nyman contained songs with titles directly extracted from Dickinson 's poetry such as Big My Secret and most famously The Heart Asks Pleasure First . The former is one of Nyman 's most notable works to date and a signature piece of his repertoire .
The cello rock band Rasputina drew inspiration from Dickinson for their 2010 album Sister Kinderhook . The songs Sweet Sister Temperance and My Porcelain Life are based specifically on the life of Dickinson . Dickinson has also played a role of personal inspiration for Rasputina 's front woman Melora Creager for a number of years .
= = = Editions of poetry = = =
Franklin , R. W. ( ed ) . 1999 . The Poems of Emily Dickinson . Cambridge : Belknap Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 67624 @-@ 6
Johnson , Thomas H. ( ed ) . 1960 . The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson . Boston : Little , Brown & Co .
= = = Archival sources = = =
Emily Dickinson Papers , 1844 – 1891 ( 3 microfilm reels ) are housed at the Sterling Memorial Library at Yale University .
= Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a =
The Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a , by Johann Sebastian Bach is a musical setting of the Latin text of the Magnificat , the canticle from the Gospel of Luke . It was composed in 1723 and is in twelve movements . Bach revised the work ten years later , transposing it from E @-@ flat major to D major , and creating the version mostly performed today , BWV 243 . The work is scored for five vocal parts ( two sopranos , alto , tenor and bass ) and a Baroque orchestra of trumpets , timpani , oboes , strings and basso continuo including bassoon .
The work was first performed in Leipzig in 1723 . In May that year Bach assumed his position as Thomaskantor and embarked on an ambitious series of compositions . The Magnificat was sung at vesper services on feast days , and , according to recent research , Bach 's setting was written for a performance on 2 July , celebrating the Marian feast of the Visitation . For Christmas the same year , he performed it at the Nikolaikirche with the insertion of four seasonal movements .
As a regular part of vespers , the canticle Magnificat was often set to music for liturgical use . Bach , as some of his contemporaries , devotes individual expression to every verse of the canticle , one even split in two for a dramatic effect . In a carefully designed structure , four choral movements are evenly distributed ( 1 , 4 , 7 , 11 ) . They frame sets of two or three movements sung by one to three voices , with individual instrumental colour . The work is concluded by a choral doxology ( 12 ) , which ends in a recapitulation of the beginning on the text " as it was in the beginning " . In Bach 's Leipzig period , Magnificat is the first major work on a Latin text and for five vocal parts .
= = Background = =
= = = Bach 's beginning in Leipzig = = =
Bach composed the Magnificat in 1723 , his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , music director of the main Lutheran churches in the city . He had worked previously as an organist in Arnstadt , Mühlhausen and Weimar , where he was promoted to Konzertmeister ( director of music ) in 1714 . From 1717 to 1723 he held a secular position at the court of Köthen . He applied for the post in Leipzig on 7 February 1723 , performing two cantatas written for the audition on Estomihi or Quinquagesima , the last Sunday before Lent . In April he was accepted for the post , which he assumed on the first Sunday after Trinity , presenting a new cantata in 14 movements , Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 , on 30 May . A week later he led the new cantata Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes , BWV 76 , again in 14 movements . The feast of the Visitation , celebrated always on 2 July , was a few weeks later the first Marian feast day of his tenure in Leipzig .
= = = Magnificat = = =
The canticle Magnificat , one of three New Testament canticles , has long been a regular part of the liturgy in daily vesper services . After the Reformation , Martin Luther kept the Magnificat in the liturgy . He provided a German translation of the canticle , " Meine Seele erhebt den Herren " ( which Bach used as the basis for his chorale cantata Meine Seel erhebt den Herren , BWV 10 ) . However , the Latin text was also permitted in Lutheran worship . The canticle was often set to music . Contemporary extended settings include works by Heinichen and by Vivaldi .
Bach had an audience familiar with the text and its background . In Leipzig , a Latin Magnificat was sung on the high holidays ( Christmas , Easter and Pentecost , then performed on two of the three days of celebration ) and on the three Marian feasts Annunciation , Visitation and Purification . According to some scholars , further feast days included New Year 's Day , Epiphany , Feast of the Ascension , Trinity Sunday , St. John 's Day and St. Michael 's Day , and the vespers before the feast days .
= = Composition history = =
Bach composed the work in 1723 , his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , probably for the feast of the Visitation . For the occasion , he presented the Magnificat as his first work on a Latin text and his first five @-@ part choral setting in Leipzig . Otherwise , he used five voices in the funeral motet Jesu , meine Freude , the Missa in B minor , composed in 1733 for the court of Dresden , from which he derived the derived cantata Gloria in excelsis Deo , BWV 191 , and in the Mass in B minor . Richard D. P. Jones notes : " Without exception these works lie outside the normal routine of Bach 's sacred vocal works " .
Bach probably first performed the Magnificat on the feast day , 2 July . Until 2003 , most musicologists believed that Bach wrote the Magnificat for his first Christmas in Leipzig . Then Andreas Glöckner published Bachs Es @-@ Dur @-@ Magnificat BWV 243a – eine genuine Weihnachtsmusik ? ( Bach 's Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a – a genuine Christmas music ? ) in the Bach @-@ Jahrbuch ( Bach yearbook ) 89 , questioning the Christmas date in favour of Visitation the same year . Older sources naturally still have Christmas as the first performance , for example Neil Jenkins , the editor of an edition for Novello in 2000 . He writes that the " new Thomaskantor was obviously intending to impress his new employer and the congregation " , which makes even more sense at the beginning of Bach 's tenure . Not all scholars follow Glöckner 's arguments , but Jones agrees with Glöckner : " ... may well have received its first performance at the Feast of the Visitation on 2 July 1723 , only five weeks after he took up his Leipzig post . "
For Christmas the same year , Bach performed his Magnificat with four inserted laudes , songs of praise related to Christmas , partly in German , partly in Latin . In a vespers service on 25 December 1723 , he performed the cantata Christen , ätzet diesen Tag , BWV 63 , and the Magnificat at the Nikolaikirche , on 26 December the cantata Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes , BWV 40 , in the Thomaskirche .
Bach used as a cantus firmus in movement 10 the chant associated with Luther 's German version of the Magnificat canticle , " Meine Seele erhebt den Herren " . A year later Bach composed for the feast of the Visitation the chorale cantata Meine Seel erhebt den Herren , BWV 10 , based on the German Magnificat . The musicologist Alberto Rizzuti compared the two settings which were possibly performed in one service on 2 July 1724 .
For Visitation of 1733 , Bach revised his Magnificat , creating the version better known today . In that version , transposed to D major , the laudes interpolations were abandoned . Limited differences in instrumentation include replacing the recorders by flutes and including these in the tutti movements . Changes in musical texture were even smaller , mellowing the harmony near the end of the Omnes generationes movement being the most noticeable .
Bach 's son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach followed the example of an extended setting , composing a Magnificat in nine movements in 1749 , at the end of his father 's life .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach scored the work festively . The autograph reads : " J.J. Magnificat à 3 Trombe Tamburi 2 Hautb . Basson . 2 Violini . Viola 5 Voci è Continuo " , translating to : Jesu Juva ( " Jesus , help ! " ) / Magnificat for three trumpets , timpani , two oboes , bassoon , two violins , viola , five voices , continuo ) . The five voices are two sopranos ( SI , SII ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) . The instruments of the Baroque orchestra are listed in the first publication by Simrock in 1811 as " due violini , due oboe , tre trombi , tamburi , basson , viola e basso continuo " , i.e. two violins , two oboes , three trumpets ( in E @-@ flat ) , timpani ( E @-@ flat and B @-@ flat ) , bassoon , viola and basso continuo . Two recorders ( flauto dolce ) are required for aria No. 9 Esurientes .
= = = Movements = = =
Bach structured the text in eleven movements for the canticle ( Luke 1 : 46 – 55 ) , concluded by a twelfth doxology movement . Each verse of the canticle is assigned to one movement , except verse 48 , beginning with a soprano solo in the role of Mary ( third movement ) , then switching to the fourth movement sung by the chorus when " all generations " are mentioned . The structure , alternating choral and solo movements , is similar to " contemporary Italian concerted settings of the Magnificat " . The four Christmas hymn movements are placed after the second , fifth , seventh and ninth movement on the Magnificat text .
Choral movements are evenly distributed in the structure , numbers 1 , 4 , 7 , and 11 within the canticle , and the concluding doxology as movement 12 . Choral movements 1 , 7 and 12 are accompanied by the full orchestra ( tutti ) , with the exceptions of the recorders which add specific colour only in movement 9 . The movements for one to three solo voices are accompanied by an obbligato instrument or only strings or even only continuo , as in Bach 's church cantatas . In two consecutive solo movements , the second one is often in richer scoring . The work contains , other than typical cantatas on Baroque poetry , no da capo arias . Similar to the first two Leipzig cantatas , BWV 75 and BWV 76 , it is a complex structure of rather short movements .
The following table shows the title , voices and instruments , time , key and text sources for the twelve movements for Visitation and the inserted movements for Christmas . Note that the timpani are no wind instruments but always go with the trumpets . The basso continuo is not listed , playing almost throughout . The first Christmas chorale is a four @-@ part setting with no continuo . In Suscepit Israel , the lowest line played by violins and viola in unison has been described as a bassett and an " unusual continuo " . The last column , Dig , provides a link to the Bach Digital database , for more details such as scoring and the text . The Christmas interpolations are highlighted in colour , as are the choral movements , the movements with trumpets , and those movements of the canticle that are in major mode .
= = = The twelve movements of the Magnificat canticle = = =
= = = = 1 = = = =
The opening movement Magnificat anima mea ( My soul magnifies the Lord ) is performed by all voices and all instruments except the recorders . The instruments present the material with almost continuous runs in the upper parts , octaves and broken triads in the bass . The sopranos enter first , in third parallels : they sing the first word " Magnificat " ( literally : makes great ) with a melisma on the first syllable , ending in a figure like a trill , then a stressed dotted note on the stressed syllable " gni " , and relaxing on " ficat " . The motif is abbreviated to a " fanfare figure " of just four notes , a low upbeat followed by three same notes , with the first one dotted . The sopranos sing it twice , reaching first E @-@ flat , then G. The interplay of the fanfare and the melismas shapes the movement . One measure after the sopranos , alto and tenor begin to imitate the sopranos , another measure later , the bass adds the short motif as an octave up . The text remains Magnificat for most of the movement . After the voices conclude with " Dominum " , the instruments close in a shortened version of their opening .
= = = = 2 = = = =
Et exultavit spiritus meus ( And my spirit rejoices in God my Saviour ) is an aria , as an image of personal celebration , sung by soprano II , accompanied by the strings . The major @-@ mode and motifs of joy in the instruments illustrate the exultation . Et exultavit ( And exults ) begins with a broken upward triad followed by a rest , suggesting a minuet. spiritus meus ( my spirit ) is a sequence of 16th notes , two for every syllable . Longer melismas illustrate salutari ( salvation ) .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the first Christmas interpolation here : " Alhier folget der Choral : Vom Himmel hoch , da kom ich her " ( Here follows the chorale : Vom Himmel hoch , da kom ich her ) .
= = = = 3 = = = =
Quia respexit humiltatem ( For He has regarded the lowliness [ of His handmaiden . ] is an aria sung by soprano I with an obbligato oboe . Looking at the humility , the aria contrast to the preceding one in slow movement and the minor mode . Hogwood writes : " Humility is a downwards gesture , and so everything takes a long , s @-@ shaped movement downwards , with a little rise at the end " , and comments that the use of limited resources of one wind instrument and the voice have " a subservient feel to it . " Steinberg comments that voice and instrument first share the material in a " contemplative duet " , but on ecce enim ex hoc beatam ( Behold , from henceforth , I will be called blessed ) the voice changes to a " simpler , more declamatory style " . " All the phrases turn upwards " in what Hogward describes as " an internalised dialogue " , expecting that " nobody in the church would have been expecting the sudden burst of ' omnes ' " .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The continuation of the verse and completion of the sentence , Omnes generationes ( by all generations ) is given to the chorus , expressing the fullness of the praise . Hogwood compares the " crowd effect " to Bach 's the crowds in Bach 's Passions . The movement is a fugue which follows the stretto principle from the start and throughout . Beginning in measure 10 , the voices enter , again half a measure apart , with the bass beginning . From measure 15 , every entrance is one note higher , covering an octave as a symbol of completeness ( omnes ) , again in the fast succession of half a measure : A , SII , SI , T , B , SII , SI , A. In a final sequence beginning in measure 21 , the voices enter from bottom to top on the same note , only one beat apart . After a " very triumphal , but unfinished , chord " and a general pause , the movement concludes repeating the theme in homophony . Steinberg comments that Bach took the idea of separating the two words from the rest of the verse from earlier models , but filled it with an " exciting sense of drama " by the piled @-@ up entrances in a " tremendous march across key after key " , leading to " tense dissonances " , finally a " dramatic pause " before the last statement .
= = = = 5 = = = =
Quia fecit mihi magna qui potens est ( For the Mighty One has done great things for me ) is an aria sung by the bass , accompanied only by the continuo . The motif , again beginning with repeated notes , is introduced by four measures of the continuo , then repeated by the voice . A ritornello is repeated throughout the movement , with a downward leap of a sixth and a downward scale of an octave which appears in the voice on the word " sanctum " ( holy ) , in et sanctum nomen eius ( and holy is His name ) . God 's might shows in the bass voice and the dominant key of B @-@ flat major .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the second Christmas interpolation here : " Hierauf folget Freut euch u. jubilirt " ( Hereon follows Freut euch u. jubilirt ) .
= = = = 6 = = = =
Et misericordia a progenie in progenies , timentibus eum ( His mercy is for those who fear Him from generation to generation ) begins in great contrast softly with undulating movement in 12 / 8 time , played by the violins . It is a duet of alto and tenor , beginning in parallels of sixths and staying in homophony for most of the movement . The theme resembles the sarabande of Bach 's first French Suite in D minor , BWV 812 . Hogwood compares the music to the pastoral sinfonia beginning Part II of Bach 's Christmas Oratorio , " creating a romantic , soft @-@ edged , almost comforting sound " . Jones remarks that timentibus eum " ( who fear him ) is " full of pathos and built over a partly chromatic , quasi @-@ ostinato bass " , while the " divine quality of mercy is expressed in beatific parallel thirds of the violins in the ritornello " .
= = = = 7 = = = =
Fecit potentiam ( He has shown strength ) shares key , scoring and dotted motifs with the first movement . Based on a continuo line of octaves and repeated 16th notes , strength is expressed by irregular coloraturas in one voice and homophonic simultaneous calls of the other voices . The tenor begins the coloraturas of four measures , followed by alto , SII , bass and SI , leading to the climax of the movement , two homophonic calls . The new text , dispersit ( He has scattered ) , appears in various voices as broken triads , juxtaposed to material from the first section , but then isolated , in a sequence from the highest voice to the lowest and in downward triads . Joes describes : " ... the fugue is dispersed ( ' dispersit ' ) in favour of a highly graphic , dramatic portrayal of the words ' He has scattered ... ' " . The conclusion , mente cordis sui ( in the thoughts of their hearts ) , is marked Adagio and illustrates the text in pompous long chords , with accents in the trumpets . Hogwood notes that Bach shows " complete imagination " in " very strange , incomplete yet wonderful harmonies " , the trumpet playing their highest available note as an image of " rich people ’ s hearts , who have been misled by worldly promises " .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the third Christmas interpolation here : " Hierher gehöret das Gloria in excelsis Deo " ( Here belongs the Gloria in excelsis Deo ) .
= = = = 8 = = = =
Deposuit potentes ( He has brought down the powerful ) is an aria for tenor , accompanied by only the violins ( and continuo ) united in powerful unison . The instrumental ritornello of 14 measures presents the material . The first motif , later sung on " Deposuit " , begins with a short upbeat and a long note , followed by a straight downward scale and a final leap up , while the continuo presents a broken triad , straight upward one octave . The second motif , later sung on " potentes " , begins with an upbeat of three 16th , followed by a rhythmic pattern which expands both the lowest as the highest note , while the continuo moves in steady steps down . For the third motif , sung on " de sede " ( from their thrones ) , the continuo picks up the rhythm of the second motif , while the violins play a more ornamented downward motion in sixteen continuous 16th . A fourth motif is a sequence of three measures , each a sequence of a figure of a figure of four 16th which is slowly moving upwards . When the singer takes over , the violins accent the end of each motif one to three by a broken downward triad .
The second thought of the verse , " et exaltavit humiles " ( and lifted up the lowly ) , is sung without introduction as a melisma of four measures , which includes downward runs but in a steadily rising sequence and ending similarly to the sequence of motif four , on " exaltavit " , but a modest downward line on " humiles " ( the lowly ) . After a shorter ritornello , the tenor sings the complete text again , the first part in a slightly modified version , but the exaltation considerably expanded . Nonetheless , the ritornello in full length is repeated at the end .
= = = = 9 = = = =
Esurientes implevit bonis ( He has filled the hungry with good things ) is sung by the alto , accompanied by two recorders which may symbolise the need of the hungry . Bach used recorders also in his later cantata Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot , BWV 39 . They often play in parallels of sixths and thirds . The ritornello of eight measures introduces a motif moving up , on a continuo of steady quarter note , for four measures , later sung on Esurientes implevit bonis , while downward lines and a continuo moving in eighth notes later go with et divites dimisit ( and sent the rich away empty ) . In Latin , the last word is inanes ( empty ) , which Bach sometimes separates by rests . The continuo is plucked in " the emptiest sound " , even on the last note , on which the recorders are silent .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the fourth Christmas interpolation here : " Hierauf folget Virga Jesse floruit " ( Hereon follows Virga Jesse floruit ) .
= = = = 10 = = = =
Suscepit Israel puerum suum ( He has helped His servant Israel ) is scored for an unusual combination of the three highest voices , violins and violas in unison and trumpet . The text continues recordatus misericordiae suae ( in remembrance of His mercy ) . The cantus firmus played by the trumpet is the melody of the traditional setting of Luther 's German version of the Magnificat , a ninth psalm tone variant . The strings , as the only other instruments , play repeated notes in every measure , moving one step down or up in the next . The voices imitate each other , also in gentle movement , the first a fifth up in a long upbeat , the second a fifth down one measure later , the third up again , another measure later , described as " scale themes " . In contrast , the second idea of the verse , recordatus , is on a " disjunct theme " . Bach repeats the figure , with a downward quart on each syllable , in the Et incarnatus est of his Mass in B minor . It has been interpreted as a symbol of the cross , because a line drawn from the first to the fourth note crosses one from the second to the third . Jones assumes that the " bassett " of the unison strings symbolizes the divine quality of mercy .
= = = = 11 = = = =
Sicut locutus est ad patres nostros ( According to the promise He made to our ancestors ) , the last line of the Magnificat canticle , is written in stile antico , the old style of the musical " fathers " , as a strict fugue , one voice following the other as one generation follows the other . The theme has four distinctly different measures : the first repeated notes , the second flowing eighth notes , the third quarter notes in leaps , the fourth half notes leaping up a sixth . The countersubject has leaps down and up an octave in the second measure , the flowing eighth notes in the third measure . When the theme is developed the first time , four voices enter from bottom to top . In the second development , soprano I begins , followed by alto , tenor and bass . The movements ends with a more homophonic section in which the bass has the theme once more , while soprano I sings long suspended notes covering almost an octave down . Hogwood sees Bach alluding to his musical " forefathers " : " He portrays , in a very square fugue , exactly how square he thought the forefathers of German music were . Four bars follows four bars , each voice coming in predictably and on time , all according to the rulebook , unimaginative and extremely dull ! "
= = = = 12 = = = =
The work is concluded by the doxology , Gloria Patri ( Glory to the Father ) , performed by the ensemble in two parts . The first part addresses the Trinity . Glory is given three times . Bach shapes the movement again as a " crowd " scene . Gloria is first presented as the major chord repeated three times , with a dotted note on the first syllable . In the second Gloria , leading to Patri , the voices sing the first syllable as an extended melisma in triplets , as another symbol of the Trinity , beginning in upward moving lines , for three measures in the basses , half a measure less for each following voice . In the third Gloria , leading to Filio ( to the Son ) , in a similar pattern soprano I begins , followed by alto , soprano II , tenor and bass . In the fourth Gloria , leading to et Spiritui sancto ( and to the Holy Spirit ) , in again similar pattern the voices follow each other from top to bottom , ending in a long cadenza .
The second part , Sicut erat in principio ( as it was in the beginning ) repeats material from the beginning of the work but shortened , as a frame . Jones points out that the " wittiness " of it was already used by Monteverdi .
Jones remarks that Bach observes a pattern of a bipartite structure of firstly contrasting homophonic blocks and " florid triplet rhythms " , secondly " a lighter , quicker conclusion in triple time " . He remarks that Bach used a similar pattern again the following year in the Sanctus for Christmas 1724 which later was included as the Sanctus of the Mass in B minor .
= = = The four Christmas interpolations = = =
The four hymns Bach inserted in the Magnificat for the Christmas vespers had a tradition in Leipzig . A setting by Bach 's predecessor Kuhnau in a Christmas cantata is extant . They can be connected to scenic display of the Christmas story , representing the annunciation to the shepherds , first by one angel ( A , B ) , then by the multitude ( C ) , finally a cradle song ( Kindleinwiegen , D ) . In Bach 's autograph , the four movements are grouped at the back of the volume . They are written in older musical styles than most of the Magnificat movements .
= = = = A = = = =
Vom Himmel hoch , da komm ich her ( From heaven on high I come here ) is the first stanza of a hymn by Martin Luther , Vom Himmel hoch , da komm ich her , a paraphrase of the Annunciation to the shepherds . It is set for four parts in E @-@ flat major and alla @-@ breve as an a capella motet , with the soprano singing the melody in long notes , the lower voices in imitation of the motifs .
= = = = B = = = =
Freut euch und jubilieret ( Rejoice and celebrate ) is set for SSAT in B @-@ flat major and common time . In polyphony on an independent basso continuo , with pairs of voices in parallels , it resembles a setting by Sethus Calvisius , a former Thomaskantor .
= = = = C = = = =
Gloria in excelsis Deo ( Glory to God in the highest ) is set for SSATB and violins in E @-@ flat major , on the text from the Christmas story , the Annunciation to the Shepherds ( Luke 2 : 14 ) . It is written in " chordal fashion " , a style found in Giacomo Carissimi , Johann Schelle ( also a Thomaskantor ) and Kuhnau , among others .
= = = = D = = = =
Virga Jesse floruit ( The branch of Jesse flowers ) is an " operatic " duet for soprano and bass in F major in 12 / 8 time . The text is part of a longer hymn , beginning like Virga Jesse floruit . Only the first 30 measures of this movement are extant . Bach used the music again in 1725 on a different text in his Christmas cantata Unser Mund sei voll Lachens , BWV 110 , from which the missing part can be deducted . It was Alfred Dürr who noticed the similarity of the continuo parts of both pieces .
= = Reception history = =
= = = Publication = = =
The earliest sources are autographs for the performances on 2 July and 25 December 1723 , including the Christmas parts , kept by the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin .
The score of the E @-@ flat major version of Bach 's Magnificat was first published by Simrock in 1811 , edited by Georg Pölchau , however without the Christmas hymns . These were published in 1862 , in the appendix of Volume 11 / 1 of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft Ausgabe , a publication that contained the D major version of the Magnificat ( and not the E @-@ flat major version ) .
The Neue Bach Ausgabe published the E @-@ flat major version in 1955 , edited by Alfred Dürr . Novello published an edition in 2000 , edited by Neil Jenkins . Bärenreiter published a critical edition based on Dürr 's 1955 edition again in 2014 / 15 .
= = = Selected recordings = = =
Bach composed the work for five soloists : two sopranos , alto , tenor and bass . The soloists are listed in the table in the order SATB . For some recordings , only one soprano soloist is listed . Recordings with orchestras on period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted . The first recordings in the 1960s combined the version in D major ( BWV 243 ) with transposed Christmas interpolations . The type of orchestra is shown for an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
The first recording by Rilling , of the D major version with Christmas interpolations , with a performance time of 40 : 06 , was reissued under the title Christmas Magnificats , and also issued in comparison to a recording of the Magnificat in D by Kurt Thomas under the title Compare . Gönnenwein 's D major recording with Christmas interpolations appeared on a CD titled J.S. Bach : Cantatas 142 , 65 & Magnificat .
The Leipziger Weihnachtskantaten recording by the Collegium Vocale Gent , conducted by Philippe Herreweghe , was reviewed as with " bracing but not rushed tempos , infectiously energetic and technically solid contributions from the chorus , and an intelligently paced flow from movement to movement . " The Guardian wrote : " Herreweghe 's accounts are typically thoughtful , not at all theatrical or dramatically driven , and that slightly laid @-@ back approach takes the edge off the Magnificat too , though the quality of the solo and choral singing , and the careful shaping of the orchestral lines are all exemplary . "
In 2015 John Butt and the Dunedin Consort released a recording of the E @-@ flat major version in the context of a reconstructed Christmas service as it might have been heard in Leipzig in 1723 . The recording includes organ music and congregational hymn singing .
= U.S. Route 136 in Iowa =
U.S. Highway 136 ( US 136 ) is a short U.S. Highway in Keokuk , Iowa . The highway begins on a bridge over the Des Moines River within sight of its mouth at the Mississippi River . It runs above the northern bank of the Mississippi towards downtown Keokuk . There , it turns southeast where it meets the southern end of US 218 . The highway leaves Iowa on the Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge over the Mississippi River .
The route was designated nationally in 1951 and has remained largely unchanged through Keokuk since then . The highway originally crossed the Mississippi on the Keokuk Rail Bridge , which was the second bridge built and operated by Andrew Carnegie 's Keokuk & Hamilton Bridge Company in that location . While it was designed for wagons and early automobiles , crossing the rail bridge became difficult in larger modern vehicles , specifically semi trucks . As a result , a new automobile @-@ only bridge was built directly to the south of the older span . The Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge opened in 1985 eight months early and under budget .
= = Route description = =
US 136 begins on a bridge over the Des Moines River with US 61 . The river 's mouth on the Mississippi River is visible to the southeast of the bridge . After landing on the Iowa side of the river , the two routes curve to the east . US 61 splits off to the north and its business route begins along US 136 . Entering the town from the west along 7th Street , the highway passes between two pillars which mark the northeastern corner of Rees Park .
The routes continue east past an old school which hides the city 's 4 @-@ million @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 15 ML ) water tower . The 160 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 49 m ) tower was the second largest elevated storage tank in the United States when it came online in December 2011 . It then crosses a bridge which connects two bluffs , underneath which a single line of the Keokuk Junction Railway passes . The routes descend a hill as they head towards downtown ; they climb another until the intersection with Main Street .
At Main Street , US 136 and US 61 Business part ways . The business route turns to the northwest onto US 218 which begins its 320 @-@ mile ( 510 km ) journey northward . US 136 turns to the southeast towards the Mississippi River . At the intersection with US 218 , there are no directional signs for US 136 . Instead , because of the southeast – to – northwest orientation of the city , westbound US 136 direction is listed as Missouri and eastbound Illinois . After running through the southern part of downtown , it crosses the Mississippi on the Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge , which is adjacent to the older Keokuk Rail Bridge . From both bridges , Lock and Dam No. 19 and its hydroelectric power plant dominate the northern view of the river .
= = History = =
In the late 1860s , Andrew Carnegie 's Keystone Bridge Company built the original Keokuk and Hamilton Bridge in the same location as the Keokuk Rail Bridge . It was a 20 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , steel truss bridge that had one set of tracks and two lanes for wagon traffic . Pedestrian traffic was cantilevered out five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) on either side of the trusses . A swing span on the Keokuk side allowed river traffic to cross . When the bridge opened in 1871 , the first locomotive to cross the bridge crushed the pivot point of the swing span . It was replaced a few days later . Ten years later , War Eagle , a river steamer sank after it collided with a fixed span of the bridge . Both the ship and bridge span were destroyed . Until the span was replaced , a wooden , covered bridge was built in its place .
The second bridge , now known as the Keokuk Rail Bridge , was built in the 1910s when modern trains were pushing the bridge 's 35 @-@ short @-@ ton
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( 32 t ) load capacity . Keokuk businessmen coerced Carnegie 's Keokuk & Hamilton Bridge Company , the owners of the original bridge who thought their bridge was adequate , to rebuild their bridge by threatening to build a new span on the new dam being built near the bridge . However , a new bridge over the new dam would require congressional approval , in the form of House Resolution 26672 . After hearings before the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce , the committee chairman urged " the Keokuk & Hamilton Bridge Co. would reconstruct its bridge , or he would recommend passage of House Resolution 26672 . " The bridge company relented and planning began almost immediately .
The bridge company contracted with Ralph Modjeski to design the new bridge . Modjeski determined that the original bridge was indeed overstressed for rail traffic . He proposed two options : a single @-@ track rail bridge with a roadway above the tracks or a bridge similar to the original but built to modern standards . The latter option was chosen . The piers of the bridge were cut down five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and recapped . The 20 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 6 @.@ 25 m ) bridge was built between 1914 and 1915 and opened for traffic in 1916 . The original roadway was made of wood , but was replaced by steel mesh in 1956 .
US 136 was designated nationally in 1951 . In the Keokuk area , it was overlaid upon US 61 from west of Alexandria , Missouri , over the Des Moines River into Iowa , and into downtown Keokuk . South of downtown , it replaced Iowa 161 , which crossed the Mississippi River on the Keokuk Rail Bridge . Since its designation , the route has largely remained the same . However , the eastern end changed slightly with the opening of the Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge in 1985 .
In the 1970s , politicians on both sides of the river began to seek funding to build a new road bridge across the river . The rail bridge , while still adequate for rail traffic , it proved to be a challenge for drivers . The western terminus of the bridge featured a curve which was navigated easily by wagons and early automobiles , but was dangerous for semi trucks . Governor Terry Branstad was convinced a new bridge was needed after riding in a railcar to view the underside of the road deck . The new , four @-@ lane Keokuk – Hamilton bridge opened on November 23 , 1985 , nearly eight months ahead of schedule and under budget .
= = Major intersections = =
= Porbeagle =
The porbeagle ( Lamna nasus ) is a species of mackerel shark in the family Lamnidae , distributed widely in the cold and temperate marine waters of the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere . In the North Pacific , its ecological equivalent is the closely related salmon shark ( L. ditropis ) . The porbeagle typically reaches 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in length and a weight of 135 kg ( 298 lb ) ; North Atlantic sharks grow larger than Southern Hemisphere sharks and differ in coloration and aspects of life history . Gray above and white below , the porbeagle has a very stout midsection that tapers towards the long , pointed snout and the narrow base of the tail . It has large pectoral and first dorsal fins , tiny pelvic , second dorsal , and anal fins , and a crescent @-@ shaped caudal fin . The most distinctive features of this species are its three @-@ cusped teeth , the white blotch at the aft base of its first dorsal fin , and the two pairs of lateral keels on its tail .
The porbeagle is an opportunistic hunter that preys mainly on bony fishes and cephalopods throughout the water column , including the bottom . Most commonly found over food @-@ rich banks on the outer continental shelf , it makes occasional forays both close to shore and into the open ocean to a depth of 1 @,@ 360 m ( 4 @,@ 460 ft ) . It also conducts long @-@ distance seasonal migrations , generally shifting between shallower and deeper water . The porbeagle is fast and highly active , with physiological adaptations that enable it to maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water . It can be solitary or gregarious , and has been known to perform seemingly playful behavior . This shark is aplacental viviparous with oophagy , developing embryos being retained within the mother 's uterus and subsisting on non @-@ viable eggs . Females typically bear four pups every year .
Only a few shark attacks of uncertain provenance have been attributed to the porbeagle . It is well regarded as a game fish by recreational anglers . The meat and fins of the porbeagle are highly valued , which has led to a long history of intense human exploitation . However , this species cannot sustain heavy fishing pressure due to its low reproductive capacity . Direct commercial fishing for the porbeagle , principally by Norwegian longliners , led to stock collapses in the eastern North Atlantic in the 1950s , and the western North Atlantic in the 1960s . The porbeagle continues to be caught throughout its range , both intentionally and as bycatch , with varying degrees of monitoring and management . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the porbeagle as Vulnerable worldwide , and as either Endangered or Critically Endangered in different parts of its northern range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The etymology of the word " porbeagle " is obscure . A common suggestion is that it combines " porpoise " and " beagle " , referencing this shark 's shape and tenacious hunting habits . Another is that it is derived from the Cornish porth , meaning " harbor " , and bugel , meaning " shepherd " . The Oxford English Dictionary states that the word was either borrowed from Cornish or formed from a Cornish first element with the English " beagle " ; however , none of the proposed Cornish root words is fully satisfactory . The Dictionary also notes that there is no evidence for a connection to the French porc , meaning " swine " , or to porpoise , as has been proposed . Other common names for the porbeagle include Atlantic mackerel shark , Beaumaris shark , bottle @-@ nosed shark , and blue dog .
The first scientific description of the porbeagle was authored by French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre in the 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et methodique des trois règnes de la nature , and based on an earlier 1769 account by Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant . Bonnaterre named the shark Squalus nasus , the specific epithet nasus being Latin for " nose " . In 1816 , French naturalist Georges Cuvier placed the porbeagle into its own subgenus , Lamna , which later authors elevated to the rank of full genus .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Several phylogenetic studies , based on morphological characters and mitochondrial DNA sequences , have established the sister species relationship between the porbeagle and the salmon shark ( L. ditropis ) , which occurs in place of it in the North Pacific . The genus Lamna evolved 65 – 45 Ma . When its two extant species diverged from each other is uncertain , though the precipitating event was likely the formation of the ice cap over the Arctic Ocean , which would have isolated sharks in the North Pacific from those in the North Atlantic .
Fossilized porbeagle remains are known from Late Miocene epoch ( c . 7 @.@ 2 Ma ) deposits in Belgium and the Netherlands , Pliocene epoch ( 5 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 6 Ma ) deposits in Belgium , Spain , and Chile , and Pleistocene epoch ( 2 @.@ 6 Ma to 12 @,@ 000 BP ) deposits in the Netherlands . However , Lamna teeth that closely resemble those of the porbeagle have been found in the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island off the Antarctic Peninsula , which date to the middle to late Eocene epoch ( 50 – 34 Ma ) . There is much taxonomic confusion regarding Lamna in the fossil record due to the high degree of variability in adult tooth morphology within species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The porbeagle has an almost global amphitemperate distribution , i.e. it is absent from the tropics ; in the North Pacific , its niche is assumed by the salmon shark . It is found mostly within 30 – 70 ° N and 30 – 50 ° S latitudes . In the North Atlantic , the northern limit of its range extends from the Newfoundland Grand Banks off Canada , through southern Greenland , to Scandinavia and Russia ; the southern limit of its range extends from New Jersey and Bermuda , through the Azores and Madeira , to Morocco . It is found in the Mediterranean Sea , but not the Black Sea . Normally , North Atlantic sharks only stray as far south as South Carolina and the Gulf of Guinea , but pregnant females from the western North Atlantic population are known to range into the Sargasso Sea , almost as far as Hispaniola , to give birth . In the Southern Hemisphere , the porbeagle apparently occupies a continuous band bound in the south by the Antarctic Convergence , and extending as far north as Chile and Brazil , the Western Cape province of South Africa , Australia to southern Western Australia and southern Queensland , and New Zealand . It is speculated that the porbeagle colonized the Southern Hemisphere during the Quaternary glaciation ( beginning c . 2 @.@ 6 Ma ) , when the tropical climate zone was much narrower than it is today .
Offshore fishing banks are the favored habitat of the porbeagle , though it can be found anywhere from a depth of 1 @,@ 360 m ( 4 @,@ 460 ft ) in oceanic basins to littoral ( close to shore ) waters less than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep , over the entire water column . There is a single , anomalous record from brackish water , of a juvenile in Mar Chiquita in Argentina . A tracking study off the British Isles has found substantial variation in the short @-@ term movements of this species , both between and within individuals . Vertical movements tended to increase with water depth and corresponding temperature stratification : in shallow , unstratified waters , sharks either showed no pattern in changing depth or made reverse diel movements , spending the day in shallow water and descending at night . In deeper , stratified waters , the sharks performed a regular diel migration , spending the day below the thermocline and rising towards the surface at night . The porbeagle favors water temperatures of 5 to 10 ° C ( 41 to 50 ° F ) , though it has been reported across a temperature range of 1 to 23 ° C ( 34 to 73 ° F ) .
Porbeagle populations in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres appear to be completely separate . There are two stocks in the North Atlantic , east and west , that seldom mix ; only one individual is known to have crossed the Atlantic , covering 4 @,@ 260 km ( 2 @,@ 650 mi ) from Ireland to Canada . Several discrete stocks are likely present in the Southern Hemisphere as well . This species segregates by size and sex in the North Atlantic , and at least by size in the South Pacific . For example , males outnumber females 2 : 1 off Spain , females are 30 % more numerous than males off Scotland , and immature males are predominant in the Bristol Channel . Older , larger sharks may frequent higher latitudes than younger individuals .
Seasonal migrations have been observed in porbeagles from both hemispheres . In the western North Atlantic , much of the population spends the spring in the deep waters of the Nova Scotia continental shelf , and migrates north a distance of 500 – 1 @,@ 000 km ( 310 – 620 mi ) to spend late summer and fall in the shallow waters of the Newfoundland Grand Banks and the Gulf of St. Lawrence . In December , large mature females migrate south over 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) into the Sargasso Sea for pupping , keeping deeper than 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) during the day and 200 m ( 660 ft ) at night so as to stay in the cooler waters beneath the Gulf Stream . In the eastern North Atlantic , porbeagles are believed to spend spring and summer in shallow continental shelf waters , and disperse northwards to overwinter in deeper waters offshore . Migrating sharks may travel upwards of 2 @,@ 300 km ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) , though once they reach their destination they tend to remain within a relatively localized area . In the South Pacific , the population shifts north past 30 ° S latitude into subtropical waters in winter and spring , and retreats south past 35 ° S latitude in summer , when sharks are frequently sighted off subantarctic islands .
= = Description = =
The porbeagle is a very stout @-@ bodied shark with a fusiform ( spindle @-@ like ) shape . The long , conical snout tapers to a sharp point , and is supported by enlarged , highly calcified rostral cartilages . The eyes are large and black , without nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The small , S @-@ shaped nostrils are positioned in front of and below the level of the eyes . The mouth is large and strongly curved , with moderately protrusible jaws . North Atlantic sharks have 28 – 29 upper tooth rows and 26 – 27 lower tooth rows , while Southern Hemisphere sharks have 30 – 31 upper tooth rows and 27 – 29 lower tooth rows . Each tooth has a strongly arched base and a nearly straight , awl @-@ like central cusp , which is flanked by a pair of smaller cusplets in all but the smallest individuals . The five pairs of gill slits are long and precede the pectoral fin bases .
The pectoral fins are long and narrow . The first dorsal fin is large and high , with a rounded apex , and originating just behind the pectoral fin bases . The pelvic fins are much smaller than the first dorsal fin . The second dorsal and anal fins are smaller still , and placed about even with each other on narrow bases that allow pivoting from side to side . The sides of the caudal peduncle are expanded into prominent lateral keels . A second , shorter pair of keels are present below the main keels . The caudal fin is large and crescent @-@ shaped , with the lower lobe almost as long as the upper ; there are both dorsal and ventral depressions ( precaudal pits ) at the caudal fin base , and a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper caudal fin lobe . The skin is soft and covered by tiny , flattened dermal denticles ( scales ) , lending a velvety texture . Each denticle has three horizontal ridges that lead to teeth on the posterior margin .
The dorsal coloration is a medium to dark gray or slate , extending to the bases of the pectoral fins . The underside is white ; adults in the Southern Hemisphere often have dark coloring under the head and dusky blotches scattered over the belly . The free rear tip of the first dorsal fin is abruptly light gray or white , a feature unique to this species . The porbeagle may attain a length of 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) , though this is uncertain and may have resulted from confusion with other mackerel shark species . A more typical length is 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . Female sharks grow larger than males in the North Atlantic , with maximum confirmed fork lengths ( snout tip to caudal fin fork ) of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) for males and 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) for females . Southern Hemisphere sharks are smaller and the two sexes are similar in size , with males and females attaining fork lengths of 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) respectively . Most porbeagles weigh no more than 135 kg ( 298 lb ) , with the record being a 230 kg ( 510 lb ) individual caught off Caithness , Scotland in 1993 .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Fast and energetic , the porbeagle can be found singly or in groups . Its fusiform body , narrow caudal peduncle with lateral keels , and crescent @-@ shaped tail are adaptations for efficiently sustaining speed , which have also been independently evolved by tunas , billfishes , and several other groups of active fishes . It and the salmon shark are the thickest @-@ bodied members of their family ( length @-@ depth ratio approaching 4 @.@ 5 ) , and consequently have the stiffest swimming style : they oscillate their tails while holding their bodies mostly rigid , which confers propulsive power with high energy efficiency , but at the cost of maneuverability . The large gill surface area of the porbeagle allows more oxygen to be delivered to its tissues . It also has a short band of aerobic " red muscle " along each side , which can contract independently of the regular " white muscle " at a lower energy cost , enhancing the shark 's stamina .
Porbeagles are among the few fishes that exhibit apparent play behavior . There are reports , principally off the Cornish coast , of this species rolling and repeatedly wrapping itself in long kelp fronds near the surface ; this activity may have an exploratory or self @-@ stimulatory purpose , though alternately the shark may be attempting to feed on small kelp organisms or scrape off parasites . In addition , porbeagles within a group have been seen chasing each other , and they will reportedly " play with anything floating on the water " : individuals have been observed prodding , tossing , or biting natural and artificial objects , including pieces of driftwood and balloon floats used by anglers .
Great white sharks ( Carcharodon carcharias ) and killer whales ( Orcinus orca ) are plausible , albeit undocumented , predators of the porbeagle . There is a record of a small individual caught off Argentina that bore bite marks from a copper shark ( Carcharhinus brachyurus ) or similar species , but it is uncertain whether the porbeagle was the target of attempted predation or if the two were simply involved in interspecific aggression . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Dinobothrium septaria and Hepatoxylon trichiuri , and the copepods Dinemoura producta , Laminifera doello @-@ juradoi , and Pandarus floridanus . Natural annual mortality is low , estimated to be 10 % for juveniles , 15 % for adult males , and 20 % for adult females in the western North Atlantic .
= = = Feeding = = =
The porbeagle is an active predator that predominantly ingests small to medium @-@ sized bony fishes . It chases down pelagic fishes such as lancet fish , mackerel , pilchards , herring , and sauries , and forages near the bottom for groundfishes such as cod , hake , icefish , dories , sand lances , lumpsuckers , and flatfish . Cephalopods , particularly squid , also form an important component of its diet , while smaller sharks such as spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias ) and tope sharks ( Galeorhinus galeus ) are rarely taken . Examinations of porbeagle stomach contents have also found small shelled molluscs , crustaceans , echinoderms , and other invertebrates , which were likely ingested incidentally , as well as inedible debris such as small stones , feathers , and garbage fragments .
In the western North Atlantic , porbeagles feed mainly on pelagic fishes and squid in spring , and on groundfishes in the fall ; this pattern corresponds to the spring @-@ fall migration of these sharks from deeper to shallower waters , and the most available prey types in those respective habitats . Therefore , the porbeagle seems to be an opportunistic predator without strong diet specificity . During spring and summer in the Celtic Sea and on the outer Nova Scotian Shelf , porbeagles congregate at tidally induced thermal fronts to feed on fish that have been drawn by high concentrations of zooplankton . Hunting porbeagles regularly dive from the surface all the way to the bottom , cycling back every few hours ; this vertical movement may aid in the detection of olfactory cues . There is a report of a one @-@ year @-@ old porbeagle 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , which had fed on krill and polychaete worms .
= = = Life history = = =
The timing of the porbeagle 's reproductive cycle is unusual in that it is largely similar in both hemispheres , rather than being offset by six months . This suggests that its reproduction is not significantly affected by temperature or day length , perhaps owing to its endothermic physiology . Mating takes place mainly between September and November , though females with fresh mating scars have been reported as late as January off the Shetland Islands . The male bites at the female 's pectoral fins , gill region , and flanks while courting and to hold on for copulation . Two mating grounds are known for western North Atlantic porbeagles , one off Newfoundland and the other on Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine . Adult females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . They probably reproduce every year . The litter size is typically four , with two embryos oriented in opposing directions sharing each uterus ; on rare occasions a litter may contain as few as one or as many as five pups . The gestation period is 8 – 9 months .
Like other members of its family , the porbeagle is aplacental viviparous with oophagy , i.e. the main source of embryonic nutrition are unfertilized eggs . During the first half of pregnancy , the mother ovulates enormous numbers of tiny ova , packed into capsules up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) long , into her uteruses . A newly conceived embryo is sustained by a yolk sac and emerges from its egg capsule at 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 7 in ) long . At this time , the embryo has well @-@ developed external gills and a spiral valve intestine . When the embryo is 4 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 6 in ) long , it has resorbed its external gills and most of its yolk sac , but cannot yet feed as it lacks the means to open egg capsules . At a length of 10 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) , the embryo grows two massive , recurved " fangs " in the lower jaw for tearing open capsules , as well as two much smaller teeth in the upper jaw . It begins to feed voraciously on yolk , acquiring an enormously distended stomach ; to accommodate this , the muscles on the belly split down the middle and the skin on the abdomen stretches greatly .
At 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) long , the embryo appears pink because it lacks pigment except in its eyes , and its head and gill region are laterally enlarged and gelatinous . The yolk stomach can comprise up to 81 % of the embryo 's total weight when it is 30 – 42 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) long . The embryo gains pigment and sheds its fangs at a length of 34 – 38 cm ( 13 – 15 in ) . Around this time , the mother stops producing ova . From then on , the embryo relies mainly on the yolk stored in its stomach , though it may continue to feed on remaining eggs by squishing the capsules between its jaws or swallowing them whole . It begins to transfer its energy stores from its stomach to its liver , causing the former to shrink and the latter to grow exponentially . The embryo is essentially fully pigmented by a length of 40 cm ( 16 in ) , and has assumed its newborn appearance by a length of 58 cm ( 23 in ) . By then , its stomach has shrunk enough for the abdominal muscles to close , leaving what has been termed an " umbilical scar " or " yolk sac scar " ( neither is accurate ) . Several series of single @-@ cusped teeth grow in both jaws , though they lie flat and remain non @-@ functional until birth .
Newborn porbeagles measure 58 – 67 cm ( 23 – 26 in ) long and do not exceed 5 kg ( 11 lb ) . Up to a tenth of the weight is made up of the liver , though some yolk also remains in its stomach and continues to sustain the pup until it learns to feed . The overall embryonic growth rate is 7 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) per month . Sometimes one pup in a uterus is much smaller than the other , but otherwise normal . These " runts " may result from a dominant , forward @-@ facing embryo eating most of the eggs as they arrive , and / or the mother being unable to provide an adequate egg supply for all her offspring . Birthing occurs from April to September , peaking in April and May ( spring @-@ summer ) for North Atlantic sharks and June and July ( winter ) for Southern Hemisphere sharks . In the western North Atlantic , birth occurs well offshore in the Sargasso Sea at depths of around 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) .
Both sexes grow at similar rates until the onset of maturation , with females maturing later and at a larger size than males . In the first four years of life , the annual growth rate is 16 – 20 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) and similar in both hemispheres ; thereafter , sharks from the western South Pacific begin to grow slower than those from the North Atlantic . In the North Atlantic , males mature at a fork length of 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and an age of 6 – 11 years , and females at a fork length of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 2 ft ) and an age of 12 – 18 years . In the Southwest Pacific , males mature at a fork length of 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and an age of 8 – 11 years , and females at a fork length of 1 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and an age of 15 – 18 years . The oldest porbeagle on record was 26 years of age and measured 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long . The maximum lifespan of this species appears to be 30 – 40 years in the Atlantic , but could be as much as 65 years in the South Pacific .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
Like other members of its family , the porbeagle is endothermic : metabolic heat generated by its red muscles is conserved within the body by specialized systems of blood vessels called retia mirabilia ( Latin for " wonderful nets " ; singular rete mirabile ) , that act as highly efficient countercurrent heat exchangers . The porbeagle has several rete mirabile systems : the orbital retia accessing its brain and eyes , the lateral cutaneous retia accessing its swimming muscles , the suprahepatic rete accessing its viscera , and the kidney rete .
Among sharks , the porbeagle 's capacity for elevating body temperature is second only to the salmon shark 's . Its red muscles are located deep within the body , adjacent to the spine , and its lateral rete is composed of over 4 @,@ 000 small arteries arranged in bands . It has one of the highest core temperatures within its family , 8 – 10 ° C ( 14 – 18 ° F ) warmer than that of the surrounding water . Being warm @-@ bodied may allow this shark to maintain higher cruising speeds , hunt in deep water for extended periods of time , and / or enter higher latitudes during winter to exploit food resources not available to other sharks . The orbital retia of the porbeagle can raise the temperature of its brain and eyes by 3 – 6 ° C ( 5 – 11 ° F ) , and likely serve to buffer those sensitive organs against the large temperature shifts that accompany changes in depth ; potential benefits of this include increased visual acuity and reduced response times .
= = Human interactions = =
The porbeagle has very rarely , if ever , bitten swimmers or boats . As of 2009 , the International Shark Attack File attributes three bites to this species , one provoked and none fatal , and two on boats . One older anecdote tells of a fisherman who provoked a porbeagle into leaping from the water and tearing his clothes . In another account of a swimmer bitten by a " mackerel shark " , the species responsible could easily have been a misidentified shortfin mako or great white shark . Recently in the North Sea , adult porbeagles have been filmed charging at divers working on oil platforms , sometimes even brushing lightly against them without doing harm . These rushes do not appear to have predatory intent and may instead be motivated by curiosity or defense .
At one time , porbeagles were regarded as nuisances by some commercial fishers because they damaged lighter fishing gear intended for smaller species and stole hooked fish from lines . This shark is highly valued as a game fish by sport fishers in Ireland , the United Kingdom , and the United States . It fights strongly on hook @-@ and @-@ line , but does not usually jump into the air like the related shortfin mako . Novice anglers often mistake this shark for the mako , which has earned it the affectionate moniker " fako " in New England . The International Game Fish Association keeps records on the porbeagle .
= = = Commercial fishing = = =
Prized for its meat and fins , the porbeagle has long been under heavy fishing pressure . The meat is sold fresh , frozen , or dried and salted , and ranks among the most valuable of any shark : in 1997 and 1998 it had a wholesale price of EUR 5 – 7 / kg , four times that of the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . Most of the demand comes from Europe , though the United States and Japan also import this species . The fins are shipped to East Asia for use in shark fin soup . The remainder of the shark may also be utilized , for production of leather , liver oil , and fishmeal . International trade in the porbeagle appears to be significant , but remains unquantified as shark products tend not to be reported to the species level , and many consist of a mix of various species . This shark is caught most readily on longlines , but is also susceptible to gillnets , driftnets , trawls , and handlines . It is valuable enough to be generally retained when caught as bycatch ; if storage space cannot be spared it may be finned and the carcass discarded .
Intensive fishing for the porbeagle dates back the 1930s , when Norway and to a lesser extent Denmark began operating longline vessels in the western North Atlantic . The Norwegian annual catch rose from 279 tons in 1926 to 3 @,@ 884 tons in 1933 , and peaked at around 6 @,@ 000 tons in 1947 , with the resumption of fishing after World War II . Soon after the stock collapsed : Norwegian annual catches declined steadily to 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 900 tons from 1953 to 1960 , 160 – 300 tons in the early 1970s , and 10 – 40 tons in the late 1980s to early 1990s . Similarly , Danish annual catches fell from 1 @,@ 500 tons in the early 1950s to under 100 tons in the 1990s . Presently , many European countries continue to catch porbeagles in the eastern North Atlantic , with Norway , Denmark , France , and Spain foremost among them . France and Spain began to target porbeagles in the eastern North Atlantic in the 1970s . French fishers operate mainly in the Celtic Sea and the Bay of Biscay , and saw a decline from an annual catch of over 1 @,@ 000 tons in 1979 to 300 – 400 tons in the late 1990s . Catches by Spanish fishers have been highly variable , ranging from negligible to over 4 @,@ 000 tons per year , which may reflect shifts of fishing effort into historically less @-@ exploited waters .
As porbeagles had become scarce in the eastern North Atlantic , in the 1960s the Norwegian fishing fleet moved west to the waters off New England and Newfoundland . A few years later , they were joined by longline vessels from the Faroe Islands . Norwegian annual catches rose from 1 @,@ 900 tons in 1961 to over 9 @,@ 000 tons in 1965 ; the catch was largely exported to Italy , where porbeagle ( smeriglio ) is an extremely popular food fish . Again , the stock collapsed , this time in only six years : by 1970 Norwegian catches had fallen to under 1 @,@ 000 tons per year , and Faroese catches observed a similar trend . With the population decimated , most fishers moved on or switched to other species . Porbeagle numbers gradually recovered in the ensuing 25 years , to about 30 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels . In 1995 , Canada established an Exclusive Economic Zone ( EEZ ) and became the primary fisher of porbeagles in the region . Between 1994 and 1998 , Canadian fishing vessels landed 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 tons per year , which depleted the population to 11 – 17 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels by 2000 . Strict regulations and greatly reduced fishing quotas introduced in 2000 have since begun to reverse the stock decline , though recovery of the stock is projected to take decades due to the low productivity of the species . There is evidence that incidental artificial selection caused by heavy fishing has led to a compensatory growth response , i.e. faster growth and earlier maturation .
In the Southern Hemisphere , commercial fishing for the porbeagle is mostly undocumented . Substantial numbers are caught incidentally by pelagic longline fisheries targeting more valuable species such as southern bluefin tuna ( Thunnus maccoyii ) , swordfish ( Xiphius gladius ) , and Patagonian toothfish ( Dissostichus eleginoides ) , including vessels operated by Japan , Uruguay , Argentina , South Africa , and New Zealand . Porbeagle catches by the Uruguayan tuna pelagic longline fishery peaked in 1984 with 150 tons landed . Records of catch per unit effort ( CPUE ) for this fishery have shown a 90 % decline in porbeagle landings from 1988 to 1998 , though it is uncertain whether this reflects a real population decline or changing fishing habits . New Zealand has reported annual catches of 150 – 300 tons , mostly of immature individuals , from 1998 to 2003 .
= = = Conservation = = =
The rapid collapse of porbeagle stocks on both sides of the North Atlantic is often cited as archetypal of the " boom and bust " pattern of most shark fisheries . Factors including a small litter size , long maturation time , and the capture of multiple age classes all contribute to this shark 's susceptibility to overfishing . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the porbeagle globally as Vulnerable , Endangered in the western North Atlantic ( including the Baltic ) , and Critically Endangered in the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea .
The porbeagle is listed on Annex 1 ( Highly Migratory Species ) of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) and on Annex 1 of the Conservation of Migratory Species ( CMS ; also known as the Bonn Convention ) Migratory Shark Memorandum of Understanding . This species benefits from bans on shark finning instituted by several nations and supranational entities , including Canada , the United States , Brazil , Australia , the European Union , and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas ( ICCAT ) . Although the Animals Committee of the UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) recommended additional conservation actions for the porbeagle , CITES rejected proposals to list the species in 2008 and again in 2010 . In March 2013 , the porbeagle was listed on Appendix II of CITES , allowing for increased regulation in the international trade of this species .
In March 2015 , The National Marine Fisheries Service responded to a court order to compile information as to whether the shark will be listed as threatened or endangered under The Endangered Species Act .
= = = = Southern Hemisphere = = = =
The only regulation of porbeagle catches in the Southern Hemisphere is New Zealand 's total allowable catch ( TAC ) of 249 tons per year , instituted in 2004 .
= = = = Eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea = = = =
In the eastern North Atlantic , porbeagle fisheries have never been restricted despite well @-@ documented historical declines . Since 1985 , Norway and the Faroe Islands are allowed annual quotas of 200 tons and 125 tons respectively from European Community waters . Although these quotas are lower than the originals set in 1982 ( 500 tons for Norway and 300 tons for the Faroe Islands ) , they are still consistently higher than the yearly total porbeagle catch in the region and thus have no practical effect .
In the Mediterranean Sea , the porbeagle is on the verge of extinction , with a population decline of over 99 @.@ 99 % since the mid @-@ 20th century . Its range has contracted to the waters around the Italian Peninsula , where there may be a nursery area . Only a few dozen specimens have been recorded in the past few decades , from scientific surveys , swordfish fishery bycatch , and sport fishers . In 1995 , it was included in Annex III ( " species whose exploitation is regulated " ) of the Barcelona Convention Protocol on protected areas and biodiversity in the Mediterranean , which has not been ratified . In 1997 , it was listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention ( the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ) . However , these listings have yet to result in the implementation of new management plans , despite the recognized need for urgent action .
The European Union prohibits EU vessels from fishing for , retaining , boarding , transhiping or landing porbeagle sharks in all waters since January 2012 . It is subject to a zero total allowable catch in EU waters by any vessel .
= = = = Western North Atlantic = = = =
The western North Atlantic porbeagle population has a more positive prospect than in the eastern North Atlantic . Fishing in Canadian waters was originally regulated by the 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada , which established an annual quota of 1 @,@ 500 tons , restricted the time , place , and gear types allowed for commercial fishing , and set limits for bycatch and recreational fishing . In 2000 – 2001 , Fisheries and Oceans Canada ( DFO ) prepared a detailed population model and concluded that a quota of 200 – 250 tons would allow for population growth , resulting in a quota of 250 tons being adopted for the period of 2002 – 2007 . The mating ground off of Newfoundland was also closed to shark fishing . In 2004 , the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( COSEWIC ) listed the porbeagle as Endangered , largely on the basis of the low population abundance ( < 25 % of original numbers ) . Canada decided not to list the species under its Species At Risk Act , but further reduced the total fishing quota to 185 tons . In US waters , the 1993 Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean sets an annual quota of 92 tons ( post @-@ processing ) for the porbeagle . In 2006 , this species was listed as a Species of Concern by the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , meaning that it merits conservation concern but there is insufficient data for inclusion on the US Endangered Species Act .
= Röyksopp =
Röyksopp ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈɾœʏksɔp ] ) are a Norwegian electronic music duo from Tromsø , formed in 1998 . Since their inception , the band has consisted of Svein Berge and Torbjørn Brundtland .
Berge and Brundtland were introduced to each other through a mutual friend in Tromsø , Norway . They both enjoyed the same films and music , and both shared an interest in electronics . The two experimented with various forms of electronic music , and bought a drum machine together during the Tromsø techno scene before going their separate ways . Several years later , the two met up again and formed Röyksopp during the Bergen Wave . After experimenting with different genres of electronic music ,
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to move outside of the Japanese domestic market by incorporating British trip hop influences .
= = Cover art = =
The cover sleeve was directed by Shinichi Hara . Shinichi has been Hamasaki 's creative director for photoshoots , album and single sleeves , and began collaborating with her in 1998 with her on debut album . His final work was directing the sleeve for Hamasaki 's 2009 single " Sunrise / Sunset ( Love Is All ) " . The photographer , Keita Haginiwa , directed the photoshoot , which featured Hamasaki on a beach front . On different versions of the cover artwork , Hamasaki is accompanied by the male model Atsuko Kubota , who professionally goes by the name Minori . The artwork features Hamasaki sitting on a Harley Davidson in front of a beach , leaning and smiling away from the camera .
H has five different sleeves featuring photos from the same shoot . All of these were housed in a trasparent jewel case . The next three covers contained limited @-@ edition colours ; a pink edition , a green edition and a blue edition , all with different cover artwork with a border of each colour . All physical editions featured an additional black and white lyric sheet , a post card from Avex Trax and a Japanese Windows Media Player promotion flyer . All tracks were listed the same and were protected by the Copy Control Association . After the EP achieved one million sales in November 2002 , Avex Trax re @-@ released the EP as a digipak , containing all the colored covers inside , and used the original artwork for the front display .
= = Release = =
H was digitally released worldwide with the original artwork . Each song has been featured on several greatest hits compilation albums by Hamasaki . For " Independent " , it was featured on A Best 2 ( 2007 ) , A Complete : All Singles ( 2008 ) and A Summer Best ( 2009 ) . For " July 1st " , it was featured on her A Best 2 and A Summer Best compilation and the final track " Hanabi " was featured on A Ballads ( 2004 ) , A Best 2 and A Summer Best . For the A Best 2 series , which the first two tracks were featured on the white version and the latter track on the black version . All of the songs from H were remastered in Los Angeles , California by Bernie Grundman and Brian " Big Bass " Gardner , in order to have a " more powerful " feel on the compilation . " July 1st " was re @-@ released as the b @-@ side single for Hamasaki 's 2015 digital single " Step by Step " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
H received favorable reviews from most music critics . Adam Greenberg from Allmusic reviewed the parent album Rainbow and favoured " Independent " and " Hanabi " , but failed to mention " July 1st " . He felt that " Hanabi " " focuses strongly on her vocal qualities as well as some interesting phrasing [ ... ] " , while he concluded that the song " Close to You " " [ ... ] never quite gets off the ground , especially when compared to the ending track , [ " Independent " , ] " Greenberg , who had written the extended biography of Hamasaki on the same website , had listed " Hanabi " as one of her career standouts . CDJournal had reviewed each track on their mini @-@ review . For " Independent " , the reviewer called it a " upper dance tune " and felt the song sounded " aggressive . " For the second track , the reviewer commended the song 's composition and production and called it a " summery , refreshing dance tune . " However , slight criticism was directed on the chorus that needed " minor adjustment . " For the third track , the reviewer felt that the song expressed the sadness of the end of summer through a Japanese fireworks motif , and praised her freely expressed world view .
Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express commended the tracks . Regarding " July 1st " and " Independent " , Hiraga praised the songs for showing positive messages and having more personality drawn towards the songs and said the songs had shown more " respect . " Regarding " Hanabi " , Hiraga commended the sadder songs which also included " Over " . Hiraga exemplified the lyric ( " There 's never a day that I have / To remember you because / I never for a moment forgot you . " ) for being one of his favorite lyrics on the album .
Hamasaki hosted an online voting poll for fans to choose their favorite tracks to be featured on her Ayumi Hamasaki 15th Anniversary Tour Best Live Tour . As a result , all three songs from H were featured on the list . H won the Song of the Year Award at the Japan Gold Disc Awards in 2003 , alongside " Free & Easy " and " Voyage " .
= = = Commercial response = = =
H debuted at number one on the Weekly Singles Chart and peaked at number one for three non @-@ consecutive weeks , including its debut week , its second week and its fourth week on the chart , with the third week being occupied by Misia 's single " Nemurenu Yoru wa Kimi no Sei " . The song stayed in the top ten for seven weeks , slipping to number thirteen in its eighth week . The song lasted thirteen weeks inside the top forty and ultimately finished its charting run at number sixty @-@ three in its nineteenth week . With a total of nineteen weeks in the singles chart , it has become Hamasaki 's second @-@ longest charting single since " Seasons " , which charted for over twenty weeks .
H sold over one million units in Japan and was certified Million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) on 24 November 2002 for shipments of one million units . This became the best selling single of the year in Japan and surpassed Hikaru Utada 's 2002 single " Traveling " which sold over 850 @,@ 000 units throughout the year . " Traveling " and H were the only singles of the year to be certified for one million copies shipped by RIAJ . Overall , H was the only single to sell over one million units that year and became Hamasaki 's first and only single to be the yearly number one . According to Oricon sales , H is Hamasaki 's fifth @-@ best @-@ selling single in her musical career , behind A , " Seasons " , " M " and " Boys & Girls " .
H also remains Hamasaki 's last single to sell over one million units and is the only million @-@ selling single on Rainbow . It is her fourth single to sell over one million physical units , after " Boys & Girls " and A from Loveppears ( 1999 ) , " Seasons " from Duty ( 2000 ) and " M " from I Am .... Hamasaki 's last highest selling single close to the one million physical sales mark was the next single " Voyage " which peaked at number one , but only sold an estimated 679 @,@ 000 units in Japan and was certified double platinum .
The song " Hanabi " was a commercially successful sleeper hit , becoming certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan in January 2015 , for selling 100 @,@ 000 legal downloads since its release twelve and a half years prior .
= = Promotion = =
The H tracks did not received a music video . This was her first EP single since A ( 1999 ) and her first single since " Unite ! " ( 2001 ) that did not feature videos . This was her last single release that did not feature a music video until her October 2014 single " Terminal " .
Each song from the H EP were released through endorsement deals . For " Independent " , the song was on Nippon TV for the program The Baseball . This was the only commercial that Hamasaki was not present on . For " July 1st " , Hamasaki was featured with the song on a lipstick commercial for KOSE Visee make @-@ up in Japan . For " Hanabi " , the song was used as a cellphone advert in Japan .
= = Live performances = =
Hamasaki has performed the three songs on several of her Asian @-@ based tours ;
Ayumi Hamasaki Arena Tour 2002 A ( " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Stadium Tour 2002 A ( All tracks )
Ayumi Hamasaki Countdown Live 2002 – 2003 A ( All tracks )
Ayumi Hamasaki Arena Tour 2003 – 2004 A ( " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Countdown Live 2004 – 2005 A ( " Independent " )
Tour of Secret ( " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Asia Tour 2008 : 10th Anniversary ( " Hanabi " and " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Premium Countdown Live 2008 – 2009 A ( " Independent " )
Premium Showcase : Feel the Love ( " July 1st " )
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the EP 's liner notes .
= = = Song credits = = =
Ayumi Hamasaki – songwriting , composition , vocal production , additional production ( All tracks )
Dai Nagao – composition ( All tracks )
Yasuyuki Tomita – A & R
Shigeo Miyamoto – mastering , engineering
Shinji Hayashi – additional production
Max Matsuura – executive producer , vocal production , additional production
= = = Cover credits = = =
Shinichi Hara – art direction
Shigeru Kasai and Takuma Noriage – design
Naoki Ueda – creative coordinator
Keita Haginiwa – photographer
Koji Matsumoto – fashion director
Fumihara Minoshima – stylist
Keizo Kuroda and Takahiro Yamashita – hair assistant and make @-@ up stylist
Kanako Miura – nail artist
Atsuko Kubota – stand in
Katsutaka Numakura – transportation assistant
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ayumi Hamasaki .
Source :
= = Charts , peaks and positions = =
= = Release history = =
= Slow Down Your Neighbors =
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " is the 11th episode of the second season of Modern Family and the 35th episode overall . It originally aired on January 5 , 2011 on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was written by Ilana Wernick and was directed by Gail Mancuso , who were also both credited for the previous episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode features a guest appearance from James Marsden as Barry , Cameron and Mitchell 's new neighbor .
In the episode , Claire becomes a neighborhood vigilante hoping to catch and stop a car that speeds through their streets . Meanwhile , Phil is busy trying to land an important listing with a difficult client , Jay struggles to teach Gloria and Manny how to ride a bike , Manny is surprisingly great at it and yet Gloria continues to try , and Mitchell and Cameron meet a charming mysterious neighbor .
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " received mostly positive reviews from critics , many of whom praised the performance of Nolan Gould . The episode was viewed by 11 @.@ 756 million households and received a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a 14 % rise from the previous episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode was the second highest @-@ rated scripted program of the week behind The Simpsons which had received abnormally high ratings due to the NFL playoffs .
The episode was one of the three episodes of Modern Family that received nominations for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards with Gail Mancuso as the nominee , along with " See You Next Fall " by Steven Levitan , but lost to Michael Spiller for directing " Halloween " .
Ariel Winter does not appear in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Claire ( Julie Bowen ) becomes a determined neighborhood vigilante hoping to catch and stop a sports car that is speeding through the suburban streets while Phil ( Ty Burrell ) sells a house nearby for a difficult client , Laura ( Jami Gertz ) , who happens to be the driver of the car .
Claire prints out several posters , intending to say " slow down , " with the license plate of the car below , and signed " your neighbors " below the license plate . However , the rest of her family point out that as presented , the posters actually state " slow down your neighbors . " Regardless , Claire orders Phil to put them up . Later , Claire chases the car on a bicycle , but loses track of the car . She meets Phil at the open house he has arranged for Laura and is introduced to her . Laura is just about to leave and offers Claire a lift back to her home , she enters the car , realizing too late that Laura is the driver she despises , while Laura criticizes the posters ' creator as a sex @-@ starved woman without knowing that Claire had created the posters .
Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) is about to ride his first bicycle to school . However , his stepfather Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) finds training wheels on the bike , set up by Manny 's mother , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) . Jay decides to teach Manny to ride without the stabilizers , and comes to realize Manny is a natural at riding a bike by himself . As Gloria has never ridden a bike either , after being traumatized by her mother that riding a bicycle is the best way to getting kidnapped , Jay tries to teach her , but she is unsuccessful .
Gloria turns to Phil for bike riding lessons but he is about to leave for the open house at Laura 's . Luke ( Nolan Gould ) decides to teach her by squirting her with a water gun , and Gloria manages to ride it , but soon fails after Claire steals her bike while Gloria is still on it . Seeing as this teaching method is a success , Luke does the same to his big sister Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) to get her to study , with Phil 's consent .
Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) and Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) find out that they have a charming new neighbor named Barry ( James Marsden ) who has moved to the apartment above . Cameron takes an immediate liking to Barry , though Mitchell is reluctant because Barry is fond of reiki , which he considers as a bunch of hot air . However , as Mitchell starts to trust him , Cameron hears from his landlady ( Sharon Omi ) that nobody has moved into the apartment above and Cameron realizes Barry is living in his daughter 's princess castle . When Cameron tells Barry to leave , he and Barry get into a physical struggle inside the castle ; Cameron gets Mitchell to call the police but not after affirming that he was right in writing Barry off .
= = Production = =
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " was written by Ilana Wernick and directed by Gail Mancuso . The episode is the third writing credit for Ilana Wernick after the first season finale , " Family Portrait " and the previously aired episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode is also the second directing credit for Gail Mancuso after the previous episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " .
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " originally aired on January 5 , 2011 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was filmed on October 27 , and October 29 , 2010 .
In October 2010 , William Keck of TV Guide reported that James Marsden would guest star on Modern Family as Cameron and Mitchell 's new shirtless neighbor . Marsden filmed his appearance on October 29 , 2010 which he described as a great experience saying they have " Really great comedians and writers on the show and it was great to have that behind you " . The episode also featured a guest appearance from Jami Gertz , who played Laura , who was Phil 's new client as well as the speedy driver .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on January 5 , 2011 , " Slow Down Your Neighbors " was viewed by an estimated 11 @.@ 756 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 13 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 14 percent rise in the 18 – 49 demographic from the previous original episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode became the highest @-@ rated show on ABC and finished 6th in the ratings for the week of January 3 to January 9 , 2010 . The episode also became the second highest @-@ rated scripted show after the episode of The Simpsons " Moms I 'd Like to Forget " which had followed the highly rated NFL play @-@ offs . Added with DVR viewers , " Slow Down Your Neighbors " received a 6 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 7 to the original viewership .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club praised " Slow Down Your Neighbors " for the use of all the characters , writing " Attention to detail may be one of the factors that makes Modern Family such a solid sitcom specimen . " She ultimately rated the episode with an A- .
TV Squad writer Joel Keller was positive , but noted the episode " felt a little slapstick and predictable " . Despite this he said " some pretty funny moments crossing our screens . "
Lesley Savage of Entertainment Weekly complemented James Marsden 's performance naming it the second best moment of the episode and commented that the scene of his character and Cameron fighting in the Lily 's princess castle " the best moment of the entire show " . New York writer Rachael Maddux commented that " the show kicked off its second season 's second half in such fine form " . Kara Klenc of TV Guide called the episode " great " .
Sam Morgan of Hollywood complimented the writers for adding a " twist on a traditional sitcom story " for the Mitchell @-@ Cameron storyline . Morgan also praised the performance of Ty Burrell saying that it " showed that Ty Burrell deserved the Emmy over Eric Stonestreet " .
Not all reviews were positive . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote that the episode " didn 't really work for me " due to the Claire @-@ Phil storyline although he did compliment Marsden 's performance .
Multiple critics praised the performance of Nolan Gould . Time contributor James Poniewozik wrote it was a " great episode for his character all around " and called him " the topper in this episode " . Joel Keller called Gould 's character Luke , " one of the funniest dumb kids ever created for television " . He also praised the scene featuring Luke spraying Gloria with a water gun and then later drinking from it saying that " it reminded us that this new hard @-@ ass is still Luke at the end of the day " .
= 1906 Vanderbilt Commodores football team =
The 1906 Vanderbilt Commodores football team represented Vanderbilt University during the 1906 college football season . The team 's head coach was Dan McGugin , who served his third season in that capacity . Members of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) , the Commodores played seven home games in Nashville , Tennessee at Curry Field , and finished the season with a record of 8 – 1 overall and 5 – 0 in SIAA .
The 1906 Vanderbilt team had one of the best seasons in the school 's history , outscoring opponents 278 – 16 . Innis Brown rated the 1906 team as the best the South ever had . Vanderbilt won all of its home games , finishing the season on a 22 @-@ game home win streak . Their only loss came on the road to western power Michigan , 10 – 4 ; the game had been tied until the closing minutes .
Seven of the Commodores ' eight wins came by shutout – only two teams scored on them all season . Several teams failed to gain a single first down against the Commodores . The team most notably defeated northern power Carlisle by a single Bob Blake field goal 4 – 0 . Back Owsley Manier was selected third @-@ team All @-@ America by Walter Camp , the South 's first .
= = Before the season = =
Notable losses from the 1905 team included Bachelor of Ugliness Ed Hamilton , captain Innis Brown , and quarterback Frank Kyle .
= = = Rule changes = = =
At the end of 1905 football looked about to be abolished due to all of the reoccurring violence during games . Football was a sport that had degenerated into dangerous tactics such as : the flying wedge , punching , kicking , piling @-@ on , and elbows to the face . Almost any violent behavior was allowed . Fatalities and injuries mounted during the 1905 season .
As a result , the 1906 season was played under a new set of rules . The rules governing intercollegiate football were changed to promote a more open and less dangerous style of play . An intercollegiate conference , which would become the forerunner of the NCAA , approved radical changes including the legalization of the forward pass , allowing the punting team to recover an on @-@ side kick as a live ball , abolishing the dangerous flying wedge , creating a neutral zone between offense and defense , and doubling the first @-@ down distance to 10 yards , to be gained in three downs .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
= = = Week 1 : Kentucky State = = =
In a 28 – 0 win over Kentucky State College to open the season , Owsley Manier scored three touchdowns and the Commodores as a whole rushed for 630 yards . G. A. Hall had a 33 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown . The Commodores were penalized several times . Kentucky never had a first down and had to punt after second down .
The starting lineup against Kentucky State was : Stone ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; King ( left guard ) ; Wynne ( center ) ; Sherrill ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; Crawford ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 2 : Mississippi = = =
Vanderbilt easily beat Mississippi 29 – 0 . Like McGugin , Mississippi 's coach Thomas S. Hammond was a Michigan alumnus . One account reads : " whatever hopes the spectators had of seeing a close and exciting football game today when Vanderbilt faced Mississippi were shattered in the very first five minutes of play . " The stars of the contest were Dan Blake and Honus Craig . Mississippi failed to gain a single first down . Umpire Henry D. Phillips kicked Joe Pritchard out of the contest for roughing .
The starting lineup against Mississippi was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; E. Noel ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; Pritchard ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 3 : Alabama = = =
The only loss of the year for the Alabama Crimson Tide was its biggest ever loss to Vanderbilt , 78 – 0 . Seven of Alabama 's regular players were out with injuries . Vanderbilt executed several onside kicks from scrimmage . Owsley Manier scored five touchdowns as : " the back field frequently went twenty @-@ five or thirty yards over the line " . Alabama was held to just a single first down . Due to injuries , Alabama had not wished to play , and : " the comparatively few who came to see them play were scarcely rewarded by seeing touchdowns made every two minutes . "
The starting lineup against Alabama was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) , Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 4 : Texas = = =
Vanderbilt romped over the Texas Longhorns 45 – 0 . Sam Costen had a run of 61 yards , Dan Blake one of 52 , and Vaughn Blake 42 . Two other touchdowns were had by Vanderbilt but referee Bradley Walker called the team back for holding . The Texas men seemed equal to Vanderbilt 's in physique , yet they too failed to net a first down .
The starting lineup against Texas was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; Chorn ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; McLain ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; Craig ( left halfback ) ; D. Blake ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 5 : at Michigan = = =
On November 3 , Vanderbilt lost to the Michigan Wolverines by a 10 – 4 score . The game remained tied at 4 – 4 until the closing minutes . The Masonic Theater in Nashville was crowded with those who had come to see the game detailed .
Before the game , Michigan coach Fielding Yost said : " I have said right along that the Vanderbilt team would come nearer beating us than any team ever did ... In Craig , Blake , and Manier I think Vanderbilt has the three greatest backs of any one team in the country . " On the night just before the game , 4 @,@ 200 students attended a mass meeting at University Hall . McGugin and Yost both spoke to the crowd and agreed that the game would be one of the closest played in Ann Arbor in many years . D. G. Fite , father @-@ in @-@ law of both McGugin and Yost , traveled from his home in Tennessee to watch the game .
John Garrels put Michigan ahead with a field goal from the 25 @-@ yard line . On the preceding drive , Garrels had completed a 15 @-@ yard forward pass to Bishop , the first legal forward pass completed by Michigan under the new rules . Michigan led , 4 – 0 , at halftime . Early in the second half , Vanderbilt tied the score with a field goal by Dan Blake from the 30 @-@ yard line . With two minutes left in the game , Garrels ran 68 yards for a touchdown . The Chicago Daily Tribune wrote : " Garrels , on a fake kick , with splendid interference by Hammond , Curtis , and Workman , ran Vanderbilt 's left end at lightning speed for sixty @-@ eight yards and a touchdown . " Curtis kicked the extra point , and Michigan led , 10 – 4 .
Vanderbilt 's lineup against Michigan was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; Chorn ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; McLain ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; Craig ( left halfback ) ; D. Blake ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 6 : Rose Polytechnic = = =
The 33 to 0 win over Rose Polytechnic proved the surprise of the season . Owsley Manier again scored five touchdowns , but he also : " probably prevented the visitors from scoring by his clever defensive work . " Bob Blake kicked four extra points and a 20 @-@ yard field goal from placement .
The starting lineup against Rose Tech was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 7 : at Georgia Tech = = =
Vanderbilt defeated coach John Heisman , who had helped legalize the forward pass , and his Georgia Tech team in the rain and mud of Atlanta 37 – 6 . Lobster Brown scored Tech 's points . Atlanta Constitution sportswriter Alex Lynn wrote after the game that Owsley Manier was : " the greatest fullback and all round man ever seen in Atlanta . " He again scored five touchdowns .
The starting lineup against Georgia Tech was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 8 : Carlisle = = =
On Thanksgiving , the Commodores reached the season 's high point and beat the Carlisle Indians 4 – 0 . Just a week before the contest , Vanderbilt negotiated a game with Carlisle to fill an open date . The Nashville Banner predicted it would be : " the greatest game the south ever saw . " The game started forty @-@ five minutes late to accommodate the large crowd .
Vanderbilt won by a single , 17 @-@ yard Bob Blake field goal 4 – 0 . In the first two minutes of play , the Indians drove the ball to Vanderbilt 's 3 @-@ yard line , but the Commodores line held and they got no further . Frank Mount Pleasant , one of the first regular spiral pass quarterbacks , attempted four field goals , but missed them all .
Atlanta Constitution sporting editor A. W. Lynn wrote : " The general surprises are numerous enough , but the largest particular one was the Commodore – Indian contest , when Vanderbilt took off the greatest honors ever falling to the lot of a southern football team in the hardest battle ever fought on a southern gridiron . John Heisman wrote : " Manier bucked the Indians ' line . Costen handled the ball surely and well downed Mt . Pleasant in his tracks on most of Blake 's punts ... I am still convinced that outside Yale and Princeton , the Commodores would have an even break with any other team in the country . " Vanderbilt running back Honus Craig called this his hardest game , giving special praise to Albert Exendine as : " the fastest end I ever saw . "
One source claims the Carlisle Indians failed to receive supplies on the trip to Nashville , including their receiving carboys emptied of water . " The Indians had the poorest kind of accommodations at Nashville , and on account of the change of water every one of them became ill . "
The starting lineup for Vanderbilt was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 9 : Sewanee = = =
Despite Vanderbilt 's strong record , the Sewanee Tigers were undefeated and felt cause for optimism in the effective Southern championship . One account recalls : " A high authority on foot @-@ ball said the other day : Vanderbilt is not invincible , by a good deal . The Sewanee " Tigers " are going to Nashville on Thursday to prove that fact . " Vanderbilt struggled , but still won 20 – 0 . " With Vandy making only 20 points – Vandy was stale , was the explanation . " After the big win over Carlisle , " a matter @-@ of @-@ course feeling pervaded the entire game . " The first score of the game came on a 25 @-@ yard field goal . The first touchdown came from Owsley Manier . In the second half , Bob Blake made a 22 @-@ yard field goal , and Manier got another touchdown .
The starting lineup against Sewanee was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarter ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = Post @-@ season = =
Vanderbilt won an SIAA championship . Coach McGugin called the Carlisle victory " the crowning feat of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association season . "
Dan Blake , Owsley Manier , and Joe Pritchard all graduated . Manier went on to receive an M. D. from the University of Pennsylvania , and played one season on the football team . " But his effectiveness at Pennsylvania was lessened by the attempt of the coaches to change his style of bucking a line from the low , plunging dive to running into it erect , knees drawn high and great dependence upon his companion backs to " hike " him . " At Penn he was shifted to halfback , and mostly used for swift plunges into the line . Penn defeated Michigan , exacting revenge for the multiple losses suffered by Manier to Michigan at Vanderbilt .
Dan Blake went on to coach at Hopkinsville High School in Hopkinsville , Kentucky . While there he was manager of the electric light and gas plants of the Kentucky Public Service Company . Pritchard coached at LSU for part of one season and was later a Presbyterian dental missionary at Luebo in the Congo until he was forced to return to the United States due to poor health sometime before 1915 .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
For some , Vanderbilt 's eleven was the entire All @-@ Southern team . Fullback Owsley Manier was selected third @-@ team All @-@ America by Walter Camp . This makes Manier the first Southern player to make any of Camp 's teams .
= = = Legacy = = =
In 1911 , Innis Brown rated the 1906 team as the best the South ever had . Sportswriter Joe Williams recalled " I suppose the first great Southern team was Vanderbilt of 1906 . "
= = Personnel = =
= = = Depth chart = = =
The following chart provides a visual depiction of Vanderbilt 's lineup during the 1906 season with games started at the position reflected in parenthesis . The chart mimics a short punt formation while on offense , with the quarterback under center .
= = = Varsity letter winners = = =
= = = = Line = = = =
= = = = Backfield = = = =
= = = Subs = = =
= = = Scoring leaders = = =
In 1906 , touchdowns were worth 5 points and field goals 4 .
= Matthew Hale ( jurist ) =
Sir Matthew Hale SL ( 1 November 1609 — 25 December 1676 ) was an influential English barrister , judge and lawyer most noted for his treatise Historia Placitorum Coronæ , or The History of the Pleas of the Crown . Born to a barrister and his wife , who had both died by the time he was 5 , Hale was raised by his father 's relative , a strict Puritan , and inherited his faith . In 1626 he matriculated at Magdalen Hall , Oxford ( now Hertford College ) , intending to become a priest , but after a series of distractions was persuaded to become a barrister like his father thanks to an encounter with a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law in a dispute over his estate . On 8 November 1628 he joined Lincoln 's Inn , where he was called to the Bar on 17 May 1636 . As a barrister , Hale represented a variety of Royalist figures during the prelude and duration of the English Civil War , including Thomas Wentworth and William Laud ; it has been hypothesised that Hale was to represent Charles I at his state trial , and conceived the defence Charles used . Despite the Royalist loss , Hale 's reputation for integrity and his political neutrality saved him from any repercussions , and under the Commonwealth of England he was made Chairman of the Hale Commission , which investigated law reform . Following the Commission 's dissolution , Oliver Cromwell made him a Justice of the Common Pleas .
As a judge , Hale was noted for his resistance to bribery and his willingness to make politically unpopular decisions which upheld the law . He sat in Parliament , either in the Commons or the Upper House , in every Parliament from the First Protectorate Parliament to the Convention Parliament , and following the Declaration of Breda was the Member of Parliament who moved to consider Charles II 's reinstatement as monarch , sparking the English Restoration . Under Charles , Hale was made first Chief Baron of the Exchequer and then Chief Justice of the King 's Bench . In both positions , he was again noted for his integrity , although not as a particularly innovative judge . Following a bout of illness he retired on 20 February 1676 , dying ten months later on 25 December 1676 .
Hale is almost universally appreciated as an excellent judge and jurist , with his central legacy coming through his written work , published after his death . His Historia Placitorum Coronæ , dealing with capital offences against the Crown , is considered " of the highest authority " , while his Analysis of the Common Law is noted as the first published history of English law and a strong influence on William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England . Hale 's jurisprudence struck a middle @-@ ground between Edward Coke 's " appeal to reason " and John Selden 's " appeal to contract " , while refuting elements of Thomas Hobbes 's theory of natural law . His thoughts on marital rape , expressed in the Historia , continued in English law until 1991 , and he was cited in court as recently as 1993 .
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Climate = =
Average precipitation , limited by the rain shadow effects of the Cascade Range and the Ochoco Mountains , varies from 9 to 16 inches ( 230 to 410 mm ) a year . In winter , much of the precipitation arrives as snow .
Weather data for the city of Mitchell , near the Painted Hills Unit , show that July and August are the warmest months , with an average high of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and an average low of 52 ° F ( 11 ° C ) . January is the coldest month , when highs average 42 ° F ( 6 ° C ) and lows average 24 ° F ( − 4 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature in Mitchell was 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) in 1972 , and the lowest was − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) in 1983 . May is generally the wettest month , when precipitation averages 1 @.@ 65 inches ( 42 mm ) .
= = Biology = =
= = = Flora = = =
More than 80 soil types support a wide variety of flora within the monument . These soils stem from past and present geologic activity as well as ongoing additions of organic matter from life forms on or near the surface . Adapted to particular soil types and surface conditions , these plant communities range from riparian vegetation near the river to greasewood and saltgrass on the alluvial fans to plants such as hedgehog cactus in rocky outcrops at high elevation . Important to many of these communities is a black cryptobiotic crust that resists erosion , stores water , and fixes nitrogen used by the plants . The crust is composed of algae , lichens , mosses , fungi , and bacteria . Other areas of the monument have little or no flora . Volcanic tuffs and claystones that lack essential nutrients support few microorganisms and plants . Likewise , hard rock surfaces and steep slopes from which soils wash or blow away tend to remain bare .
Native grasses thrive in many parts of the monument despite competition from western junipers , medusahead rye , Dalmatian toadflax , cheatgrass , and other invasive species . Bunchgrasses in the park include basin wildrye , Idaho fescue , Thurber 's needlegrass , Indian ricegrass , and bottlebrush squirreltail , among others . Native grasses that form sod in parts of the monument include Sandberg 's bluegrass and other bluegrass species . Reed canary grass , if mowed , also forms sod along stream banks .
Limited by their need for water , trees such as willows , alders , and ponderosa pines are found only near the monument 's streams or springs . Serviceberry bushes and shrubs like mountain mahogany are found in places where moisture collects near rock slides and ledges . Elsewhere long @-@ rooted rabbitbrush has adapted to survive in dry areas . Other shrubs with adaptive properties include greasewood , sagebrush , shadscale , broom snakeweed , antelope bitterbrush , and purple sage . Western junipers , which have extensive root systems , thrive in the dry climate ; in the absence of periodic fires they tend to displace grasses and sagebrush and to create relatively barren landscapes . The Park Service is considering controlled burning to limit the junipers and to create open areas for bunchgrasses that re @-@ sprout from their roots after a fire .
Wildflowers , which bloom mainly in the spring and early summer , include pincushions , golden bee plant , dwarf purple monkey flower , and sagebrush mariposa lily at the Painted Hills Unit . Munro 's globemallow , lupines , yellow fritillary , hedgehog cactus , and Applegate 's Indian paintbrush are commonly seen at the Clarno and Sheep Rock units .
= = = Fauna = = =
Birds are the animals most often seen in the monument . Included among the more than 50 species observed are red @-@ tailed hawks , American kestrels , great horned owls , common nighthawks , and great blue herons . Geese nest in the park each summer , and flocks of sandhill cranes and swans pass overhead each year on their migratory flights . California quail , chukar partridges , and mourning doves are also common . Others seen near the Cant Ranch and the visitor 's center include rufous hummingbirds , Say 's phoebe , yellow warblers , western meadowlarks , and American goldfinches . Visitors on trails may encounter canyon wrens , mountain bluebirds , mountain chickadees , black @-@ billed magpies , and other birds .
Large animals that frequent the park include elk , deer , cougar , and pronghorn . Beaver , otter , mink , and raccoons are found in or near the river . Coyotes , bats , and badgers are among the park 's other mammals . Predators hunt smaller animals such as the rabbits , voles , mice , and shrews found in the park 's grasslands and sagebrush @-@ covered hills . Bushy @-@ tailed woodrats inhabit caves and crevices in the monument 's rock formations . Bighorn sheep , wiped out in this region in the early 20th century , were reintroduced in the Foree Area of the Sheep Rock Unit in 2010 . Many habitats in the monument support populations of snakes and lizards . Southern alligator and western fence lizards are common ; others that live here include short @-@ horned and common side @-@ blotched lizards and western skinks . Garter and gopher snakes and western yellow @-@ bellied racers frequent floodplains and canyon bottoms . Rattlesnakes , though venomous , are shy and usually flee before being seen . The springs and seeps in the park contain isolated populations of western toads , American spadefoot toads , Pacific tree frogs , and long @-@ toed salamanders .
A 2003 – 04 survey of the monument found 55 species of butterflies such as the common sootywing , orange sulphur , great spangled fritillary , and monarch . The monument 's other insects have not been completely inventoried .
The John Day River , which passes through the Sheep Rock Unit , is the longest undammed tributary of the Columbia River , although two Columbia River dams below the John Day River mouth impede migratory fish travel to some degree . Chinook salmon and steelhead pass through the monument on their way to and from upstream spawning beds and the Pacific Ocean . Species observed at the Sheep Rock Unit also include those able to tolerate warm summer river temperatures : bridgelip suckers , northern pikeminnow , redside shiners , and smallmouth bass . From October through June , when the water is cooler , Columbia River redband trout and sculpin are among species that move downriver through the park . The Park Service has removed or replaced irrigation diversions along the river or Rock Creek that formerly impeded fish movement , and it is restoring riparian vegetation such as black cottonwood trees that shade the water in summer and provide habitat for aquatic insects .
= = Activities = =
Entrance to the park and its visitor center , museums , and exhibits is free , and trails , overlooks , and picnic sites at all three units are open during daylight hours year @-@ round . No food , lodging , or fuel is available in the park , and camping is not allowed . Hours of operation for the Cant Ranch and its cultural museum vary seasonally . The Thomas Condon Paleontology Center is open every day from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m except for federal holidays during the winter season from Veterans Day in November through Presidents ' Day in February . Its amenities include a fossil museum , theater , education classroom , bookstore , restrooms , and drinking fountains . There is no cell phone or pay telephone service in the monument . Water taps at picnic areas are shut down in the colder months .
The Sheep Rock Unit has eight trails ranging in length from 300 feet ( 91 m ) at the Mascall Formation Overlook to 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) at Blue Basin . Four trails of a quarter @-@ mile to 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long cross parts of the Painted Hills Unit . At the Clarno Unit , three separate quarter @-@ mile trails begin at a parking lot along Oregon Route 218 , below the face of the Clarno Palisades . Many of the trails have interpretive signs about the history , geology , and fossils of the region , and three trails — Story in Stone at the Sheep Rock Unit , and Painted Cove and Leaf Hill at the Painted Hills Unit — are accessible by wheelchair . Visitors are asked to stay on the trails and off bare rock and hardpan to avoid damage to fossils and fragile soils .
Ranger @-@ led events at the monument have historically included indoor and outdoor talks , showings of an 18 @-@ minute orientation film , hikes in Blue Basin , Cant Ranch walking tours , and astronomy programs at the Painted Hills Unit . These events are free and most do not require reservations . Specific times for the activities are available from rangers at the monument . For students and teachers , the Park Service offers programs at the monument as well as fossil kits and other materials for classroom use .
Pets are allowed in developed areas and along hiking trails but must be leashed or otherwise restrained . Horses are not allowed on hiking trails , in picnic areas , or on bare rock exposures in undeveloped areas of the monument . Digging , disturbing , or collecting any of the park 's natural resources , including fossils , is prohibited . Fossil theft is an ongoing problem . No mountain biking is allowed on monument land , although the Malheur National Forest east of Dayville has biking trails . Fishing is legal from monument lands along the John Day River for anyone with an Oregon fishing license . Rafting on the John Day River is seasonally popular , although the favored runs begin at or downstream of Service Creek and do not pass through the monument . Risks to monument visitors include extremely hot summer temperatures and icy winter roads , two species of venomous rattlesnakes , two species of poisonous spiders , ticks , scorpions , puncturevine , and poison ivy .
= Demon core =
The demon core was a 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) , 89 @-@ millimetre @-@ diameter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) subcritical mass of plutonium that was involved in two criticality accidents . It briefly went supercritical in two separate accidents at the Los Alamos laboratory in 1945 and 1946 , and resulted in the acute radiation poisoning and subsequent deaths of scientists Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin . After these incidents the spherical plutonium core was referred to as the " demon core " .
= = Manufacturing and early history = =
The demon core ( like the second core used in the bombing of Nagasaki ) was a solid 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 89 mm ) sphere . It consisted of three parts : two plutonium @-@ gallium hemispheres and a ring , designed to keep neutron flux from " jetting " out of the joined surface between the hemispheres during implosion . The core of the device used in the Trinity nuclear test at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in July did not have such a ring .
The refined plutonium was shipped from the Hanford Site in Washington state to the Los Alamos Laboratory ; an inventory document dated August 30 shows Los Alamos had expended " HS @-@ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ; R @-@ 1 " ( the components of the Trinity and Nagasaki bombs ) and had in its possession " HS @-@ 5 , 6 ; R @-@ 2 " , finished and in the hands of quality control . Material for " HS @-@ 7 , R @-@ 3 " was in the Los Alamos metallurgy section , and would also be ready by September 5 ( it is not certain whether this date allowed for the unmentioned " HS @-@ 8 " ' s fabrication to complete the fourth core ) . The metallurgists used a plutonium @-@ gallium alloy , which stabilized the δ phase allotrope of plutonium so it could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape . As plutonium was found to corrode readily , the sphere was then coated with nickel .
On August 10 , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , wrote to General of the Army George C. Marshall , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , to inform him that :
The next bomb of the implosion type had been scheduled to be ready for delivery on the target on the first good weather after August 24th , 1945 . We have gained 4 days in manufacture and expect to ship the final components from New Mexico on August 12th or 13th . Providing there are no unforeseen difficulties in manufacture , in transportation to the theatre or after arrival in the theatre , the bomb should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after August 17th or 18th .
Marshall added an annotation , " It is not to be released on Japan without express authority from the President " , as President Harry S. Truman was waiting to see the effects of the first two attacks . On August 13 , the third bomb was scheduled . It was anticipated that it would be ready by August 16 to be dropped on August 19 . This was pre @-@ empted by Japan 's surrender on August 15 , 1945 , while preparations were still being made for it to be couriered to Kirtland Field . The third core remained at Los Alamos .
= = First incident = =
The core , assembled , was designed to be at " -5 cents " , or 5 percent below critical mass . In this state it takes but a small amount of additional criticality @-@ enhancing factors to cause the core to become supercritical , and then prompt critical , " a transient @-@ state of extremely rapid power increase " . Fortunately these factors are not common in the environment ; they are circumstances like the compression of the solid metallic core – which would eventually be the method used to explode the bomb , the addition of more nuclear material or provision of an external reflector which would reflect outbound neutrons back into the core . The experiments conducted at Los Alamos leading to the two fatal accidents were designed to guarantee that the core was indeed close to the critical point by arranging such reflectors and seeing how much ( or little ) neutron reflection was required to approach supercriticality .
On August 21 , 1945 , the plutonium core produced a burst of neutron radiation that led to Harry Daghlian 's death . Daghlian , a physicist , made a mistake while performing neutron reflector experiments on the core . He was working alone ; a security guard , Private Robert J. Hemmerly , was seated at a desk 10 to 12 feet ( 3 to 4 m ) away . The core was placed within a stack of neutron @-@ reflective tungsten carbide bricks and the addition of each brick moved the assembly closer to criticality . While attempting to stack another brick around the assembly , Daghlian accidentally dropped it onto the core and thereby caused the core to go well into supercriticality , a self @-@ sustaining critical chain reaction . Despite quick action in moving the brick off the assembly , Daghlian received a fatal dose of radiation . He died 25 days later from acute radiation poisoning .
= = Second incident = =
On May 21 , 1946 , physicist Louis Slotin and seven other Los Alamos personnel were in a Los Alamos laboratory conducting another experiment to verify the exact point at which a subcritical mass ( core ) of fissile material could be made critical by the positioning of neutron reflectors . Slotin , who was leaving Los Alamos , was showing the technique to Alvin C. Graves , who would use it in a final test before the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests scheduled a month later at Bikini Atoll . It required the operator to place two half @-@ spheres of beryllium ( a neutron reflector ) around the core to be tested and manually lower the top reflector over the core via a thumb hole on the top . As the reflectors were manually moved closer and farther away from each other , scintillation counters measured the relative activity from the core . Allowing them to close completely could result in the instantaneous formation of a critical mass and a lethal power excursion . Under Slotin 's unapproved protocol , the only thing preventing this was the blade of a standard straight screwdriver , manipulated by the scientist 's other hand . Slotin , who was given to bravado , became the local expert , performing the test on almost a dozen occasions , often in his trademark blue jeans and cowboy boots , in front of a roomful of observers . Enrico Fermi reportedly told Slotin and others they would be " dead within a year " if they continued performing it .
On the day of the accident , Slotin 's screwdriver slipped outward a fraction of an inch while he was lowering the top reflector , allowing the reflector to fall into place around the core . Instantly there was a flash of blue light and a wave of heat across Slotin 's skin ; the core had become supercritical , releasing an intense burst of neutron radiation estimated to have lasted about a half second . Slotin quickly twisted his wrist , flipping the top shell to the floor . The heating of the core and shells stopped the criticality within seconds of its initiation , while Slotin 's reaction prevented a recurrence and ended the accident . The position of Slotin 's body over the apparatus also shielded the others from much of the neutron radiation , but he received a lethal dose of 1 @,@ 000 rad ( 10 Gy ) neutron / 114 rad ( 1 @.@ 14 Gy ) gamma in under a second and died nine days later from acute radiation poisoning . The nearest person to Slotin , Graves , who was watching over Slotin 's shoulder and was thus partially shielded by him , received a high but non @-@ lethal radiation dose . Graves was hospitalized for several weeks with severe radiation poisoning and developed chronic neurological and vision problems as a result of the exposure . He died 20 years later of a heart attack . This heart attack may have been caused by hidden complications from radiation exposure , but its cause could also have been genetic , as his father had died from the same cause .
There have been five studies done of the amount of radiation each person involved received in the accident ; these are the latest , dated 1978 , from a table in this reference :
Two machinists in another part of the building were not treated : Paul Long and another , unidentified .
After these incidents the core , originally known as " Rufus " , was referred to as the " demon core " . Hands @-@ on criticality experiments were stopped , and remote @-@ control machines were designed by Schreiber , one of the survivors , to perform such experiments with all personnel at a quarter @-@ mile distance .
= = Operation Crossroads = =
The core was intended to be used in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests , but after the criticality accident , time was needed for its radioactivity to decline . It was therefore scheduled for the third test of the series , provisionally named Charlie , but this was cancelled due to the unexpected level of radioactivity after the underwater Baker test and the inability to decontaminate the target warships . It was later melted down and the material reused in another core .
= William Blackstone =
Sir William Blackstone SL KC ( 10 July 1723 – 14 February 1780 ) was an English jurist , judge and Tory politician of the eighteenth century . He is most noted for writing the Commentaries on the Laws of England . Born into a middle @-@ class family in London , Blackstone was educated at Charterhouse School before matriculating at Pembroke College , Oxford in 1738 . After switching to and completing a Bachelor of Civil Law degree , he was made a Fellow of All Souls , Oxford on 2 November 1743 , admitted to Middle Temple , and called to the Bar there in 1746 . Following a slow start to his career as a barrister , Blackstone became heavily involved in university administration , becoming accountant , treasurer and bursar on 28 November 1746 and Senior Bursar in 1750 . Blackstone is considered responsible for completing the Codrington Library and Warton Building , and simplifying the complex accounting system used by the college . On 3 July 1753 he formally gave up his practice as a barrister and instead embarked on a series of lectures on English law , the first of their kind . These were massively successful , earning him a total of £ 453 ( £ 63 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , and led to the publication of An Analysis of the Laws of England in 1756 , which repeatedly sold out and was used to preface his later works .
On 20 October 1758 Blackstone was confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law , immediately embarking on another series of lectures and publishing a similarly successful second treatise , titled A Discourse on the Study of the Law . With his growing fame , Blackstone successfully returned to the bar and maintained a good practice , also securing election as Tory Member of Parliament for the rotten borough of Hindon on 30 March 1761 . In February 1766 he published the first volume of Commentaries on the Laws of England , considered his magnum opus — the completed work earned Blackstone £ 14 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 756 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) . After repeated failures , he successfully gained appointment to the judiciary as a Justice of the Court of King 's Bench on 16 February 1770 , leaving to replace Edward Clive as a Justice of the Common Pleas on 25 June . He remained in this position until his death , on 14 February 1780 .
Blackstone 's legacy and main work of note is his Commentaries . Designed to provide a complete overview of English law , the four @-@ volume treatise was repeatedly republished in 1770 , 1773 , 1774 , 1775 , 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783 . Reprints of the first edition , intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest , were published until the 1870s in England and Wales , and a working version by Henry John Stephen , first published in 1841 , was reprinted until after the Second World War . Legal education in England had stalled ; Blackstone 's work gave the law " at least a veneer of scholarly respectability " . William Searle Holdsworth , one of Blackstone 's successors as Vinerian Professor , argued that " If the Commentaries had not been written when they were written , I think it very doubtful that [ the United States ] , and other English speaking countries would have so universally adopted the common law . " In the United States , the Commentaries influenced Alexander Hamilton , John Marshall , James Wilson , John Jay , John Adams , James Kent and Abraham Lincoln , and remain frequently cited in Supreme Court decisions .
= = Early life and education = =
William 's father , Charles Blackstone , was a silk mercer from Cheapside , the son of a wealthy apothecary . He became firm friends with Thomas Bigg , a surgeon and the son of Lovelace Bigg , a gentleman from Wiltshire . After Bigg 's sister Mary came to London , Charles eventually persuaded her to marry him in 1718 . This was not seen as a good match for her , but the couple lived happily and had four sons , three of whom lived into adulthood . Charles ( born August 1719 ) and Henry ( May 1722 ) , both became fellows of New College , Oxford and took holy orders . Their last son , William , was born on 10 July 1723 , five months after Charles ' death in February .
Although Charles and Mary Blackstone were members of the middle class rather than landed gentry , they were particularly prosperous . Tax records show Charles Blackstone to have been the second most prosperous man in the parish in 1722 , and death registers show that the family had several servants . This , along with Thomas Bigg 's assistance to the family following Charles ' death , helps explain the educational upbringing of the children . William Blackstone was sent to Charterhouse School in 1730 , nominated by Charles Wither , a relative of Mary Blackstone . William did well there , and became head of the school by age 15 . However , after Charles ' death the family fortunes declined , and after Mary died ( 5 January 1736 ) the family 's resources largely went to meet unpaid bills . William was able to remain at Charterhouse as a " poor scholar " , having been named to that position in June 1735 after being nominated by Sir Robert Walpole .
Blackstone revelled in Charterhouse 's academic curriculum , particularly the Latin poetry of Ovid and Virgil . He began to attract note as a poet at school , writing a 30 @-@ line set of rhyming couplets to celebrate the wedding of James Hotchkis , the headmaster . He also won a silver medal for his Latin verses on John Milton , gave the annual Latin oration in 1738 , and was noted as having been the favourite student of his masters . On 1 October 1738 , taking advantage of a new scholarship available to Charterhouse students , Blackstone matriculated at Pembroke College , Oxford .
= = Oxford = =
= = = Study = = =
There are few surviving records of Blackstone 's undergraduate term at Oxford , but the curriculum of Pembroke College had been set out in 1624 , and Prest notes that it was probably still followed in 1738 , so Blackstone would have studied Greek , science , logic , rhetoric , philosophy , mathematics , geography and poetry . Blackstone was particularly good at Greek , mathematics and poetry , with his notes on William Shakespeare being included in George Steevens ' 1781 edition of Shakespeare 's plays . Many of Blackstone 's undergraduate texts survive , and they include few legal texts , instead being wide @-@ ranging ; politics , current affairs , poetry , geometry and controversial theological texts . The last element is understandable , given his family 's theological interests , but the more surprising element is the sheer number of texts he owned given his relative poverty as a student .
On 9 July 1740 , after only a year and a half as a Bachelor of Arts student , Blackstone was admitted to study for a Bachelor of Civil Law degree , civil law being the only legal area recognised by his university . This degree course was seven years long , the first two " supposedly devoted to a broad course of reading in humane studies " , which allowed him to study his own interests . On 20 November 1741 he was admitted to the Middle Temple , the first step on the road to becoming a barrister , but this imposed no obligations and simply allowed a legal career to be an option . At the time there was no proper legal education system , and Blackstone read ( in his own time ) Coke on Littleton , the works of Henry Finch , and related legal tracts .
In addition to his formal studies , Blackstone published a collection of poetry which included the draft version of The Lawyer to his Muse , his most famous literary work . In 1743 he published Elements of Architecture and An Abridgement of Architecture , two treatises on the rules governing the art of construction . His next work ( 1747 ) was The Pantheon : A Vision , an anonymously published book of poetry covering the various religions in the world . It depicts a narrator 's walking dream through the buildings of various religions , which are all ( other than Christianity ) depicted in a negative light . This followed his election as a Fellow of All Souls , Oxford on 2 November 1743 , and his call to the Bar by the Middle Temple on 28 November 1746 .
His call to the Bar saw Blackstone begin to alternate between Oxford and London , occupying chambers in Pump Court but living at All Souls College . As the central courts only sat for three months of the year , the rest of his time was spent on Assize when his work at All Souls permitted . He regularly acted as a law reporter ; his personal notes on cases start with Hankey v Trotman ( 1746 ) . Blackstone 's barrister practice began slowly ; his first case in the Court of King 's Bench was in 1748 , and he had only 6 additional motions there through 1751 . Two appearances in the Court of Chancery are also noted , and he is known to have been consulted in Roger Newdigate 's long @-@ running lawsuit there , but his early court appearances are infrequent . This is considered to have been due to bad luck , with his call to the Bar occurring at the same time as the massive contraction in business by the central courts , along with his singular lack of connections due to his status as an orphan from the middle class ; he was described as " unrecognised and unemployed " . He filled his time by acting as counsel for Oxford , and from May 1749 with his election as Recorder of Wallingford .
= = = University administration = = =
While dividing his time , Blackstone became an administrator at All Souls , securing appointment as accountant , treasurer and bursar on 28 November 1746 . Completion of the Codrington Library and Warton Building , first started in 1710 and 1720 respectively but not built until 1748 , is attributed to his work . In 1749 he became Steward of the Manors , and in 1750 was made Senior Bursar . Records show a " perfectionist zeal " in organising the estates and finances of All Souls , and Blackstone was noted for massively simplifying the complex accounting system used by the college . In 1750 Blackstone completed his first legal tract , An Essay on Collateral Consanguinity , which dealt with those claiming a familial tie to the founder or All Souls in an attempt to gain preeminence in elections . Completion of his Doctor of Civil Law degree , which he was awarded in April 1750 , admitted him to Convocation , the governing body of Oxford , which elected the two burgesses who represented it in the House of Commons , along with most of the university officers . With this and with his continuing work at the university , Blackstone announced on 3 July 1753 his intentions to " no longer attend the Courts at Westminster , but to pursue my Profession in a Way more agreeable to me in all respects , by residing at Oxford [ and ] to engraft upon this Resolution a Scheme which I am told may be beneficial to the University as well as myself " , which was to give a set of lectures on the common law – the first lectures of that sort in the world .
This was not entirely out of benevolence ; according to Prest , Blackstone was likely aware that an Oxford alumnus , Charles Viner , was planning to endow a professorship of English law . The Regius Professorship of Civil Law had also become vacant in 1753 ; despite support from Lord Mansfield , Blackstone had been rejected in favour of Robert Jenner , widely considered Blackstone 's lesser intellectually but a far greater political mind . In addition , a private lecture series would be extremely lucrative . While his All Souls fellowship gave him £ 70 a year , records show that the lecture series brought him £ 116 , £ 226 and £ 111 a year respectively from 1753 to 1755 – a total of £ 453 ( £ 63 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) . A prospectus was issued on 23 June 1753 , and with a class of approximately 20 students , the first set of lectures were completed by July 1754 . Despite Blackstone 's limited oratory skills and a speaking style described by Jeremy Bentham as " formal , precise and affected " , Blackstone 's lectures were warmly appreciated . The second and third series were far more popular , partly due to the then unusual use of printed handouts and lists of suggested reading . No copies of these handouts exist , but Alexander Popham , later a close friend of Blackstone , attended the lectures and made notes , which survive . These show Blackstone 's attempts to reduce English law to a logical system , with the division of subjects later being the basis for his Commentaries .
Following his lecture series , Blackstone became more prominent in convocation and other university activities . Oxford and Cambridge at the time had a strange system of law ; due to their unique natures , they had exclusive jurisdiction over both academics and students in a fashion which followed either the common law or their own customs , based on the civil law . With his appointment as assessor ( or chief legal officer ) of the Chancellor 's Court , Blackstone became far more involved in the university 's peculiar legal system , and records show him sitting between eight and ten times a year from 1753 to 1759 , mainly dealing with small claims of debt . He also wrote a manual on the Court 's practice , and through his position gained a large number of contacts and connections , as well as visibility , which aided his legal career significantly . This period also saw Blackstone write his last known piece of poetry , Friendship : An Ode , in 1756 .
In 1756 Blackstone published the first of his full legal texts , the 200 page An Analysis of the Laws of England . Published by the Clarendon Press , the treatise was intended to demonstrate the " Order , and principal Divisions " of his lecture series , and a structured introduction to English law . Prest calls this " a marked advance on any previous introduction to English law . . including constitutional , civil and criminal law , public and private law , substantive law and procedure , as well as some introductory jurisprudential content " . The initial print run of 1 @,@ 000 copies almost immediately sold out , leading to the printing of three more 1 @,@ 000 @-@ book lots over the next three years , which all sold out . A fifth edition was published in 1762 , and a sixth , edited to take into account Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England , in 1771 . Because of the success of the Commentaries , Prest remarks that " relatively little scholarly attention has been paid to this work " ; at the time , however , it was hailed as " an elegant performance . . calculated to facilitate this branch of knowledge " .
= = = Vinerian Professor of English Law = = =
On 8 March 1758 , the group executing Charles Viner 's will reported to Convocation that Viner recommended creating a Chair of English Law , with a £ 200 salary . After much debate , this position was created , and on 20 October 1758 Blackstone was confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law . On 24 October he gave his first lecture , to " a crowded audience " ; the text was soon printed and published as A Discourse on the Study of the Law . The lecture was tremendously popular , being described as a " sensible , spirited and manly exhortation to the study of the law " ; the initial print run sold out , necessitating the publication of another 1 @,@ 000 copies , and it was used to preface later versions of the Analysis and the first volume of the Commentaries . Within the university , however , Blackstone was not as popular . As soon as the lecture series opened , an anonymously written open letter was published charging that Blackstone had " violated the Statutes of the University , by arbitrarily changing the Day appointed for reading his solemn Lectures " . Blackstone suffered a nervous breakdown soon after the first lecture , and on 24 November he launched a suit in the Chancellor 's Court against " William Jackson of the City of Oxford Printer " for £ 500 damages , justified by Jackson " printing and publishing a scandalous Libell notoriously reflecting on the Character of him the said William Blackstone " . Jackson had refused to reveal who ordered the anonymous pamphlet , leading to the suit , but it evidently did not proceed further .
This suit , along with the struggle over the Vinerian Professorship and other controversies , damaged his reputation within the university , as evidenced by his failure to win election as Vice Warden in April 1759 , losing to John White . Prest attributes Blackstone 's unpopularity to specific personality traits , saying his " determination ... in pursuit of causes to which he committed himself could irritate as well as intimidate those of a more relaxed disposition . While quick to take offence at perceived slights on his own character and motives , he could also show surprising indifference to the effect his words and actions might have on others " . This marked the beginning of his break with Oxford , which coincided with his growing influence outside the university . In 1759 Lord Bute , Prince George 's official tutor , requested copies of Blackstone 's lectures , which he forwarded . Later that year Blackstone was paid £ 200 by the Prince , who became an " appreciative , loyal , and soon to be incomparably influential patron " . This patronage , and Blackstone 's purchase of a set of chambers in the Inner Temple , also transferring to that Inn , were significant steps in his departure from Oxford . In 1759 Blackstone published another two works , The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest , with other authentic Instruments , described as a " major piece of pioneering scholarship " leading to Blackstone 's election to the Society of Antiquaries in February 1761 , and A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple , which was later used , almost verbatim , as chapters 14 and 15 of the Commentaries .
= = London = =
= = = Work at the Bar = = =
With sponsorship from the Prince of Wales and his success with the Analysis , Blackstone began work as a barrister , although he kept up his lecture series at Oxford . By 1760 he had become " a very eminent figure indeed in the world of letters " , and his legal practice grew as a result . Although not considered a great barrister of the period , he maintained a steady flow of cases , primarily in the King 's Bench and Exchequer of Pleas . On the death of the third Earl of Abingdon , Blackstone was retained as counsel for the executors and trustees to oversee the family 's attempts to pay off debts and meet other obligations . On 5 May 1761 he married Sarah Clitherow , a member of a family of lesser gentry from Middlesex . Their first child , William Bertie Blackstone , born 21 August 1762 , did not survive to adulthood . Seven more children were born ; Henry , James , Sarah , Mary , Philippa , William , Charles , and George , who also died in childhood . The Blackstones had a large estate in Wallingford , including 120 acres ( 46 ha ) of pastureland around the River Thames and the right of advowson over St Peter 's Church .
In February 1761 Blackstone was considered as a potential Tory candidate for the rotten borough of Hindon . After consultation with friends , he agreed to this prospect – at the same time refusing the offer of appointment as Lord Chief Justice of Ireland . On 30 March 1761 he was returned for Hindon , and took his seat . This did not limit his legal work , initially , with the seat being given without a requirement to attend or vote in a particular way , and the grant of a patent of precedence at the same time actually increased the demand on his time . Court records show him pleading before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench soon after his election , and acting as counsel in Tonson v Collins , a copyright case , Thiquet v Bath , an important case on international law , and R v d 'Eon , acting for the prosecution in a feud over Louis XV 's newly appointed cross @-@ dressing Ambassador to the United Kingdom .
With this increase in his practice , Blackstone also saw an increase in his out @-@ of @-@ court work , writing opinions and recommendations for various Oxford colleges , the MP Jonathan Rashleigh and the fourth Earl of Abingdon , who paid him to draft several private Acts of Parliament . In April 1765 Blackstone began to actively seek judicial appointment . In December 1761 he asked Lord Shelburne , a patron , for his assistance in gaining appointment as Chief Justice of Chester , writing again in July 1762 to " prevail upon Lord Bute to recommend me to his Majesty 's Notice " , anticipating an upcoming vacancy in the Court of Common Pleas . Parliamentary service was considered a " desirable if never absolutely essential qualification for would @-@ be English judges " , something that did not necessarily bode well for Blackstone . Naturally inarticulate and reticent , he was an infrequent and " indifferent " speaker during his first session of Parliament , speaking only 14 times in seven years . His chosen career did lend him to politics , in that the lawyers in the House of Commons were often added to select committees to provide them with technical expertise in drafting legislation . He again applied for a judicial post in December 1762 , after an opening in the Exchequer of Pleas came up , but lost to George Perrott , a leading Exchequer barrister . The next five vacancies also failed to go to Blackstone , after the appointment of Lord Camden ( a Whig ) as Lord Chancellor .
= = = Commentaries on the Laws of England = = =
In 1765 Blackstone announced his resignation from the Vinerian Chair , effective after his 1766 lectures . These were divided into two 14 @-@ lecture series , on " private wrongs " and " public wrongs " delivered between 12 February and 24 April . At this point Blackstone had published nothing new since A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple in 1759 . The decision to resign was most likely due to the increasing demands of his legal practice and the reduced profit from the lectures , which , after peaking at £ 340 in 1762 , dropped to £ 239 a year later and to £ 203 for the final round of lectures in 1765 @-@ 6 . In response , Blackstone decided to publish a new book – Commentaries on the Laws of England . The first volume was published in November 1765 , bringing the author £ 1 @,@ 600 – the full work would eventually bring in over £ 14 @,@ 000 . Owen Ruffhead described Volume I as " masterly " , noting that " Mr Blackstone is perhaps the first who has treated the body of the law in a liberal , elegant and constitutional manner . A vein of good sense and moderation runs through every page " . Every copy was sold within six months , and the second and third volumes , published in October 1766 and June 1768 , received a similar reception . The fourth and final volume appeared in 1770 , dealing with Criminal Law . With the financial success of the Commentaries , Blackstone moved in 1768 from his London property in Carey Fields to No. 55 Lincoln 's Inn Fields . Neighbours included the Sardinian ambassador , Sir Walter Rawlinson , Lord Northington , John Morton and the Third Earl of Abingdon , making it an appropriate house for a " great and able Lawyer " .
Blackstone 's treatise was republished in 1770 , 1773 , 1774 , 1775 , 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783 . Reprints of the first edition , intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest , were published until the 1870s in England and Wales , and a working version by Henry John Stephen , first published in 1841 , was reprinted until after the Second World War . The first American edition was produced in 1772 ; prior to this , over 1 @,@ 000 copies had already been sold in the Thirteen Colonies .
= = = Judge = = =
Even after the publication of the Commentaries , Blackstone 's chances of judicial appointment remained slim . While he was old enough , experienced enough and widely respected , the presence of Lord Camden as Lord Chancellor and Blackstone 's lack of aristocratic patrons at the time hindered his chances . In January 1770 , however , Lord Grafton 's government began to fall , with Camden resigning on 17 January and Solicitor @-@ General John Dunning , following him . George III appointed Lord North as Prime Minister , and North picked Charles Yorke as Lord Chancellor . Yorke 's death on 20 January , after holding the position for less than three days , left several important legal positions within the government open . As such , Blackstone , now MP for Westbury , was apparently approached to become Solicitor @-@ General ; he refused , not wanting to deal with the complicated duties attached to the position .
On 9 February 1770 – apparently with the intervention of the King , and possibly Lord Mansfield – Blackstone became a Justice of the Common Pleas , succeeding Edward Clive , and was made a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law on 12 February . After only four days it was announced that Joseph Yates was to move to the Common Pleas , and Blackstone was again sworn in as a judge , this time of the Court of King 's Bench . This was apparently due to Yates ' poor health ; Lord Mansfield ran a busy court as Lord Chief Justice , and it was felt that his transfer to the Common Pleas was for the best . Others commented that it was instead due to political and judicial disagreement , with Yates unwilling to stomach the changes which Mansfield made to English law . Blackstone sat regularly as a judge , despite bouts of ill health , and also served on various circuit courts . Prest describes him as an " exceptionally careful , conscientious and well @-@ respected judge . . his judgments ranging between narrowly framed technicalities [ and ] broad statements of public commentary " . He was , however , considered a poor trial judge , being reversed on appeal more frequently than any of his peers .
Blackstone returned to the Common Pleas on 25 June 1770 , having spent less than six months in the King 's Bench ; Jeremy Bentham asserted that this was due to Mansfield 's having Blackstone removed similarly to his removal of Yates . Bentham asserted that in the King 's Bench , Blackstone was " always in hot water " , and that there was " heartburning " between the two ; Bentham 's account is considered dubious because historically , Mansfield and Blackstone had an excellent relationship , with the third volume of the Commentaries describing Mansfield as " a judge , whose masterly acquaintance with the law of nations was known and revered by every state in Europe " . There is only one recorded King 's Bench case , R v Proprietors of Birmingham Canal Navigation , in which Blackstone and Mansfield disagreed .
In the Common Pleas , Blackstone operated under a civil jurisdiction rather than a mixed civil and criminal one . This played to his strengths , and many of his decisions are considered farsighted ; the principle in Blaney v Hendricks , for example , that interest is due on an account where money was lent , which anticipated Section 3 of the Law Reform ( Miscellaneous Provisions ) Act 1934 . Blackstone 's decision in Goldswain 's Case was later repeated by Lord Denning in Falmouth Boat Construction Co v Howell in 1950 .
= = Death = =
Blackstone had long suffered from gout , and by November 1779 also had a nervous disorder which caused dizziness , obesity , high blood pressure and possibly diabetes . By 3 February 1780 he was too weak to write , and after " some Days almost totally insensible " , he died on 14 February . After a service conducted by Bishop Barrington on 22 February , Blackstone was buried in the family vault under St Peter 's Church , Wallingford . His estate at his death was worth less than £ 15 @,@ 000 ; therefore William Eden secured a £ 400 annual royal pension for Sarah Blackstone . The initial reaction to Blackstone 's death was subdued , but in December 1780 the Fellows of All Souls College agreed that " a Statue be erected to the memory of Sr W Blackstone deceased " . Constructed by John Bacon , the life @-@ sized statue of Blackstone in his judicial robes cost £ 539 , and has rested in the Codrington Library since 1872 . His brother @-@ in @-@ law , James Clitherow , also published two volumes of his law reports which added £ 1 @,@ 287 to the estate , and in 1782 the Biographical History of Sir William Blackstone appeared .
= = Legacy = =
Blackstone 's primary legacy is his written work , specifically the Commentaries on the Laws of England . Demand for reprinted , abridged and translated versions was " almost inexhaustible " in the 18th and 19th centuries , although the Commentaries ' emphasis on the sovereignty of Parliament drew ire . Alexis de Tocqueville described Blackstone as " an inferior writer , without liberality of mind or depth of judgment " . Other commentators differ ; one described him as " the core element in the British Enlightenment " , comparing him to Montesquieu , Beccaria and Voltaire . Academics have said that the Commentaries were crucial in changing English Law from a system based on actions to a system of substantive law . At the time of publication , the common law of England was still , in some ways , in its infancy , with people uncertain as to what the law was . The Commentaries helped to solidify legal thinking . At the same time , legal education had stalled , and Blackstone 's work gave the Law " at least a veneer of scholarly respectability " . William Searle Holdsworth , one of Blackstone 's successors as Vinerian Professor , argued that " if the Commentaries had not been written when they were written , I think it very doubtful that [ the United States ] , and other English speaking countries would have so universally adopted the [ common ] law " .
The Commentaries had a particular influence in the United States ; James Iredell , an original Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States wrote that the Commentaries were " Books admirably calculated for a young Student , and indeed may instruct the most learned . . Pleasure and Instruction go hand in hand " . When the Commentaries were first printed in North America , 1 @,@ 400 copies were ordered for Philadelphia alone . Academics have also noted the early reliance of the Supreme Court on the Commentaries , probably due to a lack of US legal tradition at that time . Robert Ferguson notes that " all our formative documents – the Declaration of Independence , the Constitution , the Federalist Papers and the seminal decisions of the Supreme Court under John Marshall – were drafted by attorneys steeped in Sir William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England . So much was this the case that the Commentaries rank second only to the Bible as a literary and intellectual influence on the history of American institutions " . Even today , the Commentaries are cited in Supreme Court decisions between 10 and 12
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for the poor , and social policies intended to make it easier for rural citizens to move to the city .
The Chongqing model represented an alternative model of development which diverged from the policies favored by the reformist faction led by Party general secretary Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao . When Bo Xilai was removed from his posts in the spring of 2012 , authorities began a campaign to reverse several of the policies that characterized the Chongqing model , including by cracking down on expressions of " red culture " . Individuals , who believed they had been wrongly persecuted under the anti @-@ corruption campaign , also began seeking legal redress .
= = Background = =
Bo Xilai , son of Communist Party icon Bo Yibo , was assigned as Communist Party secretary for Chongqing during the 17th Party Congress in October 2007 . His predecessor , Wang Yang , was reassigned to helm the Communist Party in Guangdong province . At the time , Chongqing was reeling from problems such as air and water pollution , unemployment , poor public health , and complications from the Three Gorges Dam . Prior to the appointment , Bo had served as Minister of Commerce . Bo was initially reluctant to assume the Chongqing post , which was widely viewed as a demotion ; he had hoped to become vice @-@ premier instead .
Although Bo was initially unhappy about his reassignment as Communist Party secretary in Chongqing , he soon resolved to use his new position as a staging ground for a return to higher national office . Bo made no secret of his desire to enter the nine @-@ member Politburo Standing Committee ( PSC ) during the 18th Party Congress in autumn 2012 , when seven of the nine members of the PSC — including General Secretary Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao — were expected to retire . The transition would be an opportunity for the ambitious Bo to join the highest echelon of national leadership , likely as a replacement for ally Zhou Yongkang , head of the party 's security apparatus .
Bo used his leadership of Chongqing to pioneer the " Chongqing Model " — a systematic set of social and economic policies intended to address diverse challenges facing modern China . The Chongqing model represented a rebuke of the policies favored by the reformist faction dominated by Wen Jiabao and Hu Jintao . It is also frequently contrasted with the Guangdong model championed by Bo 's predecessor and political opponent Wang Yang . Whereas the Chongqing model placed emphasized the role of the state in economic and social life , the Guangdong model is characterized by comparatively liberal economic and political policies .
= = = Crackdown on organized crime = = =
Bo 's tenure in Chongqing was dominated by a protracted war ostensibly against organized crime and corruption known as " Striking Black " ( " Da Hei " ) . Since 2009 , an estimated 5 @,@ 700 people were arrested in the sweeping campaign that ensnared not only criminals , but also businessmen , members of the police force , judges , government officials , and political adversaries who were accused of corruption or criminal collaboration . The campaign was overseen by police chief and vice mayor Wang Lijun , whom Bo had worked with previously in Liaoning province . Reports from the Jamestown Foundation suggest the initiative was given approval by general secretary Hu Jintao , and Bo struck a careful balance between claiming credit for the campaign and praising Beijing 's leadership in the crackdown on crime .
The Striking Black campaign earned Bo national recognition and widespread popularity in Chongqing — all the more because of the city ’ s reputation as a center for criminal activity . The apparent success of Bo 's campaign raised Bo 's national and international profile and resulted in calls for a nationwide campaign based on his experiences in Chongqing . Through the campaign , Bo gained the support of a number of powerful members of the Politburo Standing Committee , including Wu Bangguo , Jia Qinglin , Li Changchun , Xi Jinping and Zhou Yongkang , all of whom visited Chongqing or praised Bo 's achievements sometime between 2010 and 2011 .
Bo 's measures were criticized for neglecting due process and contributing to the erosion of the rule of law . " By all accounts , " wrote Stanley Lubman in The Wall Street Journal , the campaign " involved misuse of both the courts and the police . " Individuals targeted in the campaign were arbitrarily detained by the authorities , with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 being sent to forced labor . Lawyers for the accused were reportedly intimidated ; one lawyer was sentenced to 18 months in prison . Allegations also surfaced over the use of torture to extract confessions . Moreover , many of those targeted in the campaign were not criminals , but businessmen and political rivals whose assets were reportedly seized in order to help pay for Bo ’ s popular social housing programs . The Wall Street Journal reported estimates that $ 11 billion was seized through the campaign . Li Jun , a fugitive businessman , told The Financial Times that Chongqing security forces seized his $ 700 million real estate business and tortured him as retaliation for attempting to purchase land that was also sought by the government . One microblogger was sentenced to a year in labor camp for criticizing Bo ’ s alleged abuse of the court system during the campaign .
The campaign to combat crime and maintain political stability also involved the launch of a major electronic surveillance operation in the city . Wang Lijun , Bo ’ s police chief , served as the architect of the state @-@ funded project , which was described in official media as a " comprehensive package bugging system covering telecommunications to the Internet . " The system involved wiretaps , eavesdropping , and monitoring of internet communications . According the New York Times , the eavesdropping operations did not only target local criminals , but also the communications of top Chinese leaders . In August 2011 , a phone call between Hu Jintao and anti @-@ corruption official Ma Wen was found to be wiretapped under Bo ’ s orders . The revelation about the eavesdropping operation resulted in intense scrutiny from the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection , and contributed to Bo ’ s downfall in 2012 .
= = = Social policies = = =
A cornerstone of Bo ’ s Chongqing model was a series of egalitarian social policies aimed at lessening the gap between rich and poor and easing the rural @-@ urban divide . Bo promoted the notion of pursuing " red GDP " — an economic model embodying communist egalitarianism — and suggested that , if economic development were analogous to ' baking a cake ' , then the primary task should be to divide the cake fairly rather than building a larger cake .
To that end , the city reportedly spent $ 15 @.@ 8 billion on public apartment complexes for use by recent college graduates , migrant workers , and low @-@ income residents . Bo aimed to provide housing for 2 @.@ 4 million residents by 2012 . Residents whose incomes were under 3 @,@ 000 yuan ( $ 480 ) per month would be eligible to rent apartments for three years , with an option to buy thereafter . Huang Qifan , who served as mayor under Bo Xilai , indicated in 2010 that the subsidized housing project was " designed to free up more money for people to consume and drive the economy , ” and noted that it would borrow elements from Singapore 's Housing Development Board .
In 2007 , the cities of Chongqing and Chengdu were selected to run pilot projects intended to mitigate the rural @-@ urban divide and ease integration of rural residents into the cities . Under China ’ s hukou registration system , citizens are classified as either rural or urban — a distinction that determines not only where they may live , but also affects educational opportunities , taxation , property rights , and so on . Of Chongqing ’ s 32 million residents , only 27 % held urban hukou certificates as of 2007 . The 2007 project made it easier for rural residents to obtain urban status — a policy intended not only to help balance inequality , but also to enable the government to develop underused rural land . Under Bo ’ s leadership , Chongqing established " land exchanges " where rural villages could earn credits for maximizing farmland . Bo pledged to move three million rural residents into urban areas .
Bo 's populist approach to social policy was demonstrated during the November 2008 taxi strikes , which saw over 8 @,@ 000 taxi drivers take to the streets for two days in protests over high fees , unregulated competition , and rising fuel charges . Similar protests in China are frequently suppressed — sometimes forcefully — with official media sometimes blaming labor unrest on criminal instigation . Bo 's government instead held televised roundtable dialogues with the protesters and citizens , and agreed to allow the formation of a trade union . His handling of situation earned him praise as a comparatively progressive leader . A businessman who was reportedly involved in organizing the strike was later sentenced on 20 years in prison for disrupting transport and gangsterism .
The Chongqing model also involved a major campaign to " green " the city through a tree @-@ planting initiative . The city reportedly imported millions of trees — many of them ginkos — as part of the campaign . The cost of the greening initiative was estimated to be as high as 10 billion yuan .
= = = Red culture movement = = =
During his time in Chongqing , Bo initiated a series of Maoist @-@ style campaigns to revive " red culture " and improve public morale . The initiative included the promotion of Maoist quotes , " singing red songs " ( changhong ) , revolutionary television programming and operas , and initiatives to encourage students to work in the countryside , akin to the way students were required to do during the Down to the Countryside Movement of the Cultural Revolution .
Prior to the 60th Anniversary of the People 's Republic of China celebrations , for instance , Bo sent out " red text messages " to the city 's 13 million cellphone users . According to Xinhua News Agency , Bo 's text messages are usually quotes from Mao 's Little Red Book , and include phrases such as " I like how Chairman Mao puts it : The world is ours , we will all have to work together , " and " responsibility and seriousness can conquer the world , and the Chinese Communist Party members represent these qualities . " Bo and his team of municipal administrators also raised new Mao statues in Chongqing , while providing social housing to the city 's less well @-@ off . Some scholars have characterized this as an example of the revival of Maoism in the Chinese Communist ethos .
In 2011 , Bo and the city 's Media Department initiated a " Red Songs campaign " that demanded every district , government department , commercial enterprise , educational institution , and state radio and TV station begin " singing red songs " praising the achievements of the Communist Party of China . Bo pledged to reinvigorate the city with Marxist ideals reminiscent of the Mao era .
Reactions to the red culture movement were divided . Bo ’ s revival of Mao @-@ era culture and accompanying social welfare programs were popular within certain segments of society , and made Bo popular with both Marxists and neo @-@ leftists . One student quoted in The Washington Post embraced the ethos of the campaign , saying , " When I sing red songs , I find a kind of spirit I never felt when singing modern songs … To surround yourself with material stuff is just a waste of time . " A group of retired participants in a red song routine told the Los Angeles Times " We know these songs from our youth . We grew up with revolutionary spirit and we want to pass that on to our children . ” Another noted that he felt compelled to participate in order to express appreciation to the Communist Party for the country ’ s strong economy .
However , the campaign was unsettling to others — particularly the intelligentsia . A 57 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer told The Washington Post , " I saw the beatings of the teachers by the Red Guards . It was horrible … Young people may not recognize it . But for us who lived through it , how can we possibly sing ? " An academic quoted in The Daily Telegraph described the mandatory campaign as akin to being " drowned in a Red sea . " In September 2009 , a mid @-@ level official in the city committed suicide after being pressured to organize his work unit to participate in the red songs campaign . The official , Xie Dajun , reportedly disagreed with the campaign , which evoked painful memories of the Cultural Revolution . Bo ’ s critics and opponents derisively referred to him as " little Mao , " with some expressing concern about the resemblance of the red culture campaign to the Cultural Revolution .
= = = Economic policies = = =
Another major component of Bo ’ s Chongqing model concerned the city ’ s economic policies . Just as he had done in Liaoning province , Bo ambitiously pursued foreign investment in the city , lowered corporate income tax rates ( 15 % compared to the 25 % national average ) , and sought to stimulate rapid urbanization and industrialization . He also carried on with policies initiated by his predecessors which focused on domestic consumption , rather than export @-@ led growth . The Chongqing model also placed emphasis on the importance of state @-@ owned enterprises ; in 2010 , Bo stressed that China " [ needs ] to have things that are state @-@ owned . "
During his tenure , Chongqing reported annual GDP growth far exceeding the national average . In 2008 , for instance , nationwide GDP growth was reported at 8 % , while Chongqing reported 14 @.@ 3 % ; the same year , foreign trade rose by 28 % , and bank loans were up 29 % . Several major corporations built or greatly expanded their manufacturing operations in Chongqing , including Hewlett @-@ Packard , Foxconn , Ford motors , and BASF .
Bo 's model of economic growth won national and international praise , but it also had its detractors . In particular , the so @-@ called " red GDP " of subsidized infrastructure , housing and public works projects were criticized for running up the city ’ s budget deficits . A former head of a Chongqing business association told The Daily Telegraph that under Bo , " lots of officials were not getting their salaries on time , getting an IOU instead . Eventually the economy was going to break . " Chongqing received a disproportionately higher share of stimulus money from the central government in 2008 , with $ 34 billion going to the city . Political rivals such as Bo ’ s predecessor Wang Yang also suggested that economic figures such as those in Chongqing were " rigged " — artificially inflated through unnecessary construction and public works projects .
= = Reassessments = =
Bo Xilai 's political fortunes came to an abrupt end when his police chief , Wang Lijun , fled to the American consulate in Chengdu hoping to gain political asylum . Wang reportedly provided the consulate with information on Bo 's alleged misconduct , including his role obstructing investigations into the homicide of British citizen and Bo family associate Neil Heywood . In the fallout , Bo was removed as Chongqing party chief in March 2012 and suspended from the politburo in April 2012 .
Following the removal of Bo Xilai from his official positions , Chinese leaders began an effort to discredit him . On 14 March , Premier Wen Jiabao reprimanded Bo during his annual press conference . Wen called the achievements of Chongqing " significant , " but the result of " multiple administrations , " rather than just Bo himself . Wen also made numerous allusions to the damage wrought by the Cultural Revolution — an indirect rebuke of Bo 's efforts to revive " red culture " .
Apparently wary of the associations to the Cultural Revolution , a campaign was launched cracking down on expressions of " red culture " that Bo had championed . The crypto @-@ Maoist campaign of singing red songs is also likely to be stopped . However , other aspects of the Chongqing model — in particular the egalitarian social policies , subsidized education and low @-@ income housing projects — drew grassroots and popular support . At least in this regard , the successes of the Chongqing Model are likely to be remembered and studied , according to analyst Wu Zhong .
Critics asserted in the aftermath of Bo 's removal that the " Striking Black " campaign against organized crime and corruption may have been policy a " political ploy designed to cast a negative light on his predecessor and political opponent , Wang Yang , and take advantage of popular resentment against corruption " . Following Bo 's removal , Chongqing 's new vice mayor He Ting signaled that the city 's security force would be overhauled . Some legal scholars and activists expressed hope that the forced labor sentences meted out under Bo might be reexamined . A collection of civil rights lawyers led by Liu Yang circulated an open letter online suggesting a review of criminal sentences under Bo 's administration . Soon thereafter , Liu was reportedly instructed to desist in these efforts by the Beijing Bureau of Legal Affairs . The Washington Post reported that several relatives of individuals detained amidst the campaign began been seeking legal counsel from prominent civil rights lawyers — including Beijing @-@ based Li Zhuang — in hopes of having the sentences overturned . The first person to petition for redress was Fang Hong , a dissident blogger who had been sent to one year in a labor camp for writing a poem mocking Bo . In May 2012 , Fang filed to have his guilty verdict overturned , and sought compensation from the court . His appeal was successful , with a Chongqing court ruling in late June 2012 that there was an insufficient evidence to justify his detention .
Authorities also launched investigations into the city 's spending policies , including the costly tree @-@ planting campaign . Shortly after Bo 's removal from his Chongqing party post , the city 's finance bureau and economic planning office reportedly issued an urgent notice to government and party officials in the city to " clean up " investment projects . An official with the city 's finance bureau indicated the investigation would focus on " how the money was raised , spent and managed . " However , the Wall Street Journal reported that it was " unclear whether the scrutiny of Chongqing 's spending stems from concern about potential wrongdoing or the city 's debt burden , or whether it is primarily a politically motivated attempt to attack Mr. Bo 's ' Chongqing model . ' "
Yang Fan , a leading " new left " scholar at China University of Political Science and Law and co @-@ author of the book The Chongqing Model , also signaled that a reassessment of the Chongqing model would be in order , saying " since a big scandal has hit Chongqing , it is imperative that we take a second look at the Chongqing Model " .
Bo 's downfall , and the subsequent reassessments of the Chongqing model , has been viewed by some commentators as a victory for Wang Yang 's Guangdong model . In assessing the fall @-@ out , John Wagner Givens wrote that " If there is a hope among China 's leadership , it might be Mr. Bo 's predecessor Wang Yang . While Mr. Wang may not have Bo 's populist flair , he appears to have made some real , though small , political reforms . "
Wu Jinglian , a Chinese liberal economist , and Sun Jian , a researcher at the Communist party journal Seeking Truth , warned that vested interest blocs , such as the Gang of Princelings , should not block or unwind current reform .
Zhou Lian , an associate professor of philosophy at Renmin University of China , and Ai Weiwei , an artist in Beijing , have publicly criticized Bo and his Chongqing Model for being wrong and lowering trust . Li Zhuang , a lawyer who was imprisoned as part of the " Striking Black " policy , said that " the Chongqing model is problematic because the city 's leaders do not follow the rule of law " . According to Andrew J. Nathan , a political scientist at Columbia University , " the risk for China is that this scandal could taint everyone in power and challenge the legitimacy of the regime " . Furthermore , he said , “ All the worst things you ever imagined are actually true ” and “ It ’ s not like nobody knew about this stuff , but now they know that it really is true and it ’ s as bad as it can possibly be . ”
Zhang Musheng , an economist and journalist , is leading a new movement and is gaining followers for a plan to add checks and balances to the Communist Party and to significantly increase welfare benefits . Populists want to remake the party to reflect Chairman Mao 's early vision . However , Mao @-@ style populism is hated by most current older Chinese leaders , and Bo , its leading advocate , was destroyed by scandal . Because of this , few commentators expect China to willingly remake itself soon . And even those within the elite prepared to discuss major changes , including the second @-@ generation " Gang of Princelings " , have an interest in protecting the status quo .
= Nepal house martin =
The Nepal house martin ( Delichon nipalense ) is a non @-@ migratory passerine of the swallow family Hirundinidae . Its two subspecies breed in the Himalayas from northwestern India through Nepal to Burma , northern Vietnam , and just into China . It occurs in river valleys and rugged wooded mountain ridges at heights between 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) altitude , where it nests in colonies beneath overhangs on vertical cliffs , laying three or four white eggs in an enclosed mud nest .
This martin has blue @-@ black upperparts with a contrasting white rump , and white underparts . It resembles its close relatives , the Asian house martin and common house martin , but unlike those species it has a black throat and black undertail . It feeds in flocks with other swallows , catching flies and other insects in flight . It is subject to predation and parasites , but its status within its limited range appears secure .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Nepal house martin was first described by British entomologist Frederic Moore in 1854 , and placed in a new genus Delichon created by Moore and American naturalist Thomas Horsfield . The specimen or its description was attributed by Moore to Brian Houghton Hodgson and early literature sometimes refers to in as Hodgson 's martin . Some older taxonomic sources such as those by S D Ripley specify the binomial author as " Hodgson = Moore in Horsfield & Moore , 1854 " . Its closest relatives are the two other members of the genus , the Asian house martin and the common house martin . This martin has a distinctive subspecies , D. n. cuttingi , described by American biologist Ernst W. Mayr in 1941 from a specimen taken near the Burma @-@ Yunnan border . White @-@ throated birds in the southern extension of the range are similar in appearance to the nominate subspecies , but because of their geographical separation are sometimes considered to be a third race , D. n. bartletti . Delichon is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδών ( chelīdōn ) , meaning " swallow " , and nipalense refers to Nepal , where the type specimen was obtained .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nominate subspecies D. n. nipalense breeds in the Himalayas from Garhwal east through Nepal , northeastern India and Bangladesh as far as western Burma . The race D. n. cuttingi is found in northern Burma , along Burma 's border with Chinese Yunnan and in northern Tonkin , Vietnam . The Nepal house martin is largely resident , but may move to lower altitudes when not breeding , and has been occasionally recorded in northern Thailand in winter . The range in Thailand is poorly known .
The habitat is river valleys and wooded ridges at 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) altitude , although mainly below 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . When not breeding , birds may descend as low as 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) . The range of this species overlaps with that of the nominate subspecies of Asian house martin , although they breed at different altitudes . The height separation and the small differences in appearance seem sufficient to prevent interbreeding .
= = Description = =
The adult Nepal house martin is 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long , mainly blue @-@ black above and white below . It has a contrasting pure white rump , the tail and upperwings are brownish @-@ black , and the underwings are grey @-@ brown . The legs and feet are brownish @-@ pink and covered with white feathers , the eyes are brown , and the bill is black . The chin is black but the extent varies clinally . In the northeast of the range , birds of the race D. n. cuttingi have black on the whole of the throat and the uppermost breast , but further west or south the black increasingly becomes restricted to the chin . There are no differences in appearance between the sexes , but the juvenile bird is less glossy and has a duskier throat and buff @-@ washed underparts .
The eastern form D. n. cuttingi has a wing length of 99 – 106 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 in ) , slightly larger than the nominate subspecies at 90 – 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Both subspecies can be distinguished from the similar Asian and common house martins by their black chin , black undertail coverts and much squarer tail .
This is an exceptionally fast @-@ flying martin which gives an occasional short chi @-@ i call in flight . It is otherwise is a rather quiet bird , but it has a brief three @-@ note breeding song .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Nepal house martin breeds between March and July , with some variation in timing depending on locality , and usually raises two broods . It normally builds its nest , a deep mud bowl lined with grasses or feathers , under an overhang on a vertical cliff . Very occasionally , buildings may be used as nest sites , and in Sikkim this bird is recorded as nesting under school roofs near the Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary . This martin is a colonial breeder , with colonies sometimes containing hundreds of nests . Some birds may remain at the colonies throughout the year , using the nests as a winter roost . The normal clutch is three or four plain white eggs averaging 18 @.@ 6 mm × 12 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 73 in × 0 @.@ 50 in ) and weighing 1 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 056 oz ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , but are probably similar to those of the common house martin , which has an incubation period of 14 – 16 days until the eggs hatch , and a further 22 – 32 days to fledging . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Nepal house martin feeds on insects taken in flight , hunting along ridges or above treetops . The diet is not well known , but includes flies . This bird is gregarious , feeding in flocks often with other aerial predators like the Himalayan swiftlet , or other hirundines such as the barn swallow , striated swallow or common house martin .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Predators of this martin have been little studied , but it was the only bird recorded in a study of the diet of the mainly insectivorous collared falconet . It is parasitised by a flea of the genus Callopsylla .
= = Conservation status = =
The Nepal house martin has a large range that does not appear to be contracting , and its numbers appear to be stable , although the population is unknown . Since the range is more than 20 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ) , and there are more 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , in the absence of any large decline in distribution or numbers the species does not appear to meet the criteria to be considered vulnerable , and is currently evaluated as Least Concern . Although often localised due to the requirement for suitable cliff nesting sites , this species is fairly common in Nepal as a whole , and very common in some regions . Some earlier authors have noted this species as uncommon in Nepal .
= Cornish people =
Cornish people or Cornish ( Cornish : Kernowyon ) are an ethnic group associated with Cornwall , in the south west of Great Britain , administered as part of England , and a recognised national minority in the United Kingdom . The Cornish thus represent a distinct ethnic group within the UK , which can trace its roots to the ancient Britons who inhabited southern and central Great Britain before the Roman conquest , and some in the county today continue to assert a distinct identity , separately or in addition to English or British identities . Cornish identity has been adopted by migrants into Cornwall , as well as by emigrant and descendant communities from Cornwall , the latter sometimes referred to as the Cornish diaspora . Although not included as an explicit option in the UK census , the numbers of those claiming Cornish ethnic and national identity are officially recognised and recorded .
Throughout classical antiquity , the ancient Britons formed a series of tribes , cultures and identities in Great Britain ; the Dumnonii and Cornovii were the Celtic tribes who inhabited what was to become Cornwall during the Iron Age , Roman and post @-@ Roman periods . The name Cornwall and its demonym Cornish are derived from the Celtic Cornovii tribe . The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion and settlement of Britain in the 5th to 6th centuries pushed Celtic culture and some Celtic peoples to the northern and western fringes of Britain . The Cornish people , who shared the Brythonic language with the Welsh and Bretons across the sea , were referred to in the Old English language as the " Westwalas " meaning West Welsh . The Battle of Deorham between the Britons and Anglo @-@ Saxons is thought to have resulted in a loss of landlinks with the people of Wales .
The Cornish people and their Brythonic Cornish language experienced a process of anglicisation and attrition during the Medieval and early Modern Period . By the 18th century , and following the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain , the Cornish language and identity had faded , replaced by the English language and British identity . A Celtic revival during the early @-@ 20th century enabled a cultural self @-@ consciousness in Cornwall that revitalised the Cornish language and roused the Cornish to express a distinctly Celtic heritage . The Cornish language was granted official recognition under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2002 , and in 2014 the Cornish people were recognised and afforded protection by the UK Government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities .
In the 2011 census , the population of Cornwall , including the Isles of Scilly was estimated to be 532 @,@ 300 . The Cornish self @-@ government movement has called for greater recognition of Cornish culture , politics and language , and urged that Cornish people be accorded greater status , exemplified by the call for them to be one of the listed ethnic groups in the United Kingdom Census 2011 form .
= = Classification = =
Both geographic and historical factors distinguish the Cornish as an ethnic group further supported by identifiable genetic variance between the populations of Cornwall , neighbouring Devon and England as published in a 2012 Oxford University study . Throughout medieval and Early Modern Britain , the Cornish were at some points accorded the same status as the English and Welsh and considered a separate race or nation , distinct from their neighbours , with their own language , society and customs . A process of Anglicisation between 1485 and 1700 led to the Cornish adopting English language , culture and civic identity , a view reinforced by Cornish historian A. L. Rowse who said they were gradually " absorbed into the mainstream of English life " . Although " decidedly modern " and " largely retrospective " in its identity politics , Cornish and Celtic associations have advanced the notion of a distinct Cornish national and ethnic identity since the late 20th century . In the United Kingdom Census 2001 , despite no explicit " Cornish " option being available , approximately 34 @,@ 000 people in Cornwall and 3 @,@ 500 people elsewhere in the UK — a combined total equal to nearly 7 per cent of the population of Cornwall — identified themselves as ethnic Cornish by writing this in under the " other " ethnicity option . The census figures show a change in identity from West to East , in Penwith 9 @.@ 2 per cent identified as ethnically Cornish , in Kerrier it was 7 @.@ 5 per cent , in Carrick 6 @.@ 6 per cent , Restormel 6 @.@ 3 per cent , North Cornwall 6 per cent , and Caradon 5 @.@ 6 per cent . Weighting of the 2001 Census data gives a figure of 154 @,@ 791 people with Cornish ethnicity living in Cornwall .
The Cornish have been described as " a special case " in England , with an " ethnic rather than regional identity " . Structural changes to the politics of the United Kingdom , particularly the European Union and devolution , have been the cited as the main stimulus to " a growing interest in Cornish identity and distinctiveness " in late @-@ 20th century Britain . The British are the citizens of the United Kingdom , a people who by convention consist of four national groups : the English , Northern Irish , Scots and Welsh . In the 1990s it was said that the notion that the Cornish are to be classified as a nation comparable to the English , Irish , Scots and Welsh , " has practically vanished from the popular consciousness " outside Cornwall , and that , despite a " real and substantive " identity , the Cornish " struggle for recognition as a national group distinct from the English " . However , in 2014 , after a 15 @-@ year campaign , the UK government officially recognised the Cornish as a national minority under the Council of Europe 's Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , giving the Cornish the same status as the Welsh , Scots and Irish within the UK .
Inhabitants of Cornwall may have multiple political allegiances , adopting mixed , dual or hyphenated identities such as " Cornish first and British second " , " Cornish and British and European " , or , like Phil Vickery ( a rugby union prop for the England national rugby union team and British and Irish Lions ) , describe themselves as " Cornish " and " English " . Meanwhile , another international rugby union player , Josh Matavesi , describes himself as Cornish @-@ Fijian and Cornish not English .
A survey by Plymouth University in 2000 found that 30 % of children in Cornwall felt " Cornish , not English " . A 2004 survey on national identity by the finance firm Morgan Stanley found that 44 % of respondents in Cornwall saw themselves as Cornish rather than British or English . A 2008 University of Exeter study conducted in 16 towns across Cornwall found that 59 % felt themselves to be Cornish and 41 % felt " More Cornish than English " , while for over a third of respondents the Cornish identity formed their primary national identity . Genealogy and family history were considered to be the chief criteria for ‘ being ’ Cornish , particularly among those who possessed such ties , while being born in Cornwall was also held to be important .
A 2008 study by the University of Edinburgh of 15- and 16 @-@ year @-@ old schoolchildren in Cornwall found that 58 % of respondents felt themselves to be either ‘ Fairly ’ or ‘ Very much ’ Cornish . The other 42 % may be the result of in @-@ migration to the area during the second half of the twentieth century .
A 2010 study by the University of Exeter into the meaning of contemporary Cornish identity across Cornwall found that there was a " west @-@ east distance decay in the strength of the Cornish identity . " The study was conducted amongst the farming community as they were deemed to be the socio @-@ professional group most objectively representative of Cornishness . All participants categorised themselves as Cornish and identified Cornish as their primary ethnic group orientation . Those in the west primarily thought of themselves as Cornish and British / Celtic , while those in the east tended to think of themselves as Cornish and English . All participants in West Cornwall who identified as Cornish and not English described people in East Cornwall , without hesitation , as equally Cornish as themselves . Those who identified as Cornish and English stressed the primacy of their Cornishness and a capacity to distance themselves from their Englishness . Ancestry was seen as the most important criterion for being categorised as Cornish , above place of birth or growing up in Cornwall . This study supports a 1988 study by Mary McArthur that had found that the meanings of Cornishness varied substantially , from local to national identity . Both studies also observed that the Cornish were less materialistic than the English . The Cornish generally saw the English , or city people , as being " less friendly and more aggressively self @-@ promoting and insensitive . " The Cornish saw themselves as friendly , welcoming and caring .
In November 2010 British prime @-@ minister , David Cameron , said " I think Cornish national identity is very powerful " and that his government would " devolve a lot of power to Cornwall – that will go to the Cornish unitary authority . "
= = = 2011 UK Census = = =
A campaign for the inclusion of a Cornish tick @-@ box in the nationality section of the 2011 census failed to win the support of parliament in 2009 . As a consequence , posters were created by the census organisation and Cornwall Council which advised residents how they could identify themselves as Cornish by writing it in the national identity and ethnicity sections and record Cornish in the main language section . Additionally , people could record Cornwall as their country of birth .
Like other identities , Cornish has an allocated census code , ( 06 ) , the same as for 2001 , which applied and was counted throughout Britain . People were first able to record their ethnicity as Cornish in the 2001 UK Census , and some 37 @,@ 000 people did so by writing it in .
A total of 83 @,@ 499 people in England and Wales were described as having a Cornish national identity . 59 @,@ 456 of these were described as Cornish only , 6 @,@ 261 as Cornish and British , and 17 @,@ 782 as Cornish and at least one other identity , with or without British . Within Cornwall the total was 73 @,@ 220 ( 14 % of the population ) with 52 @,@ 793 ( 9 @.@ 9 % ) as Cornish only , 5 @,@ 185 ( 1 % ) as Cornish and British , and 15 @,@ 242 ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) as Cornish and at least one other identity , with or without British .
In Scotland 467 people described themselves as having Cornish national identity . 254 with Cornish identity only , 39 as Scottish and Cornish , and 174 having Cornish identity and a least one other UK identity ( excluding Scottish ) .
= = = Schools census ( PLASC ) = = =
Since 2006 school children in Cornwall have been able to record themselves as ethnically Cornish on the annual Schools Census ( PLASC ) . Since then the number identifying as Cornish has risen from 24 % to 46 % . The Department for Education recommends that parents and guardians determine the ethnicity of children at primary schools whilst pupils at secondary schools can decide their own ethnicity .
2006 : 23 @.@ 7 percent – 17 @,@ 218 pupils out of 72 @,@ 571
2007 : 27 @.@ 3 percent – 19 @,@ 988 pupils out of 72 @,@ 842
2008 : 30 @.@ 3 percent – 21 @,@ 610 pupils out of 71 @,@ 302
2009 : 33 @.@ 9 percent – 23 @,@ 808 pupils out of 70 @,@ 275
2010 : 37 @.@ 2 percent – 26 @,@ 140 pupils out of 69 @,@ 950
2011 : 40 @.@ 9 percent – 28 @,@ 584 pupils out of 69 @,@ 811
2012 : 43 @.@ 0 percent – 30 @,@ 181 pupils out of 69 @,@ 909
2013 : 46 @.@ 0 percent – 32 @,@ 254 pupils out of 70 @,@ 097
= = History = =
= = = Ancestral roots = = =
Traditional accounts of Cornish ancestry teach that they are descended from the Celts making them distinct from the English , many ( but not all ) of whom are descended from the Anglo @-@ Saxons who colonised Great Britain from their homelands in northern Europe and drove the Celts to Britain 's western and northern fringes . However , some DNA research investigating the genetic history of the British Isles suggests that three quarters of contemporary Y @-@ chromosomes of British people — including the Cornish — originate from hunter @-@ gatherers who settled in Atlantic Europe during the Paleolithic era , " after the melting of the ice caps but before the land broke away from the mainland and divided into islands " . Archaeological evidence supports pre @-@ historic human habitation in Cornwall , at least as early as the Lower Paleolithic . Although there was a separation of the British Isles from continental Europe as a consequence of the last ice age , genetic evidence indicates that the people of Great Britain broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people who live in the Basque Country by the Pyrenees . On this basis , geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer suggests that the first settlers of Great Britain were unlikely to have spoken one of the Celtic languages , but rather an ancient tongue related to the Basque language . The next historical immigration to Great Britain occurred during the Neolithic period , interpreted by Bryan Sykes — professor of human genetics at the University of Oxford — as the arrival of the Celts from the Iberian Peninsula , and the origin of Britain 's and Ireland 's Celtic tribes . It is these people who are considered the progenitors of the Cornish . A study by the Wellcome Trust , led by Sir Walter Bodmer and published on Channel 4 's Faces of Britain in April 2007 , showed that the Cornish people have a particular variant of the Melanocortin 1 receptor gene , identifying them as Celts more closely related to the Welsh than to the English . Within the areas of the UK studied , this gene appeared in 26 per cent of the population of Orkney , 23 per cent of Devon , 21 per cent of Wales , 16 per cent of Cornwall , 13 per cent of Kent , and 11 per cent of North East England . According to a DNA survey carried out for the Royal Society and published in 2012 by Peter Donnelly , professor of statistical science at Oxford University and director of the Wellcome Trust genetics centre , Cornish people , along with the Welsh and people of Devon , were found to be among the most genetically distinct groups in Britain . Others in England and Britain were found to have a greater range of genetic ancestries , with people from Cornwall being distinct from those elsewhere in England and the neighbouring population of Devon , though overall still very closely related to the ' English ' possibly due to their stronger genetic links to the tribes that arrived after the last ice age . However , a more recent study by Oxford University geneticist Professor Peter Donnelly suggests that the Cornish have DNA that is more similar to that of other English groups than to the Welsh or the Scots . Both Cornish and Devonians have similar but distinct genetic profiles which show less continental ' German ' influence and more northern ' French ' material than the English and Scots ; all showing a similar portion of " Nordic " material suggesting the idea of a uniform " Celtic " genetic race is false .
Throughout classical antiquity the Celts spoke Celtic languages , and formed a series of tribes , cultures and identities , notably the Picts and Gaels in the north and the Britons in the south . The Britons were themselves a divided people ; although they shared the Brythonic languages , they were tribal , and divided into regional societies , and within them sub @-@ groups . Examples of these tribal societies were the Brigantes in the north , and the Ordovices , the Demetae , the Silures and the Deceangli in the west . In the extreme southwest , what was to become Cornwall , were the Dumnonii and Cornovii , who lived in the Kingdom of Dumnonia . The Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century introduced Romans to Britain , who upon their arrival initially recorded the Dumnonii , but later reported on the Cornovii , who were possibly a sub @-@ group of the Dumnonii . Although the Romans colonised much of central and southern Britain , Dumnonia was " virtually unaffected " by the conquest ; Roman rule had little or no impact on the region , meaning it could flourish as a semi- or fully independent kingdom which evidence shows was sometimes under the dominion of the kings of the Britons , and sometimes to have been governed by its own Dumnonian monarchy , either by the title of duke or king . This petty kingdom shared strong linguistic , political and cultural links with Brittany , a peninsula on continental Europe south of Cornwall inhabited by Britons ; the Cornish and Breton languages were nearly indistinguishable in this period , and both Cornwall and Brittany remain dotted with dedications to the same Celtic saints .
The Sack of Rome in the year 410 prompted a complete Roman departure from Britain , and Cornwall then experienced an influx of Celtic Christian missionaries from Ireland who had a profound effect upon the early Cornish people , their culture , faith and architecture . The ensuing decline of the Roman Empire encouraged the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain . The Angles , Jutes , Frisii and Saxons , Germanic peoples from northern Europe , established petty kingdoms and settled in different regions of what was to become England , and parts of southern Scotland , progressively defeating the Britons in battle . The Saxons of the Kingdom of Wessex in particular were expanding their territory westwards towards Cornwall . The Cornish were frequently embattled with the West Saxons , who used their Germanic word walha ( modern English : Welsh ) meaning " stranger " or " foreigner " , to describe their opponents , later specifying them as the Westwalas ( West Welsh ) or Cornwalas ( the Cornish ) . Conflict continued until King Athelstan of England determined that the River Tamar be the formal boundary between the West Saxons and the Cornish in the year 936 , making Cornwall one of the last retreats of the Brit
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eight times per year by Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules aircraft of the 335 Squadron from Bodø Main Air Station , which provide supplies and change crew at the outpost . The nearby Beerenberg volcano can cause a Kármán wind , which creates difficult landing conditions .
= = History = =
North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) and the Norwegian Armed Forces started construction of a military communications outpost at Olonkinbyen in 1958 . At first a LORAN @-@ A transmitter was built , followed by a LORAN @-@ C transmitter in 1960 . In August , it was announced that the island would receive an airfield to allow continual operation of the transmitter . Originally , the aerodrome consisted of a 1 @,@ 200 by 30 metres ( 3 @,@ 937 by 98 ft ) section of the island 's dirt road . This was chosen to reduce the bureaucracy of construction . The first aircraft to land was a Consolidated PBY Catalina of the Royal Norwegian Air Force on 17 September 1960 .
The first civilian aircraft was a Douglas DC @-@ 4 operated by Braathens SAFE , which landed with some journalists on board on 29 October 1961 . Other early aircraft operating to Jan Mayen were the Grumman HU @-@ 16 Albatross and the Douglas DC @-@ 6 . The head officer of the Norwegian military 's communications division was later criticized by Chief of Defence Bjarne Øen , who concluded : " Gentlemen , I will not have any construction of airports on Norwegian soil by the Communications Division without the plans being presented to the Central Command . "
In 1970 , a sudden eruption in Beerenberg forced the immediate evacuation of the station . A Hercules was dispatched to the island and successfully landed on the strip . Thereafter the Hercules became the regular military aircraft at Jan Mayen . Aircraft gradually took over more of the transport to the island , and from 1973 all supplies except diesel and special freight was transported by ship . From 1975 the 333 Squadron would occasionally drop mail and supplies using the P @-@ 3 Orion as a supplement to the landings of the Hercules .
= = Facilities = =
Jan Mayensfield 's single regular service is the Royal Norwegian Air Force 's Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules , which operate to the island eight times per year . The aircraft are part of the 335 Squadron , based at Gardermoen Air Station , although the flights from Jan Mayen operate from Bodø Main Air Station . The runway is not open for commercial traffic , although it can be used for research and search and rescue operations .
The dirt runway is 1 @,@ 500 by 30 meters ( 4 @,@ 921 by 98 ft ) being aligned 06 – 24 . Jan Mayensfield has variable weather conditions , a lot of fog and often has a Kármán wind . The Kármán wind is created in the wake of the Beerenberg volcano , resulting in regular vortex streets and lee @-@ waves . This can cause sudden change to the wind direction on the island .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
In 1991 , a C @-@ 130 Hercules aircraft from the Royal Norwegian Air Force almost crashed after take off due to Karman wind suddenly shifting .
A WWII plane crash site is also near the airfield .
= Bruno Rossi =
Bruno Benedetto Rossi ( 13 April 1905 – 21 November 1993 ) was an Italian experimental physicist . He made major contributions to particle physics and the study of cosmic rays . A 1927 graduate of the University of Bologna , he became interested in cosmic rays . To study them , he invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit , and travelled to Eritrea to conduct experiments that showed that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East .
Forced to emigrate in October 1938 because of the Italian Racial Laws , Rossi moved to Denmark , where he worked with Niels Bohr , then to Britain , where he worked with Patrick Blackett at the University of Manchester , and finally to the United States , where he worked with Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago , and later at Cornell University . Rossi stayed in the United States , and became an American Citizen .
During World War II , Rossi worked on radar at the MIT Radiation Laboratory , and he played a pivotal role in the Manhattan Project , heading the group at the Los Alamos Laboratory that carried out the RaLa Experiments . After the war , he was recruited by Jerrold Zacharias at MIT , where Rossi continued his pre @-@ war research into cosmic rays .
In the 1960s , he pioneered X @-@ ray astronomy and space plasma physics . His instrumentation on Explorer 10 detected the magnetopause , and he initiated the rocket experiments that discovered Scorpius X @-@ 1 , the first extra @-@ solar source of X @-@ rays .
= = Italy = =
Rossi was born to a Jewish family in Venice , Italy . He was the eldest of three sons of Rino Rossi and Lina Minerbi . His father was an electrical engineer , who participated in the electrification of Venice . Rossi was tutored at home until the age of fourteen , after which he attended the Ginnasio and the Liceo in Venice . After beginning his university studies at the University of Padua , he began advanced work at the University of Bologna , where he received a Laurea in Physics in 1927 . His thesis advisor was Quirino Majorana , who was a well @-@ known experimentalist and uncle of the physicist Ettore Majorana .
= = = Florence = = =
In 1928 , Rossi began his career at the University of Florence , as assistant to Antonio Garbasso , who founded the University 's Physics Institute in 1920 . It was located in Arcetri , on a hill overlooking the city . When Rossi arrived , Garbasso was Podestà of Florence , appointed by Benito Mussolini 's fascist government of Italy . However , he brought to the institute a group of brilliant physicists which included Enrico Fermi and Franco Rasetti before they moved to Rome , as well as Gilberto Bernardini , Enrico Persico , and Giulio Racah . In 1929 , Rossi 's first graduate student , Giuseppe Occhialini , was awarded the doctoral degree .
In search of pioneering research , Rossi turned his attention to cosmic rays , which had been discovered by Victor Hess in manned balloon flights in 1911 and 1912 . In 1929 , Rossi read the paper of Walther Bothe and Werner Kolhörster , which described their discovery of charged cosmic ray particles that penetrated 4 @.@ 1 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) of gold . This was astonishing , for the most penetrating charged particles known at the time were electrons from radioactive decay , which could penetrate less than a millimetre of gold . In Rossi 's words it
came like a flash of light revealing the existence of an unsuspected world , full of mysteries , which no one had yet begun to explore . It soon became my overwhelming ambition to participate in the exploration .
= = = Rossi coincidence circuit = = =
In 1954 , Bothe was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics " for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith " . However , his implementation of this method was very cumbersome , for it involved visual correlation of photographed pulses . Within a few weeks of reading his paper with Kolhörster , Rossi invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit , which made use of triode vacuum tubes . The Rossi coincidence circuit has two major advantages : it offers very precise temporal resolution and it can detect coincidences among any number of pulse sources . These features make it possible to identify interesting events that produce coincident pulses in several counters . These rare events stand out even in the presence of high rates of unrelated background pulses in the individual counters . The circuit not only provided the basis for electronic instrumentation in nuclear and particle physics , but also implemented the first electronic AND circuit , which is a fundamental element of the digital logic that is ubiquitous in modern electronics .
At the time , an improved tubular version of the original Geiger counter , invented by Hans Geiger in 1908 , had just been developed by his student Walther Müller . These Geiger – Müller tubes ( GM tubes or counters ) made possible Bothe 's investigations . With Occhialini 's help in the construction of GM tubes , and with the aid of a practical coincidence circuit , Rossi confirmed and extended the results of Bothe , who invited him to visit Berlin in the summer of 1930 . Here , with financial support arranged by Garbasso , Rossi collaborated on further investigations of cosmic ray penetration . He also studied Carl Størmer 's mathematical description of the trajectories of charged particles in the Earth 's magnetic field . On the basis of these studies , he realised that the intensity of cosmic rays coming from eastward directions might be different from that of westward ones . From Berlin , he submitted the first paper suggesting that observations of this East @-@ West effect could not only confirm that cosmic rays are charged particles , but also determine the sign of their charge .
= = = Rome conference = = =
In the fall of 1931 , Fermi and Orso Mario Corbino organized in Rome an international conference on nuclear physics , which was sponsored by the Royal Academy of Italy . Fermi invited Rossi to give an introductory talk on cosmic rays . In the audience were Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton , both of whom had won the Nobel prize in physics , in 1923 and 1927 , respectively . During the 1920s , Millikan , who is famous for his oil drop experiment , made extensive measurements of the mysterious radiation discovered by Hess . He coined the name " cosmic rays " and proposed that they were photons created by the fusion of hydrogen in interstellar space . He was not pleased by the presentation of evidence that most observed cosmic rays are energetic charged particles . Later , Rossi wrote :
Millikan clearly resented having his beloved theory torn to pieces by a mere youth , so much so that from that moment on he refused to recognise my existence . ( In retrospect , I must admit that I might have been more tactful in my presentation . )
Compton , who is famous for the Compton effect , had a more positive reaction , for he told Rossi later that the talk had motivated him to begin his own research on cosmic rays .
= = = Rossi curve = = =
Immediately after the Rome conference , Rossi carried out two experiments that led to a significant advance in the understanding of cosmic rays . Both involved triple coincidences of pulses from three Geiger counters ; but in the first , the counters were aligned and separated by blocks of lead , while in the second , they were placed in a triangular configuration such that all three could not be traversed by a single particle travelling in a straight line . Results from the first configuration demonstrated the existence of cosmic @-@ ray particles capable of penetrating 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) of lead .
With the second configuration enclosed in a lead box , the results showed that some cosmic rays interact in lead to produce multiple secondary particles . In an extension of the second experiment , he measured the rate of triple coincidences as a function of the amount of the lead above the counters . A plot of this rate against thickness , which came to be known as the Rossi curve , showed a rapid rise as the lead layer was increased , followed by a slow decline . These experiments showed that ground @-@ level cosmic rays consist of two components : a " soft " component which is capable of prolific generation of multiple particle events , and a " hard " component which is capable of traversing great thicknesses of lead . At the time , the physical nature of both was a mystery , for they did not yet fit into the growing body of knowledge about nuclear and particle physics .
Late in 1931 , Rossi arranged for Occhialini to work in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge with Patrick Blackett , whom he had met in Berlin . With the aid of the new technique of electronic coincidence , Occhialini helped Blackett develop the first counter @-@ controlled cloud chamber , with which they confirmed Carl Anderson 's discovery of the positron and deduced that the positive electrons are produced in association with negative ones by pair production . Up to 23 positive and negative electrons were observed in some events , which were clearly related to the showers of Rossi 's soft component .
= = = Padua = = =
In 1932 , Rossi won a competition for an academic position in an Italian university , and was appointed professor of experimental physics at the University of Padua . Soon after Rossi arrived , the rector asked him to oversee the design and construction of Padua 's new Physics Institute . Although this task diverted his attention from research and teaching , he complied willingly , and the institute opened in 1937 .
= = = East @-@ West effect = = =
In spite of this distraction , Rossi was able to complete , in 1933 , an experiment on the East @-@ West effect that he had begun before leaving Arcetri . Because this effect is more prominent near the equator , he organised an expedition to Asmara in Eritrea , which was then an Italian colony on the Red Sea at a latitude of 15 ° N. With Sergio De Bennedetti , he set up a " cosmic ray telescope " , which consisted of two separated GM counters in coincidence , whose axis of maximum sensitivity could be pointed in any direction . It soon became apparent that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East . This meant that there was a larger influx of positive primary particles than of negative ones . At the time , this result was surprising , because most investigators held the preconceived notion that the primaries would be negative electrons .
Just as Rossi left Eritrea , he received news of two observations of a similar East @-@ West effect . These were published in the Physical Review . One was by Thomas H. Johnson , and the other was by Compton and his student , Luis Alvarez , who reported observations at Mexico City , where the latitude is 19 ° N. Because others had carried out the first experimental exploitation of his important idea of 1930 , Rossi was disappointed , but published his results immediately after returning to Padua . Later , with Frederick C. Chromey , Alvarez and Rossi patented a " Vertical Determination Device " , which made use of cosmic ray telescopes .
In Eritrea , Rossi discovered another phenomenon that would become a principal theme of his postwar cosmic ray research : extensive cosmic ray air showers . The discovery occurred during tests to determine the rate of accidental coincidences between the Geiger counters of his detector . To assure that no single particle could trigger the counters he spread them out in a horizontal plane . In this configuration , the frequency of coincidences was greater than that calculated on the basis of the individual rates and the resolving time of the coincidence circuit . Rossi concluded that :
… once in a while the recording equipment is struck by very extensive showers of particles , which cause coincidences between counters , even placed at large distances from one another .
In 1937 , Rossi became acquainted with Nora Lombroso , the daughter of Ugo Lombroso , a professor of physiology at the University of Palermo , and Silvia Forti . Her grandfather was the renowned physician and criminologist Cesare Lombroso , and her aunts , Gina Lombroso and Paola Lombroso Carrara , were well known Italian writers and educators . In April 1938 , Bruno and Nora married and set up a household in Padua .
Although Rossi avoided politics , some of Rossi 's associates were active opponents of the fascist state . For example , he mentored Eugenio Curiel , who became a member of the communist party , while completing a degree at Padua . Later , in 1943 , Curiel joined the resistance in Milan , and in 1945 , was assassinated by soldiers of the Republic of Salò a German puppet state . Similarly , Ettore Pancini , who received his PhD under Rossi in 1938 , spent the war years alternating between cosmic ray research and active participation in the Italian resistance movements of Padua and Venice .
Because of these associations , and because both Rossis were Jewish , they became apprehensive as Italy 's antisemitism grew under the influence of Nazi Germany . Eventually , as a result of anti @-@ Jewish laws resulting from the Manifesto of Race , Rossi was dismissed from his professorship . In his words :
Eventually , in September of 1938 , I learned that I no longer was a citizen of my country , and that , in Italy , my activity as a teacher and a scientist had come to an end .
= = Exile = =
With this setback , Rossi began an important phase of his career . He summarised this period in a memoir : " The Decay of ' Mesotrons ' ( 1939 – 1943 ) : Experimental Particle Physics in the Age of Innocence " , which he presented in a symposium at Fermilab in 1980 . On 12 October 1938 , the Rossis left for Copenhagen , where the Danish physicist , Niels Bohr , had invited him to study . The couple had no intention of returning to Italy , and Bohr facilitated Rossi 's search for a more secure position by sponsoring a conference attended by leading physicists . He hoped that one of them would find Rossi a job , and soon , Rossi received an invitation to come to the University of Manchester , where Blackett was developing a major center of cosmic ray research . After a pleasant two months in Denmark , Rossi and Nora arrived in Manchester .
= = = Manchester = = =
Rossi 's stay in Manchester was brief , but productive . At this time , a clear understanding of the soft component was available . In 1934 , Hans Bethe and Walter Heitler published a quantitative description not only of the production of electron @-@ positron pairs by energetic photons , but also of the production of photons by energetic electrons and positrons . At Manchester , Rossi collaborated with Ludwig Jánossy on an experiment which demonstrated the correctness of the Bethe @-@ Heitler theory of the second process , which had not yet been fully confirmed . This experiment also introduced the technique of anti @-@ coincidence , which has become a ubiquitous feature of instruments for detecting and analyzing energetic particles .
By this time , cloud chamber observations had clarified the nature of the hard component . In 1936 , Anderson and his student , Seth Neddermeyer , discovered cosmic ray particles with mass intermediate between those of the electron and the proton , which Anderson called " mesotrons " . The mesotron subsequently became the known as the " μ meson " , which was shortened to " muon " . Just before the Copenhagen conference , Blackett suggested that observed variations of cosmic ray intensity with atmospheric temperature could be an indication that mesotrons are unstable , and he held intense discussions with Rossi on this subject . As a result , Rossi left Manchester determined to confirm their decay and to measure the lifetime .
= = = Chicago = = =
With war looming over Europe , Blackett and others advised Rossi to leave Britain . Consequently , he wrote to Compton , who invited him to attend a summer symposium in Chicago , and hinted that a job might become available . In June 1939 , the Rossis sailed for New York , where they were greeted by Fermi and his wife Laura , who had also left Italy because of the racial laws . After a brief reunion with the Fermis , the Rossis were offered a ride to Chicago by Bethe . They gratefully accepted , and arrived at the University of Chicago in mid @-@ June 1939 .
= = = Mesotron decay = = =
Immediately after a symposium session on mesotron instability reached a consensus that more definitive observations were needed , Rossi and Compton began to plan an experiment . Because the intensity of the hard component increases with altitude , while the density of air decreases , Compton suggested that the investigations should be carried out on Mount Evans in Colorado , where he had worked in the early 1930s , and where access to a research site at 4 @,@ 310 metres ( 14 @,@ 140 ft ) elevation is provided by the Mount Evans Scenic Byway , the highest paved road in North America . He urged Rossi to begin a series of experiments that summer , before snow blocked the road , and to help , enlisted two of his friends , Norman Hillberry and J. Barton Hoag , and a student , Winston Bostick . Rossi and his helpers hurriedly assembled equipment and loaded it onto a dilapidated bus that Compton borrowed from the Zoology department .
By this time , it was known that the main process by which mesotrons lose energy is ionisation energy loss , which is described by the Bethe formula , and is proportional to the mass per unit area of the layer of material traversed . If this were the only process , the intensity of the hard component passing through a layer of solid material would decrease by the same amount as in an equivalent layer of air . Rossi and his collaborators found that the decrease was significantly larger in the atmosphere than in a corresponding layer of solid carbon . Because the distance traversed in air was much larger than that in carbon , they interpreted this result as evidence for decay of the mesotron , and taking into account the effect of relativistic time dilation , estimated its mean life at rest as roughly 2 microseconds .
The next summer , Rossi returned to Mount Evans where he performed experiments near Echo Lake at an elevation 3 @,@ 230 metres ( 10 @,@ 600 ft ) . With the use of anti coincidence techniques , the apparatus made it possible to measure the mean free path before decay of two groups of mesotrons with different average momentum . The results , published with David B. Hall , not only confirmed the proportionality between particle momentum and the mean free path of mesotrons before decay that is expected on the basis of relativity theory , but also presented an improved estimate of the lifetime at rest : ( 2 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 3 ) microseconds . These results and those of the previous year were not only the first to show definitively that mesotrons are unstable , but also the first experimental confirmation of the time dilation of moving clocks predicted by relativity theory .
= = = Cornell = = =
At Chicago , Rossi 's position as research associate was not permanent , and Compton was unable to secure him a better one . Consequently , he began a job search , during which he gave a seminar at Cornell University , where coincidentally , death had created a vacancy in the Physics department . After Bethe suggested that Rossi should be invited to fill this position , he was appointed associate professor at Cornell . In the fall of 1940 , after returning to Chicago from Colorado , the Rossis left for Ithaca .
At Cornell , Rossi met his first American graduate student , Kenneth Greisen , with whom he wrote an article , " Cosmic @-@ Ray Theory " , which was published in the Reviews of Modern Physics and became known among cosmic @-@ ray researchers as " The Bible " . During the summer of 1941 , Greisen and physicists from Denver and Boulder accompanied Rossi to Mount Evans , where they refined the knowledge of proportionality between mesotron momentum and lifetime before decay . Greisen and Rossi also carried out experiments , which showed , in terms of processes documented in the " Bible " , that not all particles of the soft component , could be produced by mesotrons of the hard component . They interpreted this as evidence for primary electrons or photons , but it became evident later that the soft excess arises from the decay of neutral pions .
After the 1941 expedition to Colorado , Rossi decided that the question of whether mesotrons decay had been answered . However , he was not satisfied with the precision with which the lifetime had been determined , for existing estimates depended on mesotron mass , which was not accurately known . To perform a more direct measurement , he designed apparatus to measure the time interval between the arrival of a mesotron in an absorber , where it stopped , and the emission of an electron when the mesotron decayed . To assist , he obtained the help of graduate student Norris Nereson . At the heart of their experiment , was a " chronometer " , which was an electronic circuit that produced a pulse whose height was accurately proportional to the time interval , and which could be recorded by photographing an oscilloscope trace .
This was the first time @-@ to @-@ amplitude converter , another of Rossi 's contributions to electronic techniques of experimental physics . With absorbers of lead and brass , the number of decays was plotted against time . These decay curves had the same exponential form as those of ordinary radioactive substances , and gave a mean lifetime of 2 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 2 microseconds , which was later refined to 2 @.@ 15 ± 0 @.@ 07 microseconds . After the war , Rossi discovered that his Italian colleagues , Marcello Conversi and Oreste Piccioni , had performed experiments very similar to his and measured a lifetime consistent with his result .
Looking back on what he called the " Age of Innocence " , Rossi wrote :
How is it possible that results bearing on fundamental problems of elementary particle physics could be achieved by experiments of an almost childish simplicity , costing only a few thousand dollars and requiring only the help of one or two graduate students ?
= = Los Alamos = =
With the completion of his work on mesotrons , Rossi turned his attention toward the war effort . In 1942 , while commuting from Ithaca to Cambridge , Massachusetts , he became a consultant on radar development at the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Here , along with Greisen , he invented a " range tracking circuit " , which was patented after the war .
In early July 1943 , Bethe invited Rossi to join the Manhattan Project . Within a month , he reported for duty at Los Alamos Laboratory . A few weeks later , Nora and their three @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Florence , joined Rossi in Los Alamos , New Mexico . The laboratory 's director , Robert Oppenheimer , asked Rossi to form a group to develop diagnostic instruments needed to create the atomic bomb . He soon realized that there already existed a group with a similar mission headed by the Swiss physicist Hans H. Staub . The two decided to merge their efforts into a single " Detector Group " . They were assisted by approximately twenty young researchers , including Matthew Sands an " electronic wizard " , who later earned a PhD under Rossi , and David B. Nicodemus , whom Staub brought from Stanford University , who was an expert on particle detectors .
= = = Fast ionization chamber = = =
Bomb development called for large detectors of ionising radiation , whose response is proportional to the energy released in the detector and follows rapid changes in radiation intensity . From the earliest research on radioactivity , radiation had been measured in terms of Ionisation , but existing Ionisation chambers were slow to respond to changes . To address this problem , Rossi and Staub carried out a careful analysis of the pulses that result when individual charged particles create ions within an ionisation chamber . They realised that the high mobility of free electrons removed from ionised atoms means that the pulses produced by single particles can be very brief . With James S. Allen , Rossi found gas mixtures of high electron mobility and low electron attachment . On the basis of these investigations , Allen and Rossi invented the " fast ionisation chamber " , which they patented after the war . It was a crucial factor in the success of the Manhattan Project and became widely used in postwar research on particle physics .
= = = RaLa experiments = = =
In April 1944 , the Manhattan project experienced a crisis , when Emilio Segrè 's group discovered that plutonium made in reactors would not work in a gun @-@ type plutonium weapon like the " Thin Man " . In response , Oppenheimer completely reorganised the laboratory to focus on development of an implosion @-@ type weapon .
Rossi was enlisted to implement a method to test various weapon designs to arrive at one that produced an accurately symmetrical spherical implosion . The tests measured changes of the absorption of gamma rays in a metal sphere as it underwent implosive compression . The gamma rays were emitted by a pellet of the short @-@ lived radioisotope Lanthanum @-@ 140 positioned in the center of the sphere . The term RaLa experiment is a contraction of Radioactive Lanthanum . As compression progressed , the rapid increase in absorption was detected as a decrease of gamma ray intensity recorded outside of the assembly .
The RaLa experiments revealed many pitfalls on the way to a successful implosion . To understand problematic jets that plagued early implosion designs , other test methods were necessary , but the RaLa experiments played a primary role in the design of explosive lenses . In his history of the Los Alamos project , David Hawkins wrote : " RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design " .
= = = Trinity diagnostics = = =
On 16 July 1945 , an implosion @-@ type plutonium device was detonated at the Trinity site near Alamogordo , New Mexico . The code name for this device was " The gadget " , and its design was very similar to the Fat Man weapon that was dropped on Nagasaki twenty four days later .
In preparation for Trinity , Rossi designed instrumentation to record gamma radiation during the chain reaction , whose duration was expected to be approximately 10 nanoseconds . Observations on this time scale were almost beyond the state of the art in 1945 , but Rossi designed and built a large cylindrical ionisation chamber whose speed of response was adequate because its coaxial electrodes were separated by a narrow gap of only 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) .
To record the signal , he installed a very fast oscilloscope , provided as a prototype by DuMont Laboratories , in an underground bunker several hundred feet from the Gadget , where it was photographed . To bring the signal to the oscilloscope , he devised an oversized coaxial transmission line , whose inner conductor was made smaller as it went from chamber to oscilloscope . Because this configuration enhanced the signal reaching the oscilloscope , there was no need for amplification . To confirm this surprising behaviour , Rossi consulted with Harvard professor Edward Purcell .
A few days after the test , Rossi went into the darkroom with Fermi , and before the newly developed film was dry , they were able to compute the initial growth rate of nuclear activity , which was crucial information for future weapons development . Of three attempts to measure this rate at Trinity , Rossi 's was the only one that was fully successful .
= = MIT = =
With the success of the Manhattan Project and the Radiation Laboratory , MIT moved into a new era of " big science " funded by the US government . MIT 's expansion in nuclear physics was spearheaded by Jerrold R. Zacharias , who went to Los Alamos late in the war , and recruited Viki Weisskopf and Rossi as MIT professors . Rossi left Los Alamos for Cambridge on 6 February 1946 .
Within the new Laboratory for Nuclear Science , headed by Zacharias , Rossi was delegated to create a cosmic ray research group at MIT . To help , he recruited four young scientists who had been at Los Alamos as PhD candidates : Herbert Bridge , Matthew Sands , Robert Thompson and Robert Williams . Two who had been in the Radiation Laboratory also came to work with him : John Tinlot and Robert Hulsizer . All six were more mature than typical graduate students , for they had several years of wartime research experience . Consequently , they were paid a stipend similar to that of a postdoctoral researcher , which was funded by the Office of Naval Research and enabled them to support families during their graduate studies .
For this new phase of his activities , Rossi made a fundamental change of approach . In his words :
In my new position , my activity would be very different from what it had been in past years . Then , working alone or , at most , with the help of a few students I would build the instruments , take them to the place where they had to be used , make the measurements and analyze the results . Now , I had the responsibility of an entire group , and what mattered was not my own work , but the work of the group . My task was to identify the most promising research programs among those that were within our reach , to help where help was needed in the planning of the instrumentation or in the evaluation of experimental results , all of this without discouraging the individual initiative of the researchers .
= = = Elementary Particles = = =
With the discovery of the pion in 1947 , the search for new elementary particles became a popular research topic . By operating fast ionization chambers within a cloud chamber , Herbert showed that the bursts of ionization they recorded were primarily produced by relatively low energy cosmic rays , whose nuclear interactions typically involve the ejection of several heavily ionising nuclear fragments . On the basis of this effect , he and Rossi demonstrated that the behaviour of these interactions is similar to that of penetrating showers .
Rossi 's group focused on the use of cloud chambers to study their properties and interactions . In 1948 , with the aid of a multi @-@ plate cloud chamber in which lead plates alternated with aluminium ones , Gregory , Rossi and Tinlot showed that the source of the electromagnetic component of cosmic ray interactions was predominantly energetic photons , rather than electrons . This result confirmed Oppenheimer 's suggestion of 1947 that neutral pions are produced in interactions , along with charged ones , and that this component arises from their rapid decay into photons .
To study the new elementary particles , Bridge and Martin Annis operated a large rectangular multi plate cloud chamber at Echo Lake . This investigation provided the basis for a 1951 PhD thesis by Annis , supervised by Rossi . The next year , these authors , with another student of Rossi 's , Stanislaw Olbert , showed how to derive information on particle energies from measurements of their multiple scattering . This added another way to use cloud chambers to measure the properties of elementary particles . In early 1953 , with Bridge , Richard Safford and Charles Peyrou , Rossi published results of a comprehensive cloud chamber study of the elementary particles that became known as kaons . Peyrou was a visitor from at the École Polytechnique , where he had obtained an accurate value of the muon mass in 1947 , and Safford was Rossi 's student .
= = = Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre conference = = =
By 1952 , a bewildering " zoo " of elementary particles had been reported , with various masses , decay schemes , nomenclature and reliability of identification . To deal with this situation , Blackett and Leprince @-@ Ringuet organized an International Cosmic Ray Conference at Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre in 1953 . According to James Cronin , " this conference can be placed in importance in the same category as two other famous conferences , the Solvay congress of 1927 and the Shelter Island Conference of 1948 . "
Leprince @-@ Ringuet asked Rossi to give a summary of new information presented at the conference and to propose nomenclature for the new particles . Before the conference , in response to the latter assignment , Rossi circulated a suggestion that particles with mass smaller than that of a neutron be designated by small Greek letters and those with larger mass be designated by capital Greek letters . In his talk , on 11 July 1953 , he reported that conference results , which he had compiled with the aid of Powell and Fretter , were consistent with this scheme , which was commonly used afterwards .
A highlight was Leprince @-@ Ringuet 's declaration in his closing talk that : " ... in the future we must use particle accelerators . " With the 3 GeV Cosmotron already in operation at Brookhaven National Laboratory , this declaration reflected a consensus among the participants . As a result , Rossi 's group began to wind down their cloud chamber experiments . However , in 1954 , Bridge , Hans Courant , Herbert DeStaebler , Jr. and Rossi reported on an unusual event in which a stopping singly charged particle decayed into three photons whose energies totaled more than the proton rest energy . This is the signature of an antiproton annihilation . The next year , a group led by Owen Chamberlain and Emilio Segrè detected antiprotons , for which they were awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1960 .
= = = Extensive air showers = = =
By the time of the Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre conference , Rossi had already turned his attention toward the astrophysical implications of cosmic ray phenomena , particularly extensive air showers . After Rossi 's recognition , in Eritrea , that these events exist , they were extensively studied by Pierre Auger , and by Williams . At this time , the extremely fast response of the newly developed scintillation counters offered a new way to study the structure of air showers . To do this , Rossi enlisted his student , George W. Clark , who completed a PhD in 1952 , and Piero Bassi , who was a visitor from the University of Padua . Because solid scintillating material was unavailable , they decided to use terphenyl dissolved in benzine , which is an efficient liquid scintillator . With the aid of three counters deployed on the roof of the MIT Physics building during the winter of 1952 / 53 , they found that shower particles arrived within only one or two meters of a disk , which travels at nearly the speed of light in the direction of the shower axis .
This result showed that scintillation counters can not only determine of the arrival times of shower disks at many detectors spread over a large area , but also to estimate the number of particles striking each detector . These capabilities combine the " fast @-@ timing " method of determining shower arrival directions with the density sampling method of determining their size and the location of their axes .
= = = = Agassiz experiment = = = =
With this progress , Rossi 's group began a major experiment that could measure both primary energies and arrival directions of extensive air showers . Participating in this effort were : George Clark , William Kraushaar , John Linsley , James Earl , and Frank Scherb . Kraushaar came to MIT from Cornell in 1949 , after earning his PhD under Kenneth Greisen . With the support of Professor Donald Menzel who was director of the Harvard College Observatory , Rossi 's group deployed fifteen liquid scintillators , of area 1 square metre ( 11 sq ft ) on the wooded grounds of the observatory 's Agassiz station . The signals were brought on cables to a Quonset hut , where they were displayed on fifteen oscillographs and recorded photographically .
Shortly after the experiment began to record shower data , lightning ignited the flammable liquid of one of the counters . Local firemen quickly extinguished the resulting fire before it spread to nearby trees , which were soaked with rain water . Because the trees played an essential role in suppressing atmospheric convection that would degrade telescopic observations , Harvard and MIT carried out tense negotiations , until an elaborate system of fire protection was installed , and the experiment was allowed to resume . To eliminate the threat of fire , Clark , Frank Scherb and William B. Smith created a " factory " that made nonflammable plastic scintillator disks , whose thickness was 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and whose diameter was approximately 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) .
After a switch to plastic in the late spring of 1956 , the experiment ran continuously . Its findings were reported in Nature and the Physical Review . The most important results were summarized by Rossi as :
1 . A precise measurement of the density of shower particles as a function of distance from the shower center .
2 . A measurement of the energy spectrum of the primary particles responsible for the showers from 1015 electron volts to 1018 electron volts .
3 . The proof that these particles arrive in practically equal numbers from all directions .
4 . The observation of a particle with an energy close to 1019 electron volts .
As the Agassiz experiment came to an end , the group realized that observations near the equator and in the southern hemisphere were needed to extend their conclusion that air shower arrival directions are nearly isotropic . Consequently , Clark , in collaboration with Vikram Sarabhai , ran his smaller experiment at Kodaikanal , India , at a latitude of 10 ° N , and confirmed the absence of anisotropies . Later , at the suggestion of Ismael Escobar , the Agassiz equipment was moved to El Alto at 4200 meters on the Bolivian plateau at 16 ° S. Here , Clark , Escobar and Juan Hersil found no anisotropies , but they showed that the structure of air showers at their maximum development is different from that at sea level .
= = = = Volcano Ranch experiment = = = =
The maximum energy of a particle recorded by Agassiz experiment , 1019 electron volts , is close to energies beyond which charged particles can not be confined to the galactic disc by typical interstellar magnetic fields of 10 − 5 gauss . A detector array of very large dimensions is needed to detect showers of these energies . John Linsley agreed to take on responsibility for building such an array . He came to MIT in 1954 from the University of Minnesota , where he completed a PhD under Edward P. Ney . Soon , he was joined by Livio Scarsi , whom Rossi had recruited from Occhialini 's group at the University of Milan .
Because no large enough tract of open land was available near Boston , the array was constructed on a semi @-@ desert property known asVolcano Ranch , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Albuquerque , New Mexico , at an altitude of 1 @,@ 770 metres ( 5 @,@ 810 ft ) . During 1957 and 1958 , Linsley and Scarsi deployed 19 scintillation counters , which used fluorescent plastic disks similar to those of the Agassiz detectors , except that each counter incorporated four disks viewed by four photomultipliers . Initially the area of the array was 2 @.@ 5 * 106 m2 , which is to be compared with Agassiz 's 105 m2 , but in 1960 , after Scarsi had returned to Milan , Linsley spread the detectors over an area of 107 m2 .
Results from the Volcano Ranch experiment showed that the cosmic @-@ ray intensity decreases smoothly with energy from 1017 - 1018 electron volts. and that primaries in this range arrive isotropically . Of particular significance was the detection of a single particle whose energy of 1020 electron volts is larger than the maximum that could be contained in the galactic disc by galactic magnetic fields . Particles of these energies can only originate in the galactic halo or from beyond the galaxy , and their existence is not consistent with the Greisen @-@ Zatsepin @-@ Kuzmin limit .
= = = Space Plasma Research = = =
On 4 October 1957 , the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite , Sputnik 1 . This event created a " wave of near @-@ hysteria " among a surprised American public . In response , the U.S. government increased funding for the National Science Foundation , and in 1958 , created both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the Advanced Research Projects Agency , which was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) in 1972 . On 4 June 1958 , two days after legislation creating NASA was introduced , Detlev W. Bronk , chairman of the National Academy of Sciences , met with the heads of these three agencies to create a new advisory body , the Space Science Board , to provide advice for the expansion of space research and to make sure that funding of fundamental science would be properly emphasized .
The Board convened for its first meeting on 27 June 1958 . Only four members were already engaged in space research : Rossi , Leo Goldberg , John Simpson , and James Van Allen . Rossi formed a subcommittee which included Thomas Gold , Philip Morrison and biologist Salvador Luria , who agreed that investigations of plasma in interplanetary space would be desirable . Consequently , Rossi decided to turn his group 's efforts towards its study . With Herbert Bridge , Rossi designed and tested a plasma probe based on the classical Faraday cup . However , to enhance the instrument 's response to positively charged protons and to suppress its response to photoelectrons produced by sunlight , four grids were deployed within the cup . A key innovation was a modulating voltage applied to one of the grids , which converted the signal into an alternating current , proportional to the proton flux and uncontaminated by any contribution of photoelectrons .
After intense lobbying of Homer Newell , NASA 's deputy director of space flight programs , Rossi secured a flight opportunity on Explorer 10 , " Goddard 's first home @-@ grown satellite " . The unannounced goal was to hit the moon , but after launch on 25 March 1961 , the satellite went into a highly elongated orbit around Earth , whose apogee , at 70 % of the distance to the moon , was well short of this goal .
Nevertheless , during 52 hours of data recorded by the MIT probe before battery power ran out , Rossi 's group found a transition between two distinct regions around earth . Near earth. there were fairly strong and well organised magnetic fields , but no indication of interplanetary protons . At 22 earth radii , the spacecraft entered a region where magnetic fields were weaker and more irregular , and where a substantial flux of protons was observed coming from the general direction of the Sun . On several occasions during the rest of the flight , this flux disappeared and then reappeared again , which indicated that the spacecraft was flying close to the boundary between the two regions and that this boundary was moving irregularly . Eventually , this boundary became known as the magnetopause .
Under Bridge and Rossi , the MIT space plasma group included Frank Scherb , Edwin Lyon , Alan Lazarus , Alberto Bonnetti , Alberto Egidi , John Belcher and Constance Dilworth , who was Occhialini 's wife . Its Faraday cups have collected data on plasma throughout the solar system : near Earth on OGO @-@ 1 , OGO 3 and IMP 8 , in interplanetary space on WIND , and in the Heliosphere and Heliosheath on Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 .
= = = X @-@ Ray astronomy = = =
As a consultant to American Science and Engineering , Inc . , Rossi initiated the rocket experiments that discovered the first extra @-@ solar source of X @-@ rays , Scorpius X @-@ 1 . Rossi was made Institute Professor at MIT in 1966 .
= = = Retirement = = =
Rossi retired from MIT in 1970 . From 1974 to 1980 he taught at the University of Palermo . In retirement he wrote a number of monographs , and a 1990 autobiography , Moments in the Life of a Scientist , which was published by Cambridge University Press . He died from a cardiac arrest at his home in Cambridge on 21 November 1993 . He was survived by his wife , Nora , daughters Florence and Linda and son Frank . He was cremated , and his ashes are in the graveyard of the church of San Miniato al Monte , which overlooks Florence and the hill of Arcetri .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Awards = = =
Wolf Prize in Physics for his role in the development of X @-@ ray astronomy ( 1987 )
National Medal of Science ( 1985 )
Rumford Prize award of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for " discoveries concerning the nature and origins of cosmic radiations " ( 1976 )
Elliott Cresson Medal ( 1974 )
Gold Medal of the Italian Physical Society ( 1970 )
Doctors honoris causa from the universities of Palermo , Durham , and Chicago
= = = Legacy = = =
Rossi X @-@ ray Timing Explorer , a NASA satellite X @-@ ray observatory launched in 1995 .
Bruno Rossi Prize of the High Energy Astrophysics division of the American Astronomical Society .
There is an endowed chair named in honor of Bruno Rossi at MIT . It is currently held by Prof. Claude R. Canizares .
= = Books = =
Rossi , Bruno ( 1952 ) . High @-@ energy Particles . New York : Prentice @-@ Hall . OCLC 289682 .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1964 ) . Cosmic Rays . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill .
Rossi , Bruno ; S. Olbert ( 1970 ) . Introduction to the Physics of Space . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1990 ) . Moments in the Life of a Scientist . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 36439 @-@ 6 .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1957 ) . Optics . Reading , MA : Addison Wesley .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1959 ) . " High @-@ energy cosmic rays " . Sci . Am . ( Nov 1959 ) 201 ( 5 ) : 135 – 46 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / scientificamerican1159 @-@ 134 . PMID 14439229 .
= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 7 ) =
The seventh season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States from July 19 , 2009 to June 11 , 2011 . It contained 26 episodes , beginning with the episodes " Tentacle Vision " and " I Heart Dancing " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom .
The season was executive produced by series
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creator Hillenburg and writer Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the showrunner . In 2011 , Legends of Bikini Bottom , an anthology series consists of five episodes from the season , was launched . A number of guest stars appeared on the season 's episodes . Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : Complete Seventh Season DVD was released in Region 1 on December 6 , 2011 , Region 2 on September 17 , 2012 , and Region 4 on September 12 , 2012 .
The series won the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards in the category of Favorite Cartoon . The episode " That Sinking Feeling " was nominated at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producers were series creator Stephen Hillenburg and Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the series ' showrunner . On March 13 , 2008 , during the broadcast of the sixth season , the network renewed the show for a seventh season , with 26 episodes in order . Cyma Zarghami , president of Nickelodeon & MTVN Kids and Family Group , said , " The strength of the Nickelodeon brand comes from how we embrace everything important to kids , and how we are with them virtually everywhere they want us to be . Our open philosophy to give audiences access to everything they love , and our commitment to making relevant and innovative content , have put us at the top of cable , VOD and online . Nickelodeon has strong momentum as a brand and as a business , and we have a great foundation built on great talent and relationships with some of the best creative leaders in our industry . "
In a statement , Brown Johnson , president of animation for Nickelodeon , said , " We are thrilled to be making another season of SpongeBob SquarePants – a series we hope to make for a long time . " On July 19 , 2009 , the season premiered with the episodes " Tentacle @-@ Vision " and " I Heart Dancing " . The former was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash and Derek Iversen , with Alan Smart serving as animation director . The episode " I Heart Dancing " was written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas , Mr. Lawrence , and was directed by Tom Yasumi .
In 2011 , Nickelodeon debuted an anthology series , Legends of Bikini Bottom , of five seventh season episodes in the show . It was released on January 27 , 2011 on the online social networking service Facebook before it aired on the cable channel Nickelodeon . " Trenchbillies " was the first episode to air on Facebook and was written by Aaron Springer and Richard Pursel , with Andrew Overtoom serving as animation director . Nickelodeon said on January 27 that SpongeBob SquarePants has more than 16 million " friends " on Facebook . The decision of airing the series online was aimed at attracting " the young and the restless hooked to the internet and the social media . " In a press release , Brown Johnson said , " The anthology format of Legends of Bikini Bottom provides a great opportunity to try something new where we can give SpongeBob 's 16 million fans on Facebook a first look , in addition to new content on @-@ air " . Each episode was available for two weeks on Facebook . The other four episodes called " Sponge @-@ Cano ! " , " The Main Drain " , " The Monster Who Came to Bikini Bottom " and " Welcome to the Bikini Bottom Triangle " premiered on Nickelodeon in an hour @-@ long special on January 28 , 2011 .
Animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the seventh season included Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , and Tom Yasumi . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Casey Alexander , Steven Banks , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Zeus Cervas , Sean Charmatz , Derek Ivesen , Mr. Lawrence , Dani Michaeli , Richard Pursel , and Aaron Springer . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Brookshier , Cash , Cervas , Charmatz , and Springer .
= = Cast = =
The seventh season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money who is SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " Back to the Past " , Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned , reprising their respective roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy . The episode is also guest starred by the original Batman series stars Adam West as the young Mermaid Man and Burt Ward as the young Barnacle Boy . Borgnie and Conway later voiced their recurring roles in the episode " The Bad Guy Club for Villains " . Comedian and actress Laraine Newman voices the character of Plankton 's Grandma in " Gramma 's Secret Recipe " . In the anthology series Legends of Bikini Bottom , actresses Amy Sedaris and Ginnifer Goodwin guest star . Sedaris appears in the episode " Trenchbillies " as the voice of Ma Angler . Goodwin also guest stars as the voice of a purple @-@ haired mermaid in the episode " Welcome to the Bikini Bottom Triangle " . She lends her voice to a teenage mermaid who steals from others through Bikini Bottom 's version of the Bermuda Triangle . In " The Curse of Hex " , Saturday Night Live 's Kristen Wiig guest stars as the voice of Madame Hagfish . Marion Ross voiced her recurring role as Grandma SquarePants , SpongeBob 's grandmother , in the episode " The Abrasive Side " .
= = Reception = =
The series has received recognition , including the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon . The series also won the same category at the succeeding year 's Kids ' Choice Awards and at the 2010 and 2011 Indonesia Kids ' Choice Awards . At the Kids ' Choice Awards Mexico 2010 and Kids ' Choice Awards Argentina 2011 , the show was nominated for Favorite Cartoon , but did not win . The episode " That Sinking Feeling " was nominated at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while the crew members , Jeremy Wakefield , Sage Guyton , Nick Carr and Tuck Tucker , won the Music in a Television Production category . SpongeBob SquarePants also won at the 2011 ASCAP Film and Television Awards for Top Television Series . At the 2010 and 2011 TP de Oro , the series won the Best Children and Youth Program category .
In his review of the seventh season for DVD Talk , Ian Jane wrote that the series " is one of those rare animated shows that can be enjoyed equally as much by both adults and children . " He described the concept of the show as " utterly ludicrous . " He cited the episodes " SpongeBob 's Last Stand " and " Tentacle @-@ Vision " as " interesting stand outs , " while the episodes " The Inside Job " , " Back To The Past " , " Gary in Love " , and " The Abrasive Side " as " memorable episodes this time around . " However , Jane said that the season is not as good as the previous seasons , writing " It 's not that this more recent material isn 't fun , because it is , but by this point in time storylines are beginning to get a little repetitive and as such , the series doesn 't seem quite as fresh and original as it once did . " Jane " recommended " the DVD set , writing " This latest collection of episodes is not a high point in the series but it 's still decent enough family friendly entertainment , even if it does get too repetitive for its own good . "
Josh Rode of DVD Verdict said that the season " has its moments " , but is " by far the least consistently funny season of the venerable cartoon . " Rode also said that the characters of SpongeBob SquarePants and Patrick Star " have become the least engaging parts of the show , which is a problem since they dominate screen time . " He perceived that Patrick " has been dumbed down too far . " As for the character of SpongeBob , he criticized his changing voice that has become " more nasal over the years . " He described the character " like a happy , fun @-@ loving , not @-@ overly @-@ intelligent sponge , " but said that " [ He ] has entirely lost the naïveté which has long been the basis of his charm . "
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The DVD boxset for season seven was released by Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon in the United States and Canada in December 2011 , six months after the season had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release features bonus materials , including " animated shorts . "
= Joe Biden presidential campaign , 1988 =
Joseph Robinette " Joe " Biden , Jr . , a Democratic United States Senator from Delaware at the time , was a candidate for President of the United States in the 1988 United States presidential election .
Biden announced his candidacy in June 1987 , and was considered one of the potentially strongest candidates in the field . However , in September 1987 , newspaper stories stated he had plagiarized a speech by British politician Neil Kinnock . Other allegations of past law school plagiarism and exaggerating his academic record soon followed . Biden withdrew from the race later that month .
= = Leading up to the announcement = =
= = = Development of a candidacy = = =
Biden had been mentioned among possible contenders in the 1984 presidential election . He had considered the notion in 1983 , urged on by pollster Pat Caddell , who thought there was space for a young candidate . A fiery speech he gave to several Democratic audiences had simultaneously scolded Democrats for outdated thinking and encouraged them regarding future directions , and had gained him some notice in the party . However , Biden did not enter the race that season . Nonetheless , he won one vote at the 1984 Democratic National Convention .
Biden was active on the party speaking circuit from 1985 on , and was considered one of the best orators among the potential presidential candidates for 1988 . The declared absence of Senator Ted Kennedy from the field , to whom Biden was sometimes compared , was also encouraging to a possible Biden candidacy .
Biden received considerable attention in the summer of 1986 when he excoriated Secretary of State George Shultz at a Senate hearing because of the Reagan administration 's support of South Africa , which continued to support a system of apartheid .
= = = Status among candidates = = =
Biden was initially considered one of the potentially strongest candidates as campaigning began in 1987 . This was because of his moderate image , his speaking ability on the stump ( rated second only to that of Jesse Jackson ) , his appeal to Baby Boomers , his high profile position as chair of the Senate Judiciary committee , looming for the Robert Bork confirmation hearings , and his fundraising appeal — his $ 1 @.@ 7 million raised in the first quarter of 1987 was more than any other candidate . By the end of April he had raised $ 2 million , using not just contributions from Delaware but also establishing a base of support among young professionals and Jewish voters in a number of urban- and suburban @-@ oriented states . He had no campaign debt , and Fortune magazine termed his " most impressive start " a " surprise " .
When the campaign began , former Senator Gary Hart , who had made a strong nomination run four years earlier , was considered the clear front @-@ runner . Indeed , The Wall Street Journal referred to the eight @-@ person Democratic field as " Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs " . The field 's chances were greatly improved once Hart withdrew from the race in May 1987 , following revelations of Donna Rice and Monkey Business .
However , Biden did not see a rise in his poll numbers immediately after the Hart withdrawal , and was particularly stagnant in polls for the Iowa caucuses . Nevertheless , Biden had confidence that he could prevail ; on the eve of his announcement , he said : " I 'm going to win this thing . I really am . I just know it , I can feel it in my fingertips . " Some political professionals saw Biden as believing that he could simply will himself to win the race , but his continued ability to raise campaign funds gave him credibility as a candidate .
= = Announcement = =
At age of 45 , Biden became one of the official candidates for Democratic nomination , formally declaring his candidacy at the Wilmington train station on June 9 , 1987 .
In his speech , Biden said that Americans should rise above " the mere accumulation of material things " . In language intended to recall John F. Kennedy , he said , " For too long in this society , we have celebrated unrestrained individualism over common community . For too long as a nation , we have been lulled by the anthem of self @-@ interest . For a decade , led by Ronald Reagan , self @-@ aggrandizement has been the full @-@ throated cry of this society : ' I 've got mine so why don 't you get yours ' and ' What 's in it for me ? ' ... We must rekindle the fire of idealism in our society , for nothing suffocates the promise of America more than unbounded cynicism and indifference . "
Biden also laid out the platform he was running on , which included a middle stance between protectionism and free trade , opposition to the Reagan Strategic Defense Initiative , and support for child welfare , reduction of poverty , and the war against illegal drugs . Biden also emphasized the need for integrity in government .
= = Campaign staff and policy team = =
Biden 's campaign manager was Tim Ridley , his press secretary was Larry Rasky , and his pollster and strategist was Pat Caddell . Biden 's Senate chief @-@ of @-@ staff Ted Kaufman served as the campaign treasurer and principle fundraiser . John Marttila served as a political consultant and Tom Donilon served as another strategist . Biden 's sister Valerie Biden Owens also served a major role in running the campaign , as she had in all of his Senate campaigns , and was considered " first among equals " in making decisions .
= = Campaign developments 1987 = =
= = = Summer 1987 = = =
Once underway , Biden 's campaign messaging became confused due to staff rivalries and bickering . Four different themes were presented , sometimes simultaneously : " Pepsi Generation " , " Voice of optimism " , " Save the children " , and " Scold the voters " . Pollster Pat Caddell in particular was a disruptive force within the campaign , but he had been Biden 's friend for 15 years . Another of the themes was generational change ; Biden hoped to inspire a new generation , as John F. Kennedy had inspired his . But that theme was not catching on especially well . Biden was also hurt by his never having been a player in the Washington social scene .
By August 1987 , Biden 's campaign had begun to lag behind those of Michael Dukakis and Richard Gephardt , although he had still raised more funds than all candidates but Dukakis , and was seeing an upturn in Iowa polls .
= = = Kinnock controversy = = =
Major controversy beset Biden 's candidacy , beginning on September 12 , 1987 with high @-@ profile articles in The New York Times and The Des Moines Register . Biden was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock , leader of the British Labour Party . Kinnock 's speech , delivered to a Welsh Labour Party conference on May 15 , 1987 , and then rebroadcast during the UK 1987 general election , included the lines :
While Biden 's speech included the lines :
Biden went on to duplicate other parts of Kinnock 's speech , such as their forebears ' ability to read and write poetry , their strength in working for hours underground in a mine only to come up and play football afterward , and their being limited by lack of a " platform " upon which to stand .
Biden had in fact cited Kinnock as the source for the formulation on previous occasions . But he made no reference to the original source at the August 23 Democratic debate at the Iowa State Fair being reported on , nor in an August 26 interview for the National Education Association . Moreover , while political speeches often appropriate ideas and language from each other , Biden 's use came under more scrutiny because he fabricated aspects of his own family 's background in order to match Kinnock 's .
Following the Kinnock attention , reports came from the San Jose Mercury News of Biden giving a February 3 , 1987 , speech to the California Democratic Party that reused without credit passages from a 1967 speech by Robert F. Kennedy , and of Biden giving 1985 and 1986 speeches that did the same with a passage from a 1976 speech by Hubert H. Humphrey . In the Kennedy case – which got the greater attention , since there was film footage of both versions that television news programs could play side @-@ by @-@ side – Pat Caddell stated that the reuse without credit was his own fault , and that he had never informed Biden of the source of the material . It was also reported that the California speech had taken a short phrase from the 1961 inaugural address of John F. Kennedy .
After Biden withdrew from the race , it was learned that he had indeed correctly credited Kinnock on other occasions . But in the Iowa speech that was recorded and distributed to reporters ( with a parallel video of Kinnock ) by aides to Michael Dukakis , the eventual nominee , he failed to do so . Dukakis , who disowned any knowledge of the Kinnock video , fired John Sasso , his campaign manager and long @-@ time Chief of Staff , but Biden 's campaign could not recover .
= = = Academic revelations = = =
As a part of the Kinnock controversy , it was revealed that Biden had been involved in a similar incident during his first year at Syracuse University School of Law in 1965 . Biden initially received an “ F ” in an introductory class on legal methodology for writing a paper relying almost exclusively on a single Fordham Law Review article , which he had cited only once . Biden was allowed to repeat the course and passed with high marks . Though the then @-@ dean of the law school , as well as Biden 's former professor , downplayed the incident , they did find that Biden drew " chunks of heavy legal prose directly from " the article in question . Biden said it was inadvertent due to his not knowing the proper rules of citation . After ending his Presidential campaign , Biden requested the Board of Professional Responsibility of the Delaware Supreme Court review the issue . The Board concluded on December 21 , 1987 , after Biden had withdrawn , that the senator had not violated any rules , although Biden did not release this result until May 1989 .
As revealed by a video shown on C @-@ SPAN , when questioned by a New Hampshire resident about his grades in law school , Biden had replied " I think I probably have a much higher IQ than you do , I suspect , " and then inaccurately recollected graduating in the " top half " of his class when he actually graduated 76th from 85 , that he had attended law school on a full scholarship , and had received three degrees in college . In fact , he had earned a single B.A. with a double major in history and political science , and had received a half scholarship to law school based on financial need with some additional assistance based in part upon academics . During this time , Biden also released his undergraduate grades , which were unexceptional .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
The Kinnock and academic revelations were magnified by the limited amount of other news about the nomination race at the time , when most of the public were not yet paying attention to any of the campaigns ; Biden thus fell into what Washington Post writer Paul Taylor described as that year 's trend , a " trial by media ordeal " . Biden lacked a strong demographic or political group of support to help him survive the crisis . The controversy also hit Biden in his most vulnerable area , accentuating the notion that he lacked mental and verbal discipline .
Biden withdrew from the nomination race on September 23 , 1987 , saying his candidacy had been overrun by " the exaggerated shadow " of his past mistakes . His formal campaign had lasted only three and a half months .
= = Aftermath = =
Because of his early withdrawal , Biden did not participate in the 1988 caucuses and primaries , in which Governor Michael Dukakis defeated Jesse Jackson , Senators Al Gore and Paul Simon , and other longer @-@ standing contenders .
In retrospect , Biden would take the blame for his mistakes during the campaign . On one , he said , " All I had to say was ' Like Kinnock . ' If I 'd just said those two words , ' Like Kinnock , ' and I didn 't . It was my fault , nobody else 's fault . " On another , he ruefully recalled , " ' Hey pal , you want to compare IQs ? ' What an immature thing to say . "
Biden had felt poorly physically during parts of the campaign , suffering repeated headaches and at one point in September 1987 having to halt a speech in New Hampshire for 15 minutes after feeling faint . In February 1988 , he suffered the first of two brain aneurysms that required life @-@ saving surgery and seven months away from the Senate in order to convalesce . Biden and others would speculate that had his campaign not ended early , the aneurysms might have been more severe or detected later and that he might not have lived out the year .
In any case , Biden would not run again for the presidency until his 2008 campaign , twenty years later . This time he made it to the Iowa caucuses , but withdrew after a poor showing . Meanwhile , Biden and Kinnock had become close friends after the plagiarism incident . Meeting in August 2008 , after Biden had been chosen by Democratic nominee Barack Obama as his running mate , Biden introduced Kinnock to his Senate staff by saying : “ Hey , you people ! Do you know this guy ? He used to be my greatest speechwriter . ” Obama and Biden proceeded to win the general election against the Republican ticket of John McCain and Sarah Palin ; Biden 's 1988 campaign lapses were never a significant issue in the race , and Biden invited Kinnock to the inauguration .
= Olive baboon =
The olive baboon ( Papio anubis ) , also called the Anubis baboon , is a member of the family Cercopithecidae ( Old World monkeys ) . The species is the most wide @-@ ranging of all baboons , being found in 25 countries throughout Africa , extending from Mali eastward to Ethiopia and Tanzania . Isolated populations are also present in some mountainous regions of the Sahara . It inhabits savannahs , steppes , and forests . The common name is derived from its coat color , which is a shade of green @-@ grey at a distance . A variety of communications , vocal and non @-@ vocal , facilitate a complex social structure .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The olive baboon is named for its coat , which , at a distance , is a shade of green @-@ grey . Its alternative name comes from the Egyptian god Anubis , who was often represented by a dog head resembling the dog @-@ like muzzle of the baboon . At closer range , its coat is multicolored , due to rings of yellow @-@ brown and black on the hairs . The hair on the baboon 's face , however , is coarser and ranges from dark grey to black . This coloration is shared by both sexes , although males have a mane of longer hair that tapers down to ordinary length along the back .
Besides the mane , the male olive baboon differs from the female in terms of size and weight , and canine tooth size ; males are , on average , 70 cm ( 28 in ) tall while standing and females measure 60 cm ( 24 in ) in height . The olive baboon is one of the largest species of monkey ; only the chacma baboon and the mandrill attain similar sizes . The head @-@ and @-@ body length can range from 50 to 114 cm ( 20 to 45 in ) , with a species average of around 85 cm ( 33 in ) . At the shoulder on all fours , females average 55 cm ( 22 in ) against males , which average 70 cm ( 28 in ) . The typical weight range for both sexes is reportedly 10 – 37 kg ( 22 – 82 lb ) , with males averaging 24 kg ( 53 lb ) and females averaging 14 @.@ 7 kg ( 32 lb ) . Some males may weigh as much as 50 kg ( 110 lb ) .
Like other baboons , the olive baboon has an elongated , dog @-@ like muzzle . In fact , along with the muzzle , the animal 's tail ( 38 – 58 cm or 15 – 23 in ) and four @-@ legged gait can make baboons seem very canine . The tail almost looks as if it is broken , as it is erect for the first quarter , after which it drops down sharply . The bare patch of a baboon 's rump , famously seen in cartoons and movies , is a good deal smaller in the olive baboon . The olive baboon , like most cercopithecines , has a cheek pouch with which to store food .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species inhabits a strip of 25 equatorial African countries , very nearly ranging from the east to west coasts of the continent . The exact boundaries of this strip are not clearly defined , as the species ' territory overlaps with that of other baboon species . In many places , this has resulted in cross @-@ breeding between species . For example , considerable hybridization has occurred between the olive baboon and the hamadryas baboon in Ethiopia . Cross @-@ breeding with the yellow baboon and the Guinea baboon has also been observed . Although this has been noted , the hybrids have not as yet been well studied .
Throughout its wide range , the olive baboon can be found in a number of different habitats . It is usually classified as savanna @-@ dwelling , living in the wide plains of the grasslands . The grasslands , especially those near open woodland , do make up a large part of its habitat , but the baboon also inhabits rainforests and deserts . Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo , for instance , both support olive baboon populations in dense tropical forests .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Social structure = = =
The olive baboon lives in groups of 15 to 150 , made up of a few males , many females , and their young . Each baboon has a social ranking somewhere in the group , depending on its dominance . Female dominance is hereditary , with daughters having nearly the same rank as their mothers , and adult females forming the core of the social system . Female relatives form their own subgroups in the troop . Related females are largely friendly to each other . They tend to stay close together and groom one another , and team up in aggressive encounters within the troop . Female kin form these strong bonds because they do not emigrate from their natal groups .
Occasionally , groups may split up when they become so large that competition for resources is problematic , but even then , members of matrilines tend to stick together . Dominant females procure more food , matings , and supporters . Among olive baboons in Tanzania , high @-@ ranking females give birth at shorter intervals to infants with a higher survival rate , and their daughters tend to mature faster than low @-@ ranking females . However , these high @-@ ranking females also appear to have a higher probability of miscarriages and some high @-@ ranking matrilines have inexplicably low fertility . One theory suggests this occurs due to stress on the high @-@ ranking females , although this theory is controversial .
A female often forms a long @-@ lasting social relationship with a male in her troop , known as a " friendship " . These nonsexual affiliative friendships benefit both the male and female . Males benefit from these relationships because they are usually formed soon after he immigrates into a new group , and helps the male integrate into the group more easily . He could also potentially end up mating with his female friend in the future . Females gain protection from threats to themselves and their infants ( if they have any ) . Males occasionally " baby @-@ sit " for their female friends , so she can feed and forage freely without the burden of having to carry or watch the infant . Sexually receptive females and newly immigrated males can form such friendships . These relationships are sometimes enduring and the pair grooms and remains close to each other . They also travel , forage , sleep , and raise infants together , as well as fight together against aggressive conspecifics .
Males establish their dominance more forcefully than females . A male disperses , or leaves his natal group and joins another group , after reaching sexual maturity . Adult males are very competitive with each other and fight for access to females . Higher dominance means better access to mating and earlier access to food , so naturally a great deal of fighting over rank occurs , with younger males constantly trying to rise in position . Because females stay with their groups their entire lives , and males emigrate to others , often a new male challenges an older one for dominance . Frequently , when older baboons drop in the social hierarchy , they move to another tribe . The younger males who pushed them down often bullies and harasses them . Older males tend to have more supportive and equal relationships than those of the younger males . The former may form coalitions against the latter .
Despite being hierarchical , baboons appear to be " democratic " when it comes to deciding the direction of collective movement . Individuals are more likely to follow when multiple decision @-@ makers agree on what direction to go rather than simply following dominant individuals .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
Females are sexually mature at seven to eight years old , and males at seven to 10 years . The beginning of a female 's ovulation is a signal to the males that she is ready to mate . During ovulation , the skin of the female 's anogenital area swells and turns a bright red / pink . The swelling makes it difficult to move and increases the female 's chance of microbial or parasitic infection . Females with more swollen anogenital areas reproduce while younger , produce more offspring per year , and those offspring have a better chance of surviving . These females also attract more males , and are more likely to cause aggressive fights between them . Olive baboons tend to mate promiscuously . A male forms a mating consortship with an estrous female , staying close to and copulating with her . Males guard their partner against any other male trying to mate with her . Unless a female is in a multiday consortship , she often copulates with more than one male each day . Multiple copulations are not necessary for reproduction , but may function to make the actual paternity of the female 's offspring ambiguous . This lack of paternal certainty could help reduce the occurrence of infanticide . Occasionally , male olive baboons monopolize a female for her entire period of probable conception . The male protects his female from being mated by other males during consortship .
Newborns have black natal coats and bright pink skin . Females are the primary caregivers of infants , but males also play a role . In its first few days , the infant may be unable to stay attached to its mother and relies on her for physical support . However , its grasp grows stronger by its first week and it is able to cling to its mother 's fur by itself . By two weeks , the infant begins to explore its surroundings for short periods , but stays near her . The distance the infant spends away from its mother increases the older it gets . In general , higher @-@ ranking females are usually more relaxed parents than females of lower rank , which usually keep their offspring close to them . However , this difference only lasts for approximately the first eight weeks of an infant 's life . Olive baboons do not seem to practice co @-@ operative parenting , but a female may groom an infant that is not hers . Subadult and juvenile females are more likely to care for another 's young , as they have not yet produced offspring of their own . One theory for why immature females tend to seek out infants is that they can prepare for their future roles as mothers . Infant baboons born to first @-@ time mothers suffer higher mortality than those born to experienced mothers , which suggests that prior experience in caring for infants is important . Adult males in the groups also care for the infants , as they are likely to be related to them . Males groom infants , reducing the amount of parasites they may have , and calm them when they are stressed . They may also protect them from predators , such as chimpanzees . However , adult males exploit infants and use them to reduce the likelihood that other males will threaten them .
= = = Communication = = =
Olive baboons communicate with various vocalizations and facial expressions . Throughout the day , baboons of all ages emit the " basic grunt " . Adults give a range of calls . The " roargrunt " is made by adult males displaying to each other . The " cough @-@ bark " , and the " cough geck " are made when low @-@ flying birds or humans they do not know are sighted . A " wa @-@ hoo " call is made in response to predators or neighboring groups at night and during stressful situations . Other vocalizations include " broken grunting " ( low @-@ volume , quick series of grunts made during relatively calm aggressive encounters ) , " pant @-@ grunts " ( made when aggressive encounters escalate ) , " shrill barks " ( loud calls given when potential threats appear suddenly ) , and " screams " ( continuous high @-@ pitch sounds responding to strong emotions ) . The most common facial expression of the olive baboon is " lipsmacking " , which is associated with a number of behaviors . " Ear flattening " , " eyes narrowed " , " head shaking " , " jaw @-@ clapping " , lipsmacking , and " tongue protrusion " are used when baboons are greeting each other , and are sometimes made with a " rear present " . " Eyebrow raising " , " molar grinding " , " staring " , and " yawning " are used to threaten other baboons . A submissive baboon responds with displays such as the " fear grin " , the " rigid crouch " , and " tail erect " .
= = = Diet = = =
One major reason for its widespread success is that the olive baboon is omnivorous . As such it is able to find nutrition in almost any environment , and it is able to adapt with different foraging tactics . For instance , the olive baboon in grassland goes about finding food differently from one in a forest . The baboon forages on all levels of an environment , above and beneath the ground and in the canopy of forests . Most animals only look for food at one level ; an arboreal species such as a lemur does not look for food on the ground . The olive baboon searches as wide an area as it can , and it eats virtually everything it finds .
The diet typically includes a large variety of plants , and invertebrates and small mammals , as well as birds . The olive baboon eats leaves , grass , roots , bark , flowers , fruit , lichens , tubers , seeds , mushrooms , corms , and rhizomes . Corms and rhizomes are especially important in times of drought , because grass loses a great deal of its nutritional value . In dry , arid regions , such as the northeastern deserts , small invertebrates like insects , spiders , and scorpions fill out its diet .
The olive baboon also actively hunts prey , from small rodents and hares to foxes and other primates . Its limit is usually small antelope , such as Thomson 's gazelle and also , rarely , sheep , goats , and live chickens , which may amount to 33 @.@ 5 % of its food from hunting . Hunting is usually a group activity , with both males and females participating . Interestingly , this systematic predation was apparently developed recently . In a field study , such behavior was observed as starting with the males of one troop and spreading through all ages and sexes .
In Eritrea , the olive baboon has formed a symbiotic relationship with that country 's endangered elephant population . The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants , while the elephants use the tree @-@ top baboons as an early warning system .
= = Conservation status = =
The olive baboon is listed as least concern by the IUCN because " this species is very widespread and abundant and although persecuted as a crop raider there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a range @-@ wide population decline " . Despite persecution , the baboon is still widespread and numerous . However , competition and disease have possibly led to fewer baboons in closed forests . It has been actively persecuted as a pest .
= Action of 4 August 1800 =
The Action of 4 August 1800 was a highly unusual naval engagement that took place off the Brazilian coast during the French Revolutionary Wars . A French frigate force that had been raiding British commerce off West Africa approached and attempted to attack a convoy of valuable East Indiamen , large and heavily armed merchant vessels sailing from Britain to British India and China , two ships sailing for Botany Bay , and a whaler sailing for the South Seas ' whale fishery . The small British ship of the line HMS Belliqueux escorted the convoy , which otherwise had to rely on the ships ' individual armament to protect them from attack . Due to their large size , the East Indiamen could be mistaken for ships of the line at a distance , and the French commander Commodore Jean @-@ François Landolphe was un @-@ nerved when the convoy formed a line of battle . Assuming his target to be a fleet of powerful warships he turned to escape and the British commander , Captain Rowley Bulteel , immediately ordered a pursuit . To preserve the impression of warships he also ordered four of his most powerful East Indiamen to join the chase .
Belliqueux rapidly out ran Landolphe 's flagship Concorde , leaving Landolphe with no option but to surrender without any serious resistance . The rest of the French squadron continued to flee separately during the night , each pursued by two East Indiamen . After an hour and a half in pursuit , with darkness falling , the East Indiaman Exeter came alongside the French Médée , giving the impression by use of lights that she was a large ship of the line . Believing himself outgunned , Captain Jean @-@ Daniel Coudin surrendered , only discovering his assailant 's true identity when he came aboard . The action is the only occasion during the war in which a British merchant vessel captured a large French warship .
= = Background = =
By 1800 , the British and French had been at war for seven years and the British dominated the sea , following a number of significant victories over the French , Dutch and Spanish fleets . Off every French port , large squadrons of British ships of the line and frigates awaited French movements and whenever possible intercepted and destroyed French merchant vessels and warships . While British trading ships travelled in large , well @-@ armed convoys , French ships were forced to slip between harbours to avoid the British blockade . To counter British control of the seas , the French periodically despatched squadrons of ships to raid British trade lanes , particularly off West Africa and in the South Atlantic , where the stretched Royal Navy maintained only minimal forces .
The large convoys of East Indiamen were among the principal targets for any French raider . These huge ships sailed from Britain with general cargo , or often military stores and troops , to India or other ports in the Indian Ocean , South East Asia , or China . There they would sell their cargoes and take on spices , tea , silk and other luxury goods before making the return journey to Britain . A round trip took over a year and an East Indiaman sailing to Britain would routinely carry hundreds of thousands of pounds worth of trade goods ; one large convoy that sailed from Canton in January 1804 was worth over £ 8 million . East Indiamen were well @-@ protected , armed with up to 30 guns , and generally travelled in large convoys in which the ships could provide one another with mutual protection . Such convoys often had a Royal Navy escort , usually including a ship of the line .
On 6 March 1799 , a French squadron had sailed from Rochefort . Consisting of the frigates Concorde , under Commodore Jean @-@ François Landolphe , Médée , under Captain Jean @-@ Daniel Coudin , and Franchise , under Captain Pierre Jurien , it was a powerful force , capable of inflicting significant damage on lightly defended merchant shipping . Eluding the blockade force off Rochefort , the squadron sailed southwards until it reached the coast of West Africa . There Landolphe 's ships began an extended commerce raiding operation , inflicting severe damage on the West African trade during the rest of the year . Eventually the strain of serving in tropical waters told on the ships and all three were forced to undergo an extensive refit in the nearest available allied shipyards , which were located in the Spanish @-@ held River Plate in South America . Repairs continued for six months , until Landolphe considered the squadron once again ready to sail in the early summer of 1800 . The squadron almost immediately captured an American schooner , which it fitted out as a tender . At the time , France and the United States had been engaged for two years in the Quasi War .
= = Battle = =
The British convoy consisted of the East Indiamen Bombay Castle , Exeter , Dorsetshire , Coutts , and Neptune , the Botany Bay ships Royal Admiral and Ann , and the whaler Seringapatam . The sole British warship was Belliqueux . On 4 August they were near the island of Trinidade off the Brazilian coast . From there the East Indiamen would catch the westerly trade winds that would carry them to Saint Helena , the Cape of Good Hope , and their destinations .
At 07 : 00 on 4 August , while the French squadron was cruising off the Brazilian coast , lookouts sighted sails on the horizon . Uncertain of the identity of the strange ships , the French gradually closed the distance during the morning . Landolphe could see that there were seven large vessels and three smaller ships , all unmistakably British . He was unable however to tell whether they were naval ships of the line or East Indiamen . Initially he thought they might be merchant ships , but at noon he sighted double rows of gunports along the side of each ship and called off the attack , turning away and signalling for his squadron to split up , assuming the enemy to be large warships easily capable of destroying his small force . Captain Jurien protested Landolphe 's order , insisting that the convoy was composed of merchant ships and not warships , but Landolphe over @-@ ruled Jurien 's protests . In fact , Jurien was correct .
With the French in full flight , Bulteel determined to continue the ruse that his convoy consisted of warships . While he and Belliqueux pursued Concorde , he signalled for his largest East Indiamen to follow the other French ships to ensure that they did not return and counterattack the convoy while Belliqueux was engaged . Exeter , under Captain Henry Meriton , and Bombay Castle , under Captain John Hamilton , were to follow Médée while Coutts , under Captain Robert Torin , and Neptune , under Captain Nathaniel Spens , were to follow Franchise . All four vessels were over 1200 tons burthen ( bm ) and carried 30 cannon each , but none had more than 130 crew aboard and could not compete in accuracy or rate of fire with the 315 men aboard each of the French ships . Throughout the afternoon the chase continued , with Belliqueux steadily gaining on the French flagship while Franchise , accompanied by the American schooner , gained on her pursuers . At 17 : 20 , Bulteel was within long range of Landolphe 's ship , which returned fire when possible . During the exchange of gunfire neither side suffered damage or casualties , but the ship of the line was clearly gaining on the frigate and within ten minutes Landolphe surrendered rather than see his ship destroyed and his men killed in an unequal combat .
By 19 : 00 , Franchise had dumped her lifeboats and a large quantity of guns and supplies overboard , lightening the ship enough for her to far outstrip the pursuit . As night fell the French frigate made a full escape from the British force . Médée however had not escaped . Although Bombay Castle was many miles behind , only distantly visible on the horizon , Exeter had been able to follow the frigate closely . Meriton was aware of the disparity between the French warship and his own merchant vessel , but believed that as the frigate had made no effort to fight , her commander must believe Exeter to be a ship of the line . To reinforce this image in the rapidly approaching darkness , Meriton arranged lights behind every gunport , whether or not it contained a cannon , creating an effect described as " a fearsome , leering jack @-@ o ' -lantern " . As his ship drew level with the French frigate , Meriton hailed to the enemy 's deck , calling on them to surrender . Intimidated by this large and seemingly powerful enemy , Coudin decided that his only option was to strike his flag and come aboard the British ship to surrender formally . Arriving on board , he was astonished to see far fewer and smaller guns than a warship normally carried . When Coudin asked to whom he had surrendered , Meriton is said to have replied " To a merchantman " . Appalled , Coudin demanded to be allowed to return to his ship and conduct a formal naval battle , but Meriton refused .
= = Aftermath = =
In the engagement on 4 August 1800 neither side had a single man killed or wounded ; the action still inflicted a severe naval defeat on a powerful French frigate force , ending its cruise . Although Franchise spent another three weeks off the Brazilian coast before returning to France . On 9 August he encountered the merchantman Wellesley , which was on her way to the Cape , but after an engagement of about an hour , the British ship succeeded in driving off her attacker . Jurien followed Wellesley for two days but then gave up the chase ; he then did not see another sail until he left the area .
Bulteel 's convoy continued on , pausing at Rio de Janeiro on 12 August to resupply . The East Indiamen then went on to Saint Helena on their way to Asia . The two Botany Bay ships sailed on to Australia and the whaler Seringapatam sailed for the South Seas .
The captured frigates were valuable prizes but the Royal Navy only acquired Medéee , which it took into service as HMS Medee , which it never commissioned but instead used as a prison ship for a few years before selling her in 1805 . The frigates had come into port shortly before the Peace of Amiens and thus were deemed surplus to Navy requirements . The ships and their stores and equipment were sold privately ; the proceeds from the sale were paid in February 1803 , in addition to the head @-@ money , a financial award for each French sailor captured during the engagement .
Bulteel and Meriton were commended . Meriton was to fight two more naval battles against the French , serving at the successful defence of the China Fleet at the Battle of Pulo Aura in February 1804 , and eventually being badly wounded and captured by a French frigate squadron after a fierce defence at the Action of 3 July 1810 .
= Ryan Van Bergen =
Ryan Charles Van Bergen , sometimes ( mis ) spelled Ryan VanBergen , ( born March 18 , 1989 ) is a free agent American football defensive end . He had signed as an undrafted free agent with the Carolina Panthers following the 2012 NFL Draft but did not make the roster for the team . He played college football for the Michigan Wolverines football team . As a fifth @-@ year senior for the 2011 Wolverines he was a preseason Hendricks Award watchlist candidate and after posting at least two tackles for a loss ( TFL ) s in each of his final three 2011 Big Ten season games he was recognized as a postseason honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten Conference performer . He started at defensive tackle for the 2009 Wolverines before switching to defensive end in 2010 . In 2011 , he started at end as well as tackle and led the team in quarterback sacks and tackles for a loss . He was awarded the 2007 Detroit Athletic Club Michigan High School Male Athlete of the Year for his performances in football , basketball and track and field .
= = High school = =
Van Bergen attended Shadow Ridge High School in Las Vegas for his freshman year and started on the varsity football team . His family moved to Whitehall , Michigan for his sophomore season . He was the 2007 Detroit Athletic Club Michigan High School Male Athlete of the Year in recognition of his accomplishments in Football , Track & Basketball for Whitehall High School . He was a scholar in high school who maintained a 3 @.@ 7 average and was a member of the National Honor Society .
In track , Van Bergen competed in the discus throw . He went undefeated during the regular season of his junior year and placed 13th at the 2006 Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) Division 2 Lower Peninsula State championships with a throw of 145 feet 11 inches ( 44 @.@ 48 m ) and 5th in the 2007 MHSAA Division 2 finals with a throw of 154 feet 7 inches ( 47 @.@ 12 m ) . Entering the state finals he had been seeded 7th as a junior based on a qualifying throw of 155 feet 11 inches ( 47 @.@ 52 m ) and 9th as a senior with a throw of 151 feet 1 inch ( 46 @.@ 05 m ) . He qualified with these throws as the MHSAA regional champion as both a junior and senior , while also placing in the shot put . Although Van Bergen only ran a 5 @.@ 40 second 40 @-@ yard dash as a freshman , he got the time down to 4 @.@ 89 prior to his senior season .
Van Bergen attended the 2005 and 2006 Michigan Summer Football Camps . He was ranked as the 8th and 18th best class of 2007 high school football defensive end by Scout.com and Rivals.com , respectively . Rivals also rated him as the 10th best high school football player in the state of Michigan . ESPN.com rated him as the 13th best tight end in the country . Van Bergen was originally a recruit of Michigan head coach Lloyd Carr .
= = College = =
Van Bergen made one start as a redshirt freshman for the 2008 Wolverines on October 11 against Toledo . Following the 2008 season , Michigan had to replace three starting senior co @-@ captain defensive linemen : Terrance Taylor , Tim Jamison and Will Johnson . Van Bergen started every game for the 2009 Wolverines at defensive tackle . He totaled 40 tackles , 6 @.@ 5 TFs , five quarterback sacks , one fumble recovery , and four pass breakups as a redshirt sophomore in 2009 . He also posted a touchdown on a fumble recovery against Wisconsin on November 14 . His mid 4th quarter sack against Indiana on September 26 , 2009 set up a 3rd and 23 , a 4th down punt and the subsequent game @-@ winning drive in the 36 – 33 victory .
As a fourth @-@ year junior , Van Bergen started every game for the 2010 Wolverines at defensive end following the departure of defensive end Brandon Graham . He totaled 37 tackles , 8 @.@ 5 TFLs , five sacks and one pass breakup in 2010 . Van Bergen had two solo TFLs on November 13 against Purdue and three solo TFLs in the rivalry game against Ohio State on November 27 . He achieved his first seven tackle ( five solo and two assist ) outing in the January 1 , 2011 Gator Bowl against Mississippi State .
Van Bergen started at both defensive end and defensive tackle in 2011 . He was a 2011 preseason watchlists honoree for the Hendricks Award . He was named the Big Ten Conference Co @-@ defensive Player of the Week on November 14 , 2011 for his 2 @.@ 5 quarterback sack performance against the Illinois Fighting Illini on November 12 . In addition to the two solo and one assist sacks , he had an assist on a TFL and achieved his second seven @-@ tackle effort ( four solo and three assist ) . Van Bergen also was recognized by the College Football Performance Awards as the national defensive performer of the week and defensive lineman of the week . The following week , he had two solo TFLs against Nebraska . In the regular season finale against Ohio State on November 26 he tallied seven tackles one more time ( five solo and two assist ) , including a solo TFL and two assist TFLs . Thus , he concluded his Big Ten career with at least two TFLs in each of his last three regular season games . He was an honorable mention 2011 All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection by both the coaches and the media for the 2011 Wolverines . Van Bergen finished among the conference leaders in several statistics : sacks / game ( .42 , t @-@ 9th ) , tackles for a loss / game ( .96 , t @-@ 10th ) and fumbles recovered / game ( .23 , t @-@ 3rd ) .
= = Professional career = =
Prior to the draft , the Houston Texans informed Van Bergen , that they were targeting him with their sixth round pick , but the team picked up two defensive linemen in earlier rounds ( Whitney Mercilus and Jared Crick ) . Van Bergen signed with the Carolina Panthers minutes after the draft ended . Van Bergen 's tweet actually came one minute before the National Football League tweeted Mr. Irrelevant . Van Bergen was informed by the Panthers late in the draft that " he was their No. 1 free agent target " . Van Bergen was cut on August 31 .
= = Personal = =
Van Bergen is known as a media favorite , according to AnnArbor.com 's Kyle Meinke . He worked in maintenance in high school at Erdman Machine Co . , an aerospace tool manufacturer . At the time of his induction into the Michigan High School Football Association Coaches Hall of Fame , he thanked several members of his extended family including his grandparents Cliff and Gloria Verschueren and Al and Doris Van Bergen . He also mentioned his brother Tyler , who was three classes behind him and went on to play football at Grand Valley State University . Tyler went on to anchor MHSAA regional champions in the 4 × 100 metres relay ( 2009 ) and 4 × 200 metres relay ( 2010 ) . Their parents are Charles and Toni Van Bergen , from Hart , Michigan . His father , who was raised on a farm , is a retired United States Air Force veteran . Charles has eleven older siblings who are from the West Michigan region .
= Seal of Dartmouth College =
The Seal of Dartmouth College is the official insignia of Dartmouth College , an Ivy League university located in Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . Anglo @-@ American law generally requires a corporate body to seek official government sanction , usually in the form of a charter , in order to operate . Such chartered bodies normally authenticate their official acts by marking them with a distinctive seal . The seal 's design is usually complicated to avoid counterfeiting , but it can also express something about the institution 's history or mission . Dartmouth College is one such chartered body , and it obtained its official seal in 1773 .
= = Design and creation = =
Dartmouth College received a royal charter on December 13 , 1769 through New Hampshire 's colonial governor John Wentworth . The charter required a seal that was to be :
Nevertheless , on March 13 , 1770 , founder Eleazar Wheelock wrote to the trustees of the English fund that was supporting the College ( rather than the American trustees of the institution itself , as the charter stipulated ) to suggest that his :
The English trustees , including Lord Dartmouth , did not take up the suggestion . Evidence exists that they were annoyed with Wheelock 's acquisition of a charter for a college ; they were under the impression that the funds under their control were to be used to support Wheelock 's efforts at educating and Christianizing Native Americans at Moor 's Indian Charity School at Lebanon , Connecticut . Wheelock then designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel , a missionary society founded in London in 1701 , in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education . Wheelock arranged for Nathaniel Hurd , a Boston silversmith , to engrave the seal . Hurd had engraved many coats of arms and appears in a John Singleton Copley portrait of ca . 1765 with two books , one of which is A Display of Heraldry by John Guillim ( 1610 ) . Wheelock wrote to Governor Wentworth on May 22 , 1772 , saying " I hope that Mr Hurd will have the College Seal compleated by Commencement . " The seal ( a single @-@ sided " female " die used to form impressions in wax ) was ready by Commencement of 1773 , and Portsmouth resident and former Chief Justice and Treasurer of the Province of New Hampshire George Jaffrey donated it to the College . The trustees officially accepted the seal on August 25 , 1773 , describing it as :
= = History and revisions = =
Former College Librarian William Woodward hid the seal from Dartmouth 's officers along with the charter and four account books after the state of
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New Hampshire purported to take over the operation of Dartmouth College ( and purported to make Woodward Treasurer of Dartmouth University ) . The Dartmouth College Case named Woodward as the defendant and technically sought to recover the items that he had hidden . The College 's success in the Supreme Court returned the seal to its possession and extinguished the University .
In 1876 , the College switched from having its seal impress wax to having it impress paper . This required a second , " male " die to fit under the original . The seal design was also carved in sandstone on the exterior of Rollins Chapel in 1886 ( see above ) and in wood on the interior of Commons in the Collis Center in 1901 ( see right ) .
On October 28 , 1926 , the trustees affirmed the charter 's reservation of the seal for official corporate documents alone . The College Publications Committee under Ray Nash commissioned typographer W. A. Dwiggins to create a line @-@ drawing version of the seal in 1940 that saw widespread use .
Dwiggins ' design was modified during 1957 to change the date from " 1770 " to " 1769 , " to accord with the date of the College Charter . The trustees commissioned a new set of dies with a date of " 1769 " to replace the old dies , now badly worn after almost two hundred years of use . The 1957 design continues to be used under trademark number 2305032 .
= Cyclol =
The cyclol hypothesis is the first structural model of a folded , globular protein . It was developed by Dorothy Wrinch in the late 1930s , and was based on three assumptions . Firstly , the hypothesis assumes that two peptide groups can be crosslinked by a cyclol reaction ( Figure 1 ) ; these crosslinks are covalent analogs of non @-@ covalent hydrogen bonds between peptide groups . These reactions have been observed in the ergopeptides and other compounds . Secondly , it assumes that , under some conditions , amino acids will naturally make the maximum possible number of cyclol crosslinks , resulting in cyclol molecules ( Figure 2 ) and cyclol fabrics ( Figure 3 ) . These cyclol molecules and fabrics have never been observed . Finally , the hypothesis assumes that globular proteins have a tertiary structure corresponding to Platonic solids and semiregular polyhedra formed of cyclol fabrics with no free edges . Such " closed cyclol " molecules have not been observed either .
Although later data demonstrated that this original model for the structure of globular proteins needed to be amended , several elements of the cyclol model were verified , such as the cyclol reaction itself and the hypothesis that hydrophobic interactions are chiefly responsible for protein folding . The cyclol hypothesis stimulated many scientists to research questions in protein structure and chemistry , and was a precursor of the more accurate models hypothesized for the DNA double helix and protein secondary structure . The proposal and testing of the cyclol model also provides an excellent illustration of empirical falsifiability acting as part of the scientific method .
= = Historical context = =
By the mid @-@ 1930s , analytical ultracentrifugation studies by Theodor Svedberg had shown that proteins had a well @-@ defined chemical structure , and were not aggregations of small molecules . The same studies appeared to show that the molecular weight of proteins fell into a few well @-@ defined classes related by integers , such as Mw = 2p3q Da , where p and q are nonnegative integers . However , it was difficult to determine the exact molecular weight and number of amino acids in a protein . Svedberg had also shown that a change in solution conditions could cause a protein to disassemble into small subunits , now known as a change in quaternary structure .
The chemical structure of proteins was still under debate at that time . The most accepted ( and ultimately correct ) hypothesis was that proteins are linear polypeptides , i.e. , unbranched polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds . However , a typical protein is remarkably long — hundreds of amino @-@ acid residues — and several distinguished scientists were unsure whether such long , linear macromolecules could be stable in solution . Further doubts about the polypeptide nature of proteins arose because some enzymes were observed to cleave proteins but not peptides , whereas other enzymes cleave peptides but not folded proteins . Attempts to synthesize proteins in the test tube were unsuccessful , mainly due to the chirality of amino acids ; naturally occurring proteins are composed of only left @-@ handed amino acids . Hence , alternative chemical models of proteins were considered , such as the diketopiperazine hypothesis of Emil Abderhalden . However , no alternative model had yet explained why proteins yield only amino acids and peptides upon hydrolysis and proteolysis . As clarified by Linderstrøm @-@ Lang , these proteolysis data showed that denatured proteins were polypeptides , but no data had yet been obtained about the structure of folded proteins ; thus , denaturation could involve a chemical change that converted folded proteins into polypeptides .
The process of protein denaturation ( as distinguished from coagulation ) had been discovered in 1910 by Harriette Chick and Charles Martin , but its nature was still mysterious . Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky had shown that denaturation was a reversible , two @-@ state process that results in many chemical groups becoming available for chemical reactions , including cleavage by enzymes . In 1929 , Hsien Wu hypothesized correctly that denaturation corresponded to protein unfolding , a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino @-@ acid side chains to the solvent . Wu 's hypothesis was also advanced independently in 1936 by Mirsky and Linus Pauling . Nevertheless , protein scientists could not exclude the possibility that denaturation corresponded to a chemical change in the protein structure , a hypothesis that was considered a ( distant ) possibility until the 1950s .
X @-@ ray crystallography had just begun as a discipline in 1911 , and had advanced relatively rapidly from simple salt crystals to crystals of complex molecules such as cholesterol . However , even the smallest proteins have over 1000 atoms , which makes determining their structure far more complex . In 1934 , Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin had taken crystallographic data on the structure of the small protein , insulin , although the structure of that and other proteins were not solved until the late 1960s . However , pioneering X @-@ ray fiber diffraction data had been collected in the early 1930s for many natural fibrous proteins such as wool and hair by William Astbury , who proposed rudimentary models of secondary structure elements such as the alpha helix and the beta sheet .
Since protein structure was so poorly understood in the 1930s , the physical interactions responsible for stabilizing that structure were likewise unknown . Astbury hypothesized that the structure of fibrous proteins was stabilized by hydrogen bonds in β @-@ sheets . The idea that globular proteins are also stabilized by hydrogen bonds was proposed by Dorothy Jordan Lloyd in 1932 , and championed later by Alfred Mirsky and Linus Pauling . At a 1933 lecture by Astbury to the Oxford Junior Scientific Society , physicist Frederick Frank suggested that the fibrous protein α @-@ keratin might be stabilized by an alternative mechanism , namely , covalent crosslinking of the peptide bonds by the cyclol reaction above . The cyclol crosslink draws the two peptide groups close together ; the N and C atoms are separated by ~ 1 @.@ 5 Å , whereas they are separated by ~ 3 Å in a typical hydrogen bond . The idea intrigued J. D. Bernal , who suggested it to the mathematician Dorothy Wrinch as possibly useful in understanding protein structure .
= = Basic theory = =
Wrinch developed this suggestion into a full @-@ fledged model of protein structure . The basic cyclol model was laid out in her first paper ( 1936 ) . She noted the possibility that polypeptides might cyclize to form closed rings ( true ) and that these rings might form internal crosslinks through the cyclol reaction ( also true , although rare ) . Assuming that the cyclol form of the peptide bond could be more stable than the amide form , Wrinch concluded that certain cyclic peptides would naturally make the maximal number of cyclol bonds ( such as cyclol 6 , Figure 2 ) . Such cyclol molecules would have hexagonal symmetry , if the chemical bonds were taken as having the same length , roughly 1 @.@ 5 Å ; for comparison , the N @-@ C and C @-@ C bonds have the lengths 1 @.@ 42 Å and 1 @.@ 54 Å , respectively .
These rings can be extended indefinitely to form a cyclol fabric ( Figure 3 ) . Such fabrics exhibit a long @-@ range , quasi @-@ crystalline order that Wrinch felt was likely in proteins , since they must pack hundreds of residues densely . Another interesting feature of such molecules and fabrics is that their amino @-@ acid side chains point axially upwards from only one face ; the opposite face has no side chains . Thus , one face is completely independent of the primary sequence of the peptide , which Wrinch conjectured might account for sequence @-@ independent properties of proteins .
In her initial article , Wrinch stated clearly that the cyclol model was merely a working hypothesis , a potentially valid model of proteins that would have to be checked . Her goals in this article and its successors were to propose a well @-@ defined testable model , to work out the consequences of its assumptions and to make predictions that could be tested experimentally . In these goals , she succeeded ; however , within a few years , experiments and further modeling showed that the cyclol hypothesis was untenable as a model for globular proteins .
= = Stabilizing energies = =
In two tandem Letters to the Editor ( 1936 ) , Wrinch and Frank addressed the question of whether the cyclol form of the peptide group was indeed more stable than the amide form . A relatively simple calculation showed that the cyclol form is significantly less stable than the amide form . Therefore , the cyclol model would have to be abandoned unless a compensating source of energy could be identified . Initially , Frank proposed that the cyclol form might be stabilized by better interactions with the surrounding solvent ; later , Wrinch and Irving Langmuir hypothesized that hydrophobic association of nonpolar sidechains provides stabilizing energy to overcome the energetic cost of the cyclol reactions .
The lability of the cyclol bond was seen as an advantage of the model , since it provided a natural explanation for the properties of denaturation ; reversion of cyclol bonds to their more stable amide form would open up the structure and allows those bonds to be attacked by proteases , consistent with experiment . Early studies showed that proteins denatured by pressure are often in a different state than the same proteins denatured by high temperature , which was interpreted as possibly supporting the cyclol model of denaturation .
The Langmuir @-@ Wrinch hypothesis of hydrophobic stabilization shared in the downfall of the cyclol model , owing mainly to the influence of Linus Pauling , who favored the hypothesis that protein structure was stabilized by hydrogen bonds . Another twenty years had to pass before hydrophobic interactions were recognized as the chief driving force in protein folding .
= = Steric complementarity = =
In her third paper on cyclols ( 1936 ) , Wrinch noted that many " physiologically active " substances such as steroids are composed of fused hexagonal rings of carbon atoms and , thus , might be sterically complementary to the face of cyclol molecules without the amino @-@ acid side chains . Wrinch proposed that steric complementarity was one of chief factors in determining whether a small molecule would bind to a protein .
Wrinch speculated that proteins are responsible for the synthesis of all biological molecules . Noting that cells digest their proteins only under extreme starvation conditions , Wrinch further speculated that life could not exist without proteins .
= = Hybrid models = =
From the beginning , the cyclol reaction was considered as a covalent analog of the hydrogen bond . Therefore , it was natural to consider hybrid models with both types of bonds . This was the subject of Wrinch 's fourth paper on the cyclol model ( 1936 ) , written together with Dorothy Jordan Lloyd , who first proposed that globular proteins are stabilized by hydrogen bonds . A follow @-@ up paper was written in 1937 that referenced other researchers on hydrogen bonding in proteins , such as Maurice Loyal Huggins and Linus Pauling .
Wrinch also wrote a paper with William Astbury , noting the possibility of a keto @-@ enol isomerization of the > CαHα and an amide carbonyl group > C = O , producing a crosslink > Cα @-@ C ( OHα ) < and again converting the oxygen to a hydroxyl group . Such reactions could yield five @-@ membered rings , whereas the classic cyclol hypothesis produces six @-@ membered rings . This keto @-@ enol crosslink hypothesis was not developed much further .
= = Space @-@ enclosing fabrics = =
In her fifth paper on cyclols ( 1937 ) , Wrinch identified the conditions under which two planar cyclol fabrics could be joined to make an angle between their planes while respecting the chemical bond angles . She identified a mathematical simplification , in which the non @-@ planar six @-@ membered rings of atoms can be represented by planar " median hexagon " s made from the midpoints of the chemical bonds . This " median hexagon " representation made it easy to see that the cyclol fabric planes can be joined correctly if the dihedral angle between the planes equals the tetrahedral bond angle δ = arccos ( -1 / 3 ) ≈ 109 @.@ 47 ° .
A large variety of closed polyhedra meeting this criterion can be constructed , of which the simplest are the truncated tetrahedron , the truncated octahedron , and the octahedron , which are Platonic solids or semiregular polyhedra . Considering the first series of " closed cyclols " ( those modeled on the truncated tetrahedron ) , Wrinch showed that their number of amino acids increased quadratically as 72n2 , where n is the index of the closed cyclol Cn . Thus , the C1 cyclol has 72 residues , the C2 cyclol has 288 residues , etc . Preliminary experimental support for this prediction came from Max Bergmann and Carl Niemann , whose amino @-@ acid analyses suggested that proteins were composed of integer multiples of 288 amino @-@ acid residues ( n = 2 ) . More generally , the cyclol model of globular proteins accounted for the early analytical ultracentrifugation results of Theodor Svedberg , which suggested that the molecular weights of proteins fell into a few classes related by integers .
The cyclol model was consistent with the general properties then attributed to folded proteins . ( 1 ) Centrifugation studies had shown that folded proteins were significantly denser than water ( ~ 1 @.@ 4 g / mL ) and , thus , tightly packed ; Wrinch assumed that dense packing should imply regular packing . ( 2 ) Despite their large size , some proteins crystallize readily into symmetric crystals , consistent with the idea of symmetric faces that match up upon association . ( 3 ) Proteins bind metal ions ; since metal @-@ binding sites must have specific bond geometries ( e.g. , octahedral ) , it was plausible to assume that the entire protein also had similarly crystalline geometry . ( 4 ) As described above , the cyclol model provided a simple chemical explanation of denaturation and the difficulty of cleaving folded proteins with proteases . ( 5 ) Proteins were assumed to be responsible for the synthesis of all biological molecules , including other proteins . Wrinch noted that a fixed , uniform structure would be useful for proteins in templating their own synthesis , analogous to the Watson @-@ Francis Crick concept of DNA templating its own replication . Given that many biological molecules such as sugars and sterols have a hexagonal structure , it was plausible to assume that their synthesizing proteins likewise had a hexagonal structure . Wrinch summarized her model and the supporting molecular @-@ weight experimental data in three review articles .
= = Predicted protein structures = =
Having proposed a model of globular proteins , Wrinch investigated whether it was consistent with the available structural data . She hypothesized that bovine tuberculin protein ( 523 ) was a C1 closed cyclol consisting of 72 residues and that the digestive enzyme pepsin was a C2 closed cyclol of 288 residues . These residue @-@ number predictions were difficult to verify , since the methods then available to measure the mass of proteins were inaccurate , such as analytical ultracentrifugation and chemical methods .
Wrinch also predicted that insulin was a C2 closed cyclol consisting of 288 residues . Limited X @-@ ray crystallographic data were available for insulin which Wrinch interpreted as " confirming " her model . However , this interpretation drew rather severe criticism for being premature . Careful studies of the Patterson diagrams of insulin taken by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin showed that they were roughly consistent with the cyclol model ; however , the agreement was not good enough to claim that the cyclol model was confirmed .
= = Downfall = =
The cyclol fabric was shown to be implausible for several reasons . Hans Neurath and Henry Bull showed that the dense packing of side chains in the cyclol fabric was inconsistent with the experimental density observed in protein films . Maurice Huggins calculated that several non @-@ bonded atoms of the cyclol fabric would approach more closely than allowed by their van der Waals radii ; for example , the inner Hα and Cα atoms of the lacunae would be separated by only 1 @.@ 68 Å ( Figure 5 ) . Haurowitz showed chemically that the outside of proteins could not have a large number of hydroxyl groups , a key prediction of the cyclol model , whereas Meyer and Hohenemser showed that cyclol condensations of amino acids did not exist even in minute quantities as a transition state . More general chemical arguments against the cyclol model were given by Bergmann and Niemann and by Neuberger . Infrared spectroscopic data showed that the number of carbonyl groups in a protein did not change upon hydrolysis , and that intact , folded proteins have a full complement of amide carbonyl groups ; both observations contradict the cyclol hypothesis that such carbonyls are converted to hydroxyl groups in folded proteins . Finally , proteins were known to contain proline in significant quantities ( typically 5 % ) ; since proline lacks the amide hydrogen and its nitrogen already forms three covalent bonds , proline seems incapable of the cyclol reaction and of being incorporated into a cyclol fabric . An encyclopedic summary of the chemical and structural evidence against the cyclol model was given by Pauling and Niemann . Moreover , a supporting piece of evidence — the result that all proteins contain an integer multiple of 288 amino @-@ acid residues — was likewise shown to be incorrect in 1939 .
Wrinch replied to the steric @-@ clash , free @-@ energy , chemical and residue @-@ number criticisms of the cyclol model . On steric clashes , she noted that small deformations of the bond angles and bond lengths would allow these steric clashes to be relieved , or at least reduced to a reasonable level . She noted that distances between non @-@ bonded groups within a single molecule can be shorter than expected from their van der Waals radii , e.g. , the 2 @.@ 93 Å distance between methyl groups in hexamethylbenzene . Regarding the free @-@ energy penalty for the cyclol reaction , Wrinch disagreed with Pauling 's calculations and stated that too little was known of intramolecular energies to rule out the cyclol model on that basis alone . In reply to the chemical criticisms , Wrinch suggested that the model compounds and simple bimolecular reactions studied need not pertain to the cyclol model , and that steric hindrance may have prevented the surface hydroxyl groups from reacting . On the residue @-@ number criticism , Wrinch extended her model to allow for other numbers of residues . In particular , she produced a " minimal " closed cyclol of only 48 residues , and , on that ( incorrect ) basis , may have been the first to suggest that the insulin monomer had a molecular weight of roughly 6000 Da .
Therefore , she maintained that the cyclol model of globular proteins was still potentially viable and even proposed the cyclol fabric as a component of the cytoskeleton . However , most protein scientists ceased to believe in it and Wrinch turned her scientific attention to mathematical problems in X @-@ ray crystallography , to which she contributed significantly . One exception was physicist Gladys Anslow , Wrinch 's colleague at Smith College , who studied the ultraviolet absorption spectra of proteins and peptides in the 1940s and allowed for the possibility of cyclols in interpreting her results . As the sequence of insulin began to be determined by Frederick Sanger , Anslow published a three @-@ dimensional cyclol model with sidechains , based on the backbone of Wrinch 's 1948 " minimal cyclol " model .
= = Partial redemption = =
The downfall of the overall cyclol model generally led to a rejection of its elements ; one notable exception was J. D. Bernal 's short @-@ lived acceptance of the Langmuir @-@ Wrinch hypothesis that protein folding is driven by hydrophobic association . Nevertheless , cyclol bonds were identified in small , naturally occurring cyclic peptides in the 1950s .
Clarification of the modern terminology is appropriate . The classic cyclol reaction is the addition of the NH amine of a peptide group to the C = O carbonyl group of another ; the resulting compound is now called an azacyclol . By analogy , an oxacyclol is formed when an OH hydroxyl group is added to a peptidyl carbonyl group . Likewise , a thiacyclol is formed by adding an SH thiol moiety to a peptidyl carbonyl group .
The oxacyclol alkaloid ergotamine from the fungus Claviceps purpurea was the first identified cyclol . The cyclic depsipeptide serratamolide is also formed by an oxacyclol reaction . Chemically analogous cyclic thiacyclols have also been obtained . Classic azacyclols have been observed in small molecules and tripeptides . Peptides are naturally produced from the reversion of azacylols , a key prediction of the cyclol model . Hundreds of cyclol molecules have now been identified , despite Linus Pauling 's calculation that such molecules should not exist because of their unfavorably high energy .
After a long hiatus during which she worked mainly on the mathematics of X @-@ ray crystallography , Wrinch responded to these discoveries with renewed enthusiasm for the cyclol model and its relevance in biochemistry . She also published two books describing the cyclol theory and small peptides in general .
= = Illustration of the scientific method = =
The cyclol model of protein structure is an example of empirical falsifiability acting as part of the scientific method . An original hypothesis is made that accounts for unexplained experimental observations ; the consequences of this hypothesis are worked out , leading to predictions that are tested by experiment . In this case , the key hypothesis was that the cyclol form of the peptide group could be favored over the amide form . This hypothesis led to the predictions of the cyclol @-@ 6 molecule and the cyclol fabric , which in turn suggested the model of semi @-@ regular polyhedra for globular proteins . A key testable prediction was that a folded protein 's carbonyl groups should be largely converted to hydroxyl groups ; however , spectroscopic and chemical experiments showed that this prediction was incorrect . The cyclol model also predicts a high lateral density of amino acids in folded proteins and in films that does not agree with experiment . Hence , the cyclol model could be rejected and the search begun for new hypotheses of protein structure , such as the models of the alpha helix proposed in the 1940s and 1950s .
It is sometimes argued that the cyclol hypothesis should never have been advanced , because of its a priori flaws , e.g. , its steric clashes , its inability to accommodate proline , and the high free energy disfavoring the cyclol reaction itself . Although such flaws rendered the cyclol hypothesis implausible , they did not make it impossible . The cyclol model was the first well @-@ defined structure proposed for globular proteins , and too little was then known of intramolecular forces and protein structure to reject it immediately . It neatly explained several general properties of proteins and accounted for then @-@ anomalous experimental observations . Although generally incorrect , some elements of the cyclol theory were eventually verified , such as the cyclol reactions and the role of hydrophobic interactions in protein folding . A useful comparison is the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom , which was considered implausible from its inception , even by its creator , yet led the way to the ultimately correct theory of quantum mechanics . Similarly , Linus Pauling proposed a well @-@ defined model of DNA that was likewise implausible yet thought @-@ provoking to other investigators .
Conversely , the cyclol model is an example of an incorrect scientific theory of great symmetry and beauty , two qualities that can be regarded as signs of " obviously true " scientific theories . For example , the Watson @-@ Crick double helix model of DNA is sometimes said to be " obvious " because of its plausible hydrogen bonding and symmetry ; nevertheless , other , less symmetrical structures of DNA are favored under different conditions . Similarly , the beautiful theory of general relativity was considered by Albert Einstein as not needing experimental verification ; yet even this theory will require revision for consistency with quantum field theory .
= Royal Rumble ( 1993 ) =
Royal Rumble ( 1993 ) was the sixth annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on January 24 , 1993 at the ARCO Arena in Sacramento , California . The main event was a Royal Rumble match , a battle royal in which two wrestlers started the match in the ring ; every two minutes , another wrestler joined . In total , thirty wrestlers competed to eliminate their competitors by throwing them over the top rope of the wrestling ring onto the arena floor . Yokozuna won the match and was awarded an opportunity to wrestle for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania IX . Bret Hart also retained his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Razor Ramon , and Shawn Michaels successfully defended his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Marty Jannetty .
= = Background = =
Royal Rumble 1993 consisted of six matches : four singles matches , one tag team match , and the Royal Rumble match . The buildup to the pay @-@ per @-@ view consisted of feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers . Some of the rivalries dated back several years , while others were created specifically to create excitement about the Royal Rumble .
The primary feud leading up to Royal Rumble 1993 was between WWF Champion Bret Hart and challenger Razor Ramon ( a replacement for The Ultimate Warrior , who had left the previous November ) . Ramon formed an alliance in late 1992 with Ric Flair , who Hart defeated to win the title belt . During an interview in which Hart was talking about the upcoming match , Ramon and Flair came to the ring and attacked Hart . Ramon later escalated the feud by attacking Owen Hart , Bret 's brother .
Another major feud featured at the event was between Shawn Michaels and Marty Jannetty , who had teamed for several years as The Rockers . The team split up in December 1991 , however , when Michaels attacked Jannetty during an episode of Brutus Beefcake 's interview segment , " The Barber Shop " . Michaels became a singles wrestler and won the WWF Intercontinental Championship on October 27 , 1992 from Davey Boy Smith . On the October 31 , 1992 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling , Jannetty returned to the WWF after a lengthy absence and confronted Michaels . He attempted to hit Michaels with a mirror , but Michaels pulled his valet , Sensational Sherri in front of him . Sherri was hit with the mirror , which caused friction between her and Michaels . Michaels and Jannetty were scheduled to face each other for the Intercontinental Championship at Royal Rumble 1993 . Leading up to the match , Sherri announced that she would be in the corner of one of the men , but she refused to say which one .
In an undercard match , The Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) , who made their WWF debut in late 1992 , were scheduled to face the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) . There was little buildup for the match , but the Steiners and Beverlys had a rivalry over which was the best team of brothers in the WWF ( although the Beverly Brothers are not related in real life ) .
Several feuds also formed the background for the Royal Rumble match . Virgil had served as Ted DiBiase 's servant and bodyguard for several years . DiBiase treated Virgil poorly , which eventually led Virgil to turn against his employer . At Royal Rumble 1991 , he attacked DiBiase after a match by hitting him with the Million Dollar Championship , a title that DiBiase had awarded himself . Virgil defeated DiBiase for the belt at SummerSlam 1991 , although DiBiase later regained the title . The Undertaker was feuding with manager Harvey Wippleman . He had a series of matches against Kamala in 1992 that included a bout at SummerSlam . The rivalry culminated in a coffin match at Survivor Series 1992 . The Undertaker won the match , but Wippleman vowed revenge . Tito Santana and Rick Martel had formed a tag team known as Strike Force in 1987 , and they held the World Tag Team Championship together for five months . Martel walked away during a match against the Brain Busters at WrestleMania V , leaving Santana to face both opponents alone . The team split up as a result and the former partners had a lengthy feud .
Mr. Perfect served as " executive consultant " to Ric Flair in 1992 , but the relationship broke down toward the end of the year . The partnership split up when Perfect teamed with Randy Savage to face Flair and Razor Ramon at Survivor Series 1992 . Flair legitimately requested a release from his contract , as he felt he would be more successful if he returned to World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . WWF owner Vince McMahon agreed and set up a feud between Flair and Perfect to create a storyline for Flair 's departure from the company . Many wrestlers were scheduled to compete at the 1993 Royal Rumble but were either replaced or had left the company before the event . Those who were scheduled to compete were Doink the Clown , Crush , Hacksaw Jim Duggan , The Mountie , and Kamala .
The event also featured the WWF debut of Lex Luger . Luger had previously wrestled in WCW , where he held the WCW World Heavyweight Championship . He had left the wrestling industry to join Vince McMahon 's World Bodybuilding Federation ( WBF ) . After the WBF failed , Luger signed with McMahon 's WWF .
= = Event = =
Five matches with pre @-@ determined results were shown on the pay @-@ per @-@ view telecast . In addition , Doink the Clown defeated Jim Powers by submission in an untelevised dark match before the event . In the first match shown as part of the broadcast , the Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) faced the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) . Scott gained the early advantage over Beau , both men quickly tagged in their partners . Rick performed a body slam on Blake and then tagged Scott back in , who threw Blake with a belly to belly suplex . The Beverlys regained the advantage and took turns attacking Scott 's back . Blake performed a Boston crab hold to put more pressure on Scott 's back and attempt to force him to submit . Scott escaped the hold and threw Blake to the mat by performing a Tiger driver . The Steiners capitalized on their advantage by keeping Blake in the ring and unable to tag his partner . Scott won the match for his team by pinning Blake after executing a Frankensteiner .
In the next match , Sensational Sherri stood at ringside as Shawn Michaels defended his Intercontinental Championship against Marty Jannetty . She did not reveal her allegiance to either man . Jannetty gained the early advantage , knocking Michaels out of the ring and diving onto him through the ropes . He then attacked Michaels by jumping off the top rope , but Michaels countering this move by hitting him on the way down . Michaels hit Jannetty 's shoulder against the ring post and focused on wearing down the shoulder once both men had re @-@ entered the ring . Michaels missed an attack from the top rope , which allowed Jannetty to punch him repeatedly . Michaels recovered and threw Jannetty out of the ring , but Jannetty then suplexed Michaels over the rope and onto the arena floor . Sherri turned on Michaels by slapping him in the face , and Jannetty threw Michaels back into the ring with a belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex . Jannetty performed a powerslam and a DDT on Michaels . Michaels attempted to punch Jannetty but knocked the referee unconscious instead . Sherri came into the ring and tried to hit Michaels with her shoe . Michaels moved out of the way , and Sherri hit Jannetty instead . When the referee recovered , Michaels performed a superkick on Jannetty and pinned him to retain the championship .
The third televised match featured the Big Boss Man facing Bam Bam Bigelow . Bigelow attacked Boss Man before the match and controlled the match 's beginning by using power moves to wear Boss Man down . Boss Man performed two clotheslines on Bigelow to gain the advantage . Bigelow responded by throwing Boss Man with a belly to back suplex , and then threw him out of the ring . He wore Boss Man down with a bear hug . Boss Man briefly regained the advantage by suplexing Bigelow but eventually tried to run at Bigelow to crush him in the corner of the ring . As Boss Man approached , Bigelow kicked him in the face and followed this up by performing a diving headbutt from the top rope to win the match by pinfall .
The next match was for the WWF Championship , as Bret Hart defended the title against Razor Ramon . Ramon got the early advantage by punching Hart repeatedly but accidentally hit his knee against a turnbuckle while running at Hart . Hart applied a figure @-@ four leglock to apply pressure to Ramon 's knee . Ramon escaped the hold and threw Hart against a ring post ; he capitalized on this advantage by attacking Hart 's back . Ramon threw Hart with a fallaway slam and applied a bear hug . Hart escaped the hold by biting Ramon . He threw Ramon out of the ring and performed several of his signature moves , including a Russian legsweep and an elbow drop from the second rope . Hart applied the Sharpshooter , his signature hold , but Ramon grabbed the ropes , which forced the referee to instruct Hart to break the hold . Hart threw Ramon with a belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex , but Ramon responded by attempting to perform the Razor 's Edge , his signature move . Hart reversed this into an unsuccessful pin attempt . With both men exhausted , Hart applied the Sharpshooter and won the match by forcing Ramon to submit .
Before the final match , Bobby Heenan , a manager and commentator , unveiled his newest wrestler , " The Narcissist " Lex Luger . Heenan pointed out Luger 's muscles and announced that Luger would carry on Heenan 's rivalry with Mr. Perfect .
The main event of the broadcast , the Royal Rumble match , came next . For the first time , a stipulation was added that the winner of the match would receive a match for the WWF Championship at that year 's WrestleMania ( a provision that has remained since ) . The match began with two former WWF Champions , as Ric Flair and Bob Backlund entered the ring first . Every two minutes , one of the remaining twenty @-@ eight contestants entered the match according to the number they drew prior to the event . Papa Shango was the third wrestler to enter but was thrown over the top rope and onto the arena floor by Ric Flair , causing Shango to be eliminated . Virgil entered sixth and immediately attacked Ted DiBiase because of their long @-@ standing grudge . When Mr. Perfect entered in the number ten spot , he and Flair fought each other until Perfect eliminated Flair by performing a clothesline to knock Flair onto the floor . Virgil was eliminated by The Berzerker , while Perfect was thrown out of the ring by Jerry Lawler , Koko B. Ware , and Ted DiBiase .
The Undertaker was the fifteenth wrestler to enter ; he eliminated four men before Harvey Wippleman appeared , accompanying a large man ( who was later revealed to be Giant González , billed at eight feet tall ) . González attacked The Undertaker and threw him out of the ring ; as a result , The Undertaker was eliminated from the match . Several referees tried to get González to return to the locker room ; he eventually left , and Paul Bearer , The Undertaker 's manager , came to the ring . He helped The Undertaker revive , and The Undertaker returned to the locker room to find González . Several minutes later , Typhoon entered the match , followed shortly by his tag team partner in The Natural Disasters , Earthquake . Earthquake immediately targeted Typhoon and eliminated him from the match . Earthquake tried to console his partner , who ignored him and left ringside . Later , Tito Santana and Rick Martel were in the ring at the same time ; they fought each other immediately as a result of their five @-@ year @-@ old feud . Yokozuna , weighing over 500 pounds ( 227 kilograms ) , entered in the number twenty @-@ seven spot ; at one point , almost every wrestler worked together in an attempt to eliminate him , but they were unable to lift him .
Former WWF Champion Randy Savage was the last wrestler to enter the match . The wrestlers fought and several men were eliminated in quick succession , leaving Backlund , Martel , Yokozuna , and Savage . Backlund eliminated Martel but was then eliminated by Yokozuna . Backlund was in the ring for one hour , one minute , and ten seconds , which set a new record for time spent in a Royal Rumble match . Savage gained the advantage over Yokozuna ; he knocked him down and performed a diving elbow drop from the top rope . He tried to pin Yokozuna , although pinfalls are not counted during a Royal Rumble . Yokozuna pushed Savage off of him so hard that Savage flew over the top rope and onto the arena floor . As a result , Yokozuna was named the winner of the 1993 Royal Rumble match . During the match , he eliminated seven wrestlers , which broke the previous record for most eliminations in a Royal Rumble match .
= = Aftermath = =
At WrestleMania IX , Yokozuna defeated Bret Hart to win the WWF Championship . His title reign only lasted several minutes , however , as he dropped the belt to Hulk Hogan in an impromptu match . Yokozuna regained the title but dropped it to Hart the following year .
Shawn Michaels continued his feud with Sensational Sherri at WrestleMania IX . Sherri accompanied Tatanka , and Michaels countered this by introducing Luna Vachon , his new valet . After the match , Vachon attacked Sherri . The feud also continued between Michaels and Jannetty , as Jannetty defeated Michaels for the Intercontinental Championship on May 17 , 1993 . Michaels regained the belt in a rematch the following month to end the feud .
Razor Ramon continued to wrestle in high @-@ profile matches but achieved little success until changing his persona to a face after losing to the underdog 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid in May 1993 . As a fan favorite , Ramon won his first of four Intercontinental Championships in September 1993 .
The day after Royal Rumble , Flair faced Perfect in a loser leaves town match , in which the loser would be forced to leave the WWF forever . Because Flair had an agreement with McMahon to lose to Mr. Perfect before leaving the promotion , Perfect won the match and Flair did not appear in the WWF again until 2001 . With Flair gone from the promotion , Luger continued Heenan 's feud and defeated Mr. Perfect at WrestleMania IX .
The Beverly Brothers were unable to win the World Tag Team Championship , but the Steiners won the belts on two occasions in 1993 . They feuded with Money Inc . ( DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) , who had held the belts since the previous October , before winning their first championship on June 14 .
Earthquake and Typhoon stopped teaming after their confrontation during the Royal Rumble match . No feud ever materialized , however , as Earthquake was released by the WWF and left to compete in Japan . The rivalry between Virgil and DiBiase was not mentioned again until the following year , when Virgil had a brief feud with Nikolai Volkoff , who was managed by DiBiase . DiBiase was reunited with Virgil , who had been renamed Vincent , when both men were members of WCW 's New World Order in 1996 .
Luger 's status as a heel ( villain ) was short @-@ lived . Yokozuna issued a challenge for any American athlete to try to bodyslam him on the deck of the USS Intrepid on Independence Day that year . Several athletes made the attempt , but nobody was able to lift Yokozuna until Luger arrived in a helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna . Luger received a push and was given a match for Yokozuna 's WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993 , but he was unable to win the belt .
The Undertaker 's feud with Harvey Wippleman escalated in the following months and was featured at two more pay @-@ per @-@ view events in 1993 . The Undertaker faced Giant González at WrestleMania IX ; González was disqualified after attacking The Undertaker with a chloroform @-@ soaked rag provided by Wippleman . Wippleman and González recruited Mr. Hughes , and the three men attacked The Undertaker and Paul Bearer . They stole The Undertaker 's urn , which was said to be the source of his power . The feud culminated in a Rest in Peace match at SummerSlam 1993 , which The Undertaker won to end the feud .
= = = Reception = = =
Writing for Online Onslaught , columnist Adam Gutschmidt stated that the first half of the event is worth watching . He enjoyed the tag team match and the bout between Jannetty and Michaels . He also found the WWF Championship match surprisingly good . He did not , however , feel that the match between Big Boss Man and Bam Bam Bigelow was interesting . He also disliked the Royal Rumble match because too many tag team wrestlers were included , there were few exciting moments , and Giant González did not help the match . Scott Keith reviewed the event for 411mania . He found the opening match between the Steiners and Beverlys to be boring . He enjoyed much of the match between Jannetty and Michaels but found the ending disappointing . He rated the match between Boss Man and Bigelow as a " dud " but enjoyed the WWF Championship bout . He called the Royal Rumble match one of the worst in history , as he found much of the match boring and did not enjoy the debut of González . Overall , he rated the event as " mildly recommended " .
The event drew 16 @,@ 000 spectators , who paid $ 187 @,@ 000 in admission fees . This was down from the previous year 's 17 @,@ 000 fans but higher than the attendance for any of the following three Royal Rumble events . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate of 1 @.@ 25 was also lower than that of Royal Rumble 1992 , which had a 1 @.@ 8 buyrate . It was higher than the buyrates for all of the Royal Rumble events from 1994 to 1998 , however .
Royal Rumble 1993 was released on VHS by Coliseum Video on February 11 , 1993 in North America . It was released on DVD in North America as part of WWE 's Complete Royal Rumble Anthology on November 27 , 2007 . In the United Kingdom , it was released on VHS in 1993 . On June 6 , 2005 , it was packaged together with Royal Rumble 1994 as part of WWE 's Tagged Classics line for its United Kingdom DVD release . This was followed by the Complete Royal Rumble Anthology DVD set , which was released on October 15 , 2007 .
= = Results = =
^ Sensational Sherri was in a neutral corner in the third match .
= = = Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations = = =
A new entrant came out approximately every two minutes .
^ Giant González was not an entrant in the Rumble . This was his WWF debut .
Bob Backlund broke the longevity record by lasting 1 : 01 : 10 , previous records held by Ric Flair at 1 : 00 : 02 .
= I Not Stupid =
I Not Stupid ( Chinese : 小孩不笨 ; pinyin : Xiǎohái Bù Bèn ; literally : " Children are not stupid " ) is a 2002 Singaporean comedy film about the lives , struggles , and adventures of three Primary 6 pupils who are placed in the academically inferior EM3 stream . Written and directed by Jack Neo , and produced by MediaCorp Raintree Pictures , the movie stars Xiang Yun , Richard Low , Selena Tan , Shawn Lee , Huang Po Ju and Joshua Ang .
Released in cinemas on 9 February 2002 , I Not Stupid earned over S $ 3 @.@ 8 million , becoming the second @-@ highest grossing Singaporean film . Its satirical criticism of the Singaporean education system and social attitudes in Singapore sparked public discussions and parliamentary debates that led to reforms in the education system . Its sequel , I Not Stupid Too , was released in 2006 .
= = Plot = =
The film 's storyline revolves around the lives and families of three students in the EM3 academic stream , Terry Khoo ( Huang Po Ju ) , Liu Kok Pin ( 刘国彬 Liú Guóbīn ; Shawn Lee ) and Ang Boon Hock ( 洪文福 Hóng Wénfú ; Joshua Ang ) . Terry , pampered and from a rich family , is a meek and obedient boy , with a domineering mother ( Selena Tan ) and a negligent businessman father ( Richard Low ) . Kok Pin is pushed to excel at school by his mother ( Xiang Yun ) , but he shows a talent for art , not academics — much to the consternation of his family . Boon Hock and his mother struggle to make ends meet by running a small wonton noodle stall ; to make up for the lack of a father figure , he places high value on loyalty and " manliness " in his friends .
The boys are often bullied for being in the " stupid " stream , which eventually leads to a fight during which one of the bullies is accidentally injured . In the principal 's office , Boon Hock and Kok Pin explain what happened , but Terry declines to testify on their behalf , following his mother 's instructions to " mind his own business " , which infuriates his friends and causes trouble between the boys .
Meanwhile , Terry 's father , Mr. Khoo gets in a fight with a man who turns out to be Kok Pin 's father , Mr. Liu ( Jack Neo ) , over a parking space . Mr. Khoo 's company is a client for Mr. Liu 's firm , an advertising agency , and their new @-@ found enmity causes Mr. Khoo to select the marketing campaign of John , an American expatriate , over that of Mr. Liu . As John 's ideas are totally incompatible with Chinese customs , Mr. Khoo 's business suffers as his customers are driven away .
As the boys deal with their problems , a new teacher at school helps by inspiring Boon Hock to excel in Mathematics , while reaching out to the other boys . Kok Pin continues to struggle , and enlists Boon Hock to help him cheat in the Preliminary examinations , but they are caught . Unable to face his mother , Kok Pin attempts suicide , but fails . When he finally tells her , she tries to punish him but collapses ; a doctor later diagnoses her with leukaemia , and tells Kok Pin that she will die without a bone marrow transplant .
As the end of the year approaches , Boon Hock excels in the PSLE Mathematics exam , while the other boys manage to scrape by — Kok Pin only marginally . Contrary to Kok Pin 's fears , his mother is satisfied because he has tried his best . When visiting Mrs. Liu at the hospital , the EM3 teacher announces that one of Kok Pin 's drawings won second prize in an international competition , but the moment is overshadowed by the rush to save Mrs. Liu 's life . Mr. Khoo passes the transplant test , but refuses to donate after discovering the intended recipient is his enemy 's wife . He eventually relents , but it is revealed that due to a mix @-@ up Terry , not Mr. Khoo , is the suitable donor . Despite protests from his parents , he insists on undergoing the operation , which is a success . A grateful Mr. Liu offers to help Mr. Khoo 's business with his proposal . As a result , Mr. Khoo 's business booms , and the two enemies become good friends . The film ends with Terry being bullied again , as in the beginning of the movie — but this time , he stands up for himself and fights back .
= = Political satire = =
I Not Stupid criticises many aspects of modern Singaporean culture , including streaming in the education system , deference to authority , and sociocultural stereotypes . The film can be read as an allegory for Singaporean society — the pampered protagonist and narrator , Terry , is an " everyman ; " deferent and coddled , with a domineering mother and affluent father . Terry 's intellectual failings lead him to be placed in the inferior EM3 stream , which becomes the driving force behind the storyline . The subsequent stigma placed upon the narrator illustrates how the Singaporean education system promotes academic elitism , with students in lower streams looked down upon as inferior , making it harder for them to catch up and realise their potential ( see golem effect ) , even if they are not necessarily stupid . This kiasu mentality puts mounting pressure upon the protagonists of the film , confounding them as they attempt to improve their standing and ameliorate their reputation in a society which judges them " worthless " .
Terry 's mother , Mrs. Khoo , is a " thinly veiled stand @-@ in for the [ Singapore ] government " , whose " mother @-@ knows @-@ best " mentality is well @-@ meaning , but strips her children of their freedom . She demands total obedience , and her repeated lines " Do you know how lucky you are to have a good and responsible mother ? " and " This is all for your own good " parody the Singapore government 's efforts to convince Singaporeans that government policies and actions is in the best interests of the nation . Mrs. Khoo also uses her position of power to buy off rebellion in her charges with gifts and bribes , in a pointed criticism of the government 's social policies . Other characters in the film comment on this relationship — for instance , in one scene , Mr. Liu states that " it is difficult to catch fish in Singapore , because fish in Singapore are like Singaporeans ; they 'll never open their mouths " , poking fun at the Singaporean trait of obedience and respect for authority .
The film also touches on other issues including Chinese self @-@ loathing ( wherein Singaporean companies regard Western expatriates as inherently superior to local workers ) , suicide , the use of Singlish , and the differences between English and Chinese .
= = Production = =
Jack Neo 's inspiration for the film was the Iranian movie Children of Heaven . Neo and his wife were moved to " holding hands and crying after seeing the love shared by the children " , which motivated him to make his own movie about youth . After speaking with parents in order to find topics to discuss in his film , Neo learned that due to problems with the Singaporean education system , specifically streaming , students face considerable academic and emotional stress . This problem formed the core of his film , which he called I Not Stupid in reference to the social stigma that streaming places on students .
Neo also drew on a dissatisfaction he felt with the way the school system promoted deference to authority over self @-@ reliance ; he wanted his film to tell youth " If you don 't want to change or make a difference , you won 't . It 's all up to you . " In exploring these ideas , Neo spent over two years researching and editing the script — checking scenes for accuracy , verifying facts , and drafting dialogue . Altogether , the work went through thirteen different revisions , and saw over 50 children audition for the lead roles , before Neo decided to send I Not Stupid into production .
This production was carried out by Raintree Pictures on a budget of S $ 900 @,@ 000 , sponsored by Bee Cheng Hiang , Yeo Hiap Seng and Sunshine Bakeries . The production crew included Daniel Yun as executive producer , David Leong and Chan Pui Yin as producers , Ardy Lam as cinematographer and Li Yi as music supervisor . In addition to writing and directing , Neo also composed the theme song , which was sung by Chen Guorong . The actual filming took place at Braddell Westlake Secondary School and Westlake Primary School over a period of 24 days , and the film found distribution through Raintree Pictures and United International Pictures .
= = Reception = =
I Not Stupid earned just S $ 46 @,@ 000 during a limited sneak preview run , prompting Raintree Pictures to embark on a massive publicity campaign , including invitations for teachers to discuss the film . After showing for four months on 30 screens the movie earned S $ 3 @.@ 8 million , becoming the second @-@ highest grossing Singaporean movie after Money No Enough . Following its success in Singapore , I Not Stupid was released in Malaysia , Hong Kong , Taiwan and mainland China . The movie also screened at the Pusan International Film Festival , Tokyo International Film Festival , the Jakarta International Film Festival and the 2005 Singapore Season cultural exhibition in London . Over 50 @,@ 000 VCDs of I Not Stupid were sold and its sole distributor , VideoVan , declared it the " No. 1 selling VCD in Singapore " . This claim was disputed by Alliance Entertainment , which said that 70 @,@ 000 VCDs of Money No Enough were sold , but VideoVan called the comparison inaccurate , as Money No Enough was a mature title , rather than a new release .
Awards that I Not Stupid won include Best Chinese Film at the Golden Bauhinia Awards and Best Chinese Humanitarian Film at the 2002 Taiwan Golden Torch Awards ; the movie was also nominated for Best Asian Film at the Hong Kong Film Awards , losing to My Sassy Girl . Critics praised the film for its humour and uniqueness , noting that it touched a raw nerve among Singaporeans . For example , Sanjuro of LoveHKFilm.com wrote , " I Not Stupid covers a variety of serious subjects , but all the while maintains a light comedic touch . Jack Neo [ makes this film ] a clever , well @-@ crafted social commentary and a damn good film to boot . " Other reviewers described I Not Stupid as " one of the greatest cinematic feats I ’ ve had the pleasure of experiencing " and displaying a " simple and yet excellent execution " . In contrast , FilmAsia reviewer Soh Yun @-@ Huei , found it " most shocking ... that the Singapore censors actually allowed this film through in the first place " .
Despite its political satire , the film received a positive response from the government of Singapore . Goh Chok Tong , then Prime Minister of Singapore , commended Jack Neo 's creative talent during his National Day Rally address on 18 August 2002 . In 2004 , Neo was the first local film @-@ maker to receive a National Day Award , and on 21 October 2005 , he and Dick Lee became the first pop culture artists to receive the Cultural Medallion , Singapore 's highest arts award . The movie sparked public discussion and parliamentary debate about the negative effects of streaming . In 2004 , the Ministry of Education decided to merge the EM1 and EM2 streams , and on 29 September 2006 , it announced that the EM3 stream will be scrapped by 2008 .
= English cannon =
The first usage of cannon in Great Britain was possibly in 1327 , when they were used in battle by the English against the Scots . Under the Tudors , the first forts featuring cannon batteries were built , while cannon were first used by the Tudor navy . Cannon were later used during the English Civil War for both siegework and extensively on the battlefield .
Cannon were first used abroad by the English during the Hundred Years War , when primitive artillery was used at the Battle of Crécy . With the Age of Discovery and the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies , cannon saw use in British armies in North America , first against the rival colony of New France , and later during the American Revolutionary War . From the 18th century to the present day , the Royal Regiment of Artillery has formed the artillery of the British Army . The Royal Navy developed the carronade in the 18th century , although they disappeared from use in the 1850s . As with other western cannon of the period , cannon used by the British Army and the Royal Navy became longer ranged and more destructive in the 19th and 20th centuries .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
English cannon saw its first use during the Hundred Years War , being used in small numbers during the 1340s . " Ribaldis " were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy between 1345 and 1346 . These are believed to have shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot , but they were so important they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe . According to the contemporary poet Jean Froissart , the English cannon made " two or three discharges on the Genoese " , which is taken to mean individual shots by two or three guns because of the time taken to reload such primitive artillery . Similar cannon appeared at the Siege of Calais later the same year and by the 1380s , the " ribaudekin " had become mounted on wheels .
= = = Tudor navy and the rise of the fort = = =
Towards the end of the Middle Ages , the development of cannon made revolutionary changes to siege warfare throughout Europe , with many castles becoming susceptible to artillery fire . In England , significant changes were evident from the 16th century , when Henry VIII began building Device Forts between 1539 and 1540 as artillery fortresses to counter the threat of invasion from France and Spain . They were built by the state at strategic points to form the first powerful cannon batteries , but , though they had many of the same architectural facets as true castles , they served a purely military function ( rather than serving as residences ) . Deal Castle remains one of the most impressive such Device Forts , and was perfectly symmetrical , with a low , circular keep at its centre . Over 200 cannon and gun ports were set within the walls , and the fort formed a firing platform with a shape that allowed many lines of fire . In addition , its low curved bastions were designed to deflect cannonballs . Cannon were now an inexorable part of English warfare .
Cannon also saw use in the Tudor navy ( where a cannon was a " gun " , and a cannonball a " shot " ) . The French " culverin " was adapted for naval use by the English in the late 16th century , and had a significant advantage over the ballista that had previously been used in naval warfare . This cannon was of relatively long barrel and light construction , and fired solid round shot projectiles at long ranges along a flat trajectory . One of the first ships to be able to fire a full cannon broadside was the English carrack the Mary Rose , built in Portsmouth from 1510 – 1512 , and equipped with 78 guns ( 91 after an upgrade in the 1530s ) . It was one of the earliest purpose @-@ built warships to serve in the English Navy ( thought never to have served as a merchant ship ) , and her crew consisted of 200 sailors , 185 soldiers , and 30 gunners .
With the Age of Discovery , rivalry developed between European colonies and the importance of cannon in naval warfare increased . Many merchant vessels were armed with cannon and the aggressive activities of English privateers , who engaged the galleons of the Spanish treasure fleets , helped provoke the first Anglo @-@ Spanish War , though it was not one of the main factors . A fleet review on Elizabeth I 's accession in 1559 showed the navy to consist of 39 ships and in 1588 , Philip II of Spain launched the Spanish Armada against England . In a running battle lasting over a week , the Armada was scattered and defeated by the English navy .
= = = 17th century = = =
A description of the Gunner 's art is given during the English Civil War period ( mid @-@ 17th century ) by John Roberts , covering the modes of calculation and the ordnance pieces themselves , in his work The Compleat Cannoniere , printed London 1652 by W. Wilson and sold by George Hurlock ( Thames Street ) . The lower tier of English ships of the line at this time were usually equipped with demi @-@ cannon — a naval gun which fired a 32 @-@ pound solid shot . A full cannon fired a 42 @-@ pound shot ( and in fact there was a so @-@ called " royal cannon " that fired a 60 @-@ pound shot ) , but these were discontinued by the 18th century as they were seen as too unwieldy .
With the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies , cannon saw use in English armies in the North American mainland , first against the rival colony of New France . However , although the French were outnumbered , their fortifications and artillery were superior to English cannon . When 34 ships from the English colony of Massachusetts bombarded Quebec in 1690 , they were outmatched by the French batteries , which badly damaged the ships ' hulls and struck off the colours of the English flagship . The English brass field guns landed on the shore were entirely ineffective against the militiamen in the woods , and a spontaneous retreat left five cannon abandoned on the shore . French victory showed that to take Quebec , the cannon of " Old England would have to be brought in " .
= = = 18th century = = =
Before the 18th century , artillery " traynes " were raised by Royal Warrant for specific campaigns and disbanded again when they were over . On 26 May 1716 , however , by Royal Warrant of George I , two regular companies of field artillery , each 100 men strong , were raised at Woolwich . On 1 April 1722 these companies were grouped with independent artillery companies at Gibraltar and Minorca to form the Royal Regiment of Art
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illery . The regiment expanded rapidly and by 1757 had 24 companies divided into two battalions , as well as a Cadet Company formed in 1741 .
When Quebec was finally captured during the French and Indian War , the British had more cannon installed in the fortifications , and built more embrasures into the walls to maximise their effectiveness against siege batteries . When the French returned in 1760 , the defenders had to leave all but two of their field guns in the retreat into the city . However , British cannon proved effective , as a heavy cannonade on the French batteries allowed them to hold out long enough for reinforcements .
By 1771 , there were 32 companies of the Royal Artillery in four battalions , as well as two Invalid Companies comprising older and unfit men employed in garrison duties . In January 1793 , two troops of Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) were raised to provide fire support for the cavalry , joined by two more in November 1793 . All RHA personnel were mounted . The Royal Irish Artillery was absorbed in 1801 .
Additionally , the carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779 , and the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot was intended to create many more of the deadly wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel ; these in fact were often the main cause of casualties . It was much shorter and a third to a quarter of the weight of an equivalent long gun : for example , a 32 pounder carronade weighed less than a ton , but a 32 pounder long gun weighed over 3 tons . Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun calibres , but they were not counted in a ship of the line 's rated number of guns . As a result , the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can mislead , since they would often be carrying more pieces of ordnance than they were described as carrying .
The carronade was initially very successful and widely adopted , although in the 1810s and 1820s , greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long @-@ range gunfire , and less on the weight of a broadside . The small powder charge of the carronade was only able to project a heavy cannonball over a relatively limited distance . The short barrel , low muzzle velocity and short range also increased the risk that a carronade would eject burning wadding onto nearby combustible materials , increasing the risk of fire . The carronade disappeared from the Royal Navy from the 1850s after the development of steel , jacketed cannon by William George Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth .
= = Operation = =
The 1771 Encyclopædia Britannica describes the operation of 18th @-@ century British cannon . Each cannon would be manned by two gunners , six soldiers , and four artillery officers . The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder , while the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and keep ready to fire the cannon at the officer 's command . Three soldiers stood on each side of the cannon , to ram and sponge the cannon , and hold the lantern and ladle . The second soldier on the left was charged with providing 50 bullets .
Prior to loading , the cannon would be well cleaned with a sponge to remove all sparks , filth , and dirt . The powder was added , followed by a wad of paper or hay , and the ball was thrown in . After ramming the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet . At 45 degrees the ball had the utmost range – about ten times the gun 's level range . Any angle above the horizontal line was called random @-@ shot . The officer of artillery had to ensure the cannon was diligently served . Water was available to dip the sponges in and cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds .
In the late 1770s it was said that a 24 @-@ pounder could fire 90 to 100 shots a day in summer , or 60 to 75 in winter . A 16 or 12 pounder would fire a little more , because they were easier served . The Encyclopædia Britannica mentions " some occasions where 200 shots have been fired from these pieces in the space of nine hours , and 138 in the space of five . "
The introduction of carronades at this time also resulted in guns that were easier to handle and required less than half the gunpowder of long guns , allowing fewer men to crew them than long guns mounted on naval garrison carriages .
During the Napoleonic Wars , a British gun team consisted of 5 numbered gunners - fewer crew than needed in the previous century . The No.1 was the gun commander , and a sergeant , who aimed the gun . The No.2 was the " spongeman " who cleaned the bore with the sponge dampened with water between shots ; the intention being to quench any remaining embers before a fresh charge was introduced . The No.3 , the loader , inserted the bag of powder and then the projectile . The No.2 then used a rammer , or the sponge reversed , to drive it in . At the same time , the No.4 ( " ventsman " ) pressed his thumb on the vent hole to prevent a draught that might fan a flame . The charge loaded , the No.4 pricked the bagged charge through the vent hole and filled the vent with powder . At the No.1 's command the No.5 would fire the piece with his slowmatch .
= Maternal deprivation =
The term maternal deprivation is a catch @-@ phrase summarising the early work of psychiatrist and psychoanalyst , John Bowlby on the effects of separating infants and young children from their mother ( or mother substitute ) although the effect of loss of the mother on the developing child had been considered earlier by Freud and other theorists . Bowlby 's work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospital and institutional care lead to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organisation 's report on the mental health of homeless children in post @-@ war Europe whilst he was head of the Department for Children and Parents at the Tavistock Clinic in London after World War II . The result was the monograph Maternal Care and Mental Health published in 1951 , which sets out the maternal deprivation hypothesis .
Bowlby drew together such empirical evidence as existed at the time from across Europe and the USA , including Spitz ( 1946 ) and Goldfarb ( 1943 , 1945 ) . His main conclusions , that " the infant and young child should experience a warm , intimate , and continuous relationship with his mother ( or permanent mother substitute ) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment " and that not to do so might have significant and irreversible mental health consequences , were both controversial and influential . The monograph was published in 14 different languages and sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in the English version alone . Bowlby 's work went beyond the suggestions of Otto Rank and Ian Suttie that mothering care was essential for development , and focused on the potential outcomes for children deprived of such care .
The 1951 WHO publication was highly influential in causing widespread changes in the practices and prevalence of institutional care for infants and children , and in changing practices relating to the stays of small children in hospitals so that parents were allowed more frequent and longer visits . Although the monograph was primarily concerned with the removal of children from their homes it was also used for political purposes to discourage women from working and leaving their children in daycare by governments concerned about maximising employment for returned and returning servicemen . The publication was also highly controversial with , amongst others , psychoanalysts , psychologists and learning theorists , and sparked significant debate and research on the issue of children 's early relationships .
The limited empirical data and lack of comprehensive theory to account for the conclusions in Maternal Care and Mental Health led to the subsequent formulation of attachment theory by Bowlby . Following the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health Bowlby sought new understanding from such fields as evolutionary biology , ethology , developmental psychology , cognitive science and control systems theory and drew upon them to formulate the innovative proposition that the mechanisms underlying an infant 's ties emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure . Bowlby claimed to have made good the " deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect " in Maternal Care and Mental Health in his later work Attachment and Loss published between 1969 and 1980 .
Although the central tenet of maternal deprivation theory — that children 's experiences of interpersonal relationships are crucial to their psychological development and that the formation of an ongoing relationship with the child is as important a part of parenting as the provision of experiences , discipline and child care — has become generally accepted , " maternal deprivation " as a discrete syndrome is not a concept that is much in current use other than in relation to severe deprivation as in " failure to thrive " . In the area of early relationships it has largely been superseded by attachment theory and other theories relating to even earlier infant – parent interactions . As a concept , parental deficiencies are seen as a vulnerability factor for , rather than a direct cause of , later difficulties . In relation to institutional care there has been a great deal of subsequent research on the individual elements of privation , deprivation , understimulation and deficiencies that may arise from institutional care .
= = History = =
Many traditions have stressed the grief of mothers over deprivation of their children but little has been said historically about young children 's loss of their mothers ; this may have been because loss of the mother in infancy frequently meant death for a breast @-@ fed infant . In the 19th century , French society bureaucratised a system in which infants were breast @-@ fed at the homes of foster mothers , returning to the biological family after weaning , and no concern was evinced at the possible effect of this double separation on the child .
Sigmund Freud may have been among the first to stress the potential effect of loss of the mother on the developing child , but his concern was less with the actual experience of maternal care than with the anxiety the child might feel about the loss of the nourishing breast . As little of Freud 's theory was based on actual observations of infants , little effort was made to consider the effects of real experiences of loss .
Following Freud 's early speculations about infant experience with the mother , Otto Rank suggested a powerful role in personality development for birth trauma . Rank stressed the traumatic experience of birth as a separation from the mother , rather than birth as an uncomfortable physical event . Not long after Rank 's introduction of this idea , Ian Suttie , a British physician whose early death limited his influence , suggested that the child 's basic need is for mother @-@ love , and his greatest anxiety is that such love will be lost .
In the 1930s , David Levy noted a phenomenon he called " primary affect hunger " in children removed very early from their mothers and brought up in institutions and multiple foster homes . These children , though often pleasant on the surface , seemed indifferent underneath . He questioned whether there could be a " deficiency disease of the emotional life , comparable to a deficiency of vital nutritional elements within the developing organism " . A few psychiatrists , psychologists and paediatricians were also concerned by the high mortality rate in hospitals and institutions obsessed with sterility to the detriment of any human or nurturing contact with babies . One rare paediatrician went so far as to replace a sign saying " Wash your hands twice before entering this ward " with one saying " Do not enter this nursery without picking up a baby " .
In a series of studies published in the 1930s , psychologist Bill Goldfarb noted not only deficits in the ability to form relationships , but also in the IQ of institutionalised children as compared to a matched group in foster care . In another study conducted in the 1930s , Harold Skeels , noting the decline in IQ in young orphanage children , removed toddlers from a sterile orphanage and gave them to " feeble @-@ minded " institutionalised older girls to care for . The toddlers ' IQ rose dramatically . Skeels study was attacked for lack of scientific rigour though he achieved belated recognition decades later .
René Spitz , a psychoanalyst , undertook research in the 1930s and ' 40s on the effects of maternal deprivation and hospitalism . His investigation focused on infants who had experienced abrupt , long @-@ term separation from the familiar caregiver , as , for instance , when the mother was sent to prison . These studies and conclusions were thus different from the investigations of institutional rearing . Spitz adopted the term anaclitic depression to describe the child 's reaction of grief , anger , and apathy to partial emotional deprivation ( the loss of a loved object ) and proposed that when the love object is returned to the child within three to five months , recovery is prompt but after five months , they will show the symptoms of increasingly serious deterioration . He called this reaction to total deprivation " hospitalism " . He was also one of the first to undertake direct observation of infants . The conclusions were hotly disputed and there was no widespread acceptance .
During the years of World War II , evacuated and orphaned children were the subjects of studies that outlined their reactions to separation , including the ability to cope by forming relationships with other children . Some of this material remained unpublished until the post @-@ war period and only gradually contributed to understanding of young children 's reactions to loss .
Bowlby , who , unlike most psychoanalysts , had direct experience of working with deprived children through his work at the London Child Guidance Clinic , called for more investigation of children 's early lives in a paper published in 1940 . He proposed that two environmental factors were paramount in early childhood . The first was death of the mother , or prolonged separation from her . The second was the mother 's emotional attitude towards her child . This was followed by a study on forty – four juvenile thieves collected through the Clinic . There were many problematic parental behaviours in the samples but Bowlby was looking at one environmental factor that was easy to document , namely prolonged early separations of child and mother . Of the forty @-@ four thieves , fourteen fell into the category which Bowlby characterised as being of an " affectionless character " . Of these fourteen , twelve had suffered prolonged maternal separations as opposed to only two of the control group .
= = Maternal Care and Mental Health = =
Bowlby 's work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospital and institutional care lead to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organisation 's report on the mental health of homeless children in post @-@ war Europe whilst he was head of the Department for Children and Parents at the Tavistock Clinic in London after World War II . Bowlby travelled on the Continent and in America , communicating with social workers , paediatricians and child psychiatrists including those who had already published literature on the issue . These authors were mainly unaware of each other 's work , and Bowlby was able to draw together the findings and highlight the similarities described , despite the variety of methods used , ranging from direct observation to retrospective analysis to comparison groups . In addition , there was work from England undertaken by Dorothy Burlingham and Anna Freud on children separated from their families due to wartime disruption , and Bowlby 's own work . The result was the monograph Maternal Care and Mental Health published in 1951 , which sets out the maternal deprivation hypothesis . The WHO report was followed by the publication of an abridged version for public consumption called Child Care and the Growth of Love . This book sold over half a million copies worldwide . Bowlby tackled not only institutional and hospital care , but also policies of removing children from " unwed mothers " and untidy and physically neglected homes , and lack of support for families in difficulties . In a range of areas Bowlby cited the lack of adequate research and suggested the direction this could take .
= = Principal concepts of Bowlby 's theory = =
The quality of parental care was considered by Bowlby to be of vital importance to the child 's development and future mental health . It was believed to be essential that the infant and young child should experience a warm , intimate , and continuous relationship with his mother ( or permanent mother substitute ) in which both found satisfaction and enjoyment . Given this relationship , emotions of guilt and anxiety ( characteristics of mental illness when in excess ) would develop in an organised and moderate way . Naturally extreme emotions would be moderated and become amenable to the control of the child 's developing personality . He stated , " It is this complex rich and rewarding relationship with the mother in the early years , varied in countless ways by relations with the father and with siblings , that child psychiatrists and many others now believe to underlie the development of character and mental health . "
The state of affairs in which the child did not have this relationship he termed " maternal deprivation " . This term covered a range from almost complete deprivation , not uncommon in institutions , residential nurseries and hospitals , to partial deprivation where the mother , or mother substitute , was unable to give the loving care a small child needs , to mild deprivation where the child was removed from the mother 's care but was looked after by someone familiar whom he trusted . Complete or almost complete deprivation could " entirely cripple the capacity to make relationships " . Partial deprivation could result in acute anxiety , depression , neediness and powerful emotions which the child could not regulate . The end product of such psychic disturbance could be neurosis and instability of character . However , the main focus of the monograph was on the more extreme forms of deprivation . The focus was the child 's developing relationships with his mother and father and disturbed parent – child relationships in the context of almost complete deprivation rather than the earlier concept of the " broken home " as such .
In terms of social policy , Bowlby advised that parents should be supported by society as parents are dependent on a greater society for economic provision and " if a community values its children it must cherish its parents " . Also " husbandless " mothers of children under 3 should be supported to care for the child at home rather than the child be left in inadequate care whilst the mother sought work . ( It was assumed the mother of the illegitimate child would usually be left with the child ) . Fathers left with infants or small children on their hands without the mother should be provided with " housekeepers " so that the children could remain at home . Other proposals included the proper payment of foster homes and careful selection of foster carers , and frank , informative discussions with children about their parents and why they ended up in care and how they felt about it rather than the " least said , soonest mended " approach . The point that children were loyal to and loved even the worst of parents , and needed to have that fact understood non @-@ judgementally , was strongly made .
On the issue of removal of children from their homes , Bowlby emphasised the strength of the tie that children feel towards their parents and discussed the reason why , as he put it , " children thrive better in bad homes than in good institutions " . He was strongly in favour of support being provided to parents and extended families to improve the situation and provide care within the family rather than removal if possible .
= = " Maternal " = =
Bowlby used the phrase " mother ( or permanent mother substitute ) " . As it is commonly used , the term maternal deprivation is ambiguous as it is unclear whether the deprivation is that of the biological mother , of an adoptive or foster mother , a consistent caregiving adult of any gender or relationship to the child , of an emotional relationship , or of the experience of the type of care called " mothering " in many cultures . Questions about the exact meaning of this term are by no means new , as the following statement by Mary Ainsworth in 1962 indicates : " Although in the early months of life it is the mother who almost invariably interacts most with the child ... the role of other figures , especially the father , is acknowledged to be significant ... [ P ] aternal deprivation ... has received scant attention ... [ In the case of ] institutionalization ... the term ' parental deprivation ' would have been more accurate , for the child has been ... deprived of interaction with a father @-@ figure as well as a mother @-@ figure ... [ It may be better to ] discourage the use of [ the term ' deprivation ' ] and encourage the substitution of the terms ' insufficiency ' , ' discontinuity ' , and ' distortion ' instead . " Ainsworth implies , neither the word " maternal " nor the word " deprivation " seems to be a literally correct definition of the phenomenon under consideration .
A contemporary of Ainsworth spoke of " the mother , a term by which we mean both the child 's actual mother and / or any other person of either sex who may take the place of the child 's physical mother during a significant period of time " . However , another contemporary referred to " the quasi @-@ mystical union of mother and child , of the dynamic union that mother and child represent " .
= = Influence on institutionalised care = =
The practical effects of the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health were described in the preface to the WHO 1962 publication Deprivation of Maternal Care : A Reassessment of its Effects as " almost wholly beneficial " with reference to widespread changes in the institutional care of children .
The practice of allowing parents frequent visiting to hospitalised children became the norm and there was a move towards placing homeless children with foster carers , rather than in institutions , and a move towards the professionalisation of alternative carers . In hospitals , the change was given added impetus by the work of social worker and psychoanalyst James Robertson who filmed the distressing effects of separation on children in hospital and collaborated with Bowlby in making the 1952 documentary film A Two @-@ Year Old Goes to the Hospital .
According to Michael Rutter , the importance of Bowlby 's initial writings on " maternal deprivation " lay in his emphasis that children 's experiences of interpersonal relationships were crucial to their psychological development and that the formation of an ongoing relationship with the child was as important a part of parenting as the provision of experiences , discipline and child care . Although this view was rejected by many at the time , the argument focussed attention on the need to consider parenting in terms of consistency of caregivers over time and parental sensitivity to children 's individuality and it is now generally accepted . Bowlby 's theory sparked considerable interest and controversy in the nature of early relationships and gave a strong impetus to what Mary Ainsworth described as a " great body of research " in what was perceived as an extremely difficult and complex area .
= = Psychoanalysis = =
Bowlby departed from psychoanalytical theory which saw the gratification of sensory needs as the basis for the relationship between infant and mother . Food was seen as the primary drive and the relationship , or " dependency " was secondary . He had already found himself in conflict with dominant Kleinian theories that children 's emotional problems are almost entirely due to fantasies generated from internal conflict between aggressive and libidinal drives , rather than to events in the external world . ( His breach with the psychoanalysts only became total and irreparable after his later development of attachment theory incorporating ethological and evolutionary principles , when he was effectively ostracised ) . Bowlby also broke with social learning theory 's view of dependency and reinforcement . Bowlby proposed instead that to thrive emotionally , children needed a close and continuous caregiving relationship .
Bowlby later stated that he had concluded that , contrary to the focus of psychoanalysts on the internal fantasy world of the child , the important area to study was how a child was actually treated by his parents in real life and in particular the interaction between them . He chose the actual removal of children from the home at this particular time because it was a specific event , the effects of which could be studied , and because he believed it could have serious effects on a child 's development and because it was preventable . In addition , views that he had already expressed about the importance of a child 's real life experiences and relationship with carers had been met by " sheer incredulity " by colleagues before World War II . This led him to see that far more systematic knowledge was required of the effects on a child of early experiences . Bowlby and his colleagues were pioneers of the view that studies involving direct observation of infants and children were not merely of interest but were essential to the advancement of science in this area .
= = Animal studies = =
Researchers have for years studied depression , alcoholism , aggression , maternal @-@ infant bonding and other conditions and phenomena in nonhuman primates and other laboratory animals using an experimental maternal deprivation paradigm . Most influentially , Harry Harlow would , in the mid @-@ 1950s , begin raising infant monkeys in his University of Wisconsin- Madison laboratory in total or partial isolation and with inanimate surrogate mothers in an attempt to study maternal @-@ infant bonding as well as various states of mental illness .
In Harlow ’ s laboratory , infant rhesus monkeys were immediately removed from their mothers and placed with cloth or wire surrogate mothers , sometimes called “ iron maidens ” by the researchers . Harlow found that the infants would become attached to their inanimate mothers – both those made of wire and those covered with cloth- and when removed from them they would “ screech in terror ” . Harlow and his colleagues would later develop “ evil artificial mothers ” meant to “ impart fear and insecurity to infant monkeys ” -including one designed with brass spikes- but contrary to the researcher ’ s hypothesis , these animals too demonstrated an attachment to their surrogates .
Subsequent experiments would study the effects of total and partial isolation on the animals ’ mental health and interpersonal bonding using a stainless steel vertical chamber designed by Harlow , named the “ pit of despair ” , which was found to produce “ profound and prolonged depression ” in monkeys . Similarly , Harlow found that extended isolation in bare wire cages left monkeys with “ profound behavioral abnormalities ” including “ self @-@ clutching and rocking ” and later “ apathy and indifference to external stimulation ” . Harlow likened this behavior to catatonic schizophrenia .
Later experiments were devised to test the mother @-@ child bond with mothers who had themselves been reared in isolation as infants . This early deprivation was found to have retarded the mothers ’ emotional development and her ability to engage in intercourse and in turn become pregnant . In response , Harlow and his colleagues created an apparatus to impregnate these mothers they named a “ rape rack ” . Harlow found that once these monkeys gave birth , they cared little for their offspring writing , “ these monkey mothers that had never experienced love of any kind were devoid of love for their infants ” . While some mothers simply ignored their children , Harlow characterized others as “ evil ” and abusive and in some instances reported them “ crushing the infant 's face to the floor , chewing off the infant 's feet and fingers , and in one case … putting the infant 's head in her mouth and crushing it like an eggshell . ”
Harlow ’ s experiments have been heralded as revolutionary and also robustly criticized as scientifically invalid and sadistically cruel . Writing on the researcher ’ s legacy , John Gluck , a former student of Harlow ’ s opined , “ On the one hand , his work on monkey cognition and social development fostered a view of the animals as having rich subjective lives filled with intention and emotion . On the other , he has been criticized for the conduct of research that seemed to ignore the ethical implantations of his own discoveries . "
Maternal deprivation experiments on nonhuman primates have continued into the 21st century and remain controversial . Stephen Suomi , an early collaborator of Harlow , has continued to conduct maternal deprivation experiments on rhesus monkeys in his NIH laboratory and has been vigorously criticized by PETA , Members of Congress and others .
= = Controversy , misinterpretation and criticism = =
Aside from his profound differences with psychoanalytic ideas , the theoretical basis of Bowlby 's monograph was controversial in a number of ways . Some profoundly disagreed with the necessity for maternal ( or equivalent ) love in order to function normally , or that the formation of an ongoing relationship with a child was an important part of parenting . The idea that early experiences have serious consequences for intellectual and psychosocial development was controversial in itself . Others questioned the extent to which his hypothesis was supported by the evidence . There was criticism of the confusion of the effects of privation ( no primary attachment figure ) and deprivation ( loss of the primary attachment figure ) and in particular , of the failure to distinguish between the effects of the lack of a primary attachment figure and the other forms of deprivation and understimulation that might affect children in institutions .
It was also pointed out that there was no explanation of how experiences subsumed under the broad heading of " maternal deprivation " could have effects on personality development of the kinds claimed . Bowlby explained in his 1988 work that the data were not at the time " accommodated by any theory then current and in the brief time of my employment by the World Health Organisation there was no possibility of developing a new one " . He then goes on to describe the subsequent development of attachment theory .
In addition to criticism , his ideas were often oversimplified , misrepresented , distorted or exaggerated for various purposes . This heightened the controversy . In 1962 , the WHO published Deprivation of Maternal Care : A Reassessment of its Effects to which Mary Ainsworth , Bowlby 's close colleague , contributed with his approval , to present the recent research and developments and to address misapprehensions .
Bowlby 's work was misinterpreted to mean that any separation from the natural mother , any experience of institutional care or a multiplicity of " mothers " necessarily resulted in severe emotional deprivation and sometimes , that all children undergoing such experiences would develop into " affectionless children " . As a consequence it was claimed that only 24 @-@ hour care by the same person ( the mother ) was good enough , day care and nurseries were not good enough and mothers should not go out to work . The WHO advised that day nurseries and creches could have a serious and permanent deleterious effect . Such strictures suited the policies of governments concerned about finding employment for returned and returning servicemen after World War II . In fact , although Bowlby was of the view that proper care could not be provided " by roster " , he was also of the view that babies should be accustomed to regular periods of care by another and that the key to alternative care for working mothers was that it should be regular and continuous . He addressed this point in a 1958 publication called Can I Leave My Baby ? . Ainsworth in the WHO 1962 publication also attempted to address this misapprehension by pointing out that the requirement for continuity of care did not imply an exclusive mother – child pair relationship .
Bowlby 's quotable remark , that children thrived better in bad homes than in good institutions , was often taken to extremes leading to reluctance on the part of Children 's Officers ( the equivalent of child care social workers ) to remove children from homes however neglectful and inadequate . In fact , although Bowlby mentioned briefly the issue of " partial deprivation " within the family , this was not fully investigated in his monograph as the main focus was on the risks of complete or almost complete deprivation .
Michael Rutter made a significant contribution to the controversial issue of Bowlby 's maternal deprivation hypothesis . His 1981 monograph and other papers ( Rutter 1972 ; Rutter 1979 ) comprise the definitive empirical evaluation and update of Bowlby 's early work on maternal deprivation . He amassed further evidence , addressed the many different underlying social and psychological mechanisms and showed that Bowlby was only partially right and often for the wrong reasons . Rutter highlighted the other forms of deprivation found in institutional care and the complexity of separation distress ; and suggested that anti @-@ social behaviour was not linked to maternal deprivation as such but to family discord . The importance of these refinements of the maternal deprivation hypothesis was to reposition it as a " vulnerability factor " rather than a causative agent , with a number of varied influences determining which path a child would take .
Rutter has more recently advised attention to the complexity of development and the roles of genetic as well as experiential factors , noting that separation is only one of many risk factors related to poor cognitive and emotional development .
= = = Fathers = = =
In accordance with the prevailing social realities of his time , namely the assumption that the daily care of infants and small children was undertaken by women and in particular , mothers , Bowlby referred primarily to mothers and " maternal " deprivation , although the words " parents " and " parental " are also used . Fathers are mentioned only in the context of the practical and emotional support they provide for the mother but the monograph contains no specific exploration of the father 's role . Nor is there any discussion as to whether the maternal role had , of necessity , to be filled by women as such . Bowlby 's work was misinterpreted by some to mean natural mothers only .
The 1962 WHO publication contains a chapter on the effect of " paternal deprivation " , there having by 1962 been some limited research on the issue which illustrated the importance of the father 's relationship with his children . The hope was expressed by Ainsworth that in the future there would be more such research and indeed her early research , which contributed significantly to attachment theory , covered infants relationships with all family members . It was also stated that in relation to institutional care , " parental deprivation " would have been more accurate , although Ainsworth preferred the terms " insufficiency " , " discontinuity " and " distortion " to either .
Michael Rutter in Maternal Deprivation Reassessed ( 1972 ) , described by New Society as a " classic in the field of child care " , argued that research showed that it did not matter which parent the child got on well with as long as he got on well with one of them , that both parents influence their child 's development and that which parent is more important varies with age , sex and temperamental development . He concluded , " For some aspects of development the same @-@ sexed parent seems to have a special role , for some the person who plays and talks most with the child and for others the person who feeds the child . The father , the mother , brother and sisters , friends , school @-@ teachers and others all affect development , but their influences and importance differ for different aspects of development . A less exclusive focus on the mother is required . Children also have fathers ! "
Within attachment theory , Bowlby , in Attachment and Loss , volume one of Attachment ( 1969 ) , makes it quite clear that infants become attached to carers who are sensitive and responsive in their social interactions with them and that this does not have to be the mother or indeed a female . As a matter of social reality mothers are more often the primary carers of children and therefore are more likely to be the primary attachment figure , but the process of attachment applies to any carer and infants develop a number of attachments according to who relates to them and the intensity of the engagement . However , attachment theory relates to the development of attachment behaviours and relationships after about 7 months of age and there are other theories and research relating to earlier carer – infant interactions .
Schaffer in Social Development ( 1996 ) suggests that the father – child relationship is primarily a cultural construction shaped by the requirements of each society . In societies where the care of infants has been assigned to boys rather than girls , no difference in nurturing capacity was found .
= = = Feminist criticism = = =
There were three broad criticisms aimed at the idea of maternal deprivation from feminist critics . The first was that Bowlby overstated his case . The studies on which he based his conclusions involved almost complete lack of maternal care and it was unwarranted to generalise from this view that any separation in the first three years of life would be damaging . Subsequent research showed good quality care for part of the day to be harmless . The idea of exclusive care or exclusive attachment to a preferred figure , rather than a hierarchy ( subsequently thought to be the case within developments of attachment theory ) had not been borne out by research and this view placed too high an emotional burden on the mother . Secondly , they criticised Bowlby 's historical perspective and saw his views as part of the idealisation of motherhood and family life after World War II . Certainly his hypothesis was used by governments to close down much needed residential nurseries although governments did not seem so keen to pay mothers to care for their children at home as advocated by Bowlby . Thirdly , feminists objected to the idea of anatomy as destiny and concepts of " naturalness " derived from ethnocentric observations . They argued that anthropology showed that it is normal for childcare to be shared by a stable group of adults of which maternal care is an important but not exclusive part .
= = Maternal deprivation today = =
Whilst Bowlby 's early writings on maternal deprivation may be seen as part of the background to the later development of attachment theory , there are many significant differences between the two . At the time of the 1951 publication , there was little research in this area and no comprehensive theory on the development of early relationships . Aside from its central proposition of the importance of an early , continuous and sensitive relationship , the monograph concentrates mostly on social policy . For his subsequent development of attachment theory , Bowlby drew on concepts from ethology , cybernetics , information processing , developmental psychology and psychoanalysis . The first early formal statements of attachment theory were presented in three papers in 1958 , 1959 and 1960 . His major work Attachment was published in three volumes between 1969 and 1980 . Attachment theory revolutionised thinking on the nature of early attachments and extensive research continues to be undertaken .
According to Zeanah , " ethological attachment theory , as outlined by John Bowlby ... 1969 to 1980 ... has provided one of the most important frameworks for understanding crucial risk and protective factors in social and emotional development in the first 3 years of life . Bowlby 's ( 1951 ) monograph , Maternal Care and Mental Health , reviewed the world literature on maternal deprivation and suggested that emotionally available caregiving was crucial for infant development and mental health . " Beyond that broad statement , which is now generally accepted , little remains of the underlying detail of Bowlby 's theory of maternal deprivation that has not been either discredited or superseded by attachment theory and other child development theories and research , except in the area of extreme deprivation .
The opening of East European orphanages in the early 1990s following the end of the Cold War provided substantial opportunities for research on attachment and other aspects of institutional rearing , however such research rarely mentions " maternal deprivation " other than in a historical context . Maternal deprivation as a discrete syndrome is a concept that is rarely used other than in connection with extreme deprivation and failure to thrive . Rather there is consideration of a range of different lacks and deficiencies in different forms of care , or lack of care , of which attachment is only one aspect , as well as consideration of constitutional and genetic factors in determining developmental outcome . Subsequent studies have however confirmed Bowlby 's concept of " cycles of disadvantage " although not all children from unhappy homes reproduce the deficiencies in their own experience . Rather , it is now conceptualised as a series of pathways through childhood and a number of varied influences will determine which path a particular child takes .
= = The maternal deprivation concept outside mainstream psychology = =
The idea that separation from the female caregiver has profound effects is one with considerable resonance outside the conventional study of child development . In United States law , the " tender years " doctrine was long applied when custody of infants and toddlers was preferentially given to mothers . Over the last decade or so , some decisions appear to have been derived from the " tender years " concept , but others involve the contrary assumption that a 2 @-@ year @-@ old is too young to have developed a relationship with either parent .
Concern with the harm of separation from the mother is characteristic of the belief systems behind some complementary and alternative ( CAM ) psychotherapies . Such belief systems are concerned not only with the effect of the young child 's separation from the care of the mother , but with an emotional attachment between mother and child which advocates of these systems believe to develop prenatally . Such attachment is said to lead to emotional trauma if the child is separated from the birth mother and adopted , even if this occurs on the day of birth and even if the adoptive family provides all possible love and care . These beliefs were at one time in existence among some legitimate psychologists of psychoanalytic background . Today , however , beliefs in prenatal communication between mothers and infants are largely confined to unconventional thinkers such as William Emerson .
Belief in prenatal fetal awareness , mental communication between mother and unborn child , and emotional attachment of child to mother as a prenatal phenomenon , are concepts that connect easily to the unfounded assumption that all adopted children suffer emotional disorders . These beliefs are also congruent with CAM psychotherapies such as attachment therapy ( not based on attachment theory ) , which purport to bring about age regression and to recapitulate early development to produce a better outcome .
= Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 =
Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 ( English : Oral Fixation , Vol . 1 ) is the sixth studio album by Colombian recording artist Shakira . It was released on 3 June 2005 by Epic Records . After attaining international success in 2001 with her first English record , Laundry Service , Shakira wanted to release a fifth Spanish @-@ language project as its followup . In the vein of her earlier work , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 is a Latin pop album . Shakira enlisted Rick Rubin as executive producer , also working with Gustavo Cerati , Lester Mendez , Luis F. Ochoa and Jose " Gocho " Torres .
At its release Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented Shakira 's evolution from her earlier work . The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 157 @,@ 000 copies . It set a record as the highest debut for a full @-@ length Spanish @-@ language album in the country which still stands . Internationally , the album topped the charts in Argentina , Germany , Mexico and Spain . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 was the Best Latin Rock / Alternative Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards , and the Album of the Year and the Best Female Pop Vocal Album at the Latin Grammy Awards . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 became the highest selling Latin pop album of the decade in the United States and the second highest selling Latin album overall . As of May 2013 , over four million copies of the album were sold worldwide and it is one of the best @-@ selling Latin albums in the United States .
Four singles were released to promote the album . Although its lead single ( " La Tortura " ) was the only track to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 , the follow @-@ up singles " No " , " Día de Enero " and " Las de la Intuición " enjoyed moderate success on the Hot Latin Songs , Tropical Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts . In November 2005 Shakira supplemented the album with her second English @-@ language record , Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 . The two were packaged together as a box set and released as Oral Fixation , Vol . 1 & 2 in January 2007 . The projects were promoted with the Oral Fixation Tour in 2006 and 2007 , which visited the Americas , Africa , Asia and Europe . A performance in Miami , Florida was filmed and released as a live album in November 2007 .
= = Background = =
After achieving international success in 2001 with her first English album , Laundry Service , Shakira released a Spanish @-@ language record as its followup ( her first since 1998 's Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ) . Having co @-@ written nearly sixty songs for the project , she decided to divide the release into two volumes and put herself " on the mission of selecting [ her ] favorite ones " to record . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 contains all Spanish @-@ language songs and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 features all English @-@ language tracks . Shakira initially said that the second volume would have a " completely new repertory of songs " , although the completed album included two English translations of songs from the first record . It was reissued in 2006 as an expanded version with an additional translated recording and her future international @-@ hit single , " Hips Don 't Lie " . When recording the albums , she worked with previous collaborators Lester Mendez and Luis Fernando Ochoa and new partners Gustavo Cerati and Jose " Gocho " Torres .
For the album , Shakira wrote all the lyrics , and the majority of the music . " To start seeing people 's first reactions , and how people start relating to these songs and appreciating every single piece of work I have done over the past two years , is the best reward an artist can have after so much hard work , " says Shakira . " I will not lie to you ; it was not a path of roses . It was painful at times to come up with two albums , to write more than 60 songs and to fight my own insecurities and doubts . " While speaking about the difference about expressing herself in Spanish and English , Shakira told , " When I express myself in Spanish , I find elements that help me express an idea in perhaps a different way than when I do it in English . There are different aesthetics , but there is a certain style to the way I write my own songs , a particular way of describing feelings and emotions that I have developed over all these years making songs . I have gotten in touch with my own gift - I am sure , 10 years ago , I was not half as good as I can say I am today , and I am still not good enough . There is a long way to go . "
= = Cover art and release = =
The artwork for both Oral Fixation albums was inspired by Eve , the first woman ; Shakira said she wanted " to attribute to Eve one more reason to bite the forbidden fruit , and that would be her oral fixation " and that " [ she always felt ] that [ she has ] been a very oral person . [ It is her ] biggest source of pleasure " . The first volume 's cover sees Shakira holding a baby girl in her arms ; the artwork for the second album shows a nude Shakira ( covered by tree branches ) , with the infant sitting in the tree . She stated that both covers alluded to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud 's theory that infants begin discovering the world through their mouths during the oral stage of psychosexual development .
For Jon Pareles of The New York Times , " For obvious reasons , it 's eye @-@ catching , as was the cover of the Spanish @-@ language companion album , " Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 " . In the Middle East version of the album , Shakira was covered up with leaves . Complex magazine selected " Oral Fixation " album cover as the eleventh " sexiest album cover of all time " , writing that it is " the hottest portrayal of Eve in the Garden of Eden we can imagine . " Maxim also listed the album 's cover as one of the " sexiest album covers " , writing that , " A naked girl holding up an apple in a garden is played out , but not when the girl is hip @-@ shaking Shakira . Damn , it could happen all over again , couldn 't it ? . "
On January 23 , 2007 , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 were released as a three @-@ disc box set , titled Oral Fixation , Vol . 1 & 2 . Each record was on a separate disc , and was packaged with a DVD featuring music videos and live recordings of album tracks . The compilation peaked at numbers 13 and 27 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums and Top Latin Albums charts .
= = Composition = =
Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 is a Latin pop album . The introductory track , " En Tus Pupilas " ( " In Your Pupils " ) , incorporates folk music styles and its opening verse includes French @-@ language lyrics . " La Pared " ( " The Wall " ) has been compared stylistically to the 1980s duo Eurythmics . " La Tortura " ( " The Torture " ) features Spanish singer @-@ songwriter Alejandro Sanz , with elements of Colombian cumbia music , dancehall and electronica . " Obtener un Sí " ( " Obtain a Yes " ) is a bossa nova song with cha @-@ cha elements against an orchestral background . " Día Especial " ( " Special Day " ) features Argentinean singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati on guitar .
The sixth track , " Escondite Inglés " , has a new wave feel . " No " also features Cerati on guitar , using a simple melody to emphasize Shakira 's vocals . " Las de la Intuición " ( " The Ones with the Intuition " ) has synthpop elements , while " Día de Enero " ( " January Day " ) has been compared to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Natalia Lafourcade . " Lo Imprescindible " ( " Bare Essentials " ) has German @-@ language verses in which Shakira lyrically expresses " Come baby come . Don 't ever leave me " . The disc concludes with an acoustic version of " La Pared " and the Shaketon remix of " La Tortura " .
= = Singles = =
" La Tortura " was released as the lead single from Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 on 12 April 2005 . It features Spanish singer @-@ songwriter Alejandro Sanz , and was praised for its production and reggaeton influence . " La Tortura " was the only single from the album to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 ( peaking at number twenty @-@ three ) , and reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , Tropical Songs , and Latin Pop Airplay charts . The song set a record for the most weeks at number one , and additionally became the best @-@ performing Latin single of the year . The track was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , " La Tortura " topped the Hungarian Rádiós Top 40 and the Spanish and Venezuelan singles charts . Its music video was directed by Michael Haussman , depicting a fictionally @-@ romantic Shakira and Sanz .
The follow @-@ up singles were also successful . The second single , " No " , features Argentinian singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati and reached numbers two and eleven , respectively , on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs charts . The video was filmed in a black @-@ and @-@ white effect , and was directed by Jaume de Laiguana . After the release of " Don 't Bother " as the lead single from Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 in late 2005 , " Día de Enero " was the third single from Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 . It peaked at numbers seven and twenty @-@ nine on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs charts , respectively . Like " No " , its accompanying video was directed by de Laiguana . The clip refers to Shakira 's then @-@ boyfriend Antonio de la Rúa as she writes the letters " S y A " in a heart drawn in the sand .
Following the release of " Hips Don 't Lie " and " Illegal " as the second and third singles from Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 , the fourth and final single from Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 , " Las De La Intuición " , reached numbers eleven and thirty @-@ one , respectively , on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs charts and number 1 in Spain . Its video shows Shakira in a purple wig . Shakira later recorded an English @-@ language version of the song , titled " Pure Intuition " .
= = Promotion = =
To promote Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 , Shakira began her Oral Fixation Tour on 14 June 2006 at the Feria De Muestras in Zaragoza , Spain . With assistance from the Creative Artists Agency , she visited twenty @-@ seven cities and performed forty @-@ one shows across five continents . The tour was additionally sponsored by Spanish automobile manufacturer SEAT , with whom Shakira also collaborated to support her Pies Descalzos Foundation . The tour concluded on 9 July 2007 at the Turkcell Kuruçeşme Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . It grossed over $ 42 million in North and Latin America , and $ 100 million worldwide . The set list consisted primarily of Spanish @-@ language songs , and included singles from her earlier career .
In November 2007 Epic Records released the Oral Fixation Tour live album on Blu @-@ ray Disc , which was filmed during a December 2006 show in Miami , Florida . William Ruhlmann of AllMusic gave it a positive review , complimenting Shakira 's vocals and dancing talent .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic ( which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics ) Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 received an average score of 79 based on 13 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that " it 's hard to wait for Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 to arrive " , given the strength of the " commercial savvy and smart writing " displayed in the first volume . Matt Cibula of PopMatters shared a similar sentiment , adding that his excitement about Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 is a " massive understatement " . Entertainment Weekly 's Ernesto Lechner felt that Shakira " has found herself again " by " placing her operatic vocalizing at the service of Spanish poetry " , adding that this was her strongest album to date .
The Guardian 's Dave Simpson noted that " the songs are catchy , with melodies good enough to tempt non @-@ Spanish speakers to sing along " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the album as " blissfully pan @-@ American " , elaborating that " for Shakira it 's all pop , taut structures for volatile passion " . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone said that executive producer Rick Rubin helped " restore Shakira 's artistic integrity by keeping the industry at bay " . Yahoo ! Music 's Tom Townsend praised Shakira for being " wide awake and , as they used to say in Smash Hits , back , back , BACK ! " Paste 's Mark Kemp gave it a mixed review , saying that the record was " stronger overall than Laundry Service but not as warm as Dónde Están los Ladrones ? "
= = Commercial performance = =
In North America , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 157 @,@ 000 copies . It set a record for the highest debut of a full @-@ length Spanish @-@ language album in the country ( which it still holds ) , and topped the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album sold over 1 @,@ 012 @,@ 000 copies as of 2014 in the US . It was later certified platinum times eleven by Latin standards , with shipments of over 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 copies . In 2009 , Billboard named Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 as the best @-@ selling Latin pop album of the 2000s . In Mexico , the album debuted at number one , and was later certified triple platinum for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . It was certified gold in Central America .
In South America , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 peaked at number one in Argentina , and was eventually recognized with triple @-@ platinum certification . The album enjoyed similar success in Venezuela , selling over 34 @,@ 613 copies . Consequently , it was certified platinum in the country . Furthermore , the record sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in Shakira 's native Colombia , and was later recognized with triple @-@ platinum certification . In Chile , it was certified platinum for shipping 15 @,@ 000 copies .
In Europe , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 achieved similar success . It debuted at number two on the Austrian albums chart , where it was certified platinum for shipments of 30 @,@ 000 copies . The record peaked at numbers seven and fifteen , respectively , on the Belgian Walloon and Flanders album charts ; it was certified gold for shipments of 25 @,@ 000 copies . On the French albums chart the album reached number six , and was certified gold for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It topped the German Media Control Charts , receiving a platinum certification for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . The record was certified gold in Greece for shipments of 10 @,@ 000 copies . On the Hungarian albums chart it reached number six , receiving a platinum certification for shipments of 20 @,@ 000 copies . The album peaked at number seven on the Dutch Top 40 . The record topped the Spanish albums chart , receiving triple @-@ platinum certification for shipments of 240 @,@ 000 copies . After peaking at number two on the Swiss Hitparade , the album was certified platinum for shipments of 40 @,@ 000 copies . As of May 2013 , the record has sold over four million copies worldwide .
= = Legacy = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that releasing the Spanish @-@ language Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 after the success of the English @-@ language Laundry Service was a " sharp move " , complimenting the album for demonstrating that Shakira " can not only return to her roots , but expand upon them " . He described " La Tortura " as a " natural for American radio " , and felt that the parent album generated anticipation for the upcoming Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 . Writing for PopMatters , Matt Cibula praised the album for its musical departure from Laundry Service , applauding the integration of subtle samples across several songs as " great nods to the sounds of the 1980s " . Dave Simpson of The Guardian compared Shakira to a " Latin American Madonna " , describing her vocals as reminiscent of " Cher and Hazel O 'Connor , produced by Julio Iglesias " .
Jon Pareles of The New York Times found Shakira 's " smart or ambitious " image to be uncharacteristic of a sex symbol . He praised the versatility of her multilingual lyrics and her experimentation in a number of genres , citing the " multiplicity " in " the arrangements , in the mixed emotions of the lyrics , [ and ] in Shakira 's mercurial voice " . Writing for Paste , Mark Kemp complimented Shakira for dispelling notions she is " the Latin Britney , the female Ricky Martin [ and ] the pretty pop tart who sings in Spanish and sounds like Alanis " ; he compared the mix of musical elements in Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 to a Pop @-@ Tart with a " rich and nutritious filling " . Tom Townsend of Yahoo ! Music called her " the greatest pop star we have " , comparing her " consuming artistry " to that of Madonna and Prince . He credited the album for inspiring a revival of pop music , saying that the release proved that the genre " wasn 't dead , just sleeping " .
Shakira 's international success was solidified with Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 's strong commercial performance . After it debuted at number 4 on the US Billboard 200 and became the highest @-@ debuting full @-@ length Spanish album in the country , her label Epic Records called her " the biggest female crossover artist in the world " . The album remains her second @-@ highest @-@ charting release in the nation , behind Laundry Service 's peak position at number 3 . According to Billboard , it was the second best @-@ selling Latin album of the decade in the US after Barrio Fino by Daddy Yankee .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 2005 Billboard Music Awards , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 was the Latin Pop Album of the Year . At the 2005 Mexican Oye ! Awards , the album was the Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist . At the 2005 Premios Shock awards ceremony , it received an award for " Album of the Year " . The album was the Best Latin Rock or Alternative Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards , and was Album of the Year , Best Engineered Album and the Best Female Pop Vocal Album at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2006 . That year , at the 13th Billboard Latin Music Awards , the album was the best Latin Pop Album by a Female . It was the Pop Album of the Year at the 18th Lo Nuestro Awards . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 received an ALMA Award as Spanish Album of the Year . At the 2006 Groovevolt Music Awards , it was named Best Latin Album . At the Colombian Nuestra Tierra award ceremony , it was nominated Best Album of the Year which went to Fonseca for Corazón .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 .
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Italian cruiser Iride =
Iride was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . Laid down in February 1889 at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard , she was launched in July 1890 and was commissioned in November 1892 . Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Iride spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , she remained in Italian waters until late in the conflict ; she escorted a troop convoy to North Africa in April 1912 and bombarded Ottoman positions in June and July . Iride was eventually broken up for scrap in December 1920 .
= = Design = =
Iride was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 931 metric tons ( 916 long tons ; 1 @,@ 026 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Iride 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 and 121 personnel .
Iride was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her six 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Iride was laid down at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia ( Royal Dockyard in Castellammare di Stabia ) on 21 February 1889 , and was launched on 20 July 1890 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 November 1892 . Iride took part in the annual fleet exercises in 1893 in the " attacking squadron " , which also included six ironclads , her sister ship Euridice and the torpedo cruisers Goito and Monzambano . In 1895 , Iride was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Aretusa , Euridice , Urania , Minerva , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli .
In 1904 – 05 , Iride was assigned to the Levant Station in the eastern Mediterranean . She took part in the 1907 fleet maneuvers that took place in September and October that year . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Iride was stationed in Italy , alternating between the ports of La Spezia and Naples , along with her sister ships Urania and Caprera . By January 1912 , Iride had been stationed in Tripoli to support the garrison there against Ottoman forces . In early April , Iride , the torpedo cruiser Agordat , and six torpedo boats rendezvoused with a troop convoy carrying 10 @,@ 000 men to Zuwarah near the border with Tunisia . In June and July , Iride and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto bombarded Turkish forces near Zuara . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers with promises of territory acquisition in Italia irredenta . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which had been Italy 's primary rival for decades , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet lay in its harbors directly across the narrow Adriatic Sea . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the narrow waters and numerous islands of the Adriatic allowed Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers to operate with a great degree of freedom . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . As a result , Iride did not see action during the war . She was sold for scrap in December 1920 and was subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Walter Krueger =
Walter Krueger ( 26 January 1881 – 20 August 1967 ) was an American soldier and general officer in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his command of the Sixth United States Army in the South West Pacific Area during World War II . He rose from the rank of private to general in the United States Army .
Born in Flatow , West Prussia , Krueger migrated to the United States as a boy . He enlisted for service in the Spanish – American War and served in Cuba , and then re @-@ enlisted for service in the Philippine – American War . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1901 . In 1914 he was posted to the Pennsylvania Army National Guard . His regiment was mobilized on 23 June 1916 and served along the Mexican border . After the United States commenced hostilities with Germany in April 1917 , Krueger was assigned to the 84th Infantry Division as its Assistant Chief of Staff G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) , and then its chief of staff . In February 1918 , he was sent to Langres to attend the American Expeditionary Force General Staff School , and in October 1918 , he became Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps .
Between the wars , Krueger served in a number of command and staff positions , and attended the Naval War College at his own request . In 1941 , he assumed command of the Third Army , which he led in the Louisiana Maneuvers . He expected , in view of his age , to spend the war at home training troops , but in 1943 he was sent to General Douglas MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area as commander of the Sixth Army and Alamo Force , which he led in a series of victorious campaigns against the Japanese . As an army commander , Krueger had to grapple with the problems imposed by vast distances , inhospitable terrain , unfavorable climate , and an indefatigable and dangerous enemy . He had to balance MacArthur 's need to speed up the tempo of operations in order to win campaigns with the more cautious approach of subordinates who often found themselves confronted by unexpectedly large numbers of Japanese troops . In the Battle of Luzon in 1945 , his largest , longest and last battle , he was finally able to maneuver his army as he had in 1941 against a Japanese army under Tomoyuki Yamashita .
Krueger retired to San Antonio , Texas , where he bought a house and wrote From Down Under to Nippon , an account of his campaigns in the Southwest Pacific . His retirement was marred by family tragedies . His son James was dismissed from the Army in 1947 for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman . His wife 's health deteriorated , and she died of cancer in 1956 . His daughter Dorothy stabbed her husband to death in 1952 . She was sentenced to life imprisonment by a court @-@ martial , but was freed by the Supreme Court in 1957 .
= = Education and early life = =
Walter Krueger was born in Flatow , West Prussia , then part of the German Empire , but now part of Poland . He was the son of Julius Krüger , a Prussian landowner who had served as an officer in the Franco @-@
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Prussian War , and his wife , Anna , formerly Hasse . Following Julius 's death , Anna and her three children emigrated to the United States to be near her uncle in St. Louis , Missouri . Walter was then eight years old . In St. Louis , Anna married Emil Carl Schmidt , a Lutheran minister . The family subsequently settled in Madison , Indiana . Krueger was educated at the Upper Seminary School in Madison , and the Cincinnati Technical High School in Cincinnati , Ohio . As a teenager , he wanted to become a naval officer , but when his mother objected he decided to become a blacksmith instead .
= = Early military service = =
On 17 June 1898 , Krueger , along with many of his fellow high @-@ school students , enlisted for service in the Spanish – American War with the 2nd Volunteer Infantry . He reached Santiago de Cuba a few weeks after the Battle of San Juan Hill , and spent eight months there on occupation duties , rising to the rank of sergeant . Mustered out of the volunteers in February 1899 , he returned home to Ohio , planning to become a civil engineer .
However , many of his comrades were re @-@ enlisting for service in the Philippine – American War and in June 1899 Krueger re @-@ enlisted as a private in M Company of the 12th Infantry . Soon he was on his way to fight Emilio Aguinaldo 's Insurrectos as part of Major General Arthur MacArthur , Jr . ' s 2nd Infantry Division . He took part in the advance from Angeles City to Tarlac City , Aguinaldo 's capital . But Aguinaldo had fled , and the 12th Infantry pursued him vainly all the way through Luzon 's central plain to Dagupan City . While serving in an infantry unit in the Philippines , he was promoted to sergeant . On 1 July 1901 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant and posted to the 30th Infantry on Marinduque .
Krueger returned to the United States with the 30th Infantry in December 1903 . The regiment moved to Fort Crook , Nebraska . In September 1904 , he married Grace Aileen Norvell , whom he had met in the Philippines . They had three children : James Norvell , born on 29 July 1905 ; Walter Jr . , born on 25 April 1910 ; and Dorothy Jane , who was born on 24 January 1913 . Both James and Walter Jr. attended the United States Military Academy , James graduating with the class of 1926 , and Walter Jr. with the class of 1931 . Dorothy married an Army officer , Aubrey D. Smith , of the class of 1930 .
In 1904 , Krueger attended and graduated from the Infantry @-@ Cavalry School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . This was followed by the Command and General Staff College in 1907 . He then joined the 23rd Infantry at Fort Ontario , New York . After a second tour in the Philippines , he returned to the United States in June 1909 , and was assigned to Department of Languages at Fort Leavenworth as an instructor in Spanish , French and German , which he could speak fluently . He also taught National Guard officers at Camp Benjamin Harrison , Indiana , and Pine Camp , New York . He published translations of several German military texts , most notably William Balck 's Tactics . The book attracted the attention of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , Major General Leonard Wood , and was widely read .
= = World War I = =
With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Krueger was offered a post as an observer with the German Army but was forced to turn it down due to familial commitments . Instead , he was posted to the 10th Infantry of the Pennsylvania Army National Guard . The regiment was mobilized on 23 June 1916 and served along the Mexican border for five months as part of the Mexican Punitive Expedition under Major General John J. Pershing , although no National Guard units fought Mexican troops . The unit was mustered out in October 1916 . Afterwards , Krueger remained with the National Guard . He trained units , and helped establish a school for officers at the University of Pennsylvania . In an article in the Infantry Journal , he called for a large , national , conscript army similar to those of European countries , arguing that this would be in accord with America 's democratic values .
After the United States commenced hostilities against Germany in April 1917 , Krueger was assigned to the 84th Infantry Division at Camp Zachary Taylor as its Assistant Chief of Staff G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) . He became its chief of staff , with the rank of major as of 5 August 1917 . In February 1918 , he was sent to Langres , France , to attend the American Expeditionary Force General Staff School . All officers from divisions that were not under orders for France were ordered to return home in May 1918 , but Krueger stayed on as G @-@ 3 of the 26th Infantry Division . The French Army requested that Krueger be sent home due to his German origin , and Krueger was re @-@ posted to the 84th Division , but he soon returned to France , as the 84th Division embarked for France in August 1918 . In October , he became Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps . After the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in November 1918 , he became assistant chief of staff of VI and IV Corps on occupation duty , advancing to the rank of temporary colonel . For his service in the war , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1919 .
= = Interwar years = =
With the end of the war , Krueger returned to the United States on 22 June 1919 and was initially posted to the Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia . In 1920 , he assumed command of the 55th Infantry Regiment at Camp Funston , Kansas . He reverted to his permanent rank of captain on 30 June 1920 but was promoted to the permanent rank of major the next day . He attended the Army War College , graduating in 1921 , and remaining for a year as an instructor , where he taught such classes as the " Art of Command " . He paid a four @-@ month visit to Germany in 1922 as part of the War College 's Historical Section , during which he examined documents related to World War I in the German War Archives . These informed his lectures on the war , and he argued that much of the German Army 's effectiveness was attributable to its system of decentralized command . Krueger urged that American commanders in the field should be given wider latitude in carrying out their orders .
From 1922 to 1925 , Krueger served in the War Plans Division of the War Department General Staff in Washington , DC . Krueger worked on the United States color @-@ coded war plans , particularly War Plan Green , for another war with Mexico , and War Plan Blue , for another civil war in the United States . He traveled to the Panama Canal Zone in January 1923 to report on the state of the defenses there . After he returned , he was assigned to the Joint Army and Navy Planning Committee , an organ of the Joint Army and Navy Board responsible for coordinating war plans between the two services . While with the Joint Planning Committee , he worked on War Plan Orange , the plan for a war with Japan , and War Plan Tan , for a war with Cuba . Krueger considered the problems of inter @-@ service cooperation . At his own request , he attended the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island , in 1925 and 1926 . He continued to ruminate on the nature of command . " Doctrine " , he wrote , " knits all the parts of the military force together in intellectual bonds . "
Krueger came to feel that the prospects for promotion in the infantry were very poor , and in 1927 he tried to transfer to the United States Army Air Corps . He attended the Air Corps Primary Flying School at Brooks Field , Texas , but suffered an attack of neuritis in his right arm , and his flight instructor , Lieutenant Claire Lee Chennault , failed him . In December 1927 , he was offered a position as an instructor at the Naval War College , where he taught classes on World War I , and on joint operations .
In June 1932 , Krueger became commander of the 6th Infantry Regiment at Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , where he was promoted to colonel again on 1 August 1932 . Now aged 51 , he became resigned to retiring as a colonel , but in 1934 he returned to the War Plans Division , becoming chief of the division in May 1936 , and was promoted to temporary brigadier general in October 1936 . In September 1938 , Krueger went to Fort George G. Meade , Maryland , as commander of the 16th Infantry Brigade . He was promoted to temporary major general in February 1939 , when he became commander of the 2nd Infantry Division at Fort Sam Houston , Texas . The 2nd Infantry Division was at the time being used as a test of the US Army 's new triangular division concept . As a result , Krueger made a series of suggestions as to how the organization could be improved . He became interested in the possibilities of mechanization and fast @-@ paced modern warfare , which were tested in maneuvers with his division . His troops called themselves the " Blitzkruegers " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Training in the United States = = =
Krueger became commander of IX Corps on 31 January 1940 . This corps was created to control units of the Third Army engaged in large scale maneuvers in 1940 , in which Krueger 's IX Corps conducted a series of mock battles against Walter Short 's IV Corps . On 27 June , Krueger became commander of the VIII Corps . On 16 May 1941 , he was promoted to lieutenant general , in command of the Third Army . He also became commander of the Southern Defense Command on 16 July 1941 . Krueger asked for — and got — Colonel Dwight D. Eisenhower assigned to him as his chief of staff .
The Louisiana Maneuvers pitted Krueger 's Third Army against Lieutenant General Ben Lear 's Second Army . The maneuvers were a test ground for doctrine and equipment , and gave senior commanders experience in maneuvering their formations . In the first phase , Krueger quickly proved himself to be the more modern general . He responded adroitly to a changed battle situation by re @-@ orienting his front from northeast to northwest , and was able to inflict a series of reverses on Lear 's forces . In the second phase , Krueger had a superior force , and had to advance on Shreveport , Louisiana . Lear 's forces conducted a stubborn withdrawal , demolishing bridges in order to slow Krueger down . Krueger responded by sending Major General George S. Patton , Jr . ' s 2nd Armored Division on a wide flanking maneuver through Texas . Afterwards , Eisenhower became the head of the War Plans Division , and was replaced by Colonel Alfred M. Gruenther . After he too was transferred , Krueger replaced him with Colonel George B. Honnen .
Krueger wrote to a friend that
There 's nothing that I should like better than to have a command at the front . I should love to try to " rommel " Rommel . However , I am sure that younger men will be selected for tasks of that nature , in fact for all combat commands . I shall be 62 this coming January [ 1943 ] , and though I am in perfect health , can stand a lot of hardship and people tell me I look and act ten years younger , I do not delude myself .
= = = Sixth Army = = =
It therefore came as a surprise when Krueger was informed that a theater commander had requested his services . General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander of the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , said that he was " especially anxious to have Krueger due to my long and intimate association with him " . This too came as a surprise to Krueger ; while the two men had known each other for forty years , and Krueger had been chief of the War Plans Division when MacArthur was Chief of Staff , the two had never been close .
The War Department approved Krueger 's transfer to SWPA , but did not approve MacArthur 's request for Third Army headquarters . There were only three American divisions in SWPA : the 32nd Infantry Division at Rockhampton , Queensland , the 41st Infantry Division in the Buna area in Papua , and the 1st Marine Division in Melbourne , Victoria . The 1st Cavalry Division and the 24th Infantry Division were scheduled to arrive in 1943 , and other divisions would follow in 1944 , but for the time being there were much fewer troops than an army would normally control . The War Department therefore saw no need for a full strength army headquarters . Instead , Krueger had to make do with him a skeleton staff of a new Sixth Army , which was activated in January 1943 , with less than half the establishment strength of an army headquarters .
Krueger took with him several key members of the Third Army staff , including Brigadier General George Honnen as Chief of Staff , Colonel George H. Decker as Deputy Chief of Staff , Colonel George S. Price as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 1 ( Personnel ) , Colonel Horton V. White as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 2 ( Intelligence ) , Clyde Eddleman as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) and Colonel Kenneth Pierce as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 ( Supply ) . Honnen had health problems , and spent much of April , May and June 1943 in hospital before being ordered home on 18 June . He was replaced by Brigadier General Edwin D. Patrick , who had served on the staff of Admiral William F. Halsey in the South Pacific Area . Patrick did not get along smoothly with Krueger or the rest of the Sixth Army staff , and in May 1944 Patrick was appointed to command the 158th Regimental Combat Team , and Decker became chief of staff .
Command in the Southwest Pacific Area was complicated . Instead of operations being conducted by the Sixth Army , its headquarters was used for what became Alamo Force . As a task force , Alamo Force came directly under MacArthur , rather than under the Allied Land Forces . Krueger noted that " the inherent difficulties faced by my dual headquarters in planning and administration were aggravated by the command setup , which was a novel one to say the least . " Because Alamo Force was a purely operational entity , administration was handled by the United States Army Forces in the Far East . Although there was only one army staff , Alamo Force was in New Guinea while the main body of Sixth Army headquarters was in Brisbane until February 1944 , when the two were finally brought together . They still had a dual role as Alamo Force and Sixth Army until September , when Alamo Force was discontinued and the Sixth Army became directly responsible for operations .
= = = Bismarck Archipelago = = =
The geographical , engineering and logistical difficulties of conducting operations in SWPA were driven home by Alamo Force 's first operation , Operation Chronicle , the occupation of Woodlark and Kiriwina Islands in June 1943 . Despite the fact that the operation was unopposed by the Japanese , it was subject to delays . Krueger visited Kiriwina , where road work and airbase development were held up by heavy rains , on 11 July . He was dissatisfied with the rate of progress and relieved the task force commander . The arrival of additional engineers sped up the base development effort , and No. 79 Squadron RAAF commenced operations from Kiriwina on 18 August .
He was also concerned by reports of the invasion of Kiska in the Aleutian Islands in August 1943 , in which a large Allied force invaded an island that had already been evacuated by the Japanese . If this could happen , it was also possible that a force might attack where the Japanese were unexpectedly strong . Different levels of command sometimes came up with widely varying estimates of Japanese strength because they used different methods to estimate it .
An attempt to obtain information for Operation Dexterity , the attack on New Britain , with a joint Army @-@ Navy reconnaissance team raised issues of inter @-@ service cooperation . The Navy was mainly interested in gathering hydrographic data rather than information on the state of the Japanese defenders . Because of a breakdown in communications , the PT boat that was supposed to collect the team was unable to rendezvous with it , and the team had to spend eleven more days on the island . Finally , the Navy tried to prevent the Army commander from briefing Alamo Force headquarters on what had occurred .
Krueger decided that he needed to have his own strategic reconnaissance capability . In November 1943 , he formed the Alamo Scouts as a special unit for reconnaissance and raiding . An Alamo Scout Training Center for volunteers was established on Fergusson Island , not far from Alamo Force 's headquarters on Goodenough Island , under the command of Colonel Frederick W. Bradshaw , whom Krueger had first encountered during the Louisiana maneuvers . The top graduates of the six @-@ week training course were assigned to the Alamo Scouts ; the other graduates were returned to their units where they could be used for similar work . By the end of the war , Alamo Scouts teams had conducted 106 missions .
In what became a standard procedure in SWPA , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) nominated the objectives , set the target date , and allocated the troops to the operation , leaving Alamo Force to work out the details . MacArthur was not inflexible , however , and allowed Krueger to alter the staging areas , and postpone the operation by a month . Krueger 's concerns about the possibility of high casualties in securing the Gasmata area , and doubts as to whether the area was suitable for airbase development , led to it being dropped as a target . Arawe was substituted , and the size of the whole operation was scaled back . Krueger hoped to observe the 1st Marine Division 's landing at Cape Gloucester in December 1943 , but was unable to do so until the planning for the January 1944 landing at Saidor was complete . He crossed the Dampier Strait in a PT boat in stormy weather . PBY Catalinas sent to bring him back were unable to land , and he had to return on the destroyer USS Mullany .
Krueger accepted reports of a Japanese counterattack at Saidor , and sent reinforcements in response , but the attack did not eventuate . Because the 32nd Infantry Division was required for the upcoming Hansa Bay operation , he was initially reluctant to authorize it to block the trails behind the American beachhead . When he finally did so , it was too late . The retreating Japanese made good their escape , thereby defeating the whole purpose of the operation . The next operation , the Admiralty Islands campaign in February 1944 , played out differently . Based on Fifth Air Force reports that the islands were unoccupied , MacArthur accelerated his timetable and ordered an immediate reconnaissance in force of the islands . Krueger sent in the Alamo Scouts , who confirmed that the islands were still well @-@ defended .
Krueger did what he could to accelerate the movement of units of Major General Innis P. Swift 's 1st Cavalry Division to the Admiralty Islands in response to urgent pleas from Brigadier General William C. Chase , who managed to defeat the numerically superior Japanese forces . Krueger was unimpressed with Chase . " His task " , Krueger wrote to Swift , " was undoubtedly a difficult one , but did not , in my judgment , warrant the nervousness apparent in some of his despatches . This , and his failure to obey repeated positive orders to furnish detailed information of his situation and his losses , his closing his radio station during long periods , and his evident ignorance that reinforcements could not reach him by the times he demanded , were not calculated to inspire confidence . "
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
Over the next few months , the tempo of operations increased , forcing the Sixth Army to plan and execute multiple operations simultaneously . Operations Reckless and Persecution in April 1944 together comprised the largest operation yet in SWPA , with the 24th and 41st Infantry Divisions of Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger 's I Corps landing at Tanahmerah and Humboldt bays near Hollandia , while the 163rd Regimental Combat Team landed at Aitape . Eichelberger was Krueger 's most senior subordinate , but when he did not meet Krueger 's expectation , Krueger let him know in no uncertain terms . " In my more than 40 years as an officer " , Krueger told one of his staff , " I have never raised my voice to an enlisted man , but a corps commander should know better . "
Krueger visited the beachhead with MacArthur and Eichelberger on the first day . After inspecting the beachhead , they went to the USS Nashville for ice cream sodas , whereupon MacArthur suggested , in view of the victory at Hollandia , they could accelerate the campaign timetable by moving on to Wakde @-@ Sarmi immediately . Krueger was willing to consider the idea , although he had already ordered the troops designated for Wakde @-@ Sarmi , the 32nd Infantry Division , to reinforce the position at Aitape , where he expected a major Japanese counterattack . Eichelberger was vehemently opposed , and the matter was dropped .
Krueger moved his headquarters to Hollandia in May 1944 . The swampy area with its restricted anchorages proved unsuitable for a major airbase complex , although fighter strips were constructed , and it was developed as a staging area . MacArthur was compelled to press on with the Wakde @-@ Sarmi project lest his troops become stranded without adequate air cover . A shortage of shipping meant that the operation had to be carried out by the troops in the Hollandia area , so Krueger nominated the 163rd Regimental Combat Team for Wakde , while the rest of the 41st Infantry Division captured Sarmi . However , with only days to go , doubts surfaced about the viability of construction in the Sarmi area , and Biak was substituted . In view of the difficulties involved in changing plans , and moving the troops around , MacArthur agreed to postpone both operations , Wakde until 17 May and Biak to 27 May .
As a result , Alamo Force became involved in desperate fighting on three different fronts simultaneously . The landing at Wakde was opposed by nearly twice as many Japanese troops than had been expected . When Krueger discovered that the Japanese were massing for an assault on the American position , he ordered a pre @-@ emptive attack . " Krueger " , wrote Edward Drea , " was too good a soldier to stand pat and wait for a Japanese attack . " Official historian Robert Ross Smith noted that " This decision , based upon the scanty , incomplete information concerning Japanese strength and dispositions available to General Krueger at the time , was destined to precipitate a protracted and bitter fight . " However , even if Krueger had known the true size of the Japanese force , he might still , under the circumstances , have taken the same approach .
The estimates of the number of Japanese troops on Biak were out by a similar margin , resulting in heavy casualties . In the Battle of Biak , stubborn Japanese resistance halted the 41st Infantry Division , and forced its commander , Major General Horace H. Fuller , to appeal to Krueger for reinforcements . In response , Krueger sent the 163rd Regimental Combat Team from Wakde . MacArthur soon grew impatient , as he needed the airstrips on Biak to support Admiral Chester Nimitz 's Invasion of Saipan . Nimitz 's operation ultimately drew Japanese attention away from Biak . MacArthur put pressure on Krueger for results , and Krueger in turn put pressure on Fuller . Krueger decided that Fuller had too many responsibilities as both task force commander and division commander , and decided to supersede him by sending Eichelberger to take over the task force . Fuller then submitted his resignation . Eichelberger 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Clovis Byers , offered to have Decker intercept and destroy the resignation before Krueger saw it , but Fuller decided against this . The battle raged for nearly a month . Afterwards , Krueger demanded an explanation from Eichelberger as to why he had allowed Fuller to quit .
Meanwhile , Japanese forces under Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi attacked Alamo Force 's position at Aitape in the Battle of Driniumor River . Krueger called for an energetic defense , but the cautious commander of XI Corps , Major General Charles P. Hall , retained nine battalions around the airbase at Tadji . This left Brigadier General Clarence A. Martin without the resources to implement Krueger 's strategy , and he conducted a fighting withdrawal instead . Krueger travelled to Aitape where Hall presented him a counterattack plan , which he approved . By August , the fighting had ended and Adachi had been defeated .
= = = Philippines Campaign = = =
MacArthur accelerated his timetable yet again in September 1944 , and brought forward the planned invasion of Leyte to October 1944 . That this was the worst time of the year for campaigning on Leyte was not overlooked . Typhoons and heavy rains hampered the efforts to construct and rehabilitate airbases , and without them , large numbers of aircraft could not operate from Leyte . This meant not only that few air strikes could be flown in support of the Sixth Army , but that the Allied Air Forces could not prevent the Japanese from reinforcing Leyte . An additional five Japanese divisions and two mixed brigades were sent to Leyte , and the battle became one of grinding attrition . Able to view his troops in action more often than hitherto , Krueger found much to criticize . He noted that tanks were employed poorly , that the infantry were not aggressive enough , and saw poor sanitation and meals as a sign that officers were not taking adequate care of their men . Krueger 's generalship has also been questioned , with Ronald Spector criticizing " Krueger 's disastrous decision to delay the push into the mountains west of Carigara in favor of beach defense . " Krueger based his cautious appreciation of the situation on various intelligence sources rather than relying solely on Ultra .
In January 1945 , the Sixth Army embarked on its largest , longest and last campaign , the invasion of Luzon . Krueger intended to make " maximum utilization of America 's materiel and industrial superiority " . Once again , intelligence estimates of Japanese strength were questionable . MacArthur 's intelligence officer , Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby , basing his estimates on Ultra , believed that there were about 172 @,@ 000 Japanese troops on Luzon . Krueger 's intelligence officer , Colonel Horton V. White , reckoned that there were 234 @,@ 000 . MacArthur did not believe there were anywhere near that number . In fact , General Tomoyuki Yamashita had 287 @,@ 000 troops on Luzon . For the first time since Louisiana in 1941 , Krueger was able to maneuver his army as a single body instead of having elements employed on multiple battles on scattered islands . He regarded Yamashita 's employment of armor as poor . Instead of using the 2nd Armored Division for a decisive counterattack against the vulnerable flank , Yamashita frittered away its strength in piecemeal efforts .
As the campaign unfolded , Krueger was pressured by MacArthur to capture Manila . He sent messages reporting what he saw was a lack of drive among the troops , and even moved his theater headquarters forward of Krueger 's . MacArthur tried to exploit Krueger 's rivalry with Eichelberger by allowing the latter 's Eighth Army to conduct its own drive on Manila from the south . Krueger eventually sent a flying column from the 1st Cavalry Division , but MacArthur 's expectation that the Japanese would not defend Manila was proven incorrect . Weeks of ferocious fighting were required to capture the city .
Krueger was promoted to general on 5 March 1945 . MacArthur recommended Krueger for the rank , even as he clashed with him over the drive on Manila , and rated Krueger 's generalship higher than that of Patton or Omar Bradley . Krueger 's campaign on Luzon continued until 30 June 1945 , when he handed over responsibility to Eichelberger in order to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu .
This proved unnecessary when Japan surrendered , and in September 1945 the Sixth Army took up occupation duty in Japan . Krueger established his headquarters in Kyoto , and assumed responsibility for Kyushu , Shikoku and southern Honshu . The Sixth Army remained in Japan until it handed over its occupation responsibilities to the Eighth Army on 31 December 1945 . It was deactivated on 25 January 1946 , and Krueger retired in July . For his service as commander of the Sixth Army in World War II , Krueger was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal , and the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . He was awarded a second oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal for his part in the Occupation of Japan .
= = Later life = =
Krueger retired to San Antonio , Texas , where , in February 1946 , he bought a house for the first time . Because of a large income tax bill left over from the war , he was unable to buy it outright and so some of his friends established the Krueger Fund Committee , which paid for much of the house . In retirement , Krueger was involved in a number of charity and community organizations , including the United Service Organization , the Red Cross , and the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis , and he served as director of civil defense for San Antonio and Bexar County .
Colonel Horton White , Krueger 's former intelligence officer , approached him with an offer from George Edward Brett of Macmillan to publish his memoirs . Krueger did not wish to write an autobiography , which he felt was " invariably apt to be an apologia " , but was willing to write up an account of the Sixth Army 's exploits . He commenced work in 1947 , but the project proceeded slowly . The result was From Down Under to Nippon : The Story of the 6th Army In World War II , which was published in 1953 . Historians were disappointed with the book , as it recounted what was known from the Sixth Army 's reports , but provided little insight into the reasons why operations were conducted the way they were . Krueger kept in contact with his wartime colleagues . He was proud of the subsequent accomplishments of members of his wartime staff , and traveled to New York each year to celebrate MacArthur 's birthday with MacArthur and other former senior commanders of the Southwest Pacific Area . He lectured at Army Schools and civic organizations , offering opinions on subjects such as the value of training , the benefit of universal military service , and the need for a unified defense establishment .
Krueger 's retirement was marred by family tragedies . His son James was dismissed from the Army in 1947 for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman after a drunken incident . Grace 's health deteriorated , and she suffered from heart disease and high blood pressure . She was diagnosed with cancer in 1955 , and died on 13 May 1956 . Most dramatically , on 3 October 1952 , a lonely and depressed Dorothy fatally stabbed her husband , Colonel Aubrey D. Smith , with a hunting knife while he slept in their Army quarters in Japan . Dorothy , who felt that her husband now regarded her no more than " a clinging handicap to his professional career " , had turned to alcohol and drugs .
By six votes to three , a U.S. Army court @-@ martial found Dorothy Krueger guilty of first @-@ degree murder and sentenced her " to be confined at hard labor for the rest of her natural life " . A unanimous verdict of guilty would have made the death sentence mandatory . She was flown back to the United States in a Military Air Transport Service plane and was imprisoned at the Federal Prison Camp , Alderson , in West Virginia . The United States Court of Military Appeals rejected an appeal filed by Krueger 's lawyers that argued that Dorothy was not sane at the time of the incident , and that the testimony that the court @-@ martial had heard to the contrary was military rather than medical .
However , in 1955 , in a similar case involving another woman , Mrs. Clarice B. Covert , who had killed her husband in England with an axe , Federal District Court Judge Edward A. Tamm ruled that civilians who accompany military forces overseas could not be imprisoned by military courts . The two cases , Kinsella v. Krueger and Reid v. Covert , went to the US Supreme Court , which affirmed that military trials of civilians were indeed constitutional , only to reverse itself a year later in a review of the decisions . Dorothy was released , and went to live with Krueger in San Antonio .
When his old friend Fay Babson wrote a letter in 1960 complaining about not being promoted before retirement , Krueger replied that :
I wish you would compare your situation with mine for a moment . You are fortunate in having a loving wife by your side and three wonderful children . I , on the other hand , have lost my precious wife , my son Jimmie 's career ended in disgrace and my only daughter 's tragic action broke my heart . All the promotions and honors that have come to me cannot possibly outweigh these heartaches and disappointments . If true happiness is the aim of life — and I believe it is — then you are more fortunate than I and I would gladly trade with you .
= = Death and legacy = =
Krueger 's health began to decline in the late 1950s . He developed glaucoma in his right eye , and sciatica in his left hip . In 1960 , he had a hernia operation , followed by kidney surgery in 1963 . Nonetheless , he continued to attend MacArthur 's birthday in New York . He died from pneumonia at Valley Forge , Pennsylvania , on 20 August 1967 , and was buried in Section 30 of Arlington National Cemetery , among a number of family members . His papers are in the Cushing Memorial Library at Texas A & M University .
Although Krueger led a large force in operations over a large area for over two years , appearing on the cover of Time magazine on 20 January 1945 , and Krueger Middle School was named after him in San Antonio , Texas , in 1962 , he never became a well @-@ known figure like MacArthur . Krueger 's forte was what is today termed the operational level of war , transforming MacArthur 's strategic vision into reality . Krueger has usually been characterised as " an overly cautious commander who impeded MacArthur 's fast @-@ paced strategy . " William Manchester speculated that " the General knew his plodding subordinate was a useful counterweight to his own bravura " , and Edward Drea noted that at the Battle of the Drinumor , Krueger 's actions were " entirely out of keeping with his otherwise methodical and plodding generalship " . MacArthur wrote :
History has not given him due credit for his greatness . I do not believe that the annals of American history have shown his superior as an Army commander . Swift and sure in the attack , tenacious and determined in defense , modest and restrained in victory — I do not know what he would have been in defeat , because he was never defeated .
= = Awards = =
= = Dates of promotion = =
= Masashi Hamauzu =
Masashi Hamauzu ( 浜渦 正志 , Hamauzu Masashi , born September 20 , 1971 ) is a Japanese composer , arranger , pianist and lyricist . Hamauzu , who was employed at Square Enix from 1996 to 2010 , was best known during that time for his work on the Final Fantasy and SaGa video game series . Born into a musical family in Germany , Hamauzu was raised in Japan . He became interested in music while in kindergarten , and took piano lessons from his parents .
Hamauzu was hired by Square as a trainee , and his debut as a solo composer came the following year when he scored Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon . He has collaborated with his friend and fellow composer Junya Nakano on several games , and has worked closely with synthesizer programmer Ryo Yamazaki on most titles since SaGa Frontier 2 .
After Nobuo Uematsu left Square Enix in 2004 , Hamauzu took over as the leading composer of the company 's music team . He was the sole composer for Final Fantasy XIII . He has also become a renowned piano arranger , and has arranged a number of albums , including Yasunori Mitsuda 's Sailing to the World piano score in 2006 . His music incorporates various styles , although he mostly uses classical and ambient music in his pieces . In 2010 , Hamauzu left Square Enix to start his own studio , MONOMUSIK .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in Munich , Germany , Hamauzu 's mother was a piano teacher and his father , Akimori Hamauzu , an opera singer . He developed an interest in music while in kindergarten . Growing up in Germany , Hamauzu received piano and singing lessons from his parents and created his first original compositions during high school . After his brother , Hiroshi , was born , the family moved to Osaka . He enrolled in the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music , where he joined a student ensemble as a pianist . Hamauzu met his wife , Matsue Hamauzu ( née Fukushi ) , at the university , and they have two children . Matsue worked alongside Hamauzu on the soundtrack to Final Fantasy VII as a soprano and Sigma Harmonics as a scat singer ; she was also a soprano for the score to Final Fantasy VIII & a lead vocalist in Final Fantasy XIII . After graduating from the university , he thought about becoming a classical musician , but he eventually found out that he wanted to work with game music instead .
= = = Career = = =
A fan of the Final Fantasy games , Hamauzu decided to apply for a job at Square . Nobuo Uematsu was impressed with his résumé , and employed Hamauzu as a trainee in 1996 . His debut came with the 1996 title Front Mission : Gun Hazard , with Uematsu , Yasunori Mitsuda , and Junya Nakano . Later the same year , he created four tracks for another multi @-@ composer game , Tobal No. 1 . Working with Nakano on these games , Hamauzu admired his musical style , and they became friends ; they have later collaborated on several titles . Hamauzu 's first solo project came in 1997 with Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon . Shortly after the title 's release , Hamauzu and Yasuo Sako created Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon Coi Vanni Gialli , an arranged album containing orchestral tracks from the game 's music . Both the soundtrack and Coi Vanni Gialli were praised . For Final Fantasy VII , Hamauzu was the synthesizer programmer for the rendition of Joseph Haydn 's " The Creation " , and provided bass vocals in the eight @-@ person chorus for " One @-@ Winged Angel " .
In 1999 , Hamauzu was assigned with scoring SaGa Frontier 2 , replacing the SaGa series ' long @-@ time composer Kenji Ito . He spent some time conforming to the music Ito had established for the series , but eventually realized that he wanted to use his own unique style . The project introduced him to synthesizer programmer Ryo Yamazaki , whom he has worked with on most of his subsequent soundtracks . Hamauzu also released Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 , an arranged album featuring piano pieces of the game 's music . In 2001 , Hamauzu and Nakano were chosen to assist Uematsu in the production of the score for the critically acclaimed Final Fantasy X , based on their ability to create music that was different from Uematsu 's style . Hamauzu also contributed the Piano Collections arranged album of the game , which he described as his most challenging work , and the track named " feel " , an arrangement of " Hymn of the Fayth " , from the EP feel / Go dream : Yuna & Tidus .
In 2002 , Hamauzu composed the music for Unlimited Saga , a game that would be received negatively by critics due to a variety of gameplay issues . He became the leading composer of Square Enix 's music team in October 2004 , following Uematsu 's departure from the company . In 2005 , Hamauzu , Nakano , and the duo Wavelink Zeal ( Takayuki and Yuki Iwai ) scored Musashi : Samurai Legend , the sequel to the 1998 title Brave Fencer Musashi . Hamauzu composed the highly anticipated but critically unsuccessful Final Fantasy VII follow @-@ up , Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , in 2006 . Later the same year , he arranged the Sailing to the World Piano Score at the request of Mitsuda ; the album was well received by pianists and confirmed Hamauzu 's position as the leading piano arranger of game music .
Hamauzu released a solo album , Vielen Dank , in 2007 after recording it in Munich , Germany . The album includes eleven piano pieces that he composed for personal pleasure after the creation of Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 as well as 14 arrangements of his game compositions . Two tracks from the album were performed at the 2007 Symphonic Game Music Concert in Leipzig . In 2008 , he composed the soundtrack to Sigma Harmonics , with synthesizer programming by Mitsuto Suzuki rather than Yamazaki . At the 2006 E3 event , a Square Enix press conference revealed that Hamauzu would be returning to the Final Fantasy series , scoring Final Fantasy XIII . He left Square Enix on January 19 , 2010 . He went on to form his own studio , Monomusik , which he describes as a personal studio that does not include any other composers . He has since gone on to score Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , while also rearranging his old compositions for the high definition version of Final Fantasy X.
= = Musical style and influences = =
Hamauzu composes music in a wide variety of styles , often using multiple styles throughout the various pieces of a soundtrack . He mostly creates classical and ambient music , and uses the piano predominantly as an instrument . He frequently uses dissonance to provide an atmospheric effect . In Unlimited Saga , for example , the style of his compositions mix classical marches , tango music , electronic ambiance , instrumental solos , bossa nova , and jazz .
He cites animation composers Hiroshi Miyagawa and Ryuichi Sakamoto of Yellow Magic Orchestra , impressionist composers Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy , and his father as major musical influences . During his adolescence , he enjoyed listening to the works of Miyagawa and Sakamoto . While attending university , he developed an appreciation for classical music , especially the compositions of Ravel and Debussy .
= = Works = =
= Draped Bust dollar =
The Draped Bust dollar is a United States dollar coin minted from 1795 to 1803 , and was reproduced , dated 1804 , into the 1850s . The design succeeded the Flowing Hair dollar , which began mintage in 1794 and was the first silver dollar struck by the United States Mint . The designer is unknown , though the distinction is usually credited to artist Gilbert Stuart . The model is also unknown , though Ann Willing Bingham has been suggested .
In October 1795 , newly appointed Mint Director Elias Boudinot ordered that the legal fineness of .892 ( 89 @.@ 2 % ) silver be used for the dollar rather than the unauthorized fineness of .900 ( 90 % ) silver that had been used since the denomination was first minted in 1794 . Due largely to a decrease in the amount of silver deposited at the Philadelphia Mint , coinage of silver dollars declined throughout the latter years of the 18th century . In 1804 , coinage of silver dollars was halted ; the last date used during regular mint production was 1803 .
In 1834 , silver dollar production was temporarily restarted to supply a diplomatic mission to Asia with a special set of proof coins . Officials mistakenly believed that dollars had last been minted with the date 1804 , prompting them to use that date rather than the date in which the coins were actually struck . A limited number of 1804 dollars were struck by the Mint in later years , and they remain rare and valuable .
= = Background = =
Coinage began on the first United States silver dollar , known as the Flowing Hair dollar , in 1794 following the construction and staffing of the Philadelphia Mint . The Coinage Act of 1792 called for the silver coinage to be struck in an alloy consisting of 89 @.@ 2 % silver and 10 @.@ 8 % copper . However , Mint officials were reluctant to strike coins with the unusual fineness , so it was decided to strike them in an unauthorized alloy of 90 % silver instead . This caused depositors of silver to lose money when their metal was coined . During the second year of production of the Flowing Hair dollar , it was decided that the denomination would be redesigned . It is unknown what prompted this change or who suggested it , though numismatic historian R.W. Julian speculates that Henry William de Saussure , who was named Director of the Mint on July 9 , 1795 , may have suggested it , as he had stated a redesign of the American coinage as one of his goals before taking office . It is also possible that the Flowing Hair design was discontinued owing to much public disapproval .
= = = Design = = =
Though the designer of the coin is unknown , artist Gilbert Stuart is widely acknowledged to have been its creator ; Mint Director James Ross Snowden began researching the early history of the United States Mint and its coinage in the 1850s , during which time he interviewed descendants of Stuart who claimed that their ancestor was the designer . It has been suggested that Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham posed as the model for the coin . Several sketches were approved by Mint engraver Robert Scot and de Saussure and sent to President George Washington and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson to gain their approval .
After approval was received , the designs were sent to artist John Eckstein to be rendered into plaster models ; during that time , plaster models were used as a guide to cutting the dies , which was done by hand . Eckstein , who was dismissed by Walter Breen as a " local artistic hack " and described by a contemporary artist as a " thorough @-@ going drudge " due to his willingness to carry out most painting or sculptural tasks at the request of clients , was paid thirty dollars for his work preparing models for both the obverse Liberty and reverse eagle and wreath . After the plaster models were created , the engravers of the Philadelphia Mint ( including Scot ) began creating hubs that would be used to make dies for the new coins .
= = Production = =
It is unknown exactly when production of the new design began , as precise records relating to design were not kept at that time . R.W. Julian , however , places the beginning of production in either late September or early October 1795 , while Taxay asserts that the first new silver dollars were struck in October . In September 1795 , de Saussure wrote his resignation letter to President Washington . In his letter , de Saussure mentioned the unauthorized silver standard and suggested that Congress be urged to make the standard official , but this was not done . In response to de Saussure 's letter , Washington expressed his displeasure in the resignation , stating that he had viewed de Saussure 's tenure with " entire satisfaction " . As de Saussure 's resignation would not take effect until October , the president was given time to select a replacement .
The person chosen to fill the position was statesman and former congressman Elias Boudinot . Upon assuming his duties at the Mint on October 28 , Boudinot was informed of the silver standard that had been used since the first official silver coins were struck . He immediately ordered that this practice be ceased and that coinage would begin in the 89 @.@ 2 % fineness approved by the Coinage Act of 1792 . The total production of 1795 dollars ( including both the Flowing Hair and Draped Bust types ) totalled 203 @,@ 033 . It is estimated that approximately 42 @,@ 000 dollars were struck bearing the Draped Bust design . Boudinot soon ordered that production of minor denominations be increased . Later , assayer Albian Cox died suddenly from a stroke in his home on November 27 , 1795 , leaving the vital post of assayer vacant . This , together with Boudinot 's increased focus on smaller denominations , as well as a lull in private bullion deposits ( the fledgling Mint 's only source of bullion ) , caused a decrease in silver dollar production in 1796 . The total mintage for 1796 was 79 @,@ 920 , which amounts to an approximate 62 % reduction from the previous year 's total .
Bullion deposits continued to decline , and in 1797 , silver dollar production reached the lowest point since 1794 with a mintage of just 7 @,@ 776 pieces . During this time , silver deposits declined to such an extent that Thomas Jefferson personally deposited 300 Spanish dollars in June 1797 . In April 1797 , an agreement was reached between the Mint and the Bank of the United States . The Bank agreed to supply the Mint with foreign silver on the condition that the Bank would receive their deposits back in silver dollars . The Mint was closed between August and November 1797 due to the annual yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia ; that year 's epidemic took the life of the Mint 's treasurer , Dr. Nicholas Way . In November 1797 , the Bank deposited approximately $ 30 @,@ 000 worth of French silver . In early 1798 , the reverse was changed from the small , perched eagle to a heraldic eagle similar to that depicted on the Great Seal of the United States . The agreement reached with the Bank of the United States along with other bullion depositors ( including Boudinot ) led to an increase in the number of silver dollars coined ; mintage for both the small and heraldic eagle types totalled 327 @,@ 536 . Mintage numbers for the dollar remained high through 1799 , with 423 @,@ 515 struck that year .
Toward the end of the 18th century , many of the silver dollars produced by the Mint were shipped to and circulated or melted in China in order to satisfy the great demand for silver bullion in that nation . In 1800 , silver deposits once again began to decline , and the total silver dollar output for that year was 220 @,@ 920 . In 1801 , following complaints from the public and members of Congress regarding the lack of small change in circulation , Boudinot began requesting that silver depositors receive smaller denominations rather than the routinely requested silver dollars , in an effort to supply the nation with more small change . Production dropped to 54 @,@ 454 silver dollars in 1801 and 41 @,@ 650 in 1802 , after Boudinot was able to convince many depositors to accept their silver in the form of small denominations . Although silver bullion deposits at the Mint had increased , Boudinot attempted to end silver dollar production in 1803 , favoring half dollars instead . Mintage of the 1803 dollar continued until March 1804
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these animals would be protected from harm .
Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi wrote the Jain slogan , Ahimsa parmo dharma , on Facebook 's Real Wall at its headquarters , when he visited for a town hall question @-@ and @-@ answer session in September 2015 .
= Chacma baboon =
The chacma baboon ( Papio ursinus ) , also known as the Cape baboon , is , like all other baboons , from the Old World monkey family . It is one of the largest of all monkeys .
Located primarily in southern Africa , the chacma baboon has a wide variety of social behaviors , including a dominance hierarchy , collective foraging , adoption of young by females , and friendship pairings . These behaviors form parts of a complex evolutionary ecology .
In general the species is not threatened , but human population pressure has increased contact between humans and baboons . Hunting , accidents and trapping kill or remove many baboons from the wild . This has reduced baboon numbers and disrupted their social structure .
= = Taxonomy = =
Due to hybridization between different baboon ( Papio ) populations across Africa , authors have occasionally grouped the entire radiation as a single species , the hamadryas baboon , Papio hamadryas . Arbitrary boundaries were then used to separate the populations into subspecies . Other authors considered the chacma baboon a subspecies of the yellow baboon , Papio cynocephalus , though it is now recognised as a separate species , Papio ursinus . The chacma baboon has two or three subspecies , depending on which classification is followed . Grubb et al . ( 2003 ) listed two subspecies , while Groves ( 2005 ) in Mammal Species of the World listed three . This article follows Groves ( 2005 ) and describes three distinct subspecies . In the Grubb et al . ( 2003 ) paper , P. u. raucana was believed to be synonymous with P. u. ursinus .
Papio ursinus ursinus Kerr , 1792 – Cape chacma ( found in southern South Africa )
P. u. griseipes Pocock , 1911 – Gray @-@ footed chacma ( found in northern South Africa to southern Zambia )
P. u. raucana Shortridge , 1942 – Ruacana chacma ( found from Namibia to southern Angola )
= = Physical description = =
The chacma baboon is perhaps the longest species of monkey , with a male body length of 50 – 115 cm ( 20 – 45 in ) and tail length of 45 – 84 cm ( 18 – 33 in ) . It also one of the heaviest ; the male weighs from 21 to 45 kg ( 46 to 99 lb ) . Baboons are sexually dimorphic , and females are considerably smaller than males . The female chacma weighs from 12 to 25 kg ( 26 to 55 lb ) . It is similar in size to the olive baboon and of similar weight to the more compact mandrill , which is usually crowned the largest of all monkeys . The chacma baboon is generally dark brown to gray in color , with a patch of rough hair on the nape of its neck . Unlike the males of northern baboon species ( the Guinea , hamadryas , and olive baboons ) , chacma males do not have a mane . Perhaps the most distinctive feature of this baboon is its long , downward @-@ sloping face . The canine teeth of male chacma baboons have a mean length of 3 @.@ 86 ± 0 @.@ 30 cm at the time they emigrate from their natal troop . This is the time of greatest tooth length as the teeth tend to wear or be broken thereafter .
The three subspecies are differentiated by size and color . The Cape chacma is a large , heavy , dark @-@ brown , and has black feet . The gray @-@ footed chacma is slightly smaller than the Cape chacma , lighter in color and build , and has gray feet . The Ruacana chacma generally appears to be a smaller , less darkly colored version of the Cape chacma .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat and distribution = = =
The chacma baboon inhabits a wide array of habitats including woodland , savanna , steppes , and subdesert , from the grassy alpine slopes of the Drakensberg to the Kalahari desert . During the night the chacma baboon needs hills , cliffs , or large trees in which to sleep . During the day water availability may limit its range in arid areas . It is found in southern Africa , ranging from South Africa north to Angola , Zambia , and Mozambique . The subspecies are divided across this range . The Cape chacma is found in southern South Africa ; the gray @-@ footed chacma , is present from northern South Africa , through the Okavango Delta in Botswana , Zimbabwe , Mozambique ( south of the Zambezi ) , to southwest Zambia ; and the Ruacana chacma is found in northern Namibia and southern Angola .
= = = Diet = = =
The chacma baboon is omnivorous with a preference for fruits , while also eating insects , seeds , grass , smaller vertebrate animals , and fungi ( the desert truffle Kalaharituber pfeilii ; at the Cape of Good Hope in particular , it is also known for taking shellfish and other marine invertebrates . It is generally a scavenger when it comes to game meat , and rarely engages in hunting large animals . One incident of a chacma baboon killing a human infant has been reported , but the event is so rare , the locals believed it was due to witchcraft . Normally , chacma baboons will flee at the approach of humans , though this is changing due to the easy availability of food near human dwellings .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social organization = = =
The chacma baboon usually lives in social groups , called troops , which are composed of multiple adult males , adult females , and their offspring . Occasionally , however , very small groups form that consist of only a single adult male and several adult females . Chacma troops are characterized by a dominance hierarchy . Female ranking within the troop is inherited through the mother and remains relatively fixed , while male ranking is often in flux , especially when the dominant male is replaced . Chacmas are unusual among baboons in that neither males nor females form strong relationships with members of the same sex . Instead , the strongest social bonds are often between unrelated adult males and females . Infanticide is also common compared to other baboon species , as newly dominant males will often attempt to kill young baboons sired by the previously dominant male . Baboon troops possess a complex group behavior and communicate by means of body attitudes , facial expressions , vocalizations and touch .
= = = Morning dispersal patterns = = =
The chacma baboon often sleeps in large groups on cliffs or in trees at night to avoid predators . The morning dispersal from the sleeping site is synchronized , with all members leaving at the same time . In most cases , dispersal is initiated by a single individual , and the other members of the group decide whether or not to follow . At least five followers must be recruited for a successful dispersal initiation , and not all initiation attempts are successful . Surprisingly , the initiator 's dominance status shows little correlation with successful initiation of departure ; more @-@ dominant individuals are no more likely to lead a successful departure than subordinate individuals . One study has shown that while the success rate of dispersal initiation attempts is relatively constant across all sexes , male are more likely to attempt initiation than females , and lactating females are less likely to attempt initiation than females without dependent offspring . A separate study has achieved slightly different results . While dominance hierarchy does not play a significant role in initiating the morning dispersal , social affiliation does . Chacma baboons that play a more central role in the group ( as measured by grooming behavior and time spent with other members ) are more likely to be followed during the morning dispersal . This study concluded that group members are more likely to follow the behavior of individuals with which they are closely affiliated .
= = = Foraging behavior = = =
Dominance does play a role in group foraging decisions . A dominant individual ( usually the alpha male ) leads the group to easily monopolized resources . The group usually follows , even though many subordinate members cannot gain access to that particular resource . As in morning dispersal , the inclination of group members to follow the leader is positively associated with social interactions with that dominant individual .
Collective foraging behavior , with many individuals taking advantage of the same resource at once , has also been observed . However , this behavior can be chiefly attributed to shared dietary needs rather than social affiliation . Pregnant females , who share similar dietary needs , are more likely to synchronize their behavior than fertile females . Foraging synchronization decreases in areas with lower food density .
= = = Adoption = = =
Adoption behavior has been observed in chacma baboons . Orphaned baboons whose mothers have disappeared or died are often too small to care for themselves . In one study of nine natural orphans and three introduced orphans , all but one orphan were adopted by another member of the group . The individual that was not adopted was 16 months old , four months older than the next oldest orphan , and was old enough to survive on its own . Adoption behavior includes sleeping close to the orphaned infant , grooming and carrying the orphan , and protecting it from harassment by other members of the troop . Both males and females care for infants , and care does not depend on the infant 's sex . Additionally , all caregivers are prereproductive , only four or five years of age . The two major theories explaining this behavior are kin selection , in which caregivers take care of potentially related orphans , and parental practice , in which young caregivers increase their own fitness by using an orphan to practice their own parental skills .
= = = Friendship = = =
Males and female chacma baboons often form relationships referred to as " friendships " . These cooperative relationships generally occur between lactating females and adult males . The females are believed to seek out male friendships to gain protection from infanticide . In many baboon species , immigrant alpha males often practice infanticide upon arrival in a new troop . By killing unrelated infants , the new male shortens the time until he can mate with the females of the troop . A female with dependent offspring generally does not become sexually receptive until she weans her offspring at around 12 months of age . However , a mother usually becomes sexually receptive shortly after the death of her offspring .
This protection hypothesis is supported by studies of stress hormones in female baboons during changes in the male hierarchy . When an immigrant male ascends to the top of the male dominance hierarchy , stress hormones in lactating and pregnant females increases , while stress hormones in females not at risk of infanticide stay the same . Additionally , females in friendships with males exhibit a smaller rise in stress hormones than do females without male friends .
The benefits of friendship to males are less clear . A male is more likely to enter into friendships with females with which he has mated , which indicates males might enter into friendships to protect their own offspring and not just to protect that female 's future reproductive success . These friendships may play a role in the mating system of chacma baboons . A female will often mate with several males , which increases the number of potential fathers for her offspring and increases the chances she will be able to find at least one friend to protect her infants .
Female chacma baboons have been observed to compete with each other for male friends . This may be the result of one male having a high probability of paternity with multiple females . These competitions are heavily influenced by the female dominance hierarchy , with dominant females displacing subordinate females in friendships with males . Generally , when a more @-@ dominant female attempts to make friends with an individual which is already the friend of a subordinate female , the subordinate female reduces grooming and spatial proximity to that male , potentially leaving her offspring at higher risk of infanticide .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
The chacma baboon is widespread and does not rank among threatened animal species . However , in some confined locations , such as South Africa 's Southern Cape Peninsula , local populations are dwindling due to habitat loss and predation from other protected species , such as leopards and lions . Some troops have become a suburban menace , overturning trash cans and entering houses in their search for food . These troops can be aggressive and dangerous , and such negative encounters have resulted in hunting by frustrated local residents . This isolated population is thought to face extinction within 10 years .
The chacma is listed under Appendix II of CITES as it occurs in many protected areas across its range . The only area in South Africa where they are monitored is in the Cape Peninsula , where they are protected .
Observations by those working hands @-@ on in South Africa 's rehabilitation centers have found this species is damaged by human intervention ; troop structures are influenced , and over the years a significant loss in numbers has occurred . Because they live near human habitats , baboons are shot , poisoned , electrocuted , run over , and captured for the pet industry , research laboratories and muthi ( medicine ) . Despite this , assessors working for the IUCN believe there are no major threats that could result in a range @-@ wide decline of the species .
= = = In popular culture = = =
In 2011 , the British Television Channel ITV1 aired an eight @-@ episode miniseries , hosted by popular British comedian Bill Bailey . The series followed the lives of three different family groups of chacma baboons in South Africa . The series focuses on the baboons ' abilities to adapt to human settlement and their complex social lives . It is generally structured within a narrative , with each adult baboon having a name and being treated as an ' actor ' in the story . The three families of baboons have each developed their own ways of life ; the ' Smitz ' group spends most its time trying to rob food from tourists along a coastal highway , the ' Tokai ' group has remained in a more natural forest area , and the ' Da Gama ' group lives on the rooftops of an apartment complex . The program is the second attempt by Bailey to produce a semiserious nature documentary , and it received generally favourable reviews .
= California State Route 190 =
State Route 190 ( SR 190 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California that is split into two parts by the Sierra Nevada . The western portion of begins at Tipton at a junction with State Route 99 and heads east towards Porterville before ending at Quaking Aspen in the Sequoia National Forest . The eastern portion begins at US 395 at Olancha , heads east through Death Valley National Park , and ends at State Route 127 at Death Valley Junction . The 43 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 69 @.@ 2 km ) portion over the Sierra Nevada remains unconstructed , and the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) has no plans to build it through the wilderness areas .
The route east of State Route 136 near Keeler is on the California Freeway and Expressway System , but is a two @-@ lane road . Except west of State Route 65 in Porterville , SR 190 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System ; the part within Death Valley National Park , known as the Death Valley Scenic Byway , has been added to the system and is a National Scenic Byway .
= = Route description = =
State Route 190 begins at State Route 99 just south of downtown Tipton in Tulare County and heads straight east along the flat San Joaquin Valley on Avenue 144 . There is a short expressway segment in Porterville , including a cloverleaf interchange at State Route 65 and a partial interchange at Main Street , after which the highway begins to curve alongside the Tule River , passing the south side of Lake Success , as the terrain becomes more rugged . Following the river , it meets the south end of County Route J37 , an access road to Balch Park in the Mountain Home State Forest , at the forks of the river near the community of Springville . SR 190 continues east near the Middle Fork and South Fork Middle Fork Tule River to near Camp Nelson , where it begins rising into the foothills , going around many hairpin curves in order to rise to Quaking Aspen , the source of the South Fork Middle Fork and the end of the western segment of SR 190 . The county @-@ maintained Western Divide Highway continues south to a point west of Johnsondale , where traffic can turn east to reach US 395 via Sherman Pass and County Route J41 .
From Quaking Aspen across the Sierra Nevada to Olancha , Caltrans has adopted a proposed alignment , but is unlikely to build it , in part due to two protected wilderness areas — the Golden Trout Wilderness and South Sierra Wilderness — along the route . The unconstructed routing heads northeast from Quaking Aspen , cresting a small summit before following Freeman Creek easterly past the Freeman Creek Grove , crossing the Kern River near its forks , and then using the path of Rattlesnake Creek and Beach Creek to the Beach Meadows area . Crossing several ridges to the northeast , SR 190 would make its way to the South Fork Kern River near Monache Mountain , then heading southeast along that waterway to the vicinity of Haiwee Pass . That pass , elevation about 8200 feet ( 2500 m ) above sea level , would take the highway over the Sierra crest into Inyo County , dropping for 12 @.@ 0 miles ( 19 @.@ 3 km ) in a north @-@ northeasterly direction to US 395 at Olancha ( elevation 3650 feet / 1100 m ) .
The eastern section of SR 190 begins at Olancha in the Owens Valley , at the intersection with US 395 . The route heads northeast along the southeast side of Owens Lake to the junction with SR 136 southeast of Keeler , where it turns southeast and east around the south side of the Inyo Mountains . After passing the turnoff to Darwin , SR 190 enters Death Valley National Park and becomes curvier as it heads down into the Panamint Valley . The highway crosses the valley and then turns northeast over Towne Pass and into the northern part of Death Valley at Stovepipe Wells . Within the valley , at the intersection with North Highway , which leads to Scotty 's Castle and Beatty , Nevada , SR 190 turns southeast through Death Valley , which it remains inside until the turnoff to Badwater Basin , the lowest point in North America , near the settlement of Furnace Creek . It leaves the valley to the southeast alongside Furnace Creek Wash , where the highway is usually closed at least once a year by flash floods . SR 190 turns east away from the wash at the turnoff to Dante 's View , and soon leaves the park , after which it follows a mostly straight alignment to its end at State Route 127 at Death Valley Junction .
= = History = =
The path of SR 190 east of the Panamint Range in Death Valley National Park was followed in late 1849 and early 1850 by the Death Valley ' 49ers , a group of ' 49ers that had left the Old Spanish Trail at Enterprise , Utah to look for a shortcut to Walker Pass . The pioneers crossed the state line from Nevada near Ash Meadows , following the general route of present SR 190 from Death Valley Junction into Death Valley , which they left to the west into Panamint Valley and then turned south towards present State Route 178 . After ore was discovered in Death Valley , the route became a primitive road , though most travel into the valley , such as the twenty mule team borax route , was from the south .
The second boom in Death Valley was tourism , started in the 1920s by Herman Eichbaum . After several failures in getting a toll road approved from Lida , Nevada or over Towne Pass , he scaled back plans to include only the part of the latter route between southeast of Darwin and his resort at Stovepipe Wells . The new Eichbaum Toll Road was certified complete on May 4 , 1926 , and toll rates were set : $ 2 per motor vehicle and 50 ¢ per person . In 1933 , the state legislature added many roads to the state highway system , including a new ( unsigned ) Route 127 , connecting Tipton with Baker via Lone Pine and Death Valley Junction . The Death Valley National Monument was created on February 11 , 1933 , and in December 1934 the Division of Highways paid $ 25 @,@ 000 for the 30 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 48 @.@ 84 km ) road , giving the 17 miles ( 27 km ) east of the park boundary at the pass to the National Park Service . The state Division of Highways and National Park Service soon paved the route from Lone Pine ( on US 395 ) through Towne Pass and Death Valley to Baker ( on US 91 ) . The work was completed in October 1937 , including the 17 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) Darwin cutoff that bypassed Darwin and the old toll road west of Panamint Springs . The National Park Service , using Civilian Conservation Corps labor , maintained the road through the park until August 1942 , when an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) stretch east of the valley was washed out by a storm . At that time , maintenance was given back to the state , which rebuilt the destroyed segment .
When the state sign route system was created in 1934 , Sign Route 190 was assigned to the portion of Route 127 west of Death Valley Junction , while the remainder to Baker became part of Sign Route 127 . However , the highway was not continuous , with the roadway from Tipton ( which had been built by Tulare County ) ending at Quaking Aspen ( east of Camp Nelson ) and that from Death Valley ending southwest of Lone Pine . In 1923 , Tulare County businessmen had begun to push for a new trans @-@ Sierra highway connecting Porterville with Lone Pine , but were set back by a lack of state aid , as the road was not a state highway . The first piece , which would turn out to be the only one built , opened in early July 1931 to Quaking Aspen ( and became a state highway in 1933 ) . Grading of the 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) Western Divide Highway , a county road that was supposed to continue south to State Route 155 at Greenhorn Summit , was completed from Quaking Aspen south to near Johnsondale in July 1962 . A new road from Johnsondale across Sherman Pass , maintained by the U.S. Forest Service and Tulare and Inyo Counties ( the latter as County Route J41 ) , was completed in 1976 , allowing traffic on the western segment of SR 190 to reach US 395 , though via a longer route than the proposed SR 190 .
In March 1959 , Tulare County approved a change in location of the proposed highway to Olancha Pass ( Haiwee Pass , just to the south , was soon considered for a possible alternate location ) , and the legislature moved the main line of Route 127 south to that location , crossing US 395 at Olancha , later that year . The old route from southeast of Keeler to Lone Pine remained as a branch , and was still signed as SR 190 . Also in 1959 , the original routing from Lone Pine through Death Valley to Baker was added to the proposed California Freeway and Expressway System , though no parts have been upgraded as such . The east – west piece between Tipton and Death Valley Junction legislatively received the State Route 190 designation in the 1964 renumbering , and the north – south part became State Route 127 , which it had been signed as ; the branch to Lone Pine became a new State Route 136 . By the mid @-@ 1970s , the environmental movement had essentially killed the planned connection , and the designation of the Golden Trout Wilderness in 1978 and South Sierra Wilderness in 1984 were the final blow , though Caltrans still has an officially adopted alignment designated over Haiwee Pass .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Liberty Walk =
" Liberty Walk " is a song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus , from her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . It was written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Nicholas J. Scapa , John Read Fasse and Michael McGinnis , and produced by Armato , James and Paul Palmer under their stage @-@ name Rock Mafia . Cyrus explained that the theme of female empowerment was a lyrical inspiration for the song . Musically , " Liberty Walk " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song which also contains rapped verses . Critical reception of the song was generally mixed , however , the majority of reviewers criticized the rapped verses and described the overall song as " dull " . Despite not being released as a single , " Liberty Walk " peaked at number three on the U.S. Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and number 79 on the Canadian Hot 100 due to strong digital downloads .
= = Background = =
" Liberty Walk " was written by Cyrus , Nicholas J. Scapa , John Read Fasse , Michael McGinnis , Antonina Armato and Tim James . It was produced by the latter three under their stage name Rock Mafia . The song serves as the opening track of Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . In an interview with Sway Calloway for MTV News , Cyrus explained the lyrical inspiration of the song which is about female empowerment , saying : " It 's just about freeing yourself from anything you think is holding you back . And I think that 's really important , especially for girls , because so many people are told , ' No , you can 't do something , ' or , ' You need to be this because Mom and Dad say that , teachers say this . ' " Upon the making of the song , Cyrus stated in the same interview that she tried to combine a serious topic with a lighter sound , explaining : " I wrote it for women that feel like they 're stuck in abusive relationships , but it 's a dance song " . She elaborated : " So you think that must be kind of a sad ballad , but it 's a party song . ... It 's about breaking free . "
= = Composition = =
" Liberty Walk " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song , with a length of four minutes and six seconds . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , it is written in the key of B minor and is set in common time . The beat moves at 120 beats per minute . Cyrus ' vocal range in the song spans from the low note of Bb2 to the high note of F # 5 . Heather Phares of Allmusic noted the use of " bold synths and beats " . She also said that the " rapped verses " that Cyrus delivers sound " edgier " than the singer 's previous work . Cyrus opens the song by chanting " Don ’ t live a lie , this is your one life " . Punch Liwanag of Manila Bulletin described the song as " swanky dance " and characterised the synth sounds as " ear filling " . According to Jon Caramanica of The New York Times , Cyrus applies four different vocal strategies in the song .
= = Critical reception = =
" Liberty Walk " has received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic commended the upbeat lyrics as being radio Disney @-@ friendly . Similarly , Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly described the song as a " thumping album opener " . A reviewer from Sputnik Music noted that " ' Liberty Walk ' showcases classic Miley spunk a la ' Hoedown Throwdown ' " . However some reviewers were critical of the song . Michelle Griffin of the Sydney Morning Herald concluded that " Liberty Walk " would " make Glee 's Mr Shue blush " . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday labeled it as a " loopy Jason DeRulo rip @-@ off " , and stated that " where Cyrus raps , she 's hard to take seriously . " Donald Gibson of Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer was also unfavorable of the song , who called it a " monotonous opener " . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters noted that in " Liberty Walk " , Cyrus ' " search for a new identity renders her as anonymous and generic @-@ sounding as ever . "
= = Live performances and promotional video = =
Cyrus has performed the " Liberty Walk " at the House of Blues Sunset Strip in Los Angeles , California . She also performed the song during a concert in Melbourne , Australia . According to Julia Foskey of The Hot Hits Live from LA , Cyrus wore " raunchy leather hotpants and sequined bra " . She opened her concert with " Liberty Walk " at the Brisbane Entertainment Centre in Brisbane , Australia . In this performance , the singer wore " thigh @-@ high boots , leather shorts , killer heels and a black bustier " . The song has also been performed during Gypsy Heart Tour .
On November 23 , 2011 , Cyrus released a video which featured a remixed version of " Liberty Walk " by Rock Mafia . It features news footage of the Occupy movement that spread from Wall Street to other areas of the world . The video begins with a message saying " This is dedicated to the thousands of people who are standing up for what they believe in " . Later in the video , scenes of sign @-@ waving protesters and pepper @-@ spraying police are shown .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting , vocals – Miley Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Nicholas J. Scapa , John Read Fasse , Michael McGinnis
Production – Rock Mafia
Engineering – Steve Hammons , Adam Comstock
Editing – Rock Mafia , Nigel Lundemo
Mixing – Paul Palmer , Rock Mafia
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Can 't Be Tamed .
= = Charts = =
Due to strong digital downloads , " Liberty Walk " peaked at number three on the U.S. Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . The song also reached number 79 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
= Braathens SAFE Flight 139 =
Braathen SAFE Flight 139 was an aircraft hijacking that occurred in Norway on 21 June 1985 . The incident took place on a Boeing 737 @-@ 205 belonging to Braathens SAFE that was on a scheduled flight from Trondheim Airport , Værnes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The hijacker was Stein Arvid Huseby , who was drunk during most of the incident . It was the first plane hijacking to take place in Norway ; there were no deaths and no injuries . Huseby was sentenced to three years prison and five years detention .
Armed with an air gun , Huseby threatened a cabin attendant and told the captain to proceed as planned to Fornebu . He claimed ( falsely ) to have placed explosives on board . His demands were to make a political statement and talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke . The plane landed at 15 : 30 at Fornebu and was surrounded by the police . After one hour , Huseby released 70 hostages in exchange for having the aircraft being moved closer to the terminal building . Thirty minutes later , Huseby released the remaining passengers . He drank throughout the incident , and at 17 : 30 , after he consumed the plane 's beer supply , he surrendered his weapon in exchange for more beer . The plane was immediately stormed and Huseby arrested .
= = Hijacking = =
The hijacking occurred on board Braathens SAFE Flight 139 en route from Trondheim Airport , Værnes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The aircraft was a Boeing 737 – 205 , named Harald Gille ( after Harald IV of Norway ) with registration LN @-@ SUG . The day before the hijacking , Huseby graduated from upper secondary school , where he studied health and social work . That evening , he purchased an air gun in Trondheim . The weapon was in his hand luggage when boarding the aircraft at Trondheim Airport , Værnes , where there was no security control . He selected a seat at the rear of the aircraft . While airborne , the hijacker showed a female flight attendant the air gun , and asked her to inform the captain that he wanted control over the aircraft , but that otherwise all was to proceed as planned . The flight attendant and later the hijacker used the intercom to communicate with the pilot . The police were informed about the incident via air controllers at 15 : 05 .
The plane landed at Fornebu at 15 : 30 , fifteen minutes after schedule . The aircraft parked at a location 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) from the terminal . It was immediately surrounded by police special forces , as well as officers from Asker and Bærum Police Department . Two special @-@ trained police officers were placed in the control tower , where they negotiated with Huseby . Fornebu was closed , and air traffic was rerouted to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The passengers were not informed about the incident until the aircraft was surrounded by the police . The hijacker informed the passengers and crew falsely that he had placed explosives in the toilet rooms , but that no one would be hurt if they cooperated . Huseby was dressed in a suit with sunglasses . The passengers on board described his actions as calm . During the whole incident , Huseby repeatedly asked for and drank beer .
Huseby 's demands were to talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke , both from the Conservative Party . He also wanted to hold a press conference at Fornebu . Huseby was unsatisfied with his treatment after he left prison . He demanded to receive guarantees for a better treatment and economic security from the authorities . Assisted by a psychologist , the police negotiated with Huseby . One hour after the plane landed , 70 passengers were let out of the plane . The first group were those passengers who had or claimed they had transfers to other flights . In exchange , the aircraft was moved closer to the terminal building . The passengers were picked up by a bus and transported to the domestic terminal , where they were questioned by the police . The remaining passengers were let out thirty minutes later . Only the five crew members remained .
A friend of Huseby helped the police in the negotiations . At 18 : 30 , the aircraft was out of beer , so Huseby made an agreement that he would throw the gun out of the window in exchange for more beer . This was delivered by a civilian police officer . The aircraft was then immediately stormed by special forces and Huseby arrested . No @-@ one was injured in the hijacking .
= = Aftermath = =
Stein Arvid Huseby , originally from Karmøy , was at the time 24 years old . He had just finished studying at a Christian upper secondary school in Trondheim . He had previously been sentenced five times for violence offenses , including an armed robbery of a taxi and threatening a lensmann with a shotgun . He was beaten and abused by his father , and started drinking as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . He lost his job as a seaman due to drunkenness , and was put into a psychiatric institution in 1980 , aged 19 . In 1983 , he was admitted to a Christian school , and had managed to stay away from alcohol for two years , but had started again just prior to the incident . He stated that he was afraid to lose his friends due to his misuse of alcohol .
During the court case , Huseby stated that he wanted help from society and attention drawn to his cause . However , he stated that he regretted doing this by hijacking . He stated that all he wanted was to send a message to the minister of justice and prime minister that he needed help , and that he did not intend that the other passengers be aware of his threats . Huseby stated that the hijacking was spontaneous and that he planned to make an armed robbery or take hostages at the Radisson SAS hotel in Oslo . His defense attorney argued that Huseby did not commit a hijacking in the letter of the law , but had instead taken hostages , which would result in a lesser sentence . The court psychologists stated that Huseby had a difficult childhood , and had been defined as an alcoholic at the age of 17 . They considered him to have very underdeveloped ability to make rational decisions and weak mental health . They also stated that he committed crimes to identify himself due to his low self @-@ esteem . On 29 May 1986 , Huseby was found guilty of hijacking in Eidsivating Court of Appeal . He was sentenced to three years prison and five years of preventive supervision .
= Bob Heffron =
Robert James " Bob " Heffron ( 10 September 1890 – 27 July 1978 ) , also known as R. J. Heffron , was a long @-@ serving New South Wales politician , union organiser and Australian Labor Party Premier of New South Wales from 1959 to 1964 . Born in New Zealand , Heffron became involved in various Socialist and Labor movements in New Zealand and later Australia before joining the Australian Labor Party . Being a prominent unionist organiser , having been gaoled at one stage for " conspiracy to strike action " , he was eventually elected to the Parliament of New South Wales for Botany in 1930 . However his disputes with party leader Jack Lang led to his expulsion from the ALP in 1936 and Heffron formed his own party from disgruntled Labor MPs known as the Industrial Labor Party . The success of his party enabled his readmission to the party and his prominence in a post @-@ Lang NSW Branch which won office in 1941 .
Heffron served as Minister of the Crown in the cabinets of William McKell , James McGirr and Joseph Cahill , most notably as Minister for Education from 1944 to 1960 and as Deputy Premier . In his significant tenure as minister for education Heffron oversaw massive expansion of the state 's public schools and the development of higher education services including the establishment of the New South Wales University of Technology ( now the University of New South Wales ) . Rising to become Premier in 1959 , he spearheaded a final attempt to abolish the New South Wales Legislative Council via referendum in 1961 , which ended in failure . Serving as Premier until 1964 , Heffron was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly for 37 years until his retirement on 23 January 1968 .
= = Early years and background = =
" Bob " Heffron ( as he was widely known ) was born on 10 September 1890 in Thames , New Zealand , the fifth child of Irish @-@ born parents Michael Heffron , a blacksmith , and Ellen Heath . After spending his early education at nearby Hikutaia , Heffron left school at 15 to work in a gold @-@ treating plant while studying metallurgy at the Thames School of Mines . At 19 , he went to California to work and to the Yukon in Canada to look for gold ; when this proved unsuccessful he returned to New Zealand in 1912 .
Heffron joined the New Zealand Socialist Party in 1912 and , becoming a miners ' union organiser , was involved in the Waihi miners ' strike , an event significant to the development of the labour movement in New Zealand . Appointed an organiser for the Auckland General Labourers ' Union , Heffron studied law part @-@ time at Auckland University College , whilst residing at the Heffron family home at 24 Grosvenor Street Grey Lynn . Although having volunteered for military service in the First World War , Heffron was rejected on medical grounds , with the attending doctor citing heart troubles . However , the rejection on the grounds of health was done despite an allegation that Heffron , in an attempt to encourage such a finding , had smoked 12 packs of cigarettes prior to his medical , in order to avoid military service . His elder brother , William Thomas Heffron , enlisted as a Private on 3 October 1917 and was killed in action a few days before the armistice on 4 November 1918 , while serving with the 1st Battalion , Auckland Infantry Regiment . On 29 December 1917 he married Jessie Bjornstad , the daughter of a Norwegian engineer and they would have two daughters , Maylean Jessie and June .
In 1921 , the Heffrons moved to Melbourne , Victoria . That same year in Victoria , Heffron was appointed an organiser for the Federated Clothing Trades of the Commonwealth of Australia and also joined the leftist Victorian Socialist Party . Later in 1921 he moved to Sydney , becoming the secretary of the New South Wales branch of the Federated Marine Stewards ' and Pantrymen 's Association of Australasia . As the union 's state secretary , a role he would hold for ten years , he took a prominent role in maritime trade unionism in Sydney . In February 1924 , when the Commonwealth and Dominion Line steamer Port Lyttelton was declared ' Black ' by the Labor Council of New South Wales owing to various worker 's disputes and the ship having been declared unseaworthy , Heffron and six other union representatives acted to advise members of the Seamen 's Union to refuse to work on the Port Lyttelton . For this , in April the government of Sir George Fuller had Heffron and the six other unionists arrested on the charge of conspiracy to strike action . Although controversially refused bail by the trial judge , Heffron and his fellow defendants , represented by Richard Windeyer KC and H. V. Evatt , were found not guilty and released in July 1924 by the court , a verdict that had been returned by the direction of the judge . Later joining the Australian Labor Party , at the time he showed himself to be a supporter of party leader Jack Lang , supporting Lang 's successful motion at the 1923 state conference to readmit James Dooley to the party .
= = Early political career = =
Having confirmed his Lang credentials , Heffron stood as the endorsed Labor party candidate for the seat of Botany at the 1927 election , which was held by Thomas Mutch , who had split from party after a stoush with Lang and stood as an ' Independent Labor ' candidate after being denied preselection . A contest marked by clashes and accusations of rorting , Heffron was ultimately unsuccessful , gaining only 45 % of the vote . He was eventually successful at the next election in 1930 , defeating Mutch , and would hold Botany until its abolition in 1950 .
While his support for Lang had enabled Heffron to accelerate his political career , he found himself increasingly unhappy with Lang 's autocratic and divisive political style , which had been amplified by the Great Depression , the expulsion of the NSW branch of the Labor Party from the federal branch and the ultimate dismissal of Lang 's government in 1932 by Governor Sir Philip Game . After Labor 's defeats at the hands of the United Australia Party ( UAP ) at the 1932 and 1935 state elections , Heffron became associated with a small group in caucus and in the NSW Labor Council who aimed to depose Lang as leader . However , while Heffron 's movement was based on his personal stronghold in his Botany – Maroubra ALP branches and the left @-@ wing trade unions , Lang maintained majority control of the caucus , party machine and the party newspaper , Labor Daily .
= = = Industrial Labor Party = = =
When Labor Council Secretary Robert King organised a conference of dissident left @-@ wing unions on 1 August 1936 , which was attended by Heffron and three other caucus members , Lang summoned a special party conference on 22 August which expelled Heffron , King and all the other leaders who attended the conference . As a result , Heffron , along with his colleague Carlo Lazzarini and others , formed the Industrial Labor Party ( ILP ) , which was also known as the ' Heffron Labor Party ' . Despite their expulsion , Heffron and the new ILP did increasingly well against Lang and the Labor Party , winning two subsequent by @-@ elections in the seats of Hurstville ( won by Clive Evatt ) and Waverley ( won by Clarrie Martin ) . In June 1939 , three other MPs , Frank Burke ( Newtown ) , Mat Davidson ( Cobar ) and Ted Horsington ( Sturt ) , unhappy with Lang 's leadership joined the ILP . As a result of its success , John Curtin and the federal executive of the ALP pressured the NSW ALP to readmit Heffron and his party at a unity conference at the Majestic Theatre in Newtown on 26 August 1939 . Heffron then combined forces with William McKell to depose Lang on 5 September 1939 , with McKell becoming the new leader of the party , although he declined to stand for the position of deputy leader .
= = Minister of the Crown = =
= = = National Emergency Services = = =
When the Labor Party eventually regained office under McKell , defeating Alexander Mair and the UAP at the May 1941 election , Heffron was elevated to the ministry as Minister for National Emergency Services , charged with the implementation of the National Emergency Services Act , and the administration of National Emergency Services , New South Wales . In this role he was responsible for the civil defence and air @-@ raid precautions of New South Wales , which became increasingly more important after the entry of Japan in the Second World War in December 1941 and subsequent attacks on Australia on Darwin and Sydney in 1942 . Serving until 8 June 1944 , Heffron advocated public vigilance whilst in this portfolio , declaring : " We are living in a fool 's paradise in Australia ... Many people have the idea that what is happening in other countries cannot happen here . "
Heffron also clashed with the Federal Government 's imposition of National Emergency Services procedures , most notably over the imposition of brownouts for the city of Sydney . In the Legislative Assembly in November 1942 , Heffron denounced the advisers of the Federal Government who continued to maintain the brown @-@ out as an essential defence measure : " The only conclusion I can come to , is that the brown @-@ out was born of a form of panic when Japan entered the war and it has continued because of a few brass hats will not look at the facts and the evidence of the fighting men , but persist in sticking to their first conclusion . The position , therefore , is ludicrous . " Heffron later affirmed that the brown @-@ out was completely unnecessary as a black @-@ out , with short notice given , was a more effective and safer defensive measure .
= = = Minister for Education = = =
Appointed by McKell as Minister for Education in June 1944 , Heffron authored in 1946 a comprehensive policy for the New South Wales education system entitled : Tomorrow is Theirs : The Present and Future of Education in New South Wales . As minister during the important post @-@ war era of economic growth and infrastructure development , Heffron presided over the expansion in the number and facilities of the public schools in NSW , with enrollments in all areas doubling in size .
In November 1952 he appointed Harold Wyndham as the Director @-@ General of Education , and commissioned him to chair a committee tasked to completely review the Secondary education system in New South Wales and make recommendations for improvements . The committee 's report , popularly referred to as " The Wyndham Report " , was presented to Heffron in October 1957 and gave rise to the Public Education Act of 1961 , being brought into effect in 1962 , during Heffron 's term as Premier . Key amongst the changes was the objective of presenting all students with the opportunity to experience a wide range of subjects , including visual arts , industrial arts , music and drama , and a wide range of languages . The five @-@ year secondary school system was abandoned in favour of adding another year to the course , with major statewide external examinations at the end of the tenth ( School Certificate ) and the twelfth ( Higher School Certificate ) years of schooling .
Heffron 's reformist attitude in education also extended to the tertiary level , in which he intended to significantly expand NSW 's capacity for higher @-@ level learning . On 9 July 1946 he presented a proposal to the cabinet outlining the creation of a technological @-@ based university in NSW , as a separate institution to the existing Sydney Technical College and a year later cabinet authorised the appointment of a Developmental Council , chaired by Heffron , to bring the new tertiary institution into existence . First meeting in August 1947 , the council established all the guidelines and regulations that would set @-@ up the future institution and by March 1948 , 46 students had already enrolled to study .
This institution , now named the " New South Wales University of Technology " , gained its statutory status through the enactment of ' New South Wales University of Technology Act 1949 ' , which was carried by Heffron 's firm support of its cause : " the Government ... is fully alive to the need in a democratic country to extend facilities to students who , for financial reasons , cannot attend present full @-@ time university courses " . This was the first time that a second university was to be established in any Australian state . With the establishment of this institution receiving opposition by some areas in the media and conservatives , Heffron came to its defence in an article published in the Sydney Morning Herald on 4 May 1949 , noting : " I feel that this new institution should be given time to prove its worth through the quality and work of its graduates " . In September 1958 Heffron moved the bill to change the name of the New South Wales University of Technology to the University of New South Wales following the recommendations of the Murray Report that had proposed the expansion of its focus from technology into such fields as medicine and arts . When several opposition MPs objected during debate on the basis of it posing a threat to the status of the University of Sydney , with one joking that it could be called " Heffron University " , Heffron came to the defence of the university and dismissed the objections as " absurd " . In 1950 Heffron 's seat of Botany was abolished and largely replaced by Maroubra , which he was subsequently elected to and would hold until his retirement in 1968 .
Meanwhile , Heffron , who supported a general policy of decentralising tertiary education across the state , directed his Department to begin the establishment of various Teachers ' Colleges in New South Wales , to provide sufficient tertiary training to the expanding numbers of teachers filling the new schools and colleges across the state . Among them was the Newcastle Teachers ' College , established in 1949 and opened in 1950 , which facilitated growing calls from the city of Newcastle for a more permanent University in the city . In May 1951 , Heffron indicated his support for the establishment of a satellite college of Sydney University in Newcastle as an initial step towards the establishment of a full university . By July Heffron sought to approach Sydney University officials to facilitate efforts " to have a university established in Newcastle as soon as possible " , and noted that his moves to purchase land in the city as the site of this college was an indication of the government 's intentions : " I didn 't buy that site in Newcastle just for fun . I want to provide a university in Newcastle and I want that to be only the first step in providing universities all over the state " . However , by the time Heffron opened the Newcastle University College ( NUC ) on 3 December 1951 , no affiliation had been finalised . By May 1952 , a University Establishment Group had gained much momentum but Heffron had been notified by Premier Joseph Cahill that there were insufficient funds available for the establishment of another full university . Nevertheless , in early 1954 this college had become a college of the New South Wales University of Technology . As premier , in late 1961 Heffron moved with his Minister for Education , Ernest Wetherell , that the Newcastle University College would become a full university " come what may " . This was achieved when on 12 March 1962 , the University of Technology Vice @-@ Chancellor Philip Baxter notified the NUC Warden , Professor James Auchmuty , that it would be allowed to take on full autonomy to become the University of Newcastle from 1 January 1965 .
In 1951 Heffron also played a role in the establishment of the University of New England ( UNE ) when he discussed with the University of Sydney on its thoughts about training and certifying schoolteachers by external studies and / or correspondence courses . The university rejected the idea , stating that external degree or certification programs would be significantly inferior to residence education . Undeterred , Heffron asked New England about its willingness to conduct external studies . The Warden of the New England University College ( and later first Vice Chancellor of UNE ) Robert Madgwick enthusiastically supported the idea and instructed his college 's staff to begin preparing an external studies program . Heffron asked the University of Sydney if it had any objection to New England being granted independence to operate the state 's external education program . The university replied that it had no objection . As a result , Heffron introduced the ' University of New England Act ' to parliament in early December 1953 , it received assent on 16 December 1953 and the college became the independent University of New England on 1 February 1954 .
= = = Deputy premier and leadership = = =
Throughout his period in the cabinet , Heffron was seen as a prominent and well @-@ performing member of the government , and as such a potential contender for the premiership . The first opportunity for Heffron came in February 1946 , when McKell announced to the Labor caucus of his intention to resign before the 1947 election . McKell , with the intention of ensuring Heffron as his successor , remained as an MP even after Prime Minister Joseph Chifley had announced his appointment as Governor @-@ General in order to vote for Heffron . At the ballot on 5 February 1947 , Heffron lost by two votes to the Minister for Housing , James McGirr , who was favoured by the more Catholic and conservative caucus members . When McGirr announced his resignation on the grounds of ill health on 1 April 1952 , Heffron put himself forward as a candidate to succeed him against , among others , Deputy Premier Joseph Cahill . However , the day before the ballot on 3 April , Heffron had been made aware that he would not have the numbers in caucus to win against Cahill and consequently made arrangements with Cahill to give the votes of his bloc to Cahill , in exchange for his support to become Deputy Premier . As a result , on 3 April Cahill defeated Attorney General Clarrie Martin 32 votes to 14 to become Premier and Heffron defeated Mines Secretary Joshua Arthur 32 votes to 14 to become Deputy Premier .
When Heffron 's former opponent Arthur resigned from the ministry on 23 February 1953 when a Royal Commission was set up to investigate his involvement in corrupt business activity , Heffron was commissioned to replace him as Secretary for Mines , serving from February to September 1953 . As Deputy Premier , Heffron acted in Cahill 's absence and in times of infirmity , which included receiving the Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi , on his arrival at Sydney Airport on 31 October 1957 , the first visit of a Prime Minister of Japan to Australia . Heffron 's role as deputy became of prime importance when Cahill died suddenly in October 1959 , and the 68 @-@ year @-@ old Heffron was elected to succeed him unopposed .
= = Premier of New South Wales = =
Heffron became Premier , being sworn in with his cabinet on 23 October 1959 at Government House , Sydney by Governor Sir Eric Woodward . However , his time as Premier was marked by significant tensions within the Labor Party in NSW and nationally , where although a split involving the Democratic Labor Party had been avoided during Cahill 's term , the sectarian and factional undercurrent in the party was very much present in what was increasingly perceived as a tired and divided government . Indeed , the 68 @-@ year @-@ old Heffron 's government consisted mostly of MPs and Ministers who had come in with McKell after the 1941 election . In parliament , Heffron tended to reflect this by leaving most of the speaking roles to his deputy Jack Renshaw and local government and highways minister Pat Hills . It was clear to many that the aged Heffron 's best days as a politician were behind him , as future Labor political advisor Richard Hall noted in The Bulletin : " In the House he tends to ramble on , recalling past glories as Minister for Education or Minister for Emergency Services in answer to questions . In an age where clichés cloak most politicians , Heffron throws them out as though they were devastating retorts , although occasionally the old radical has shown his teeth , flashed into anger , and for a few minutes reminded us that this was the great mob @-@ orator who led many bitter strikes . " His old nemesis Jack Lang also took the opportunity to take a last swipe at him , ridiculing Heffron in his newspaper , Century , as " Mr Magoo " . On 14 October 1960 , Heffron presided over the official opening of Warragamba Dam , the completion of which meant that it became the primary reservoir and the first reliable water supply for the whole Sydney catchment . At the opening , Heffron declared : " We have come along way from the Tank Stream , Sydney 's first water supply " .
= = = Evatt as chief justice = = =
In January 1960 Heffron provided his old friend H. V. Evatt a dignified exit from federal politics by nominating him to succeed Sir Kenneth Street as Chief Justice of New South Wales . His Attorney General Reg Downing , however , was horrified , having favoured the senior puisne justice Sir William Owen as the most suitable candidate while also realising that Evatt 's worsening health would render him less than equal to the task of chief justice .
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he said — " It would give me the chance to tell the world the truth about this gangster ... I will give him the date and time of arrival of my plane so he can meet me at the airport . " A mass of reporters descended on Harare International Airport on 7 November 2000 to witness Smith 's arrest , but far from being detained , the former Prime Minister was greeted cheerily by immigration officers and allowed through without any obstruction . Telling the waiting pressmen that he was disappointed not to have met any confrontation , he commented : " We have a president here who is mentally unstable and makes statements that have no bearing on reality " , and went home unmolested .
In early September 2001 , ZANU – PF militants again attempted to force Smith off his farm . The former Prime Minister telephoned the provincial Governor , who promptly sent police to remove the invaders . According to Smith , the trespassers were shocked to hear the authorities were taking his side , and left before the police even arrived . Half a year later , Smith lost his Zimbabwean passport as a result of further tightening of the law regarding multiple citizenship . New legislation passed in 2001 required Zimbabwean citizens to disavow any claim to other nationalities , even if they did not hold foreign passports . Insisting that Mugabe 's government had no right to strip him of Zimbabwean citizenship , Smith refused to renounce his right to British nationality , though he had not held a UK passport for years . Zimbabwean authorities duly refused to renew Smith 's passport in March 2002 . State press reported that he had " automatically ceased to be a citizen of Zimbabwe " on the passport 's expiry , having failed to renounce British citizenship before a deadline on 8 January that year . Smith claimed that his Zimbabwean citizenship had been illegally revoked and that he was now stateless , an assertion disputed by the Minister of Home Affairs John Nkomo , who said that Smith could stay in the country , but would not receive a new Zimbabwean passport until he renounced his right to British nationality .
By 2002 , the white community in Zimbabwe had shrunk to no more than 50 @,@ 000 people , of whom many , like Smith , were elderly . Smith had by this time lost most of his former international prominence — his visit to the UK in 2004 to meet Conservative politicians was largely ignored by the British press — but he achieved new domestic popularity and eminence among Zimbabwean opposition supporters , who came to see him as an unbreakable , defiant symbol of resistance to the Mugabe government . According to R W Johnson , a speech he gave to students at the University of Zimbabwe condemning Mugabe and ZANU – PF as incompetent and corrupt " gangsters " earned him a standing ovation . In 2002 , Smith challenged Mugabe to come with him to a township to see who got the best welcome . " Only one of us will come out alive , " Smith said ; " I 'm ready to put that to the test right now . He 's not . "
= = = Final years and death = = =
Smith travelled to South Africa for medical treatment in 2005 , and moved into a retirement home overlooking the sea in St James , a southern suburb of Cape Town . He was reportedly devastated by the death of his son Alec from a heart attack at London Heathrow Airport in January 2006 . Despite some marked differences — Alec had used illegal drugs in his youth , and openly opposed his father 's policies while he was Prime Minister — they had been very close . The elder Smith had referred to his son as " my rock " . Smith 's stepdaughter Jean , who had married the prominent Rhodesian singer @-@ songwriter Clem Tholet in 1967 , was by this time also widowed . She and Robert Smith cared for their stepfather in his final years .
After some weeks of illness , Ian Smith died in Cape Town on 20 November 2007 at the age of 88 , having suffered a stroke . Jean was with him . His ashes were returned to Zimbabwe and scattered by his family at Gwenoro . The farm continued to operate under the ownership of Smith 's stepchildren until December 2012 , when it was expropriated by the Mugabe administration as part of the land reform programme and given to a technical college .
Investigations into alleged electoral fraud during the 2008 presidential and parliamentary elections in Zimbabwe , when ZANU – PF was accused of using dead " ghost voters " to counter Morgan Tsvangirai and the Movement for Democratic Change ( MDC ) , revealed that Smith and hundreds of thousands of other dead people were still on the electoral roll . According to the Zimbabwe Election Support Network 's audit report , published in 2011 , deceased " voters " made up 27 % of the registered electorate . Mugabe had insisted during his ultimately victorious campaign in 2008 that he would not allow the MDC to take power even if it won , asserting that " only God " could remove him from office . Smith was finally struck off the voters ' roll in April 2013 , along with 345 @,@ 000 other dead people .
= = Character , reputation and legacy = =
" Smith was a simple man , " Graham Boynton wrote soon after his death , " and it was his rather humourless , one @-@ dimensional Rhodesian @-@ ness that at once made him a hero among his own people and a figure of derision among his enemies " . As leader of the Rhodesian Front and its successors , he was the foremost figure of his country 's white community — a " symbol and father figure " , in Mordechai Tamarkin 's phrase , who as Prime Minister " personified white Rhodesia " . Supporters hailed him as " a political visionary ... who understood the uncomfortable truths of Africa " ; detractors , meanwhile , denounced him as " an unrepentant racist " . His determination to preserve the white minority 's position in Rhodesia caused many black Africans and others to perceive him as a symbol of iniquitous white rule and racism . Smith always denied being driven by racial prejudice — in a 1987 interview he asserted that he had been defending Western principles and that " it was Marxism I fought , not blacks " . Above all , he never expressed regret regarding his actions as Prime Minister ; he insisted to the end that the political and economic ruination of Zimbabwe under ZANU – PF had borne out his predictions and proven him right .
" The key to understanding Smith , " Johnson wrote , " was that , like other white Rhodesians , he clung to an almost Victorian view of the world both in moral values and in the easy assumptions of British primacy that characterised the empire . " Bill Schwarz took a similar line , writing that Smith and his supporters reacted to the British Empire 's demise by imagining white Rhodesians to be " the final survivors of a lost civilisation " , charged with " tak [ ing ] on the mantle of historic Britain " in the imperial power 's absence . " He spoke endlessly about how Rhodesians had been more British than the British , " Boynton reflected , " and how this small community of decent , fair @-@ minded whites had been betrayed by , well , just about everybody he could think of ... It was easy to mock Ian Smith , but he was right — both about the betrayals and about the quality of most African politicians " . Smith 's " not in 1 @,@ 000 years " quote dominated his obituaries , a development that Peter Godwin , despite his critical stance regarding Smith and his policies , considered " unfair and inaccurate " . " Over the years it has become shorn of all context and compressed into a free @-@ floating clip that has now become his epitaph , " Godwin wrote . " But there is more than enough for which to quite legitimately criticise Smith , without resorting to fabrication . "
Memories of his travails on Britain 's behalf during the Second World War — " undoubtedly the central experience of his life " , according to Johnson — were fundamental to the sense of profound betrayal Smith felt when the UK government proved one of his main adversaries as Prime Minister . The wartime plastic surgery that corrected the wounds to his face left its right side paralysed , giving him a crooked smile and a somewhat blank expression , while his bodily injuries gave him a stoop and a slight limp ; he also could not sit for long periods without pain . The post @-@ colonial UK Smith encountered as Prime Minister seemed to him " foreign and somewhat effete " , to quote Kenneth Young , while Smith was " a foreigner in all but language to most British politicians — a man of convictions so outdated , of tastes so naive , as to make mutual understanding almost impossible . " Smith held most of the British politicians he dealt with in extremely low esteem , considering them to have pushed him and his country into an impossible position where , he asserted in 1970 , the decision to take unilateral action was " forced upon us " .
In his prime , Smith was widely recognised by both contemporaries and rivals as a formidable negotiator . Hempstone considered him " a man too principled ( or short @-@ sighted ) to compromise with what he regards as wrong " , while Welensky compared dealing with him to " trying to nail jelly to a wall " . He had an " iron nerve " , to quote his RF colleague P K van der Byl , and a reputation for " icy calm " ; he almost never got angry or raised his voice . He spoke with " a nasal monologue " as Peter Younghusband described it — " uninspiring even by Rhodesian oratorical standards " . His open , informal association with the general public fostered the impression among white Rhodesians that their Prime Minister was still an " ordinary , decent fellow " , which Berlyn cites as a major factor in his enduring popularity . Welensky described him in 1978 as wielding an " almost hypnotic influence " over the Rhodesian electorate , which helped him to win " election after election ... hands down " . He also had the grudging respect of at least some of his black nationalist opponents during the Bush War ; one , quoted anonymously by People magazine in 1976 , asserted that " If we had a leader like Mr Smith , we would have won long ago . " Sithole , the long @-@ time ZANU leader , said : " Smith is a fighter . He put up a great fight for his people . We were like two bulls in there , the way we fought . He is a man . I respect him . "
Patrick Kombayi , an MDC politician and member of the Zimbabwean Senate , said after Smith 's death that Zimbabweans had much to thank him for . " The roads that we are using today were all built by Smith , " he said . " All the infrastructure is Smith 's . We never suffered the way we are suffering now because Smith took care of the economy that supported all people and they had enough to eat . When he left power the [ British ] pound was on a par with the Zimbabwean dollar , but President Mugabe has killed all that . " David Coltart , another MDC politician , issued a statement after Smith 's death praising him as a man of modesty and integrity , but criticising what Coltart felt to be " disastrous political decisions as Prime Minister " ; Coltart considered Smith 's policies to have radicalised black nationalists , fomented Mugabe 's rise to power and thereby " directly contributed to the trauma that Zimbabwe is suffering from today " . Godwin took a similar line , describing the emergency powers Smith used to combat black nationalists as " draconian " ; he also pointed out that these " levers of repression " had formed the base for much of what Mugabe later did . Lord Carrington spoke scathingly about Smith in a 2005 interview with Heidi Holland , saying he disliked both Smith and Mugabe but would choose the latter if he " absolutely had to choose " ; Smith was , in his opinion , " a bigoted , stupid man " responsible for all of Zimbabwe 's problems .
While acknowledging the privileged position whites had under Smith , several commentators have latterly agreed with his claims that many black Zimbabweans preferred him to Mugabe with hindsight . " Smith 's image improved inversely as Mugabe 's plummeted , " Johnson wrote . " When he walked the streets of Harare , Africans would almost queue up to grasp his hand and wish him well . " " If you were to go to Harare today [ in 2007 ] and ask ordinary black Zimbabweans who they would rather have as their leader — Smith or Mugabe — the answer would be almost unanimous , " Boynton asserted ; " And it would not be Mugabe . " Smith 's death prompted strongly condemnatory reports in Zimbabwe 's state media . The Deputy Minister of Information Bright Matonga accused Smith of being a racist , blamed him for the deaths of thousands and asserted that he would " not be mourned or missed here by any decent person " . Reactions from Zimbabweans on the street were mixed , however ; according to Western journalists , many expressed sadness .
= Chinese Nü Yr =
Chinese Nü Yr is an extended play ( EP ) by Irish producer Seamus Malliagh , known by his stage name Iglooghost , released on the Brainfeeder label on 30 October 2015 . Containing elements of footwork , bass , grime and 2 @-@ step garage , the EP 's sound is represented by a worm who goes through several nonsensical lands . To make Chinese Nü Yr , Malliagh first designed the cover art and then developed songs with structures and sound to fit the artwork . Upon release , the EP garnered generally favorable reviews from critics , a common praise being its unique style .
= = Composition = =
Chinese Nü Yr is a Footwork album using elements of bass , grime and 2 @-@ step garage . Malliagh explained that Chinese Nü Yr is a story about Xiāngjiāo , a gelatinous worm who wears a witch hat and is voiced by pitch @-@ shifted recordings of his dad and little sister . Xiāngjiāo blasts through many colorful , nonsensical lands , having to dodge things such as peanuts , floating fruit , pink @-@ colored fog , and mountains growing out of the ground . Forced to visit uncountably many alien worlds , Xiāngjiāo fears both the unfamiliarity of future lands and the extreme speed at which he / she travels . In a December 2015 interview , Malliagh stated the fate of the worm will occur in a full @-@ length album .
A wobbly , stretchy synth sound representing the worm moving through worlds is used on all of the tracks . Pitch @-@ shifted recordings of Malliagh 's dad screaming signifies the worm porting through a hole to the next world , which , according to Malliagh , he was used to given that he was a member of a punk group . He described writing his story as if he was scoring a film , first making the cover art for the EP , and then coming up with the structures and sounds of the songs to fit it . He said in an interview with LA Weekly that " Marrying music and pictures is the funnest thing ever . There 's so many subconscious elements at play . Looking at a ' mega @-@ sick ' picture can make even the most crappy , uncool song sound awesome . Art has this incredible way of subconsciously enhancing music . "
= = Tracks = =
Chinese Nü Yr 's first two tracks , " Xiangjiao " and " Mametchi / Usohachi " , were compared by Resident Advisor journalist Andrew Ryce to the works of labels PC Music and Noumenal Loom ; the reason of the comparison for the former song is due to its " mush @-@ mouthed vocals " and sounds commonly found in trance music , the hip hop and uptempo " speedy chop @-@ up " of the latter for its vocals reminiscent of the song " Hard " by English producer Sophie . " Hard " ends with a rap verse from Japanese singer and producer Mr. Yote , whom Iglooghost said had " amazing taste in melodies " and that her work " sounds wide @-@ eyed and childlike but is also introspective , like a genius baby . " " Gold Coat " is the least frantic of all of the EP 's four tracks , and Ryce also called it his least favorite of the songs : " Mal 's strength comes from deftly juggling ideas , so " Gold Coat " ' s dubstep @-@ tempo diversion feels like a regression . " " Peach Rift " , the heaviest @-@ sounding and longest cut on the EP at over five minutes , was described by Ryce as a " Rubik 's Cube of heavy basslines , chirpy synths , and chattering vocals that never quite line up , which can be numbing by the end . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Gold Coat " was Chinese Nü Yr 's lead single , released on 7 October 2015 . Six days later , the label Brainfeeder announced they would release the EP on 30 October 2015 . Two days before the release of the EP , the music blog Pigeons & Planes premiered " Xiangjiao " . Iglooghost said the name of the record came from looking at the sky while flying back home from his gig in Rome : " The sky looked really weird and for some reason the word Chinese New Year came into my head . I was really happy , because everything seemed super cool , life just seemed really warm and nice . I think the word Chinese New Year sounds warm and cool . I imagine fireworks , red colours and Chinese lanterns . ” Upon its distribution , Chinese Nü Yr garnered positive reviews . Gary Suarez , reviewing for The Quietus , spotlighted the EP 's " mirthfully manic synthesis of garage , hip hop , footwork , and as @-@ yet undefined ( sub ) genres " that " makes him a beatmaker to watch . " Both Ryce and Exclaim ! critic Ashley Hampson praised Malliagh for making such a unique record while still fitting with the works of other acts on the Brainfeeder label .
= = Track listing = =
= IndiGo =
IndiGo is a low @-@ cost airline headquartered at Gurgaon , India . It is the largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried with a 36 @.@ 8 % market share as of February 2016 . The airline operates 679 daily flights to 40 destinations and is the second largest low @-@ cost carrier in Asia . It has its primary hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport , Delhi .
The airline was founded as a private company by Rahul Bhatia of InterGlobe Enterprises and Rakesh Gangwal , a United States @-@ based NRI in 2006 . It took delivery of its first aircraft in July 2006 and commenced operations a month later in August 2006 . The airline became the largest Indian carrier in terms of passenger market share in 2012 . The company went public in November 2015 . The airline operates a single aircraft type of Airbus A320 with an all economy configuration .
= = History = =
IndiGo was founded in 2006 as a private company by Rahul Bhatia of InterGlobe Enterprises and Rakesh Gangwal , a United States @-@ based NRI . InterGlobe had a 51 @.@ 12 % stake in IndiGo and 47 @.@ 88 % was held by Gangwal 's Virginia The new owner of Indigo share as an 20 @.@ 2 % in Indigo She daughter of Shymacharan and Meena Devi Takhellambam . She is from Manipur State City Imphal . Langlen Takhellambam Bhatia . She from keishamthong Hodam Leirak , Leirembi Maning Street @-@ based company Caelum Investments . IndiGo placed a firm order for 100 Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft in June 2005 with plans to commence operations in mid @-@ 2006 . IndiGo took delivery of its first Airbus aircraft on 28 July 2006 , nearly one year after placing the order . It commenced operations on 4 August 2006 with a service from New Delhi to Imphal via Guwahati . By the end of 2006 , the airline had six aircraft and nine more aircraft were acquired in 2007 . In December 2010 , IndiGo replaced state @-@ run carrier Air India as the third largest airline in India , behind Kingfisher Airlines and Jet Airways with a passenger market share of 17 @.@ 3 % .
In 2011 , IndiGo placed an order for 180 Airbus A320 aircraft in a deal worth US $ 15 billion . In January 2011 , after completing five years of operations , the airline got permission to launch international flights . The airline launched international services in September 2011 . In December 2011 , the DGCA expressed reservations that the rapid expansion could impact passenger safety .
In February 2012 , IndiGo took delivery of its 50th aircraft , less than six years after it began operations in 2006 . For the quarter ending March 2012 , IndiGo was the most profitable airline in India and became the second largest airline in India in terms of passenger market share . On 17 August 2012 , IndiGo became the largest airline in India in terms of market share surpassing Jet Airways , six years after commencing operations .
In January 2013 , IndiGo was the second fastest growing low @-@ cost carrier in Asia behind Indonesian airline Lion Air . In February 2013 , following the announcement of civil aviation ministry that it would be allow IndiGo to take delivery of only five aircraft that year , the airline planned to introduce low @-@ cost regional flights by setting up a subsidiary . Later , IndiGo announced that it plans to seek permission from the ministry to acquire four more aircraft , therefore taking delivery of nine aircraft in 2013 . As of March 2014 , IndiGo is the second largest low @-@ cost carrier in Asia in terms of seats flown .
In August 2015 , IndiGo placed an order of 250 Airbus A320neo aircraft worth $ 27 billion , making it the largest single order ever in Airbus history . IndiGo announced a ₹ 3 @,@ 200 crore ( US $ 480 million ) initial public offering on 19 October 2015 which opened on 27 October 2015 . As of February 2016 , it is the largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried with a 36 @.@ 8 % market share .
= = Corporate affairs and identity = =
IndiGo is headquartered in Gurgaon , India .
= = = Logo and livery = = =
Twenty round dots arranged in the shape of an aircraft serves as the logo of the airline . The airline uses a two tone blue livery on a white background with the belly of the aircraft painted in Indigo with the logo in white . The flight attendants wear a single @-@ piece navy @-@ blue tunic with a cap and a thin indigo belt designed by fashion designer Rajesh Pratap Singh and make @-@ up artist Ambika Pillai . The airline has the tagline on @-@ time focusing on punctuality .
= = Operations = =
IndiGo became one of the fastest growing low cost carriers in the world and was the largest profitable airline in India . The success of IndiGo has been attributed to its unique business model which reduces costs . The airline operates a single type of aircraft ( Airbus A320 ) in similar seating configuration which simplifies crew training and maintenance . The airline strikes bulk deals with Airbus reducing unit costs . The airline targets a quick turn @-@ around time of 20 minutes to get the aircraft ready for the next flight , ensuring planes fly about 12 hours every day . Employees share multiple roles with a check @-@ in staff doubling as a baggage handler .
= = Destinations = =
As of July 2016 , IndiGo operates 818 daily flights to 40 destinations , 35 in India and 5 abroad . Its main base is located at Delhi , with additional bases at Bangalore , Chennai , Hyderabad , Kolkata , Mumbai and Nagpur . In January 2011 , IndiGo received a license to operate international flights after completing five years of operations . IndiGo 's first international service was launched between New Delhi and Dubai on 1 September 2011 . International services were later expanded to serve Bangkok , Singapore , Muscat and Kathmandu . The airline is considering launch of flights to Kunming , China .
= = Fleet = =
In order to reduce operational overhead , IndiGo operates only the Airbus A320 family of aircraft in its fleet . As of April 2016 , IndiGo operates the following aircraft :
= = = Fleet Information = = =
IndiGo received its first A320 in July 2006 and planned to induct 100 aircraft by 2015 – 2016 . In 2012 , the airline took delivery of its 50th aircraft and the 100th aircraft was delivered on 4 November 2014 , completing its initial order ahead of schedule . The Airbus A320neo family aircraft ordered in 2011 were to be delivered starting 2015 . However , due to a delay in the production and delivery of these aircraft , IndiGo dry @-@ leased a total of 22 used aircraft to cope up with the demand . The first A320neo aircraft was delivered to IndiGo on 11 March 2016 .
= = = New aircraft orders = = =
IndiGo placed an order for 100 Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft worth US $ 6 billion in June 2005 during the Paris Air Show with plans to commence operations in mid @-@ 2006 . IndiGo signed a memorandum of understanding for an additional 180 Airbus A320 aircraft including 150 with the New Engine Option ( NEO ) worth US $ 15 billion on 11 January 2011 and IndiGo will be one of the launch customers of the A320neo aircraft .
On 15 October 2014 , IndiGo expressed its intention to order a further 250 A320neo aircraft worth US $ 25 @.@ 7 billion at list prices . On 15 August 2015 , IndiGo confirmed the order for 250 A320neo aircraft for $ 26 @.@ 5 billion . The order also provides IndiGo the flexibility to convert some A320s to A321neo which can seat more passengers and fly on longer routes . The order of 250 jets is Airbus 's single largest order by number of aircraft .
= = Services = =
Being a low @-@ cost carrier , IndiGo offers only economy class seating accommodating 180 passengers per aircraft . To keep fares low , IndiGo does not provide complimentary meals in any of its flights , though it does have a buy @-@ on board in @-@ flight meal programme . No in @-@ flight entertainment is available and Hello 6E is the in @-@ flight magazine published by IndiGo . IndiGo offers premium services , where the passengers can avail additional benefits like a pre @-@ assigned seat , multiple cancellations and priority check @-@ in at a higher fare .
= = Awards and achievements = =
IndiGo has won the following awards :
Best low @-@ cost carrier by the Airline Passengers Association of India ( 2007 )
Best low @-@ cost carrier at the Galileo Express Travel Awards ( 2008 )
Best low cost airline by CNBC Awaaz ( 2009 , 2013 )
Best LCC Aviation award for excellence by Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation ( 2015 )
= Kreutz sungrazer =
The Kreutz sungrazers ( / ˈkrɔɪts / , pronounced kroits ) are a family of sungrazing comets , characterized by orbits taking them extremely close to the Sun at perihelion . They are believed to be fragments of one large comet that broke up several centuries ago and are named for German astronomer Heinrich Kreutz , who first demonstrated that they were related . A Kreutz sungrazers 's aphelion is about 170 AU from the Sun ; these sungrazers make their way from the distant outer Solar System from a patch in the sky in Canis Major , to the inner Solar System , to their perihelion point near the Sun , and then leave the inner Solar System in their return trip to their aphelion .
Several members of the Kreutz family have become great comets , occasionally visible near the Sun in the daytime sky . The most recent of these was Comet Ikeya – Seki in 1965 , which may have been one of the brightest comets in the last millennium . It has been suggested that another cluster of bright Kreutz system comets may begin to arrive in the inner Solar System in the next few years to decades .
Many hundreds of smaller members of the family , some only a few meters across , have been discovered since the launch of the SOHO satellite in 1995 . None of these smaller comets have survived its perihelion passage . Larger sungrazers such as the Great Comet of 1843 and C / 2011 W3 ( Lovejoy ) have survived their perihelion passage . Amateur astronomers have been successful at discovering Kreutz comets in the data available in real time via the Internet .
= = Discovery and historical observations = =
The first comet whose orbit had been found to take it extremely close to the Sun was the Great Comet of 1680 . This comet was found to have passed just 200 @,@ 000 km ( 0 @.@ 0013 AU ) above the Sun 's surface , equivalent to about half the distance between the Earth and the Moon . It thus became the first known sungrazing comet . Its perihelion distance was just 1 @.@ 3 solar radii .
Astronomers at the time , including Edmond Halley , speculated that this comet was a return of a bright comet seen close to the Sun in the sky in 1106 . 163 years later , the Great Comet of 1843 appeared and also passed extremely close to the Sun . Despite orbital calculations showing that it had a period of several centuries , some astronomers wondered if it was a return of the 1680 comet . A bright comet seen in 1880 was found to be travelling on an almost identical orbit to that of 1843 , as was the subsequent Great Comet of 1882 . Some astronomers suggested that perhaps they were all one comet , whose orbital period was somehow being drastically shortened at each perihelion passage , perhaps by retardation by some dense material surrounding the Sun .
An alternative suggestion was that the comets were all fragments of an earlier Sun @-@ grazing comet . This idea was first proposed in 1880 , and its plausibility was amply demonstrated when the Great Comet of 1882 broke up into several fragments after its perihelion passage . In 1888 , Heinrich Kreutz published a paper showing that the comets of 1843 ( C / 1843 D1 , the Great March Comet ) , 1880 ( C / 1880 C1 , the Great Southern Comet ) , and 1882 ( C / 1882 R1 , Great September Comet ) were probably fragments of a giant comet that had broken up several orbits before . The comet of 1680 proved to be unrelated to this family of comets .
After another Kreutz sungrazer was seen in 1887 ( C / 1887 B1 , the Great Southern Comet of 1887 ) , the next one did not appear until 1945 . Two further sungrazers appeared in the 1960s , Comet Pereyra in 1963 and Comet Ikeya – Seki , which became extremely bright in 1965 , and broke into three pieces after its perihelion . The appearance of two Kreutz Sungrazers in quick succession inspired further study of the dynamics of the group .
The group generally has an Inclination of roughly 140 degrees , a perihelion distance of around 0 @.@ 01 AU , and a Longitude of ascending node of 340 – 10 ° .
= = Notable members = =
The brightest members of the Kreutz sungrazers have been spectacular , easily visible in the daytime sky . The three most impressive have been the Great Comet of 1843 , the Great Comet of 1882 and Comet Ikeya – Seki . Another notable Kreutz sungrazer was the Eclipse Comet of 1882 ( see further below ) .
= = = Great Comet of 1843 = = =
The Great Comet of 1843 was first noticed in early February of that year , just over three weeks before its perihelion passage . By February 27 it was easily visible in the daytime sky , and observers described seeing a tail 2 – 3 ° long stretching away from the Sun before being lost in the glare of the sky . After its perihelion passage , it reappeared in the morning sky , and developed an extremely long tail . It extended about 45 ° across the sky on March 11 and was more than 2 ° wide ; the tail was calculated to be more than 300 million kilometers ( 2 AU ) long . This held the record for the longest measured cometary tail until 2000 , when Comet Hyakutake 's tail was found to stretch to some 550 million kilometers in length . ( The Earth – Sun distance — 1 AU — is only 150 million kilometers . )
The comet was very prominent throughout early March , before fading away to almost below naked eye visibility by the beginning of April . It was last detected on April 20 . This comet apparently made a substantial impression on the public , inspiring in some a fear that judgement day was imminent .
= = = Eclipse Comet of 1882 = = =
A party of observers gathered in Egypt to watch a solar eclipse in May 1882 were greatly surprised when they observed a bright streak near to the Sun once totality began . By a remarkable coincidence , the eclipse had coincided with the perihelion passage of a Kreutz comet . The comet would otherwise have gone unnoticed — its sighting during the eclipse was the only observation of it . Photographs of the eclipse revealed that the comet had moved noticeably during the 1m50s eclipse , as would be expected for a comet racing past the Sun at almost 500 km / s . The comet is sometimes referred to as Tewfik , after Tewfik Pasha , the Khedive of Egypt at the time .
= = = Great Comet of 1882 = = =
The Great Comet of 1882 was discovered independently by many observers , as it was already easily visible to the naked eye when it appeared in early September 1882 , just a few days before perihelion . It grew rapidly brighter and was eventually so bright it was visible in the daytime for two days ( 16 – 17 September ) , even through light cloud .
After its perihelion passage , the comet remained bright for several weeks . During October , its nucleus was seen to fragment into first two and then four pieces . Some observers also reported seeing diffuse patches of light several degrees away from the nucleus . The rate of separation of the fragments of the nucleus was such that they will return about a century apart , between 670 and 960 years after the break @-@ up .
= = = Comet Ikeya – Seki = = =
Comet Ikeya – Seki is the most recent very bright Kreutz sungrazer . It was discovered independently by two Japanese amateur astronomers on September 18 , 1965 , within 15 minutes of each other , and quickly recognised as a Kreutz sungrazer . It brightened rapidly over the following four weeks as it approached the Sun , and reached apparent magnitude 2 by October 15 . Its perihelion passage occurred on October 21 , and observers across the world easily saw it in the daytime sky . A few hours before perihelion passage on October 21 it had a visible magnitude from − 10 to − 11 , comparable to the first quarter of the Moon and brighter than any other comet seen since 1106 . A day after perihelion its magnitude decreased to just − 4 .
Japanese astronomers using a coronagraph saw the comet break into three pieces 30 minutes before perihelion . When the comet reappeared in the morning sky in early November , two of these nuclei were definitely detected with the third suspected . The comet developed a very prominent tail , about 25 ° in length , before fading throughout November . It was last detected in January 1966 .
= = Dynamical history and evolution = =
A study by Brian G. Marsden in 1967 was the first attempt to trace back the orbital history of the group to identify the progenitor comet . All known members of the group up until 1965 had almost identical orbital inclinations at about 144 ° , as well as very similar values for the longitude of perihelion at 280 – 282 ° , with a couple of outlying points probably due to uncertain orbital calculations . A greater range of values existed for the argument of perihelion and longitude of the ascending node .
Marsden found that the Kreutz sungrazers could be split into two groups , with slightly different orbital elements , implying that the family resulted from fragmentations at more than one perihelion . Tracing back the orbits of Ikeya – Seki and the Great Comet of 1882 , Marsden found that at their previous perihelion passage , the difference between their orbital elements was of the same order of magnitude as the difference between the elements of the fragments of Ikeya – Seki after it broke up . This meant it was realistic to presume that they were two parts of the same comet which had broken up one orbit ago . By far the best candidate for the progenitor comet was that seen in 1106 ( Great Comet of 1106 ) : Ikeya – Seki 's derived orbital period gave a previous perihelion almost exactly at the right time , and while the Great Comet of 1882 's derived orbit implied a previous perihelion a few decades later , it would only require a small error in the orbital elements to bring it into agreement .
The Sun @-@ grazing comets of 1668 , 1689 , 1702 and 1945 seem to be closely related to those of 1882 and 1965 , although their orbits are not well enough determined to establish whether they broke off from the parent comet in 1106 , or the previous perihelion passage before that , some time in the 3 – 5th centuries AD . This subgroup of comets is known as Subgroup II . Comet White – Ortiz – Bolelli , which was seen in 1970 , is more closely related to this group than Subgroup I , but appears to have broken off during the previous orbit to the other fragments .
The Sun @-@ grazing comets observed in 1843 ( Great Comet of 1843 ) and 1963 ( Comet Pereyra ) seem to be closely related and belong to the subgroup I , although when their orbits are traced back to one previous perihelion , the differences between the orbital elements are still rather large , probably implying that they broke apart from each other one revolution before that . They may not be related to the comet of 1106 , but rather a comet that returned about 50 years before that . Subgroup I also includes comets seen in 1695 , 1880 ( Great Southern Comet of 1880 ) and in 1887 ( Great Southern Comet of 1887 ) , as well as the vast majority of comets detected by SOHO mission ( see below ) .
The distinction between the two sub @-@ groups is thought to imply that they result from two separate parent comets , which themselves were once part of a ' grandparent ' comet which fragmented several orbits previously . One possible candidate for the grandparent
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is a comet observed by Aristotle and Ephorus in 371 BC . Ephorus claimed to have seen this comet break into two . However modern astronomers are skeptical of the claims of Ephorus , because they were not confirmed by other sources . Instead comets that arrived between 3rd and 5th centuries AD ( comets of 214 , 426 and 467 ) are considered as possible progenitors of the Kreutz family . The original comet must certainly have been very large indeed , perhaps as large as 100 km across ( for comparison , the nucleus of Comet Hale – Bopp was about 40 km across ) .
Although its orbit is rather different from those of the main two groups , it is possible that the comet of 1680 is also related to the Kreutz sungrazers via a fragmentation many orbits ago .
The Kreutz sungrazers are probably not a unique phenomenon . Studies have shown that for comets with high orbital inclinations and perihelion distances of less than about 2 AU , the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations tends to result in sungrazing orbits . One study has estimated that Comet Hale – Bopp has about a 15 % chance of eventually becoming a Sun @-@ grazing comet .
= = Recent observations = =
Until recently , it would have been possible for even a very bright member of the Kreutz sungrazers to pass through the inner Solar System unnoticed , if its perihelion had occurred between about May and August . At this time of year , as seen from Earth , the comet would approach and recede almost directly behind the Sun , and could only become visible extremely close to the Sun if it became very bright . Only a remarkable coincidence between the perihelion passage of the Eclipse Comet of 1882 and a total solar eclipse allowed its discovery .
However , during the 1980s , two Sun @-@ observing satellites serendipitously discovered several new members of the Kreutz family , and since the launch of the SOHO Sun @-@ observing satellite in 1995 , it has been possible to observe comets very close to the Sun at any time of year . The satellite provides a constant view of the immediate solar vicinity , and SOHO has now discovered hundreds of new Sun @-@ grazing comets , some just a few metres across . About 83 % of the sungrazers found by SOHO are members of the Kreutz group , with the other being referred to as ' non @-@ Kreutz ' or ' sporadic ' sungrazers ( Meyer , Marsden , and Kracht1 & 2 families ) . On average , a new member of the Kreutz family is discovered every three days . Apart from Comet Lovejoy , none of the sungrazers seen by SOHO has survived its perihelion passage ; some may have plunged into the Sun itself , but most are likely to have simply evaporated away completely .
More than 75 % of the SOHO sungrazers have been discovered by amateur astronomers analysing SOHO 's observations via the Internet . Some amateurs have managed remarkable numbers of discoveries , with Rainer Kracht of Germany having chalked up 211 , Michael Oates of the United Kingdom making 144 , and Zhou Bo of China spotting 97 . As of December 2011 , over 2 @,@ 000 Kreutz sungrazers have been identified using SOHO data .
SOHO observations have shown that Sungrazers frequently arrive in pairs separated by a few hours . These pairs are too frequent to occur by chance , and cannot be due to break @-@ ups on the previous orbit , because the fragments would have separated by a much greater distance . Instead , it is thought that the pairs result from fragmentations far away from the perihelion . Many comets have been observed to fragment far from perihelion , and it seems that in the case of the Kreutz sungrazers , an initial fragmentation near perihelion can be followed by an ongoing ' cascade ' of break @-@ ups throughout the rest of the orbit .
The number of Subgroup I Kreutz comets discovered is about four times the number of Subgroup II members . This suggests that the ' grandparent ' comet split into parent comets of unequal size .
= = Future = =
Dynamically , the Kreutz sungrazers might continue to be recognised as a distinct family for many thousands of years yet . Eventually their orbits will be dispersed by gravitational perturbations , although depending on the rate of fragmentation of the constituent parts , the group might be completely destroyed before it is gravitationally dispersed . The continuing discovery of large numbers of the smaller members of the family by SOHO will undoubtedly lead to a greater understanding of how comets break up to form families .
It is not possible to estimate the chances of another very bright Kreutz comet arriving in the near future , but given that at least 10 have reached naked eye visibility over the last 200 years , another great comet from the Kreutz family seems almost certain to arrive at some point . Comet White – Ortiz – Bolelli in 1970 reached an apparent magnitude of 1 . In December 2011 , Kreutz sungrazer C / 2011 W3 ( Lovejoy ) survived its perihelion passage and had an apparent magnitude of − 3 .
= Pipe organ =
The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air ( called wind ) through organ pipes selected via a keyboard . Because each pipe produces a single pitch , the pipes are provided in sets called ranks , each of which has a common timbre and volume throughout the keyboard compass . Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre , pitch , and volume that the player can employ singly or in combination through the use of controls called stops .
A pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands ( called manuals ) , and a pedalboard played by the feet ; each keyboard has its own group of stops . The keyboard ( s ) , pedalboard , and stops are housed in the organ 's console . The organ 's continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain notes for as long as the corresponding keys are depressed , unlike the piano and harpsichord whose sound begins to dissipate immediately after it is played . The smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual ; the largest may have over 20 @,@ 000 pipes and seven manuals . A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs .
The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece , in the 3rd century BC , in which the wind supply was created with water pressure . By the 6th or 7th century AD , bellows were used to supply organs with wind . Beginning in the 12th century , the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres . A pipe organ with " great leaden pipes " was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short , King of the Franks , in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning the pipe organ 's establishment in Western church music . By the 17th century , most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed . From that time , the pipe organ was the most complex man @-@ made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century .
Pipe organs are installed in churches , synagogues , concert halls , schools , and other public buildings . They are used in the performance of classical music , sacred music , secular music , and popular music . In the early 20th century , pipe organs were installed in theaters to accompany the screening of films during the silent movie era ; in municipal auditoria , where orchestral transcriptions were popular ; and in the homes of the wealthy . The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls . The organ boasts a substantial repertoire , which spans over 500 years .
= = Construction = =
A pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes , a wind system , and one or more keyboards . The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system passes through them . An action connects the keyboards to the pipes . Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at a given time . The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console .
= = = Pipes = = =
Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound ( " speak " ) when air under pressure ( " wind " ) is directed through them . As one pipe produces a single pitch , multiple pipes are necessary to accommodate the musical scale . The greater the length of the pipe , the lower its resulting pitch will be . The timbre and volume of the sound produced by a pipe depends on the volume of air delivered to the pipe and the manner in which it is constructed and voiced , the latter adjusted by the builder to produce the desired tone and volume . Hence a pipe 's volume cannot be readily changed while playing .
Organ pipes are divided into flue pipes and reed pipes according to their design and timbre . Flue pipes produce sound by forcing air through a fipple , like that of a recorder , whereas reed pipes produce sound via a beating reed , like that of a clarinet or saxophone .
Pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into ranks . A rank is a row of pipes mounted vertically onto a windchest . The stop mechanism admits air to each rank . For a given pipe to sound , the stop governing the pipe 's rank must be engaged , and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed . Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions . Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and conceptually comprises an individual instrument within the organ .
= = = Action = = =
An organ contains two actions , or systems of moving parts . When a key is depressed , the key action admits wind into a pipe . The stop action allows the organist to control which ranks are engaged . An action may be mechanical , pneumatic , or electrical ( or some combination of these , such as electro @-@ pneumatic action ) . The key action is independent of the stop action , allowing an organ to combine a mechanical key action along with an electric stop action .
A key action which physically connects the keys and the windchests is a mechanical or tracker action . Connection is achieved through a series of rods called trackers . When the organist depresses a key , the corresponding tracker pulls open its pallet , allowing wind to enter the pipe .
In a mechanical stop action , each stop control operates a valve for a whole rank of pipes . When the organist selects a stop , the valve allows wind to reach the selected rank . This control was at first a draw stop knob , which the organist selects by pulling ( or drawing ) toward himself / herself . This is the origin of the idiom " to pull out all the stops " . More modern stop selectors , used for electric actions , are tilting tablets or rocker tabs .
Tracker action has been used from antiquity to modern times . Despite the extra effort needed in playing , many organists prefer tracker action because of a feel and a control of the pipe valve operation . Before the pallet opens , wind pressure augments tension of the pallet spring , but once the pallet opens , only the spring tension is felt at the key . This provides a " breakaway " feel .
A later development was the tubular @-@ pneumatic action , which uses changes of pressure within lead tubing to operate pneumatic valves throughout the instrument . This allowed a lighter touch , and more flexibility in the location of the console , within a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 @-@ m ) limit . This type of construction was used in the late 19th century to early 20th century , and has had only rare application since the 1920s .
A more recent development is the electric action which uses low voltage DC to control the key and / or stop mechanisms . Electricity may control the action indirectly through air pressure valves ( pneumatics ) , in which case the action is electro @-@ pneumatic . In such actions , an electromagnet attracts a small pilot valve which lets wind go to a bellows ( " pneumatic " ) which opens the pallet . When electricity operates the action directly without the assistance of pneumatics , it is commonly referred to as direct electric action . In this type , the electromagnet 's armature carries a disc pallet .
When electrical wiring alone is used to connect the console to the windchest , electric actions allow the console to be separated at any practical distance from the rest of the organ , and to be movable . Electric stop actions can be controlled at the console by stop knobs , by pivoted tilting tablets , or rocker tabs . These are simple switches , like wall switches for room lights . Some may include electromagnets for setting or resetting when combinations are selected .
The most modern actions are primarily electronic , which connect the console and windchests via narrow data cables instead of the larger multiconductor cables of electric actions . Boxes containing small embedded computers in the console and near the windchests translate console commands into fast serial data for the cable , and back into electrical commands at the windchest [ s ] .
= = = Wind system = = =
The wind system consists of the parts that produce , store , and deliver wind to the pipes . Pipe organ wind pressures are on the order of 0 @.@ 10 psi ( 0 @.@ 69 kPa ) . Organ builders often measure organ wind using a U @-@ tube manometer containing water , so commonly give its magnitude as the difference in water levels in the two legs of the manometer , rather than in units of pressure . The difference in water level is proportional to the difference in pressure between the wind being measured and the atmosphere . The 0 @.@ 10 psi above would register as 2 @.@ 75 inches of water ( 70 mmAq ) . An Italian organ from the Renaissance period may be on only 2 @.@ 2 inches ( 56 mm ) , while ( in the extreme ) solo stops in some large 20th @-@ century organs may require up to 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . In isolated , extreme cases , some stops have been voiced on 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) .
Playing the organ before electricity required at least one person to operate the bellows . When signaled by the organist , a calcant would operate a set of bellows , supplying the organ with air . Because calcants were expensive , organists would usually practise on other instruments such as the clavichord or harpsichord . By the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century bellows were also being operated by water engines , steam engines or gasoline engines . Starting in the 1860s bellows were gradually replaced by wind turbines which were later directly connected to electrical motors . This made it possible for organists to practice regularly on the organ . Most organs , both new and historic , have electric blowers , although others can still be operated manually . The wind supplied is stored in one or more regulators to maintain a constant pressure in the windchests until the action allows it to flow into the pipes .
= = = Stops = = =
Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes , although mixtures and undulating stops ( such as the Voix céleste ) control multiple ranks . The name of the stop reflects not only the stop 's timbre and construction , but also the style of the organ in which it resides . For example , the names on an organ built in the north German Baroque style generally will be derived from the German language , while the names of similar stops on an organ in the French Romantic style will usually be French . Most countries tend to use only their own languages for stop nomenclature . English @-@ speaking nations as well as Japan are more receptive to foreign nomenclature . Stop names are not standardized : two otherwise identical stops from different organs may have different names .
To facilitate a large range of timbres , organ stops exist at different pitch levels . A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is referred to as being at 8 ′ ( pronounced " eight @-@ foot " ) pitch . This refers to the length of the lowest @-@ sounding pipe in that rank , which is approximately eight feet . For the same reason , a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4 ′ pitch , and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2 ′ pitch . Likewise , a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16 ′ pitch , and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32 ′ pitch . Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously .
The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop ’ s name and its pitch in feet . Stops that control multiple ranks display a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks present , instead of its pitch . Thus , a stop labelled " Open Diapason 8 ′ " is a single @-@ rank diapason stop sounding at 8 ′ pitch . A stop labelled " Mixture V " is a five @-@ rank mixture .
Sometimes , a single rank of pipes may be able to be controlled by several stops , allowing the rank to be played at multiple pitches or on multiple manuals . Such a rank is said to be unified or borrowed . For example , an 8 ′ Diapason rank may also be made available as a 4 ′ Octave . When both of these stops are selected and a key ( for example , c ′ ) is pressed , two pipes of the same rank will sound : the pipe normally corresponding to the key played ( c ′ ) , and the pipe one octave above that ( c ′ ′ ) . Because the 8 ′ rank does not have enough pipes to sound the top octave of the keyboard at 4 ′ pitch , it is common for an extra octave of pipes used only for the borrowed 4 ′ stop to be added . In this case , the full rank of pipes ( now an extended rank ) is one octave longer than the keyboard .
Special unpitched stops also appear in some organs . Among these are the Zimbelstern ( a wheel of rotating bells ) , the nightingale ( a pipe submerged in a small pool of water , creating the sound of a bird warbling when wind is admitted ) , and the effet d 'orage ( " thunder effect " , a device that sounds the lowest bass pipes simultaneously ) . Standard orchestral percussion instruments such as the drum , chimes , celesta , and harp have also been imitated in organ building .
= = = Console = = =
The controls available to the organist , including the keyboards , couplers , expression pedals , stops , and registration aids are accessed from the console . The console is either built into the organ case or detached from it .
= = = = Keyboards = = = =
Keyboards played by the hands are known as manuals ( from the Latin manus , meaning " hand " ) . The keyboard played by the feet is a pedalboard . Every organ has at least one manual ( most have two or more ) , and most have a pedalboard . Each keyboard is named for a particular division of the organ ( a group of ranks ) and generally controls only the stops from that division . The range of the keyboards has varied widely across time and between countries . Most current specifications call for two or more manuals with sixty @-@ one notes ( five octaves , from C to c ″ ″ ) and a pedalboard with thirty or thirty @-@ two notes ( two and a half octaves , from C to f ′ or g ′ ) .
= = = = Couplers = = = =
A coupler allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division . For example , a coupler labelled " Swell to Great " allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual . This coupler is a unison coupler , because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual . Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects . It also allows every stop of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual .
Octave couplers , which add the pipes an octave above ( super @-@ octave ) or below ( sub @-@ octave ) each note that is played , may operate on one division only ( for example , the Swell super octave , which adds the octave above what is being played on the Swell to itself ) , or act as a coupler to another keyboard ( for example , the Swell super @-@ octave to Great , which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is being played ) .
In addition , larger organs may use unison off couplers , which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch . These can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects , and can also be used to rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play .
= = = = Enclosure and expression pedals = = = =
Enclosure refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops . In a two @-@ manual organ with Great and Swell divisions , the Swell will be enclosed . In larger organs , parts or all of the Choir and Solo divisions may also be enclosed . The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the swell box . At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal or vertical palettes known as swell shades , which operate in a similar way to Venetian blinds ; their position can be adjusted from the console . When the swell shades are open , more sound is heard than when they are closed . Sometimes the shades are exposed , but they are often concealed behind a row of facade @-@ pipes or a grill .
The most common method of controlling the louvers is the balanced swell pedal . This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near @-@ vertical position ( in which the shades are closed ) to a near @-@ horizontal position ( in which the shades are open ) . An organ may also have a similar @-@ looking crescendo pedal , found alongside any expression pedals . Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates the stops of the organ , starting with the softest and ending with the loudest ; pressing it backwards reverses this process .
= = = = Combination action = = = =
Organ stops can be combined in countless permutations , resulting in a great variety of sounds . A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one combination of stops ( called a registration ) to another . Combination actions feature small buttons called pistons that can be pressed by the organist , generally located beneath the keys of each manual ( thumb pistons ) or above the pedalboard ( toe pistons ) . The pistons may be divisional ( affecting only a single division ) or general ( affecting all the divisions ) , and are either preset by the organ builder or can be altered by the organist . Modern combination actions operate via computer memory , and can store several channels of registrations .
= = = Casing = = =
The pipes , action , and wind system are almost always contained in a case , the design of which also may incorporate the console . The case blends the organ 's sound and aids in projecting it into the room . The case often is designed to complement the building 's architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations . The visible portion of the case , called the façade , will most often contain pipes , which may be either sounding pipes or dummy pipes solely for decoration . The façade pipes may be plain , burnished , gilded , or painted and are usually referred to as ( en ) montre within the context of the French organ school .
Organ cases occasionally feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets . These are referred to as pipes en chamade and are particularly common in organs of the Iberian peninsula and large 20th @-@ century instruments .
Many organs , particularly those built in the early 20th century , are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers . Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case , enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant . For this reason , some modern builders , particularly those building instruments specializing in polyphony rather than Romantic compositions , avoid this unless the architecture of the room makes it necessary .
= = = Tuning and regulation = = =
The goal of tuning a pipe organ is to adjust the pitch of each pipe so that they all sound in tune with each other . How the pitch of each pipe is adjusted depends on the type and construction of that pipe .
Regulation adjusts the action so that all pipes sound correctly . If the regulation is wrongly set , the keys may be at different heights , some pipes may sound when the keys are not pressed , or pipes may not sound when a key is pressed . Tracker action , for example in the organ of Cradley Heath Baptist Church , includes adjustment nuts on the wire ends of the wooden trackers , which have the effect of changing the effective length of each tracker .
= = History and development = =
= = = Antiquity and Medieval = = =
The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece . Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC . The word organ is derived from the Latin organum , an instrument similar to a portative organ used in ancient Roman circus games . Organum is derived in turn from the Greek όργανον ( organon ) , a generic term for an instrument or a tool .
The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC . He devised an instrument called the hydraulis , which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes . The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire . The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the 2nd century AD , and true bellows began to appear in the 6th or 7th century AD .
The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d . 911 ) ; in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the urghun ( organ ) as one of the typical instruments of the Byzantine Empire . It was often used in the Hippodrome . The first Western pipe organ with " great leaden pipes " was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning its establishment in Western church music .
Portable organs ( the portative and the positive organ ) were invented in the Middle Ages . Towards the middle of the 13th century , the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys , as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria . Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings .
Large organs such as the one installed in 1361 in Halberstadt , Germany , the first documented permanent organ installation , likely prompted Guillaume de Machaut to describe the organ as " the king of instruments " , a characterization still frequently applied . The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a chromatic key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard , although the keys were wider than on modern instruments . It had twenty bellows operated by ten men , and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full strength of his arm to hold down a key .
Until the mid @-@ 15th century , organs had no stop controls . Each manual controlled ranks at multiple pitches , known as the Blockwerk . Around 1450 , controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually . These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions . The higher @-@ pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control ; these stops developed into mixtures .
= = = Renaissance and Baroque periods = = =
During the Renaissance and Baroque periods , the organ 's tonal colors became more varied . Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments , such as the krummhorn and the viola da gamba . The Baroque period is often thought of as organ building 's " golden age , " as virtually every important refinement was brought to a culminating art . Builders such as Arp Schnitger , Jasper Johannsen , Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic masterpieces , displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound . These organs featured well @-@ balanced mechanical key actions , giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech . Schnitger 's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions .
Different national styles of organ building began to develop , often due to changing political climates . In the Netherlands , the organ became a large instrument with several divisions , doubled ranks , and mounted cornets . The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions , and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common . The divisions of the organ became visibly discernible from the case design . 20th @-@ century musicologists labelled this the Werkprinzip .
In France , as in Italy , Spain and Portugal , organs were primarily designed to play alternatim verses rather than accompany congregational singing . The French Classical Organ , became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era , more so than any other style of organ building in history , and standardized registrations developed . It was elaborately described by Dom Bédos de Celles in his treatise L 'art du facteur d 'orgues ( The Art of Organ Building ) . For example , in France , the organ at Notre @-@ Dame 's ( St. Etienne , Loire ) was built by Joseph and Claude @-@ Ignace Callinet in 1837 , at a time when their career was at its apex .
In England , many pipe organs were taken out of churches during the English Reformation of the 16th century and the Commonwealth period . Often these were relocated to private homes . At the Restoration , organ builders such as Renatus Harris and " Father " Bernard Smith brought new organ @-@ building ideas from continental Europe . English organs evolved from small one- or two @-@ manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures . The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early 18th century , and in 1712 Abraham Jordan claimed his " swelling organ " at St Magnus @-@ the @-@ Martyr to be a new invention . The swell box and the independent pedal division appeared in English organs beginning in the 18th century .
= = = Romantic period = = =
During the Romantic period , the organ became more symphonic , capable of creating a gradual crescendo . New technologies and the work of organ builders such as Eberhard Friedrich Walcker , Aristide Cavaillé @-@ Coll , and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops , more variation in sound and timbre , and more divisions . Enclosed divisions became common , and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops . The desire for louder , grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before . As a result , a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys . To solve this problem , Cavaillé @-@ Coll configured the English " Barker lever " to assist in operating the key action .
Organ builders began to lean towards specifications with fewer mixtures and high @-@ pitched stops . They preferred to use more 8 ′ and 16 ′ stops in their specifications and wider pipe scales . These practices created a warmer , richer sound than was common in the 18th century . Organs began to be built in concert halls ( such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris ) , and composers such as Camille Saint @-@ Saëns and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works .
= = = Modern development = = =
The development of pneumatic and electro @-@ pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes , greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design . Electric stop actions were also developed , which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created .
In the mid @-@ 20th century , organ builders began to build historically inspired instruments modelled on Baroque organs . They returned to building mechanical key actions , voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales , and designing specifications with more mixture stops . This became known as the Organ reform movement .
In the late 20th century , organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key , stop , and combination actions . Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable , this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist ’ s performance via the MIDI protocol . In addition , some organ builders have incorporated digital stops into their pipe organs .
The electronic organ developed throughout the 20th century . Some pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price , smaller physical size , and minimal maintenance requirements . In the early 1970s , Rodgers Instruments pioneered the hybrid organ , an electronic instrument that incorporates real pipes ; other builders such as Allen Organs and Johannus Orgelbouw have since built hybrid organs . It should be noted that electronic " organs " may have a lower purchase price but have demonstrated a higher cost of ownership as components fail and parts become obsolete . Pipe organs , made of metal , wood , leather , and felt can be maintained for centuries .
= = Repertoire = =
The main development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself , leading to distinctive national styles of composition . Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues , the organ repertoire includes a large amount of sacred music , which is accompanimental ( choral anthems , congregational hymns , liturgical elements , etc . ) as well as solo in nature ( chorale preludes , hymn versets designed for alternatim use , etc . ) . The organ 's secular repertoire includes preludes , fugues , sonatas , organ symphonies , suites , and transcriptions of orchestral works .
Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire , France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music . There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands , England , and the United States .
Before the Baroque era , keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another , but rather was written to be played on any keyboard instrument . For this reason , much of the organ 's repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the harpsichord . Pre @-@ Renaissance keyboard music is found in compiled manuscripts that may include compositions from a variety of regions . The oldest of these sources is the Robertsbridge Codex , dating from about 1360 . The Buxheimer Orgelbuch , which dates from about 1470 and was compiled in Germany , includes intabulations of vocal music by the English composer John Dunstaple . The earliest Italian organ music is found in the Faenza Codex , dating from 1420 .
In the Renaissance period , Dutch composers such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck composed both fantasias and psalm settings . Sweelinck in particular developed a rich collection of keyboard figuration that influenced subsequent composers . The Italian composer Claudio Merulo wrote in the typical Italian genres of the toccata , the canzona , and the ricercar . In Spain , the works of Antonio de Cabezón began the most prolific period of Spanish organ composition , which culminated with Juan Cabanilles .
Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal . Sacred organ music was based on chorales : composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes , chorale fantasias , and chorale motets . Towards the end of the Baroque era , the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed , forming the chorale partita . This genre was developed by Georg Böhm , Johann Pachelbel , and Dieterich Buxtehude . The primary type of free @-@ form piece in this period was the praeludium , as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann , Nicolaus Bruhns , Böhm , and Buxtehude . The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large @-@ scale preludes and fugues and chorale @-@ based works . Towards the end of the Baroque era , George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos .
In France , organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze , François Couperin , and Nicolas de Grigny . Because the French organ of the 17th and early 18th centuries was very standardized , a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire . The music of French composers ( and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi ) was written for use during the Mass . Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period ; the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use . In England , composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi @-@ sectional free works for liturgical use called voluntaries through the 19th century .
Organ music was seldom written in the Classical era , as composers preferred the piano with its ability to create dynamics . In Germany , the six sonatas op . 65 of Felix Mendelssohn ( published 1845 ) marked the beginning of a renewed interest in composing for the organ . Inspired by the newly built Cavaillé @-@ Coll organs , the French organist @-@ composers César Franck , Alexandre Guilmant and Charles @-@ Marie Widor led organ music into the symphonic realm . The development of symphonic organ music continued with Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire . Widor and Vierne wrote large @-@ scale , multi @-@ movement works called organ symphonies that exploited the full possibilities of the symphonic organ . Max Reger and Sigfrid Karg @-@ Elert 's symphonic works made use of the abilities of the large Romantic organs being built in Germany at the time .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues , allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra , as in Saint @-@ Saëns ' Symphony No. 3 . Frequently the organ is given a soloistic part , such as in Joseph Jongen 's Symphonie Concertante for Organ & Orchestra , Francis Poulenc 's Concerto for Organ , Strings and Tympani , and Frigyes Hidas ' Organ Concerto .
Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst , Richard Strauss , Ottorino Respighi , Gustav Mahler , Anton Bruckner , and Ralph Vaughan Williams . Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras , transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire . As silent films became popular , theatre organs were installed in theatres to provide accompaniment for the films .
In the 20th @-@ century symphonic repertoire , both sacred and secular , continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupré , Maurice Duruflé , and Herbert Howells . Other composers , such as Olivier Messiaen , György Ligeti , Jehan Alain , Jean Langlais , Gerd Zacher , and Petr Eben , wrote post @-@ tonal organ music . Messiaen 's music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique .
= = = Online radio stations = = =
Organlive An online station of classical organ music .
Positively Baroque An online station dedicated to organ music of the Baroque period .
At the Organ An online station providing weekly programming about the classical organ .
Pipedreams A weekly 2 @-@ hour public radio program of organ music .
Sacred Classics , a radio program of organ and choral music
= = = Databases = = =
International Organ Foundation , an online pipe organ database with specifications of more than 8000 organs in over 80 countries
Organ Historical Society Pipe Organ Database
The Top 20 - The World 's Largest Pipe Organs
National Pipe Organ Register , featuring history and specifications of 28 @,@ 000 pipe organs in the United Kingdom
Die Orgelseite , photos and specifications of some of the world 's most interesting organs ( subscription required for some content )
Organ Database , stoplists , pictures and information about some 33 @,@ 500 pipe organs around the world
The New York City Organ Project documents organs present and past in the five boroughs of New York City
= = = Resources for pipe organ video recordings = = =
" TourBus to the King of Instruments " – video series with Carol Williams ( organist ) about the large & small , famous & unique pipe organs of the world . American Video & Audio Production Company
" The Joy of Music " – television series with Diane Bish about large pipe organs in USA and in Europe .
= Barend Joseph Stokvis =
Barend Joseph Stokvis ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈbaːrənt ˈjoːsəf ˈstɔkfɪs ] ; 16 August 1834 – 28 September 1902 ) was a physician and professor of physiology and pharmacology at the University of Amsterdam . He is mainly remembered for his description of acute porphyria in 1889 . As a researcher in chemical pathology he made contributions to the understanding of a number of diseases , such as diabetes . He was also considered an expert in tropical medicine and a celebrated medical educator . He authored an influential pharmacology textbook . Stokvis was one of a number of prominent 19th century Jewish physicians in the Netherlands .
= = Early life and education = =
Stokvis was born to Rachel Wittering and Joseph Barend Stokvis , Jr . , a Jewish physician and obstetrician in Amsterdam . He studied medicine in Amsterdam and at the University of Utrecht under Franciscus Donders and Jacobus Schroeder van der Kolk , obtaining a doctorate on a dissertation on hepatic glucose production in diabetes in 1856 . His thesis appeared shortly after the publication of related work by the French physiologist Claude Bernard . Stokvis may also have been influenced by the chemist Gerardus Mulder in Amsterdam . Subsequently he travelled to Paris and Vienna ( and possibly Prague ) , before establishing himself in medical practice in Amsterdam . He continued his medical research under the physiologists Adriaan Heynsius , Wilhelm Kühne and Thomas Place . In 1867 , the Brussels Academy awarded a gold medal to Stokvis for an essay on the development of albuminuria , a kidney disorder in which the protein albumin can be detected in the urine .
= = Scientific career = =
In 1874 he was appointed as lecturer in medicine at the Athenaeum Illustre in medicine , pathology and pharmacodynamics , and became a professor when the Athenaeum received university status and became the Municipal University of Amsterdam . He served as rector magnificus ( dean ) of the university in the 1880s .
His prolific output , mainly in chemical pathology , included research into the metabolism of glycogen , uric acid , and urea ; studies into an epidemic of cholera in Amsterdam ; the toxicity of Atropa belladonna ( deadly nightshade ) ; various pigmented substances in the blood ( including porphyrins ) ; the nature of the heart sounds ; and several contributions in tropical medicine , in which he was considered an expert . He also described the blood disorder methaemoglobinaemia .
In 1889 , he reported on a case of acute illness provoked by the newly introduced hypnotic drug sulfonmethane , also known as sulfonal . Stokvis observed the unusual dark red urine , discovered that it contained porphyrins , and coined the name " porphyria " for the condition . The patient 's underlying condition was probably acute intermittent porphyria , which can be provoked by medicines . Similar reports by others followed shortly after , and it was soon found that other drugs could also induce porphyria attacks . The Swedish chemist Olof Hammarsten further analysed red compound found in the urine of the patients with sulfonal @-@ related porphyria attacks , labeling it " haematoporphyrin " . Porphyrins were first identified by the German chemist Felix Hoppe @-@ Seyler in 1871 , and derive their named from the Greek for purple — poxphuros — after to their purple color .
Stokvis ' most important work was judged by his contemporaries to be his three @-@ volume " Voordrachten over Geneesmiddelenleer " ( " Speeches on Pharmacology " , soon translated into the French " Leçons de Pharmacotherapie " ) , which appeared shortly before his death .
= = Other activities = =
Stokvis was close to the influential German pathologist Rudolf Virchow . In 1879 Stokvis was elected a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences , and he served as vice @-@ president of the Academy in 1896 . He was awarded received an honorary Doctorate of Laws by the University of Edinburgh in 1884 . Stokvis also chaired the 1883 International Colonial Medicine Congress in Amsterdam . He was one of the founders ( in 1896 ) of Janus , an international journal for the history of medicine . He is regarded as an illustrious member of Holland 's medical dynasty , and as a pioneer in the fields of chemical physiology and chemotherapy . Together with Samuel Siegmund Rosenstein , professor of medicine in Leiden , he was a supporter of Aletta Jacobs , the first woman to qualify as a doctor in the Netherlands .
In addition to his medical work , Stokvis also succeeded his father as president of the charitable Jewish Poor Board ( Nederlandsch Israëlitisch Armbestuur ) , was a member @-@ founder of the Dutch Jewish Institute for the Insane , and a board member of the Jewish Institute for the Aged and the Amsterdam Jewish Hospital ( Centraal Israëlitische Ziekenverpleging ) . He was also a patron of the arts .
= = Personal life = =
In 1865 he married Julia Elisabeth , the sister of his close friend , the banker and philanthropist A.C. Wertheim . They had two children . He was an ardent swimmer , and wrote poetry under several pseudonyms . He spoke several languages . He died in Amsterdam shortly after returning from a holiday in Ireland , from what was thought to be myocarditis .
= Abe Mickal =
Ibrahim Khalil " Abe " Mickal ( c . 1912 / 1913 – September 20 , 2001 ) was a Lebanese American college football player and a doctor . Mickal played as a running back for the LSU Tigers of Louisiana State University , where he was notable for his passing skills and play @-@ making ability . He was also the team 's primary punter and placekicker . A three @-@ time All @-@ Southeastern Conference selection , Mickal led LSU to an undefeated season in 1933 , and a conference championship and Sugar Bowl in 1935 . In 1936 , Mickal played quarterback for a college all @-@ star team that became the first team of college players to defeat a National Football League ( NFL ) team . Although selected in the 1936 NFL Draft , he did not play professionally . Mickal was a charter member of the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967 .
In addition to football , Mickal was a cadet in LSU 's Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) , was a member of the pre @-@ med club and debate team , and as a senior was president of the university 's student body . While a student at LSU , Mickal declined a seat in the Louisiana State Senate offered to him by U.S. Senator and noted LSU supporter , Huey P. Long . He earned his medical degree in 1940 , and after serving in World War II he began a lifelong career in obstetrics and gynecology . He served as head professor of the LSU Medical School OB / GYN department for over twenty years . Actively involved in various university affairs during and after his time as a student , Mickal was named LSU 's " Alumnus of the Year " in 1980 .
= = Early life = =
Ibrahim Khalil Mickal was born in Syria , in an area that is today part of Lebanon , and immigrated with his family to the United States in 1920 and arrived on Ellis Island . He settled in McComb , Mississippi and attended McComb High School , where he played football , baseball , and basketball and ran track . His father Kalil , who ran a local general store , was initially against his son playing sports . " It was an old Lebanese custom , " Mickal later explained , " that the eldest son take over the business . My father wasn 't aware that I was playing . " His father was eventually persuaded by the townspeople to let his son play . During his senior year he was recruited by LSU and Notre Dame to play football , and ultimately chose the Tigers after the death of Notre Dame head coach Knute Rockne .
= = College = =
Mickal was an all @-@ around player ; a triple @-@ threat running back who also played on defense . He was regarded as an excellent deep @-@ ball passer ; in the words of LSU coach Lawrence " Biff " Jones : " Mickal is a greater passer than Red Cagle — he 's the greatest I ever saw . " Jones was Cagle 's coach while at Army . One sportswriter referred to Mickal as " the Dizzy Dean of the nation 's forward passers . " He was also known for his play @-@ making ability during crucial moments of games , and LSU compiled a win – loss record of 23 – 4 – 5 in the three seasons Mickal played for the team .
= = = 1933 = = =
Mickal showed his versatility in the first game of the 1933 season against Rice , tossing a 40 @-@ yard pass on the first play from scrimmage to end Pete Burge and booting punts of 76 and 61 yards . In week four against Arkansas Mickal completed touchdown passes of 48 and 57 yards and ran for a 15 @-@ yard touchdown , as he was responsible for every score in the 20 – 0 win over the eventual Southwest Conference champion Razorbacks . He scored the only touchdown of LSU 's final game of the season , against Tennessee , with a goal line dive into the end zone . He also kicked the extra point for the 7 – 0 victory , and completed the season having successfully made every extra point he attempted . The Tigers finished undefeated with three ties in their first season as members of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) . After the season , Mickal was named to the United Press ( UP ) All @-@ SEC second team as a halfback .
= = = 1934 = = =
One of Mickal 's most notable games came in 1934 against the Mustangs of Southern Methodist . He threw two touchdown passes , the first one a 32 @-@ yarder to tie the game at 7 – 7 in the second quarter . Late in the fourth quarter and down by a touchdown , Mickal dropped back at his own 35 @-@ yard line and hurled a pass down the middle of the field . It was caught in stride at the Mustang 20 @-@ yard line by Gaynell Tinsley , who ran it into the end zone to tie the game at 14 – 14 , which was the final score . In week four against 13th @-@ ranked Arkansas , Mickal completed five of seven passes for 117 yards , which included a 52 @-@ yard bomb in the third quarter for the first score of the 16 – 0 win . He also averaged over 50 yards per punt on nine punts . The next week he threw a touchdown pass , kicked a field goal , and averaged over 40 yards per punt in a 29 – 0 win over previously undefeated Vanderbilt . Mickal was named a first @-@ team All @-@ SEC selection as a fullback by the Associated Press ( AP ) and as a halfback by the UP .
= = = = Senatorship = = = =
During the season , Mickal was acclaimed an honorary Louisiana State Senator by U.S. Senator Huey P. Long , whom he had befriended , at a burlesque campus meeting . Long was a noted LSU supporter and was highly involved in operations of the football program . When it came time for his ceremonial " seating " Mickal refused to appear for the ceremony , despite the urging of Long . After Long reasoned with the senate and spectators that Mickal " had to study , " Mickal was granted a five @-@ day leave of absence by senator Harvey Peltier to " do his work at school and go forward with his preparation for his football duties . " Mickal remained silent on the matter , however ; he did not give a reason for his refusal of the honor . The day he was to be inducted , Mickal said in a telegram to Long that if he accepted the senatorship he would introduce a joint resolution that made it " unlawful " for any Tulane player to cross the LSU goal line in 1934 .
= = = 1935 = = =
Mickal had a slow start to 1935 while he recovered from a broken ankle he suffered over the summer . In week three , he threw two touchdown passes against Manhattan College , and a game @-@ winning touchdown pass against Vanderbilt two weeks later . In the regular season finale , Mickal was responsible for three touchdowns in a 41 – 0 win over rival Tulane . LSU played TCU at the end of the season in the Sugar Bowl , in a game that was a highly anticipated match @-@ up between Mickal and the Horned Frogs ' Sammy Baugh . The offenses were unable to do much , however , as rain throughout the day had muddied the field . TCU won the game , 3 – 2 . LSU finished the season undefeated in conference play for its first SEC championship . Mickal was named to the AP All @-@ SEC second @-@ team as a fullback after the season , and earned second @-@ team All @-@ America honors from Liberty magazine .
= = = 1936 All @-@ Stars vs. Bears = = =
In September 1936 , Mickal played quarterback for the Centennial College All @-@ Stars , a team composed of college players from southern schools to play against the National Football League 's Chicago Bears at Cotton Bowl stadium . He scored the All @-@ Stars ' only touchdown with a dive into the end zone from the one @-@ foot line in the third quarter . The Bears scored their only touchdown later that quarter on a 5 @-@ yard run by Bronko Nagurski . Mickal had a chance to tackle Nagurski before the goal line . " A lot of things flashed through my mind , " explained Mickal . " There was nothing between him and the goal line but me . I thought about making the perfect tackle and reading about being the All @-@ Stars ' hero . Then I thought about Nagurski 's size . I thought about the Nagurski legend . I thought about going to med school . I thought about possible brain damage . " He decided to step aside and let Nagurski score . The extra point , however , was blocked by Bob Reynolds , and the game ended 7 – 6 in favor of the All @-@ Stars . It was the first time a team of college players defeated a professional American football team .
= = = Extracurricular = = =
Mickal was actively involved in the university 's Reserve Officers ' Training Corps . He received the Outstanding Cadet Award as a freshman and was regimental sergeant major as a junior . As a senior he attained the rank of Cadet Colonel and earned the Kemper Williams Sabre as the school 's outstanding cadet . Additionally , he was a member of the pre @-@ med club and debate team , and in 1936 was president of the school 's Interfraternity Council , college of arts and sciences , and student body . Mickal was a member of the Theta Kappa Nu fraternity .
= = Later life = =
= = = Medical career = = =
Mickal was selected in the sixth round of the 1936 NFL Draft by the Detroit Lions . However , he did not play in the NFL . He instead chose to complete his medical degree at the Louisiana State University School of Medicine , where he graduated from in 1940 . He served as a major in the U.S. Army Medical Corps during World War II . After the war , he worked in obstetrics and gynecology at New Orleans Charity Hospital from 1946 to 1949 , shortly after which he was named to the LSU medical faculty . In 1959 he became the head professor of the LSU Medical School , a position he served in until his retirement in 1980 . He helped found the Society of Gynecologic Oncology and the Infectious Disease Society for Obstetrics and Gynecology , and served as president of the Society of Gynecologic Surgeons from 1981 to 1982 . From 1985 until his death in 2001 he was vice president for medical affairs at Kenner Regional Medical Center .
= = = Honors = = =
Mickal was a charter member of the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 . In 1967 , the National Football Foundation named Mickal to the College Football Hall of Fame . He was inducted into the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1969 and the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame in 1985 . Mickal was named LSU 's " Alumnus of the Year " in 1980 and its " Medical Alumnus of the Year " in 1985 . " It 's been a beautiful marriage — and I 've had all the better of it , " said Mickal of his involvement with the university . The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists gave Mickal its Distinguished Service Award in 1991 .
= Ernest Hemingway =
Ernest Miller Hemingway ( July 21 , 1899 – July 2 , 1961 ) was an American novelist , short story writer , and journalist . His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th @-@ century fiction , while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations . Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid @-@ 1920s and the mid @-@ 1950s , and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 . He published seven novels , six short story collections , and two non @-@ fiction works . Additional works , including three novels , four short story collections , and three non @-@ fiction works , were published posthumously . Many of his works are considered classics of American literature .
Hemingway was raised in Oak Park , Illinois . After high school , he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star , before leaving for the Italian front to enlist with the World War I ambulance drivers . In 1918 , he was seriously wounded and returned home . His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms ( 1929 ) .
In 1921 , he married Hadley Richardson , the first of his four wives . The couple moved to Paris , where he worked as a foreign correspondent and fell under the influence of the modernist writers and artists of the 1920s " Lost Generation " expatriate community . He published his first novel , The Sun Also Rises , in 1926 . After his 1927 divorce from Hadley Richardson , Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer ; they divorced after he returned from the Spanish Civil War where he had been a journalist , and after which he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls ( 1940 ) . Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940 ; they separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II . He was present at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris .
Shortly after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea ( 1952 ) , Hemingway went on safari to Africa , where he was almost killed in two successive plane crashes that left him in pain or ill health for much of his remaining life . Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key West , Florida ( 1930s ) and Cuba ( 1940s and 1950s ) , and in 1959 , he bought a house in Ketchum , Idaho , where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961 .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21 , 1899 , in Oak Park , Illinois , a suburb of Chicago . His father , Clarence Edmonds Hemingway , was a physician , and his mother , Grace Hall @-@ Hemingway , was a musician . Both were well @-@ educated and well @-@ respected in the conservative community of Oak Park , a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said , " So many churches for so many good people to go to " . For a short period after their marriage , Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived with Grace 's father , Ernest Hall , who eventually became their first son 's namesake . Later Ernest Hemingway would say that he disliked his name , which he " associated with the naive , even foolish hero of Oscar Wilde 's play The Importance of Being Earnest " . The family eventually moved into a seven @-@ bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence .
Hemingway 's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village . As an adult , Hemingway professed to hate his mother , although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm . Her insistence that he learn to play the cello became a " source of conflict " , but he later admitted the music lessons were useful to his writing , as is evident in the " contrapuntal structure " of For Whom the Bell Tolls . The family owned a summer home called Windemere on Walloon Lake , near Petoskey , Michigan , where as a four @-@ year @-@ old he learned from his father to hunt , fish , and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan . His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas .
From 1913 until 1917 , Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School where he took part in a number of sports , namely boxing , track and field , water polo , and football . He excelled in English classes and performed in the school orchestra with his sister Marcelline for two years . In his junior year , he took a journalism class , taught by Fannie Biggs , which was structured " as though the classroom were a newspaper office " . The better writers in class submitted pieces to The Trapeze , the school newspaper . Hemingway and Marcelline both had pieces submitted to The Trapeze ; Hemingway 's first piece , published in January 1916 , was about a local performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . He continued to contribute to and to edit the Trapeze and the Tabula ( the school 's newspaper and yearbook ) , for which he imitated the language of sportswriters , and used the pen name Ring Lardner , Jr . — a nod to Ring
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he had hoped for with Agnes : the love of a beautiful woman , a comfortable income , a life in Europe . "
= = = Paris = = =
Carlos Baker , Hemingway 's first biographer , believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because " the monetary exchange rate " made it an inexpensive place to live , more importantly it was where " the most interesting people in the world " lived . In Paris , Hemingway met writers such as Gertrude Stein , James Joyce , and Ezra Pound who " could help a young writer up the rungs of a career " . The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a " tall , handsome , muscular , broad @-@ shouldered , brown @-@ eyed , rosy @-@ cheeked , square @-@ jawed , soft @-@ voiced young man . " He and Hadley lived in a small walk @-@ up at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter , and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building . Stein , who was the bastion of modernism in Paris , became Hemingway 's mentor and godmother to his son Jack ; she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter , whom she referred to as the " Lost Generation " — a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises . A regular at Stein 's salon , Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso , Joan Miró , and Juan Gris . He eventually withdrew from Stein 's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades . The American poet Ezra Pound met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach 's bookshop Shakespeare and Company in 1922 . The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924 . They forged a strong friendship , and in Hemingway , Pound recognized and fostered a young talent . Pound introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce , with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on " alcoholic sprees " .
During his first 20 months in Paris , Hemingway filed 88 stories for the Toronto Star newspaper . He covered the Greco @-@ Turkish War , where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna , and wrote travel pieces such as " Tuna Fishing in Spain " and " Trout Fishing All Across Europe : Spain Has the Best , Then Germany " . Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon as she was traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922 . The following September , the couple returned to Toronto , where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10 , 1923 . During their absence , Hemingway 's first book , Three Stories and Ten Poems , was published . Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase , and the third had been written the previous spring in Italy . Within months a second volume , in our time ( without capitals ) , was published . The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain , where he discovered the thrill of the corrida . He missed Paris , considered Toronto boring , and wanted to return to the life of a writer , rather than live the life of a journalist .
Hemingway , Hadley and their son ( nicknamed Bumby ) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into a new apartment on the rue Notre @-@ Dame des Champs . Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit the The Transatlantic Review , which published works by Pound , John Dos Passos , Baroness Elsa von Freytag @-@ Loringhoven , and Stein , as well as some of Hemingway 's own early stories such as " Indian Camp " . When In Our Time ( with capital letters ) was published in 1925 , the dust jacket bore comments from Ford . " Indian Camp " received considerable praise ; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer , and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences . Six months earlier , Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald , and the pair formed a friendship of " admiration and hostility " . Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year : Hemingway read it , liked it , and decided his next work had to be a novel .
With his wife Hadley , Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona , Spain , in 1923 , where he became fascinated by bullfighting . It is at this time that he began to be referred to as " Papa . " The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925 ; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates : Hemingway 's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith , Donald Ogden Stewart , Lady Duff Twysden ( recently divorced ) , her lover Pat Guthrie , and Harold Loeb . A few days after the fiesta ended , on his birthday ( July 21 ) , he began to write the draft of what would become The Sun Also Rises , finishing eight weeks later . A few months later , in December 1925 , the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns , Austria , where Hemingway began revising the manuscript extensively . Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January and against Hadley 's advice , urged Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner 's . He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers , and on his return , during a stop in Paris , began an affair with Pfeiffer , before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March . The manuscript arrived in New York in April ; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926 , and Scribner 's published the novel in October .
The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post @-@ war expatriate generation , received good reviews , and is " recognized as Hemingway 's greatest work " . Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the " point of the book " was not so much about a generation being lost , but that " the earth abideth forever " ; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been " battered " but were not lost .
Hemingway 's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises . In the spring of 1926 , Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer , who came to Pamplona with them that July . On their return to Paris , Hadley asked for a separation ; in November she formally requested a divorce . They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway 's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises . The couple were divorced in January 1927 , and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May .
Pfeiffer , who was from a wealthy Catholic Arkansas family , had moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine . Before their marriage , Hemingway converted to Catholicism . They honeymooned in Le Grau @-@ du @-@ Roi , where he contracted anthrax , and he planned his next collection of short stories , Men Without Women , which was published in October 1927 , and included his boxing story " Fifty Grand " . Cosmopolitan magazine editor @-@ in @-@ chief Ray Long praised " Fifty Grand " , calling it , " one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize @-@ fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism . "
By the end of the year Pauline , who was pregnant , wanted to move back to America . John Dos Passos recommended Key West , and they left Paris in March 1928 . That spring , Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom , when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain . This left him with a prominent forehead scar , which he carried for the rest of his life . When Hemingway was asked about the scar , he was reluctant to answer . After his departure from Paris , Hemingway " never again lived in a big city " .
= = = Key West and the Caribbean = = =
In the late spring , Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City , where their son Patrick was born on June 28 , 1928 . Pauline had a difficult delivery , which Hemingway fictionalized in A Farewell to Arms . After Patrick 's birth , Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming , Massachusetts , and New York . In the winter , he was in New York with Bumby , about to board a train to Florida , when he received a cable telling him that his father had committed suicide . Hemingway was devastated , having earlier written his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties ; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide . He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father 's suicide in 1903 , and he commented , " I 'll probably go the same way . "
Upon his return to Key West in December , Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January . He had finished it in August but delayed the revision . The serialization in Scribner 's Magazine was scheduled to begin in May , but as late as April , Hemingway was still working on the ending , which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times . The completed novel was published on September 27 . Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway 's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises . In Spain during the summer of 1929 , Hemingway researched his next work , Death in the Afternoon . He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting , explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices , because he believed bullfighting was " of great tragic interest , being literally of life and death . "
During the early 1930s , Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming , where he found " the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West " and hunted deer , elk , and grizzly bear . He was joined there by Dos Passos and in November 1930 , after bringing Dos Passos to the train station in Billings , Montana , Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident . The surgeon tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon . Hemingway was hospitalized for seven weeks , with Pauline tending to him ; the nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal , during which time he suffered intense pain .
His third son , Gregory Hancock Hemingway , was born a year later on November 12 , 1931 , in Kansas City . Pauline 's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a carriage house , the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio . Its location across the street from the lighthouse made it easy for Hemingway to find after a long night of drinking . While in Key West , Hemingway frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe 's . He invited friends — including Waldo Peirce , Dos Passos , and Max Perkins — to join him on fishing trips and on an all @-@ male expedition to the Dry Tortugas . Meanwhile , he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba , and — although in 1933 he wrote of Key West , " We have a fine house here , and kids are all well " — Mellow believes he " was plainly restless " .
In 1933 , Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa . The 10 @-@ week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa , as well as for the short stories " The Snows of Kilimanjaro " and " The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber " . The couple visited Mombasa , Nairobi , and Machakos in Kenya ; then moved on to Tanganyika Territory , where they hunted in the Serengeti , around Lake Manyara , and west and southeast of present @-@ day Tarangire National Park . Their guide was the noted " white hunter " Philip Hope Percival who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari . During these travels , Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine , and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi , an experience reflected in " The Snows of Kilimanjaro " . On Hemingway 's return to Key West in early 1934 , he began work on Green Hills of Africa , which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews .
Hemingway bought a boat in 1934 , named it the Pilar , and began sailing the Caribbean . In 1935 he first arrived at Bimini , where he spent a considerable amount of time . During this period he also worked on To Have and Have Not , published in 1937 while he was in Spain , the only novel he wrote during the 1930s .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
In 1937 , Hemingway agreed to report on the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance ( NANA ) , arriving in Spain in March with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens . Ivens , who was filming The Spanish Earth , wanted Hemingway to replace John Dos Passos as screenwriter , since Dos Passos had left the project when his friend José Robles was arrested and later executed . The incident changed Dos Passos ' opinion of the leftist republicans , creating a rift between him and Hemingway , who later spread a rumor that Dos Passos left Spain out of cowardice .
Journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn , whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas ( 1936 ) , joined him in Spain . Like Hadley , Martha was a St. Louis native , and like Pauline , she had worked for Vogue in Paris . Of Martha , Kert explains , " she never catered to him the way other women did " . Late in 1937 , while in Madrid with Martha , Hemingway wrote his only play , The Fifth Column , as the city was being bombarded . He returned to Key West for a few months , then back to Spain twice in 1938 , where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro , the last republican stand , and he was among the British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river .
= = = Cuba = = =
In the spring of 1939 , Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana . This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline , which had begun when Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn . Martha soon joined him in Cuba , and they almost immediately rented " Finca Vigia " ( " Lookout Farm " ) , a 15 @-@ acre ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) property 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Havana . Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer , after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming , and when Hemingway 's divorce from Pauline was finalized , he and Martha were married November 20 , 1940 , in Cheyenne , Wyoming .
As he had after his divorce from Hadley , he changed locations , moving his primary summer residence to Ketchum , Idaho , just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley , and his winter residence to Cuba . Hemingway , who had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table , became enamored of cats in Cuba , keeping dozens of them on the property .
Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel , For Whom the Bell Tolls , which he started in March 1939 and finished in July 1940 . It was published in October 1940 . Consistent with his pattern of moving around while working on a manuscript , he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba , Wyoming , and Sun Valley . For Whom the Bell Tolls became a Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month Club choice , sold half a million copies within months , was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize , and as Meyers describes it , " triumphantly re @-@ established Hemingway 's literary reputation " .
In January 1941 , Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier 's magazine . Hemingway went with her , sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM , but in general he disliked China . A 2009 book suggests during that period he may have been recruited to work for Soviet intelligence agents under the name " Agent Argo " . They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December , when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar , which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba .
= = = World War II = = =
From May 1944 to March 1945 , Hemingway was in London and Europe . When Hemingway first arrived in London , he met TIME magazine correspondent Mary Welsh , with whom he became infatuated . Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane , and she arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident . Unsympathetic to his plight , she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was " through , absolutely finished " . The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he was preparing to return to Cuba , and their divorce was finalized later that same year . Meanwhile , he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting .
Hemingway was present at the Normandy Landings wearing a large head bandage but , according to Meyers , he was considered " precious cargo " and not allowed ashore . The landing craft came within sight of Omaha Beach before coming under enemy fire and turning back . Hemingway later wrote in Collier 's that he could see " the first , second , third , fourth and fifth waves of [ landing troops ] lay where they had fallen , looking like so many heavily laden bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover . " Mellow explains that , on that first day , none of the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the Dorothea Dix .
Late in July , he attached himself to " the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles ' Buck ' Lanham , as it drove toward Paris " , and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris . Of Hemingway 's exploits , World War II historian Paul Fussell remarks : " Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops , even if he does it well " . This was in fact in contravention of the Geneva Convention , and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges ; he said that he " beat the rap " by claiming that he only offered advice .
On August 25 , he was present at the liberation of Paris although , contrary to the Hemingway legend , he was not the first into the city , nor did he liberate the Ritz . In Paris , he visited Sylvia Beach and Pablo Picasso with Mary Welsh , who joined him there , ; in a spirit of happiness , he forgave Gertrude Stein . Later that year , he was present at heavy fighting in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest . On December 17 , 1944 , a feverish and ill Hemingway had himself driven to Luxembourg to cover what was later called The Battle of the Bulge . As soon as he arrived , however , Lanham handed him to the doctors , who hospitalized him with pneumonia ; by the time that he recovered a week later , most of the fighting in this battle was over .
In 1947 , Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II . He was recognized for his valor , having been " under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions " , with the commendation that " through his talent of expression , Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front @-@ line soldier and his organization in combat " .
= = = Cuba and the Nobel Prize = = =
Hemingway said he " was out of business as a writer " from 1942 to 1945 during his residence in Cuba . In 1946 he married Mary , who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later . The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war : in a 1945 car accident , he " smashed his knee " and sustained another " deep wound on his forehead " ; Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents . A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound and severely ill . Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die : in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford ; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald ; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce ; in 1946 Gertrude Stein ; and the following year in 1947 , Max Perkins , Hemingway 's long @-@ time Scribner 's editor and friend . During this period , he suffered from severe headaches , high blood pressure , weight problems , and eventually diabetes — much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking . Nonetheless , in January 1946 , he began work on The Garden of Eden , finishing 800 pages by June . During the post – war years , he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled " The Land " , " The Sea " and " The Air " , which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book . However , both projects stalled , and Mellow says that Hemingway 's inability to continue was " a symptom of his troubles " during these years .
In 1948 , Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe , staying in Venice for several months . While there , Hemingway fell in love with the then 19 @-@ year @-@ old Adriana Ivancich . The platonic love affair inspired the novel Across the River and into the Trees , written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary , and published in 1950 to negative reviews . The following year , furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees , he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks , saying that it was " the best I can write ever for all of my life " . The Old Man and the Sea became a book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ month selection , made Hemingway an international celebrity , and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1952 , a month before he left for his second trip to Africa .
In 1954 , while in Africa , Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes . He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary . On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air , the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and " crash landed in heavy brush " . Hemingway 's injuries included a head wound , while Mary broke two ribs . The next day , attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe , they boarded a second plane that exploded at take @-@ off , with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion , this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid . They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway 's death . He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries . Despite his injuries , Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February , but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with . When a bushfire broke out , he was again injured , sustaining second degree burns on his legs , front torso , lips , left hand and right forearm . Months later in Venice , Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway 's injuries : two cracked discs , a kidney and liver rupture , a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull . The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow . After the plane crashes , Hemingway , who had been " a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life , drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries . "
In October 1954 , Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature . He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg , Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize , but he gladly accepted the prize money . Mellow claims Hemingway " had coveted the Nobel Prize " , but when he won it , months after his plane accidents and the ensuing world @-@ wide press coverage , " there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway 's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy 's decision . " Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents , he decided against traveling to Stockholm . Instead he sent a speech to be read , defining the writer 's life :
Writing , at its best , is a lonely life . Organizations for writers palliate the writer 's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing . He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates . For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity , or the lack of it , each day .
From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956 , Hemingway was bedridden . He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage , advice he initially followed but then disregarded . In October 1956 , he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja , who was seriously ill and died weeks later . During the trip , Hemingway became sick again and was treated for " high blood pressure , liver disease , and arteriosclerosis " .
In November 1956 , while staying in Paris , he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved . Upon re @-@ claiming and opening the trunks , Hemingway discovered that the trunks were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years . Excited about the discovery , when he returned to Cuba in 1957 , he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast . By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity : he finished A Moveable Feast ( scheduled to be released the following year ) ; brought True at First Light to 200 @,@ 000 words ; added chapters to The Garden of Eden ; and worked on Islands in the Stream . The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana , as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast . Author Michael Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression , from which he was unable to recover .
The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists , as Hemingway , beginning to become unhappy with life there , considered a permanent move to Idaho . In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River , outside Ketchum , and left Cuba — although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government , telling The New York Times he was " delighted " with Castro 's overthrow of Batista . He was in Cuba in November 1959 , between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho , and the following year for his 60th birthday ; however , that year he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals . In July 1960 , the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time , leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana . After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion , the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government , complete with Hemingway 's collection of " four to six thousand books " .
= = = Idaho and suicide = = =
Through the end of the 1950s , Hemingway continued to rework the material that would be published as A Moveable Feast . In the summer of 1959 , he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by Life magazine , returning to Cuba in January 1960 to work on the manuscript . Life wanted only 10 @,@ 000 words , but the manuscript grew out of control . For the first time in his life unable to organize his writing , he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help . Hotchner helped him trim the Life piece to 40 @,@ 000 words , and Scribner 's agreed to a full @-@ length book version ( The Dangerous Summer ) of almost 130 @,@ 000 words . Hotchner found Hemingway to be " unusually hesitant , disorganized , and confused " , and suffering badly from failing eyesight .
On July 25 , 1960 , Hemingway and Mary left Cuba , never to return . Hemingway then traveled alone to Spain to be photographed for the front cover for the Life magazine piece . A few days later , he was reported in the news to be seriously ill and on the verge of dying , which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her , " Reports false . Enroute Madrid . Love Papa . " However , he was seriously ill , and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown . He was lonely and took to his bed for days , retreating into silence , despite having had the first installments of The Dangerous Summer published in Life in September 1960 to good reviews . In October , he left Spain for New York , where he refused to leave Mary 's apartment on the pretext that he was being watched . She quickly took him to Idaho , where George Saviers ( a Sun Valley physician ) met them at the train .
At this time , Hemingway was constantly worried about money and his safety . He worried about his taxes , and that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts he had left there in a bank vault . He became paranoid , thinking the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum . The FBI had , in fact , opened a file on him during World War II , when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba , and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch Hemingway during the 1950s . By the end of November , Mary was at wits ' end , and Saviers suggested Hemingway go to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota , where he may have believed he was to be treated for hypertension . The FBI knew Hemingway was at the Mayo Clinic , as an agent later documented in a letter written in January 1961 . In an attempt at anonymity , Hemingway was checked in at the Mayo Clinic under Saviers ' name . Meyers writes that " an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway 's treatment at the Mayo " , but confirms he was treated with electroconvulsive therapy as many as 15 times in December 1960 , and in January 1961 was " released in ruins " . Reynolds was able to access Hemingway 's records at the Mayo , which indicated that the combination of medications given Hemingway may have created the depressive state for which he was treated .
Three months later back in Ketchum , in April 1961 , one morning in the kitchen Mary " found Hemingway holding a shotgun " . She called Saviers who sedated him and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital ; from there he was returned to the Mayo Clinic for more electro shock treatments . He was released in late June , and arrived home in Ketchum on June 30 . Two days later , in the early morning hours of July 2 , 1961 , Hemingway " quite deliberately " shot himself with his favorite shotgun . He had unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept , gone upstairs to the front entrance foyer of their Ketchum home , and according to Mellow , with the " double @-@ barreled shotgun that he had used so often it might have been a friend " , he shot himself . Mary called the Sun Valley Hospital , and a doctor quickly arrived at the house . Despite his finding that Hemingway " had died of a self @-@ inflicted wound to the head " , the initial story told to the press was that the death had been " accidental " .
During his final years , Hemingway 's behavior had been similar to his father 's before he committed suicide ; his father may have had the genetic disease hemochromatosis , in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration . Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway had also been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961 . Both his sister Ursula , and his brother Leicester also committed suicide . Added to Hemingway 's physical ailments was the additional problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life .
Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral , officiated by the local Catholic priest who believed Hemingway 's death accidental . Of the funeral ( during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the casket ) , Hemingway 's brother Leicester wrote : " It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all . "
In a press interview five years later , Mary Hemingway admitted that her husband had committed suicide .
= = Writing style = =
The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway 's first novel , " No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises . It is a truly gripping story , told in a lean , hard , athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame . " The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare , tight prose that made Hemingway famous , and , according to James Nagel , " changed the nature of American writing . " In 1954 , when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature , it was for " his mastery of the art of narrative , most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea , and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style . " Paul Smith writes that Hemingway 's first stories , collected as In Our Time , showed he was still experimenting with his writing style . He avoided complicated syntax . About 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences — a childlike syntax without subordination .
Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway 's style was fundamentally shaped " in reaction to [ his ] experience of world war " . After World War I , he and other modernists " lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization " by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th @-@ century writers and by creating a style " in which meaning is established through dialogue , through action , and silences — a fiction in which nothing crucial — or at least very little — is stated explicitly . "
Developing this connection between Hemingway and other modernist writers , Irene Gammel believes his style was carefully cultivated and honed with an eye toward the avant @-@ garde of the era . Hungry for " vanguard experimentation " and rebelling against Ford Madox Ford 's " staid modernism " , Hemingway published the work of Gertrude Stein and Elsa von Freytag @-@ Loringhoven in The Transatlantic Review . As Gammel notes , Hemingway was " introduced to the Baroness 's experimental style during a time when he was actively trimming the verbal ' fat ' off his own style , as well as flexing his writer 's muscles in assaulting conventional taste . "
Because he began as a writer of short stories , Baker believes Hemingway learned to " get the most from the least , how to prune language , how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth . " Hemingway called his style the Iceberg Theory : the facts float above water ; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight . The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the " theory of omission " . Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing ( such as Nick Adams fishing in " The Big Two @-@ Hearted River " ) though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface ( Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else ) .
Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general — not only about his life . For example , Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with " what if " scenarios : " what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night ? What if I were wounded and made crazy , what would happen if I were sent back to the front ? " Writing in " The Art of the Short Story " , Hemingway explains : " A few things I have found to be true . If you leave out important things or events that you know about , the story is strengthened . If you leave or skip something because you do not know it , the story will be worthless . The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you , not your editors , omit . "
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive . Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James 's observation that World War I had " used up words " . Hemingway offers a " multi @-@ focal " photographic reality . His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds . The syntax , which lacks subordinating conjunctions , creates static sentences . The photographic " snapshot " style creates a collage of images . Many types of internal punctuation ( colons , semicolons , dashes , parentheses ) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences . The sentences build on each other , as events build to create a sense of the whole . Multiple strands exist in one story ; an " embedded text " bridges to a different angle . He also uses other cinematic techniques of " cutting " quickly from one scene to the next ; or of " splicing " a scene into another . Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap , as though responding to instructions from the author , and create three @-@ dimensional prose .
In his literature , and in his personal writing , Hemingway habitually used the word " and " in place of commas . This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy . Hemingway 's polysyndetonic sentence — or in later works his use of subordinate clauses — uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images ; Jackson Benson compares them to haikus . Many of Hemingway 's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion ; Saul Bellow satirized this style as " Do you have emotions ? Strangle them . " However , Hemingway 's intent was not to eliminate emotion , but to portray it more scientifically . Hemingway thought it would be easy , and pointless , to describe emotions ; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp " the real thing , the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or , with luck and if you stated it purely enough , always " . This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound , T. S. Eliot , James Joyce , and Proust . Hemingway 's letters refer to Proust 's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years , and indicate he read the book at least twice .
= = Themes = =
The popularity of Hemingway 's work to a great extent is based on the themes , which according to scholar Frederic Svoboda are love , war , wilderness and loss , all of which are strongly evident in the body of work . These are recurring themes of American literature , which are clearly evident in Hemingway 's work . Critic Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as " The Sacred Land " — the American West — extended in Hemingway 's work to include mountains in Spain , Switzerland and Africa , and to the streams of Michigan . The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the " Hotel Montana " in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls . According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler , Hemingway 's nature is a place for rebirth , for therapy , and the hunter or fisherman has a moment of transcendence when the prey is killed . Nature is where men are without women : men fish ; men hunt ; men find redemption in nature . Although Hemingway writes about sports , Carlos Baker believes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport , while Beegel sees the essence of Hemingway as an American naturalist , as reflected in such detailed descriptions as can be found in " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " .
Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil " Dark Woman " versus the good " Light Woman " . The dark woman — Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises — is a goddess ; the light woman — Margot Macomber of " The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber " — is a murderess . Robert Scholes admits that early Hemingway stories , such as " A Very Short Story " , present " a male character favorably and a female unfavorably " . According to Rena Sanderson , early Hemingway critics lauded his male @-@ centric world of masculine pursuits , and the fiction divided women into " castrators or love @-@ slaves " . Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as " public enemy number one " , although more recent re @-@ evaluations of his work " have given new visibility to Hemingway 's female characters ( and their strengths ) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues , thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one @-@ sidedly masculine . " Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber " are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway 's ' bitch women . ' "
The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as " Indian Camp " . The theme of death permeates Hemingway 's work . Young believes the emphasis in " Indian Camp " was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide , but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child , and becomes a " badly scarred and nervous young man " . Hemingway sets the events in " Indian Camp " that shape the Adams persona . Young believes " Indian Camp " holds the " master key " to " what its author was up to for some thirty @-@ five years of his writing career " . Stoltzfus considers Hemingway 's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism : if " nothingness " is embraced , then redemption is achieved at the moment of death . Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life . Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic ; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity . In his paper The Uses of Authenticity : Hemingway and the Literary Field , Timo Müller writes that Hemingway 's fiction is successful because the characters live an " authentic life " , and the " soldiers , fishers , boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature " .
The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway 's work , most notably in The Sun Also Rises . Emasculation , according to Fiedler , is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers ; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation . This also applies to the minor character , Frances Clyne , Cohn 's girlfriend in the beginning in the book . Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times . Baker believes Hemingway 's work emphasizes the " natural " versus the " unnatural " . In " Alpine Idyll " the " unnaturalness " of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the " unnaturalness " of the peasant who allowed his wife 's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter . The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the " natural " spring for redemption .
Susan Beegel has written that some more recent critics — writing through the lens of a more modern social and cultural context several decades after Hemingway 's death , and more than half a century after his novels were first published — have characterized the social era portrayed in his fiction as misogynistic and homophobic . In her 1996 essay , " Critical Reception " , Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism and found that " critics interested in multiculturalism " , particularly in the 1980s , simply ignored Hemingway , although some " apologetics " have been written . Typical , according to Beegel , is an analysis of Hemingway 's 1926 novel , The Sun Also Rises , in which a critic contended : " Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew , not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew . " Also during the 1980s , according to Beegel , criticism was published that focused on investigating the " horror of homosexuality " and the " racism " typical of the social era portrayed in Hemingway 's fiction . In an overall assessment of Hemingway 's work Beegel has written : " Throughout his remarkable body of fiction , he tells the truth about human fear , guilt , betrayal , violence , cruelty , drunkenness , hunger , greed , apathy , ecstasy , tenderness , love and lust . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
Hemingway 's legacy to American literature is his style : writers who came after him emulated it or avoided it . After his reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also Rises , he became the spokesperson for the post – World War I generation , having established a style to follow . His books were burned in Berlin in 1933 , " as being a monument of modern decadence " , and disavowed by his parents as " filth " . Reynolds asserts the legacy is that " [ Hemingway ] left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage . "
Benson believes the details of Hemingway 's life have become a " prime vehicle for exploitation " , resulting in a Hemingway industry . Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the " hard boiled style " and the machismo must be separated from the author himself . Benson agrees , describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger , although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio . In fact , during World War II , Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway , whom he acknowledged as an influence . In a letter to Hemingway , Salinger claimed their talks " had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war " and jokingly " named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs . "
The extent of Hemingway 's influence is seen in the tributes and echoes of his fiction in popular culture . A minor planet , discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh , was named for him ( 3656 Hemingway ) ; Ray Bradbury wrote The Kilimanjaro Device , with Hemingway transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro ; the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway , about the friendship of two retired men , Irish and Cuban , in a seaside town in Florida , starred Robert Duvall , Richard Harris , Shirley MacLaine , Sandra Bullock , and Piper Laurie . The influence is evident with the many restaurants named " Hemingway " ; and the proliferation of bars called " Harry 's " ( a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees ) . A line of Hemingway furniture , promoted by Hemingway 's son Jack ( Bumby ) , has pieces such as the " Kilimanjaro " bedside table , and a " Catherine " slip @-@ covered sofa . Montblanc offers a Hemingway fountain pen , and a line of Hemingway safari clothes has been created . The International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created in 1977 to publicly acknowledge his influence and the comically misplaced efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style . Entrants are encouraged to submit one " really good page of really bad Hemingway " and winners are flown to Italy to Harry 's Bar .
In 1965 , Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation and in the 1970s she donated her husband 's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library . In 1980 , a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers , subsequently forming the Hemingway Society , " committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship . "
Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway 's death , on July 1 , 1996 , his granddaughter Margaux Hemingway died in Santa Monica , California . Margaux was a supermodel and actress , co @-@ starring with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick . Her death was later ruled a suicide , making her " the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide . "
= = Selected list of works = =
" Indian Camp " ( 1924 )
The Sun Also Rises ( 1926 )
A Farewell to Arms ( 1929 )
Death in the Afternoon ( 1932 )
Green Hills of Africa ( 1935 )
For Whom the Bell Tolls ( 1940 )
The Old Man and the Sea ( 1951 )
= Great Stink =
The Great Stink was an event in central London in July and August 1858 during which the hot weather exacerbated the smell of untreated human waste and industrial effluent that was present on the banks of the River Thames . The problem had been mounting for some years , with an ageing and inadequate sewer system that emptied directly into the Thames . The miasma from the effluent was thought to transmit contagious diseases , and three outbreaks of cholera prior to the Great Stink were blamed on the ongoing problems with the river .
The smell , and people 's fears of its possible effects , prompted action from the local and national administrators who had been considering possible solutions for the problem . The authorities accepted a proposal from the civil engineer Joseph Bazalgette to move the effluent eastwards along a series of interconnecting sewers that sloped towards outfalls beyond the metropolitan area . Work on high- , mid- and low @-@ level systems for the new Northern and Southern Outfall Sewers started at the beginning of 1859 and lasted until 1875 . To aid the drainage , pumping stations were placed to lift the sewage from lower levels into higher pipes . Two of the more ornate stations , Abbey Mills in Stratford and Crossness on the Erith Marshes , are listed for protection by English Heritage . Bazalgette 's plan introduced the three embankments to London in which the sewers ran — the Victoria , Chelsea and Albert Embankments .
Bazalgette 's work ensured that sewage was no longer dumped onto the shores of the Thames and brought an end to the cholera outbreaks ; his actions probably saved more lives than any other Victorian official . His sewer system operates into the 21st century , servicing a city that has grown to over eight million . The historian Peter Ackroyd argues that Bazalgette should be considered a hero of London .
= = Background = =
Brick sewers had been built in London from the 17th century when sections of the Fleet and Walbrook rivers were covered for that purpose . In the century preceding 1856 , over a hundred sewers were constructed in London , and at that date the city had around 200 @,@ 000 cesspits and 360 sewers . Some cesspits leaked methane and other gases , which often caught fire and exploded , leading to loss of life , while many of the sewers were in a poor state of repair . During the early 19th century improvements had been undertaken in the supply of water to Londoners , and by 1858 many of the city 's medieval wooden water pipes were being replaced with iron ones . This , combined with the introduction of flushing toilets and the rising of the city 's population from just under one million to three million , led to more water being flushed into the sewers , along with the associated effluent . The outfalls from factories , slaughterhouses and other industrial activities put further strain on the already failing system . Much of this outflow either overflowed , or was discharged directly , into the Thames .
The scientist Michael Faraday described the situation in a letter to The Times in July 1855 : shocked at the state of the Thames , he dropped pieces of white paper into the river to " test the degree of opacity " . His conclusion was that " Near the bridges the feculence rolled up in clouds so dense that they were visible at the surface , even in water of this kind . ... The smell was very bad , and common to the whole of the water ; it was the same as that which now comes up from the gully @-@ holes in the streets ; the whole river was for the time a real sewer . " The smell from the river was so bad that in 1857 the government poured chalk lime , chloride of lime and carbolic acid into the waterway to ease the stench .
The prevailing thought in Victorian healthcare concerning the transmission of contagious diseases was the miasma theory , which held that most communicable diseases were caused by the inhalation of contaminated air . This contamination could take the form of the odour of rotting corpses or sewage , but also rotting vegetation , or the exhaled breath of someone already diseased . Miasma was believed by most to be the vector of transmission of cholera , which was on the rise in 19th @-@ century Europe . The disease was deeply feared by all , because of the speed with which it could spread , and its high fatality rates .
London 's first major cholera epidemic struck in 1831 , when the disease claimed 6 @,@ 536 victims . In 1848 – 49 there was a second outbreak in which 14 @,@ 137 London residents died , and this was followed by a further outbreak in 1853 – 54 in which 10 @,@ 738 died . During the second outbreak , John Snow , a London @-@ based physician , noticed that the rates of death were higher in those areas supplied by the Lambeth and the Southwark and Vauxhall water companies . In 1849 he published a paper , On the Mode of Communication of Cholera , which posited the theory of the water @-@ borne transmission of disease , rather than the miasma theory ; little attention was paid to the paper . Following the third cholera outbreak in 1854 , Snow published an update to his treatise , after he focused on the effects in Broad Street , Soho . Snow had removed the handle from the local water pump , thus preventing access to the contaminated water , with a resulting fall in deaths . It was later established that the well from which the water was drawn had a leaking sewer running nearby .
= = Local government = =
The civic infrastructure overseeing the management of London 's sewers had gone through several changes in the 19th century . In 1848 the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers ( MCS ) was established at the urging of the social reformer Edwin Chadwick and a Royal Commission . The Commission superseded seven of the eight authorities that had managed London 's sewers since the time of Henry VIII ; it was the first time that a unitary power had full control over the capital 's sanitation facilities . The Building Act 1844 had ensured that all new buildings had to be connected to a sewer , not a cesspool , and the commission set about connecting cesspools to sewers , or removing them altogether . Because of the fear that the miasma from the sewers would cause the spread of disease , Chadwick and his successor , the pathologist John Simon , ensured that the sewers were regularly flushed through , a policy that resulted in more sewage being discharged into the Thames .
In August 1849 the MCS appointed Joseph Bazalgette to the position of assistant surveyor . He had been working as a consultant engineer in the railway industry until overwork had brought about a serious breakdown in his health ; his appointment to the commission was his first position on his return to employment . Working under the Chief Engineer , Frank Foster , he began to develop a more systematic plan for the city 's sewers . The stress of his position was too much for Foster , and he died in 1852 ; Bazalgette was promoted into his position , and continued refining and developing the plans for the development of the sewerage system . The Metropolis Management Act 1855 replaced the commission with the Metropolitan Board of Works ( MBW ) , which took control of the sewers .
By June 1856 Bazalgette completed his definitive plans , which provided for small , local sewers about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in diameter to feed into a series of larger sewers until they drained into main outflow pipes 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high . A Northern and Southern Outfall Sewer were planned to manage the waste for each side of the river . London was mapped into high- , middle- and low @-@ level areas , with a main sewer servicing each ; a series of pumping stations was planned to remove the waste towards the east of the city . Bazalgette 's plan was based on that of Foster , but was larger in scale , and allowed for more of a rise in population than Foster 's – from 3 to 4 @.@ 5 million . Bazalgette submitted his plans to Sir Benjamin Hall , the First Commissioner of Works . Hall had reservations about the outfalls — the discharge points of waste outlets into other bodies of water — from the sewers , which he said were still within the bounds of the capital , and were therefore unacceptable . During the ongoing discussions Bazalgette refined and modified his plans , in line with Hall 's demands . In December 1856 Hall submitted the plans to a group of three consultant engineers , Captain Douglas Strutt Galton of the Royal Engineers , James Simpson , an engineer with two water companies , and Thomas Blackwood , the chief engineer on the Kennet and Avon Canal . The trio reported back to Hall in July 1857 with proposed changes to the positions of the outfall , which he passed on to the MBW in October . The new proposed discharge points were to be open sewers , running 15 miles ( 24 km ) beyond the positions proposed by the Board ; the cost of their plans was to be over £ 5 @.@ 4 million , considerably more than the maximum estimate of Bazalgette 's plan , which was £ 2 @.@ 4 million . In February 1858 a general election saw the fall of Lord Palmerston 's first government , which was replaced by Lord Derby 's second ministry ; Lord John Manners replaced Hall , and Benjamin Disraeli was appointed Leader of the House of Commons and Chancellor of the Exchequer .
= = June to August 1858 = =
By mid @-@ 1858 the problems with the Thames had been building for several years . In his novel Little Dorrit — published as a serial between 1855 and 1857 — Charles Dickens wrote that the Thames was " a deadly sewer ... in the place of a fine , fresh river " . In a letter to a friend , Dickens said : " I can certify that the offensive smells , even in that short whiff , have been of a most head @-@ and @-@ stomach @-@ distending nature " , while the social scientist and journalist George Godwin wrote that " in parts the deposit is more than six feet deep " on the Thames foreshore , and that " the whole of this is thickly impregnated with impure matter " . In June 1858 the temperatures in the shade in London averaged in the mid @-@ 30s ° C ( 93 – 97 ° F ) — rising to 48 ° C ( 118 ° F ) in the sun . Combined with an extended spell of dry weather , the level of the Thames dropped and raw effluent from the sewers remained on the banks of the river . Queen Victoria and Prince Albert attempted to take a pleasure cruise on the Thames , but returned to shore within a few minutes because the smell was so terrible . The press soon began calling the event " The Great Stink " ; the leading article in the City Press observed that " Gentility of speech is
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Trisha MacMillan ( who has styled herself " Trillian " ) and a depressed robot called Marvin . Beeblebrox is searching for the mythical planet of Magrathea and the answer to the " Ultimate Question of Life , the Universe and Everything " , which it turns out is " 42 " . Dent and the others later find themselves at The Restaurant at the End of the Universe and ultimately held captive aboard a Golgafrincham ship which is just about to crash @-@ land on Prehistoric Earth .
In series two , Zaphod , wanted for stealing the Heart of Gold amongst other misdemeanors , is attempting to contact the editor of The Guide while escaping mercenaries from Frogstar , " the most totally evil place in the Galaxy " . Arthur and Ford are eventually rescued after being stranded on prehistoric Earth for years and eventually reunited aboard the Heart of Gold , where they are pursued by Vogons . Finding themselves on the planet of Brontitall , populated by a race of bird @-@ people , they hear about the rudest word in the universe and the Shoe Event Horizon . Escaping from this planet using a 900 @-@ year @-@ old spaceship , the three eventually find themselves in the offices of the Guide editor , Zarniwoop , and we discover that it was Zaphod who accidentally signed off the Earth for destruction .
= = = Production = = =
One of Adams 's stated goals was to be experimental in the use of sound . Being a fan of Pink Floyd and The Beatles ( and especially the experimental concept albums both bands produced in the late 1960s and early 1970s ) , Adams wanted the programme to have the feel of a " rock album ... to convey the idea that you actually were on a spaceship or an alien planet — that sense of a huge aural landscape " .
The first series was therefore the first BBC radio comedy to use stereophonic techniques . Adams later said that before Hitchhiker 's , stereo was deemed impossible for radio comedy and after it was made compulsory . Producer Geoffrey Perkins recalled that the technology available in 1978 for mixing sound effects at the BBC 's Paris Theatre radio studio was limited . The production had one eight track tape recorder at their disposal and so many of the effects in the programme were mixed " live " with tape loops of background sound effects strung around the recording studio . Actors whose speech needed to be modified in post @-@ production by Radiophonic technicians , such as Stephen Moore 's performance as Marvin the Android , were recorded in isolation from the main " humanoid " characters . Allegedly , Moore recorded most of his performance in a cupboard and met the other actors only after the first session was complete .
Sound and effects were created by Paddy Kingsland , Dick Mills and Harry Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . Several of the sound effects recorded by Dick Mills for the first series were released on the album BBC Sound Effects No. 26 - Sci @-@ Fi Sound Effects . Other BBC staff members who worked on the first two radio series included Alick Hale @-@ Munro ( chief sound engineer ) and Anne Ling ( production secretary ) and the " Technical Team " is given as : Paul Hawdon , Lisa Braun ( studio manager ) , Colin Duff ( studio manager ) , Eric Young , Martha Knight , Max Alcock and John Whitehall .
The first radio series ( first six episodes ) was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in March and April , 1978 . A seventh episode was broadcast on 24 December 1978 . This seventh episode was commonly known as the Christmas Episode . This had nothing to do with Christmas except in an early draft ( which would have had Marvin the Paranoid Android as the " star " that was followed by the Three Wise Men ) ; it was called the Christmas Episode because it was first broadcast on Christmas Eve .
Production on the second series was delayed several times . While Adams was meant to be working on scripts for a stage adaptation of Hitchhiker 's in April 1979 , he was also employed as the Script Editor for Doctor Who and turned down an offer from John Lloyd to submit material for Not the Nine O 'Clock News . The recording on the first day scheduled for the second radio series , 19 May 1979 , was left incomplete because Adams had not yet finished the script . Further scheduled recordings on 11 July and 1 August of that year were also cancelled , this time due in part to Adams trying to work on the LP re @-@ recordings of the first series , as well as its novelisation .
Further recording attempts were made on 23 October and 3 December . The recording of the final episode in the second series was completed on 13 January 1980 : the audio mixing of the episode was not finished until 25 January , the day it was transmitted . The tape " arrived just a few minutes before transmission " . The final five episodes , completing the second radio series , were broadcast in January 1980 .
= = = Music = = =
The theme tune used for the radio series ( and all subsequent adaptations ) is " Journey of the Sorcerer " , an instrumental piece composed by Bernie Leadon and recorded by The Eagles on their album One of These Nights . Adams chose this song for its futuristic @-@ sounding nature , but also for the fact that it had a banjo in it , which , as Geoffrey Perkins recalls , Adams said would give it an " on the road , hitch @-@ hiking feel " .
Adams also wanted to incorporate music from a variety of pop , rock and classical artists . Series one ( " The Primary Phase " ) included an eclectic range of modern classical , experimental rock and electronic music . The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy : The Original Radio Scripts lists works including A Modern Mass for the Dead ( Requiem ) by György Ligeti , A Rainbow in Curved Air by Terry Riley , Volumina by György Ligeti , Wind on Water by Robert Fripp and Brian Eno , Poppy Nogood and the Phantom Band by Terry Riley , Cachaca by Patrick Moraz , Shine On You Crazy Diamond ( intro ) by Pink Floyd , Rock and Roll Music by The Beatles , Also sprach Zarathustra ( intro ) by Richard Strauss , Katakomben by Gruppe Between , Space Theme by Stomu Yamashta , Oxygène by Jean Michel Jarre , That 's Entertainment by Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz , Over Fire Island by Eno ( with Fripp ) , Miracles of the Gods by Absolute Elsewhere , Mikrophoniet by Karlheinz Stockhausen , Melodien by György Ligeti , The Engulfed Cathedral by Isao Tomita , Volkstanz by Gruppe Between and What a Wonderful World by Louis Armstrong .
This diverse range of music was only featured during the first series due to the difficulty in obtaining rights for commercial releases ( leading to episodes of the first series being remade as an LP album without the proprietary background music in 1979 ) . For series two Paddy Kingsland was commissioned to provide background music and for the third to fifth series Paul ' Wix ' Wickens was chosen .
= = = International broadcasts and repeats = = =
The series was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 at 10.30pm on Wednesday 8 March 1978 . Simon Jones recalled that Adams was initially disappointed at the scheduling as the timeslot was allegedly guaranteed to turn a programme into a " cult " ( i.e. a small but dedicated listenership ) . As it happened , the programme gained listeners through the lack of any competition elsewhere on television or radio , but primarily through word of mouth ; several Sunday newspapers included reviews and it was mentioned in Radio 4 's Pick of the Week . As a result of its exposure through these reviews , the BBC received numerous requests for a repeat from people who had missed the initial episodes . A repeat of the series was broadcast on 23 April , only two weeks after the last episode had aired .
In the end , the complete first series was rebroadcast twice by the BBC in 1978 and once in 1979 , as well as on the BBC World Service . The complete second series was rebroadcast once in 1980 , and the complete original run of 12 episodes was broadcast twice over a twelve @-@ week period , once from April to June 1981 and the second time from the end of March to the start of June , 1983 .
Broadcasting by National Public Radio in the United States followed in March 1981 with a repeat broadcast in September . This was one of their first transmissions in stereo . The following year , 1982 , the series was carried by CBC Radio ( Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ) . A German radio version of the first six radio episodes , Per Anhalter ins All was transmitted in 1981 and the twelve original radio episodes have been translated and transmitted in Finland , France , The Netherlands and Sweden .
All of the episodes , including those completed after Adams 's death , are referred to as " Fits " after Lewis Carroll 's " The Hunting of the Snark : an Agony in Eight Fits " . In 1981 , upon a rebroadcast of the twelve episodes of the first two series , it was decided that the Christmas episode , which previously had no episode number , would be called " Fit the Seventh " and the episodes in the second series , which had first been billed as Fit the First to Fit the Fifth ( representing five parts of the second series ) would become Fit the Eighth to Fit the Twelfth .
= = Reception and awards = =
The first series was noted for its unusual concept , out @-@ of @-@ context parodies , " semantic and philosophical jokes " , compressed prose and " groundbreaking deployment of sound effects and voice techniques " .
The programme was a hit with listeners , although a BBC World Service listener in India allegedly " strongly objected to ' Robots taking part in a comedy show ' " and another in Sierra Leone thought that " as a source of information it is misleading " . One listener complained to the Radio Times that " In just about 50 years of radio and latterly TV listening and watching , this strikes me as the most fatuous , inane , childish , pointless , codswallopping drivel ... It is not even remotely funny " .
BBC Radio 3 's Critics Forum thought the show had " the sort of effect that a Monty Python programme actually has , of making everything that appears immediately after it on radio or television or whatever , seem absolutely ludicrous " . By the time the sixth episode was broadcast , the show had become a cult hit .
The success of the series encouraged Adams to adapt it into a novel , which was based on the first four Fits and released in the second week of October 1979 . While the second radio series was being recorded in 1979 , Adams was commissioned to deliver a pilot script for a television adaptation , which , after a number of delays , was delivered by 1981 . The storyline set out by the initial radio series has since appeared in numerous formats including a 1984 video game and a 2005 feature film .
The original series was the recipient of a number of awards including the Imperial Tobacco Award ( 1978 ) , The Sony Award ( 1979 ) , The Society of Authors / Pye Awards ' Best Programme for Young People ' ( 1980 ) and the Mark Time Awards ' Grand Master Award ' ( Adams ) and ' Hall of Fame ' ( 1998 ) . It was the only radio show ever to be nominated for the Hugo science fiction awards , in 1979 , in the ' Best Dramatic Presentation ' category . As a result of the series , Douglas Adams was inducted into the Radio Academy 's Hall of Fame .
= = Third , fourth and fifth radio series = =
= = = Announcement = = =
In November 2003 , two years after Adams 's death and 23 years after the production on the Secondary Phase had ceased , a new radio adaptation of Adams ' unadapted novel Life , the Universe and Everything was announced . This would become the third series of the Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy on radio . Dirk Maggs , a friend of Adams , was chosen to create , direct and co @-@ produce the adaptations . Maggs had previously consulted with Adams on potential radio adaptations for the final three books in 1993 and 1997 . The project was restarted in September 2001 by Maggs , Helen Chattwell and Bruce Hyman , with help from Jane Belson and Ed Victor .
At the time of the announcement , it was stated that the original goal was to transmit the six part adaptation of the third novel starting in February 2004 , with the remaining eight episodes comprising the final two novels . A fourth and fifth series based on So Long , and Thanks For All the Fish and Mostly Harmless were to have been transmitted in September 2004 .
However , soon after the six episodes comprising the third series had been recorded by Above the Title Productions , a minor legal dispute over the online availability of episodes arose between the production company and The Walt Disney Company , which had started production on the Hitchhiker 's movie , also in 2003 . This led to a delay in transmitting the third series and an immediate cessation in the production of series four and five . Eventually a deal was worked out , and the Tertiary Phase was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 21 September 2004 .
= = = Adaptation = = =
Maggs stated in the series ' script book that he felt bound by his promise to Douglas Adams to allow the scripts of the Tertiary Phase to closely follow the plot of the third book ; " I myself was willing to give the Tertiary Phase 7 out of 10 on the grounds that I was a little too reverential to the text and the pace suffered as a result . " But in adapting the final two novels , the only instructions Maggs got from Adams was " They don 't need more than four episodes each . " Thus Maggs was able to use many of the major plot elements of the final two books ( though not necessarily in the same order ) , and attempt to reconnect plot threads from all five radio series .
The new episodes reunited most of the living original cast . The parts of The Book , Eddie the Computer and Slartibartfast were recast to replace actors now deceased , with William Franklyn , Roger Gregg and Richard Griffiths taking over these three roles , respectively . Peter Jones , the original narrator , had died in 2000 ; Richard Vernon , the original Slartibartfast , had died in 1997 ; and David Tate , who had voiced Eddie the Computer ( among many other roles ) , had died in 1996 .
Bill Wallis , who played Mr. Prosser and Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz in the original series , was unavailable , and Toby Longworth took the role of Jeltz in the new series . John Marsh , who had been the continuity announcer for Fits Two to Twelve , was rehired to reprise this role . There was also a posthumous cameo role by Adams as Agrajag , edited from his BBC audiobook recording of the novel .
= = = Plot = = =
In series 3 , after the events of series 2 are revealed to be a hallucination , Arthur Dent and Ford Prefect find themselves again stuck on prehistoric Earth . After being rescued , they find themselves transported to Lord 's Cricket Ground just before it is destroyed by 11 white robots . Slartibartfast teaches Dent how cricket is based on the history of the worst wars in the galaxy , and the pair travel to Krikkit in order to prevent another war . In the final part , Dent and Trillian meet the computer behind the Supernova Bomb and there is another attempt to find the Ultimate Question to Life , the Universe and Everything .
In the fourth series , Dent discovers that Earth has been recreated again and meets Fenchurch , the woman of his dreams . Meanwhile , a spaceship lands in Knightsbridge , God 's Last Message to his Creation is discovered , and Marvin makes his last appearance . In the fifth series , a tenth planet in the solar system is discovered and Ford discovers that The Guide has become a much more sinister place to work . Arthur Dent discovers that he is a father and his new daughter , Random , flies to Earth to meet him . There are three potential endings to the series .
= = = Broadcast = = =
The third series ran on BBC Radio 4 from Tuesday 21 September to 26 October 2004 , with repeats on the following Thursdays . The series was also streamed in RealPlayer and Windows Media formats ( including versions in a 5 @.@ 1 surround mix ) were made available on Radio 4 's website until the following Thursday . In another continuity nod , the term " Fit " is still used in place of " episode " ; episodes of the third series were subtitled Fits the Thirteenth to Eighteenth .
The six @-@ part " Tertiary Phase " was broadcast in September and October 2004 . The four @-@ part " Quandary Phase " was broadcast in May 2005 , and the four @-@ part " Quintessential Phase " was broadcast immediately following , in May and June 2005 . The names for these series were chosen because they sound " less daunting , more memorable and are a bit easier to spell " than the standard terms quaternary and quinary .
= = Media releases = =
The first two series were first released on audio cassette and CD in 1988 , marking the tenth anniversary of the first broadcast of the first episode . These were the first programmes of any kind released on CD by the BBC Radio Collection . The two radio series were known simply as " the first series " and " the second series " until 1992 when the BBC made its first re @-@ release in separate boxes as " The Primary Phase " and " The Secondary Phase " . The episodes were released with those titles in 1993 , and again in 1998 , for the series ' twentieth anniversary . In 2001 , they became the first programmes of any kind re @-@ released by the BBC Radio Collection in an MP3 @-@ CD format .
A 3 @-@ CD set of the Tertiary Phase was released in mid @-@ October 2004 , before the final episodes were broadcast . These CDs contain extended material , previously cut to make 27 @-@ minute episodes for radio . A 2 @-@ CD set of the Quandary Phase was released at the end of May 2005 , and a 2 @-@ CD set of the Quintessential Phase was released at the end of June 2005 . Both sets again include material that was originally cut for reasons of timing .
A script book for the final fourteen episodes was released in July 2005 . The book is entitled The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy Radio Scripts : The Tertiary , Quandary and Quintessential Phases . Dirk Maggs writes in his introduction that the " book is a companion volume to The Original Radio Scripts .... "
A box set entitled The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy : The Complete Radio Series was released on 3 October 2005 . It contains fifteen CDs , subdivided per radio series , and bonus material exclusive to the box set . BBC Audio released a DVD version of the Tertiary Phase , featuring that series in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound , in October 2006 . Contrary to previous announcements , this was merely a DVD @-@ Video disc with Dolby Digital sound and other features , rather than a DVD @-@ Audio disc . While it had been stated that BBC Audio plans on also releasing the fourth and fifth radio series on DVD , no dates have been set .
= = = Special editions = = =
Special editions of the Primary and Secondary Phases were released in November 2008 . These have , according to the BBC , been given " a thorough clean @-@ up and remaster " by Dirk Maggs . This includes using the new Philip Pope signature tune , so the material can be released worldwide , which has required John Marsh to re @-@ record his announcements so they could be mixed in . Cleaning up the recordings aims to reduce the hiss produced by the overdubbing in the original and also re @-@ levelling the episodes to produce a greater clarity in the sound .
According to the inlay which comes with the Special Edition , all previous CD editions of the Primary & Secondary Phases played back slightly fast due to capstan wear on the mastering tape machine , with the result that the audio was pitch @-@ shifted up by half a semitone . That was corrected for the special editions and has the effect of making the episodes nearly a minute longer .
= = = Commercial rights issues = = =
A number of scenes from Fit the Third were cut from commercially released recordings of the radio series because they featured copyrighted music . For example , in one scene Marvin " hums " like Pink Floyd , using the opening to " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " , then " sings " " Rock and Roll Music " by The Beatles , and finally the theme music from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , the opening " Sunrise " movement from Richard Strauss 's Also sprach Zarathustra . It would have been very cost prohibitive in the 1980s to get clearances to release a recording of Fit the Third with this music , though agreements were reached on most of the rest of the copyrighted music used during the first series . As a result , all commercial recordings of Fit the Third are about two minutes shorter than other episodes . Recordings of the original radio broadcasts still contain it .
For the CD and cassette releases of the Tertiary Phase in the United States , and all CD and cassette releases of the Quandary and Quintessential Phases , the instrumental title theme , " Journey of the Sorcerer , " composed by Bernie Leadon and originally recorded by US rock band the Eagles , was re @-@ interpreted by The Illegal Eagles , a tribute band , using an arrangement by Philip Pope . This was done for licensing reasons ( though the original track was used for the original radio transmissions and the on @-@ demand downloads ) . In a 2005 interview with Simon Jones , the use of this song was mentioned as a major cause for the delay in releasing recordings of the new series in the United States .
= = Live tours = =
In June and July 2012 The Hitchhiker 's Guide To The Galaxy Radio Show embarked on a live tour of the UK , directed by Dirk Maggs and starring the original radio cast recreating their roles : Simon Jones as Arthur Dent , Geoffrey McGivern as Ford Prefect , Susan Sheridan as Trillian , Mark Wing @-@ Davey as Zaphod Beeblebrox , the voice of Stephen Moore as Marvin The Paranoid Android ( Moore being unavailable to perform in person , as he was touring with Cameron Mackintosh 's production of Oliver ! )
Actors from the Tertiary to Quintessential Phases who appeared were Toby Longworth ( Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz ) , Samantha Béart ( Random Dent ) , Andy Secombe ( Colin the Security Robot ) , Philip Pope ( Krikkit song ) and a recording of the voice of Douglas Adams as Agrajag .
The production featured a series of " VIP guests " as the voice of The Book including Billy Boyd , Phill Jupitus , Rory McGrath , Roger McGough , Jon Culshaw , Christopher Timothy , Andrew Sachs , John Challis , Hugh Dennis , John Lloyd , Terry Jones and Neil Gaiman .
This production was based on the first four Fits in the first act , with the second act covering material from the rest of the series . The show also featured a band , who performed the songs Share and Enjoy , the Krikkit song Under the Ink Black Sky , Marvin 's song How I Hate The Night , and Marvin , which was a minor hit in 1981 .
Each performance was recorded and was available for download for seven days after each show .
The tour started on 8 June 2012 at the Theatre Royal , Glasgow and continued through the summer until 21 July when the final performance was at Playhouse Theatre , Edinburgh .
The production started touring again in September 2013 , and had been due to visit 49 towns and cities across England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . The main cast was the same as the 2012 tour , with the exception of Zaphod , who was played by Mitch Benn . In October the remaining dates of the tour were cancelled due to poor ticket sales .
= Solar eclipse =
As seen from the Earth , a solar eclipse is a type of eclipse that occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth , and the Moon fully or partially blocks ( " occults " ) the Sun . This can happen only at new moon , when the Sun and the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth in an alignment referred to as syzygy . In a total eclipse , the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon . In partial and annular eclipses , only part of the Sun is obscured .
If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit , a little closer to the Earth , and in the same orbital plane , there would be total solar eclipses every month . However , the Moon 's orbit is inclined ( tilted ) at more than 5 degrees to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun ( see ecliptic ) , so its shadow at new moon usually misses Earth . Earth 's orbit is called the ecliptic plane as the Moon 's orbit must cross this plane in order for an eclipse ( both solar as well as lunar ) to occur . In addition , the Moon 's actual orbit is elliptical , often taking it far enough away from Earth that its apparent size is not large enough to block the Sun totally . The orbital planes cross each other at a line of nodes resulting in at least two , and up to five , solar eclipses occurring each year ; no more than two of which can be total eclipses . However , total solar eclipses are rare at any particular location because totality exists only along a narrow path on the Earth 's surface traced by the Moon 's shadow or umbra .
An eclipse is a natural phenomenon . Nevertheless , in some ancient and modern cultures , solar eclipses have been attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens . A total solar eclipse can be frightening to people who are unaware of its astronomical explanation , as the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky darkens in a matter of minutes .
Since looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage or blindness , special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse . It is technically safe to view only the total phase of a total solar eclipse with the unaided eye and without protection ; however , this is a dangerous practice , as most people are not trained to recognize the phases of an eclipse , which can span over two hours while the total phase can only last up to 7 @.@ 5 minutes for any one location . People referred to as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles will travel to remote locations to observe or witness predicted central solar eclipses .
For the date of the next eclipse see the section Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses .
= = Types = =
There are four types of solar eclipses :
A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the intensely bright light of the Sun , allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible . During any one eclipse , totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth .
An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line , but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun . Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring , or annulus , surrounding the dark disk of the Moon .
A hybrid eclipse ( also called annular / total eclipse ) shifts between a total and annular eclipse . At certain points on the surface of Earth it appears as a total eclipse , whereas at other points it appears as annular . Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare .
A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun . This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse . However , some eclipses can only be seen as a partial eclipse , because the umbra passes above the Earth 's polar regions and never intersects the Earth 's surface . Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable , as it takes well over 90 % coverage to notice any darkening at all . Even at 99 % it would be no darker than civil twilight .
The Sun 's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon 's distance , and the Sun 's diameter is about 400 times the Moon 's diameter . Because these ratios are approximately the same , the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size : about 0 @.@ 5 degree of arc in angular measure .
A separate category of solar eclipses is that of the Sun being occluded by a body other than the Earth 's moon , as can be observed at points in space away from the Earth 's surface . Two examples are when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the Earth eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the Cassini probe observed Saturn eclipsing the Sun in 2006 .
The Moon 's orbit around the Earth is an ellipse , as is the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary . The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse . An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth ( i.e. , near its perigee ) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun 's bright disk , or photosphere ; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than 1 . Conversely , an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth ( i.e. , near its apogee ) can only be an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun ; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1 . Slightly more solar eclipses are annular than total because , on average , the Moon lies too far from Earth to cover the Sun completely . A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one , so the eclipse appears to be total at some locations on Earth and annular at other locations .
Because the Earth 's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical , the Earth 's distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year . This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way , but not as much as does the Moon 's varying distance from Earth . When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in July , a total eclipse is somewhat more likely , whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in January .
= = = Terminology for central eclipse = = =
Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total , annular , or hybrid eclipse . This is , however , not completely correct : the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches the Earth 's surface . It is possible , though extremely rare , that part of the umbra intersects with the Earth ( thus creating an annular or total eclipse ) , but not its central line . This is then called a non @-@ central total or annular eclipse . The last non @-@ central solar eclipse was on April 29 , 2014 . This was an annular eclipse . The next non @-@ central total solar eclipse will be on April 9 , 2043 .
The phases observed during a total eclipse are called :
First contact — when the Moon 's limb ( edge ) is exactly tangential to the Sun 's limb .
Second contact — starting with Baily 's Beads ( caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon 's surface ) and the diamond ring effect . Almost the entire disk is covered .
Totality — the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible .
Third contact — when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon 's shadow is moving away from the observer . Again a diamond ring may be observed .
Fourth contact — when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse ends .
= = Predictions = =
= = = Geometry = = =
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun , Moon and Earth during a solar eclipse . The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra , where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon . The small area where the umbra touches Earth 's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen . The larger light gray area is the penumbra , in which a partial eclipse can be seen . An observer in the antumbra , the area of shadow beyond the umbra , will see an annular eclipse .
The Moon 's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun ( the ecliptic ) . Because of this , at the time of a new moon , the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun . A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points ( known as nodes ) where the Moon 's orbit crosses the ecliptic .
As noted above , the Moon 's orbit is also elliptical . The Moon 's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6 % from its average value . Therefore , the Moon 's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth , and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses . The distance of the Earth from the Sun also varies during the year , but this is a smaller effect . On average , the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun as seen from the Earth , so the majority ( about 60 % ) of central eclipses are annular . It is only when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average ( near its perigee ) that a total eclipse occurs .
The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27 @.@ 3 days , relative to a fixed frame of reference . This is known as the sidereal month . However , during one sidereal month , Earth has revolved part way around the Sun , making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month : it is approximately 29 @.@ 5 days . This is known as the synodic month , and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month .
The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node , and vice versa at its descending node . However , the nodes of the Moon 's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion , due to the action of the Sun 's gravity on the Moon 's motion , and they make a complete circuit every 18 @.@ 6 years . This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month . This period is called the nodical or draconic month .
Finally , the Moon 's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit , and makes a complete circuit in 8 @.@ 85 years . The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month .
The Moon 's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart . Therefore , the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months ( 173 @.@ 3 days ) apart , known as eclipse seasons , and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods . Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses . This means that , in any given year , there will always be at least two solar eclipses , and there can be as many as five .
Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node , ( 10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses ) . This is referred to as an eclipse limit . In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node ( draconic month ) , the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees , relative to the nodes . Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees ( 24 degrees for central eclipses ) , it is possible for partial eclipses ( or rarely a partial and a central eclipse ) to occur in consecutive months .
= = = Path = = =
During a central eclipse , the Moon 's umbra ( or antumbra , in the case of an annular eclipse ) moves rapidly from west to east across the Earth . The Earth is also rotating from west to east , at about 28 km / min at the Equator , but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as the Earth 's spin at about 61 km / min , the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west @-@ east direction across a map of the Earth at the speed of the Moon 's orbital velocity minus the Earth 's rotational velocity .
The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon . In the most favourable circumstances , when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee , the track can be up to 267 km ( 166 mi ) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes . Outside of the central track , a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of the Earth . Typically , the umbra is 100 – 160 km wide , while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km .
= = = Duration = = =
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse ( in order of decreasing importance ) :
The moon being almost exactly at perigee ( making its angular diameter as large as possible ) .
The earth being very near aphelion ( furthest away from the sun in its elliptical orbit , making its angular diameter nearly as small as possible ) .
The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to the earth 's equator , where the orbital velocity is greatest .
The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of the earth 's rotation ( i.e. not diagonal but due east ) .
The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point ( the part of the earth closest to the sun ) .
The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16 , 2186 ( with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 4 seconds over northern Guyana ) .
= = Occurrence and cycles = =
Total solar eclipses are rare events . Although they occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average , it is estimated that they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years , on average . The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location , because the Moon 's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km / h . Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s . This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing . By the 8th millennium , the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s . The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30 , 1973 ( 7 min 3 sec ) . Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon 's umbra . The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25 , 2150 . The longest total solar eclipse during the 11 @,@ 000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16 , 2186 , when totality will last 7 min 29 s . For comparison , the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20 , 1955 and there are no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century .
If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known , it is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles . The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate . A saros lasts 6 @,@ 585 @.@ 3 days ( a little over 18 years ) , which means that , after this period , a practically identical eclipse will occur . The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120 ° in longitude ( due to the 0 @.@ 3 days ) and a little in latitude ( north @-@ south for odd @-@ numbered cycles , the reverse for even @-@ numbered ones ) . A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth 's polar regions , then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses , and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region . A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses , with about 40 to 60 of them being central .
= = = Frequency per year = = =
Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year , with at least one per eclipse season . Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582 , years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693 , 1758 , 1805 , 1823 , 1870 , and 1935 . The next occurrence will be 2206 . On average , there are about 240 solar eclipses each century .
= = = Final totality = = =
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances . Even on Earth , eclipses of the type familiar to people today are a temporary ( on a geological time scale ) phenomenon . Hundreds of millions of years in the past , the Moon was too close to the Earth to precisely occlude the Sun as it does during eclipses today ; and over a billion years in the future , it will be too far away to do so .
Due to tidal acceleration , the orbit of the Moon around the Earth becomes about 2 @.@ 2 cm more distant each year . It is estimated that , in slightly less than 1 @.@ 4 billion years , the distance from the Earth to the Moon will have increased by 30 @,@ 400 km . During that period , the apparent angular diameter of the Moon will decrease in size , meaning that it will no longer be able to completely cover the Sun 's disk as seen from the Earth . This will be true even when the Moon is at perigee , and the Earth at aphelion . Moreover , the Sun is increasing in diameter by about 5 % per billion years . Therefore , the last total solar eclipse on Earth will occur about six hundred million years from now .
= = Historical eclipses = =
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians , in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely , from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced . A solar eclipse of June 15 , 763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the Chronology of the Ancient Orient . There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses . The King Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers , Hsi and Ho , who failed to predict an eclipse 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Perhaps the earliest still @-@ unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse , who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10 , 2807 BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse .
Eclipses have been interpreted as omens , or portents . The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians . Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse . The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain , although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities . One likely candidate took place on May 28 , 585 BC , probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor . An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece , which is traditionally dated to 480 BC , was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17 , 478 BC . Alternatively , a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2 , 480 BC . Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece . The date of the eclipse ( August 1 , 477 BC ) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians .
Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC . The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun . The " radiating influence " theory ( i.e. , the Moon 's light was reflection from the Sun ) was existent in Chinese thought from about the sixth century BC ( in the Zhi Ran of Zhi Ni Zi ) , though it was opposed by the 1st century AD philosopher Wang Chong , who made clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new . Ancient Greeks , such as Parmenides and Aristotle , also supported the theory of the Moon shining because of reflected light .
Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus 's crucifixion was a solar eclipse . This research has not yielded conclusive results , and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover , which is held at the time of a full moon . Further , the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth , or three hours , which is much , much longer than the eight @-@ minute upper limit for any solar eclipse 's totality . In the Western hemisphere , there are few reliable records of eclipses before 800 AD , until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period . The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in 968 AD .
The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706 . Nine years later , English astronomer Edmund Halley observed the solar eclipse of May 3 , 1715 . By the mid @-@ 19th century , scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun 's corona during solar eclipses . The corona was identified as part of the Sun 's atmosphere in 1842 , and the first photograph ( or daguerreotype ) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28 , 1851 . Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18 , 1868 , which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun .
= = Viewing = =
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun ( the bright disk of the Sun itself ) , even for just a few seconds , can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye , because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits . This damage can result in impairment of vision , up to and including blindness . The retina has no sensitivity to pain , and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours , so there is no warning that injury is occurring .
Under normal conditions , the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly . However , during an eclipse , with so much of the Sun covered , it is easier and more tempting to stare at it . Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse , except during the brief period of totality , when the Sun 's disk is completely covered ( totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly ; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse ) . Viewing the Sun 's disk through any kind of optical aid ( binoculars , a telescope , or even an optical camera viewfinder ) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second .
= = = Partial and annular eclipses = = =
Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses ( and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality ) requires special eye protection , or indirect viewing methods , if eye damage is to be avoided . The Sun 's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun 's radiation . Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe . Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun 's disk . Especially , self @-@ made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case , a Compact Disc , a black colour slide film , smoked glass , etc. must be avoided .
The safest way to view the Sun 's disk is by indirect projection . This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars ( with one of the lenses covered ) , a telescope , or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it ( about 1 mm diameter ) , often called a pinhole camera . The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed ; this technique can be used to observe sunspots , as well as eclipses . Care must be taken , however , to ensure that no one looks through the projector ( telescope , pinhole , etc . ) directly . Viewing the Sun 's disk on a video display screen ( provided by a video camera or digital camera ) is safe , although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun . The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe . Securely mounting # 14 welder 's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible . Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have . In the partial eclipse path , one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky , however , depending on how much of the Sun 's disk is obscured , some darkening may be noticeable . If three @-@ quarters or more of the sun is obscured , then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim , as if the sky were overcast , yet objects still cast sharp shadows .
= = = Totality = = =
When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small , Baily 's beads will occur . These are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach the Earth through lunar valleys . Totality then begins with the diamond ring effect , the last bright flash of sunlight .
It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun 's photosphere is completely covered by the Moon , and not before or after totality . During this period , the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters . The Sun 's faint corona will be visible , and the chromosphere , solar prominences , and possibly even a solar flare may be seen . At the end of totality , the same effects will occur in reverse order , and on the opposite side of the Moon .
= = = Photography = = =
Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment . In order for the disk of the Sun / Moon to be easily visible , a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed ( at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera ) , and for the disk to fill most of the frame , a longer lens is needed ( over 500 mm ) . As with viewing the Sun directly , looking at it through the viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina , so care is recommended .
= = Other observations = =
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona ( the outer layer of the Sun 's atmosphere ) . Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona . According to the point reached in the solar cycle , the corona may appear small and symmetric , or large and fuzzy . It is very hard to predict this in advance .
Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands ( also known as flying shadows ) , which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool . They only occur just prior to and after totality , when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source .
= = = 1919 observations = = =
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29 , 1919 helped to confirm Einstein 's theory of general relativity . By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus , with and without the Sun between them , Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed . The observation with the Sun between the stars was only possible during totality , since the stars are then visible . Though Eddington 's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time , work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results .
= = = Gravity anomalies = = =
There is a long history of observations of gravity @-@ related phenomena during solar eclipses , especially around totality . In 1954 , and again in 1959 , Maurice Allais reported observations of strange and unexplained movement during solar eclipses . This phenomenon is now called the Allais effect . Similarly , in 1970 , Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum ; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect .
A recent published observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect , which generated debate . Later in 2002 , Yang and Wang published detailed data analysis , which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained .
= = = Eclipses and transits = = =
In principle , the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible . But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations . The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5 , 6757 , and a Solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5 , 15232 .
More common , but still infrequent , is a conjunction of a planet ( especially , but not only , Mercury or Venus ) at the time of a total solar eclipse , in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun , when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun 's glare . At one time , some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet ( often given the name Vulcan ) even closer to the Sun than Mercury ; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse . No such planet was ever found , and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist .
= = = Earthshine = = =
During a total solar eclipse , the Moon 's shadow covers only a small fraction of the Earth . The Earth continues to receive at least 92 percent of the amount of sunlight it receives without an eclipse – more if the penumbra of the Moon 's shadow partly misses the Earth . Seen from the Moon , the Earth during a total solar eclipse is mostly brilliantly illuminated , with only a small dark patch showing the Moon 's shadow . The brilliantly @-@ lit Earth reflects a lot of light to the Moon . If the corona of the eclipsed Sun were not present , the Moon , illuminated by earthlight , would be easily visible from Earth . This would be essentially the same as the earthshine which can frequently be seen when the Moon 's phase is a narrow crescent . In reality , the corona , though much less brilliant than the Sun 's photosphere , is much brighter than the Moon illuminated by earthlight . Therefore , by contrast , the Moon during a total solar eclipse appears to be black , with the corona surrounding it .
= = = Artificial satellites = = =
Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from the Earth , but none is large enough to cause an eclipse . At the altitude of the International Space Station , for example , an object would need to be about 3 @.@ 35 km ( 2 @.@ 08 mi ) across to blot the Sun out entirely . These transits are difficult to watch , because the zone of visibility is very small . The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second , typically . As with a transit of a planet , it will not get dark .
Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above the Earth 's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions . The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966 . The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir .
During the Apollo – Soyuz Test Project conducted in July 1975 , the Apollo spacecraft was positioned to create an artificial solar eclipse giving the Soyuz crew an opportunity to photograph the solar corona .
= = = Impact = = =
The Solar eclipse of March 20 , 2015 , was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system , with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact . The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 Gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day . The temperature may decrease by 3 ° C , and wind power potentially decrease as winds are reduced by 0 @.@ 7 m / s .
= = Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses = =
Eclipses only occur in the eclipse season , when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon . Each eclipse is separated by one , five or six lunations ( synodic months ) , and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173 @.@ 3 days , which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next . The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress . Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months , eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months ( about 6 @,@ 585 @.@ 3 days ) apart . This period ( 18 years 11 @.@ 3 days ) is a saros . Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months , saros cycles do not endlessly repeat . Each cycle begins with the Moon 's shadow crossing the earth near the north or south pole , and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon 's shadow misses the earth and the series ends . Saros cycles are numbered ; currently , cycles 117 to 156 are active .
= Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig , BWV 26 =
Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig ( Ah , how fleeting , ah how insignificant ) , BWV 26 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig for the 24th Sunday after Trinity and first performed it on 19 November 1724 .
The cantata is based upon Michael Franck 's hymn " Schmücke dich , o liebe Seele " , with a melody by Johann Crüger ( 1652 ) . It is the only time that Bach used this hymn . Its theme , the transience of human life , is the only connection to the prescribed gospel reading . The first and last stanza are used unchanged in both text and tune : the former is treated as a chorale fantasia , the latter as a four @-@ part closing chorale . An unknown librettist paraphrased the inner stanzas as arias and recitatives . Bach scored the cantata for four vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of horn , flute , three oboes , strings and continuo .
= = History and words = =
Bach wrote the cantata in 1724 in his second year in Leipzig for the 24th Sunday after Trinity . That year , Bach composed a cycle of chorale cantatas , begun on the first Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Colossians , a prayer for the Colossians ( Colossians 1 : 9 – 14 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the story of the Raising of Jairus ' daughter ( Matthew 9 : 18 – 26 ) . The cantata is based on the hymn in 13 stanzas by Michael Franck ( 1652 ) , to a melody by Johann Crüger ( 1661 ) , " a meditation on the transience of human life and of all earthly goods " . This aspect is the only connection to the gospel . An unknown poet retained the first and the last stanza unchanged as movements 1 and 6 of the cantata . He derived the inner movements as a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives from the inner stanzas . John Eliot Gardiner points out that " several of Bach 's late Trinity season cantatas " concentrate on " the brevity of human life and the futility of earthly hopes " .
Bach first performed the cantata on 19 November 1724 . It is the only time that he used this hymn .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements . The text and tune of the hymn appear unchanged in the outer choral movements , a chorale fantasia and a four @-@ part closing chorale , which frame a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano , alto , tenor , bass ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of a horn ( Co ) doubling the soprano in the chorale , flauto traverso ( Ft ) , three oboes ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , organ ( Org ) and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus , " Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig " ( Ah , how fleeting , ah how insignificant ) , is a chorale fantasia . The instruments play concertante music , to which the soprano sings the cantus firmus line by line . The lower voices act as a " self @-@ contained group " , mostly in homophony , and " declaim the individual lines of text in unison at the end of each choral passage , using a melodic formula derived from the beginning of the hymn . " Bach illustrates the imagery of the text , " fleetingness and insubstantiality " in motifs such as " abrupt chords separated by pauses and ... hurrying scale figures " . Gardiner comments :
Long before the first statement of Franck 's hymn ( sopranos doubled by cornetto ) Bach establishes the simile of man 's life to a rising mist which will soon disperse . Fleet @-@ footed scales , crossing and recrossing , joining and dividing , create a mood of phantasmal vapour .
The Musicologist Julian Mincham compares the instrumental music to " mist and fog , images which imply movements of wind and air " and hears the lower voices as " evincing a feeling of primeval power and solidarity " .
= = = 2 = = =
In the first aria , the text " So schnell ein rauschend Wasser schießt " ( As quickly as rushing water ) is illustrated in the flute , the violin and the tenor voice by " fast @-@ flowing " music , " each musician required to keep changing functions – to respond , imitate , echo or double one another – while variously contributing to the insistent onwardness of the tumbling torrent " .
= = = 3 = = =
In a recitative for alto , " Die Freude wird zur Traurigkeit " ( Joy becomes sadness ) , images such as flowers speak of transience until the grave . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann describes it as a " far @-@ reaching coloratura [ which ] culminates in an uneasy dissonance " .
= = = 4 = = =
In the last aria , an " unusual oboe trio " accompanies the bass boice in " An irdische Schätze das Herze zu hängen " ( To hang one 's heart on earthly treasures ) . Gardiner comments :
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resulted in 361 RFC ( request for comments ) documents that were to be used in guiding development of Perl 6 . In 2001 , work began on the apocalypses for Perl 6 , a series of documents meant to summarize the change requests and present the design of the next generation of Perl . They were presented as a digest of the RFCs , rather than a formal document . At this point , Perl 6 existed only as a description of a language .
Perl 5 @.@ 8 was first released on July 18 , 2002 , and had nearly yearly updates since then . Perl 5 @.@ 8 improved Unicode support , added a new I / O implementation , added a new thread implementation , improved numeric accuracy , and added several new modules . As of 2013 this version still remains the most popular version of Perl and is used by Red Hat 5 , Suse 10 , Solaris 10 , HP @-@ UX 11 @.@ 31 and AIX 5 .
In 2004 , work began on the Synopses – documents that originally summarized the Apocalypses , but which became the specification for the Perl 6 language . In February 2005 , Audrey Tang began work on Pugs , a Perl 6 interpreter written in Haskell . This was the first concerted effort towards making Perl 6 a reality . This effort stalled in 2006 .
On December 18 , 2007 , the 20th anniversary of Perl 1 @.@ 0 , Perl 5 @.@ 10 @.@ 0 was released . Perl 5 @.@ 10 @.@ 0 included notable new features , which brought it closer to Perl 6 . These included a switch statement ( called " given " / " when " ) , regular expressions updates , and the smart match operator , " ~ ~ " . Around this same time , development began in earnest on another implementation of Perl 6 known as Rakudo Perl , developed in tandem with the Parrot virtual machine . As of November 2009 , Rakudo Perl has had regular monthly releases and now is the most complete implementation of Perl 6 .
A major change in the development process of Perl 5 occurred with Perl 5 @.@ 11 ; the development community has switched to a monthly release cycle of development releases , with a yearly schedule of stable releases . By that plan , bugfix point releases will follow the stable releases every three months .
On April 12 , 2010 , Perl 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 0 was released . Notable core enhancements include new package NAME VERSION syntax , the Yada Yada operator ( intended to mark placeholder code that is not yet implemented ) , implicit strictures , full Y2038 compliance , regex conversion overloading , DTrace support , and Unicode 5 @.@ 2 . On January 21 , 2011 , Perl 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 3 was released ; it contains updated modules and some documentation changes . Version 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 4 was released on June 20 , 2011 . The latest version of that branch , 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 5 , was released on November 10 , 2012 .
On May 14 , 2011 , Perl 5 @.@ 14 was released . JSON support is built @-@ in as of 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 2 . The latest version of that branch , 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 4 , was released on March 10 , 2013 .
On May 20 , 2012 , Perl 5 @.@ 16 was released . Notable new features include the ability to specify a given version of Perl that one wishes to emulate , allowing users to upgrade their version of Perl , but still run old scripts that would normally be incompatible . Perl 5 @.@ 16 also updates the core to support Unicode 6 @.@ 1 .
On May 18 , 2013 , Perl 5 @.@ 18 was released . Notable new features include the new dtrace hooks , lexical subs , more CORE : : subs , overhaul of the hash for security reasons , support for Unicode 6 @.@ 2 .
On May 27 , 2014 , Perl 5 @.@ 20 was released . Notable new features include subroutine signatures , hash slices / new slice syntax , postfix dereferencing ( experimental ) , Unicode 6 @.@ 3 , rand ( ) using consistent random number generator .
Some observers credit the release of Perl 5 @.@ 10 with the start of the Modern Perl movement . In particular , this phrase describes a style of development that embraces the use of the CPAN , takes advantage of recent developments in the language , and is rigorous about creating high quality code . While the book " Modern Perl " may be the most visible standard @-@ bearer of this idea , other groups such as the Enlightened Perl Organization have taken up the cause .
In late 2012 and 2013 several projects for alternative implementations for Perl 5 started : Perl5 in Perl6 by the Rakudo Perl team , moe by Stevan Little and friends , p2 by the Perl11 team under Reini Urban , gperl by goccy , and rperl a kickstarter project led by Will Braswell and affiliated with the Perll11 project .
= = = PONIE = = =
PONIE is an acronym for Perl On New Internal Engine . The PONIE Project existed from 2003 until 2006 and was to be a bridge between Perl 5 and Perl 6 . It was an effort to rewrite the Perl 5 interpreter to run on Parrot , the Perl 6 virtual machine . The goal was to ensure the future of the millions of lines of Perl 5 code at thousands of companies around the world .
The PONIE project ended in 2006 and is no longer being actively developed . Some of the improvements made to the Perl 5 interpreter as part of PONIE were folded into that project .
= = = Name = = =
Perl was originally named " Pearl " . Wall wanted to give the language a short name with positive connotations ; he claims that he considered ( and rejected ) every three- and four @-@ letter word in the dictionary . He also considered naming it after his wife Gloria . Wall discovered the existing PEARL programming language before Perl 's official release and changed the spelling of the name .
When referring to the language , the name is normally capitalized ( Perl ) as a proper noun . When referring to the interpreter program itself , the name is often uncapitalized ( perl ) because most Unix @-@ like file systems are case @-@ sensitive . Before the release of the first edition of Programming Perl , it was common to refer to the language as perl ; Randal L. Schwartz , however , capitalized the language 's name in the book to make it stand out better when typeset . This case distinction was subsequently documented as canonical .
The name is occasionally expanded as Practical Extraction and Report Language , but this is a backronym . Other expansions have been suggested as equally canonical , including Wall 's own humorous Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister . Indeed , Wall claims that the name was intended to inspire many different expansions .
= = = Camel symbol = = =
Programming Perl , published by O 'Reilly Media , features a picture of a dromedary camel on the cover and is commonly called the " Camel Book " . This image of a camel has become an unofficial symbol of Perl as well as a general hacker emblem , appearing on T @-@ shirts and other clothing items .
O 'Reilly owns the image as a trademark but licenses it for non @-@ commercial use , requiring only an acknowledgement and a link to www.perl.com. Licensing for commercial use is decided on a case by case basis . O 'Reilly also provides " Programming Republic of Perl " logos for non @-@ commercial sites and " Powered by Perl " buttons for any site that uses Perl .
= = = Onion symbol = = =
The Perl Foundation owns an alternative symbol , an onion , which it licenses to its subsidiaries , Perl Mongers , PerlMonks , Perl.org , and others . The symbol is a visual pun on pearl onion .
= = Overview = =
According to Wall , Perl has two slogans . The first is " There 's more than one way to do it " , commonly known as TMTOWTDI . The second slogan is " Easy things should be easy and hard things should be possible " .
= = = Features = = =
The overall structure of Perl derives broadly from C. Perl is procedural in nature , with variables , expressions , assignment statements , brace @-@ delimited blocks , control structures , and subroutines .
Perl also takes features from shell programming . All variables are marked with leading sigils , which allow variables to be interpolated directly into strings . However , unlike the shell , Perl uses sigils on all accesses to variables , and unlike most other programming languages that use sigils , the sigil doesn 't denote the type of the variable but the type of the expression . So for example , to access a list of values in a hash , the sigil for an array ( " @ " ) is used , not the sigil for a hash ( " % " ) . Perl also has many built @-@ in functions that provide tools often used in shell programming ( although many of these tools are implemented by programs external to the shell ) such as sorting , and calling operating system facilities .
Perl takes lists from Lisp , hashes ( " associative arrays " ) from AWK , and regular expressions from sed . These simplify and facilitate many parsing , text @-@ handling , and data @-@ management tasks . Also shared with Lisp are the implicit return of the last value in a block , and the fact that all statements have a value , and thus are also expressions and can be used in larger expressions themselves .
Perl 5 added features that support complex data structures , first @-@ class functions ( that is , closures as values ) , and an object @-@ oriented programming model . These include references , packages , class @-@ based method dispatch , and lexically scoped variables , along with compiler directives ( for example , the strict pragma ) . A major additional feature introduced with Perl 5 was the ability to package code as reusable modules . Wall later stated that " The whole intent of Perl 5 's module system was to encourage the growth of Perl culture rather than the Perl core . "
All versions of Perl do automatic data @-@ typing and automatic memory management . The interpreter knows the type and storage requirements of every data object in the program ; it allocates and frees storage for them as necessary using reference counting ( so it cannot deallocate circular data structures without manual intervention ) . Legal type conversions — for example , conversions from number to string — are done automatically at run time ; illegal type conversions are fatal errors .
= = = Design = = =
The design of Perl can be understood as a response to three broad trends in the computer industry : falling hardware costs , rising labor costs , and improvements in compiler technology . Many earlier computer languages , such as Fortran and C , aimed to make efficient use of expensive computer hardware . In contrast , Perl was designed so that computer programmers could write programs more quickly and easily .
Perl has many features that ease the task of the programmer at the expense of greater CPU and memory requirements . These include automatic memory management ; dynamic typing ; strings , lists , and hashes ; regular expressions ; introspection ; and an eval ( ) function . Perl follows the theory of " no built @-@ in limits " , an idea similar to the Zero One Infinity rule .
Wall was trained as a linguist , and the design of Perl is very much informed by linguistic principles . Examples include Huffman coding ( common constructions should be short ) , good end @-@ weighting ( the important information should come first ) , and a large collection of language primitives . Perl favors language constructs that are concise and natural for humans to write , even where they complicate the Perl interpreter .
Perl 's syntax reflects the idea that " things that are different should look different . " For example , scalars , arrays , and hashes have different leading sigils . Array indices and hash keys use different kinds of braces . Strings and regular expressions have different standard delimiters . This approach can be contrasted with languages such as Lisp , where the same S @-@ expression construct and basic syntax are used for many different purposes .
Perl does not enforce any particular programming paradigm ( procedural , object @-@ oriented , functional , or others ) or even require the programmer to choose among them .
There is a broad practical bent to both the Perl language and the community and culture that surround it . The preface to Programming Perl begins : " Perl is a language for getting your job done . " One consequence of this is that Perl is not a tidy language . It includes many features , tolerates exceptions to its rules , and employs heuristics to resolve syntactical ambiguities . Because of the forgiving nature of the compiler , bugs can sometimes be hard to find . Perl 's function documentation remarks on the variant behavior of built @-@ in functions in list and scalar contexts by saying , " In general , they do what you want , unless you want consistency . "
No written specification or standard for the Perl language exists for Perl versions through Perl 5 , and there are no plans to create one for the current version of Perl . There has been only one implementation of the interpreter , and the language has evolved along with it . That interpreter , together with its functional tests , stands as a de facto specification of the language . Perl 6 , however , started with a specification , and several projects aim to implement some or all of the specification .
= = = Applications = = =
Perl has many and varied applications , compounded by the availability of many standard and third @-@ party modules .
Perl has chiefly been used to write CGI scripts : large projects written in Perl include cPanel , Slash , Bugzilla , RT , TWiki , and Movable Type ; high @-@ traffic websites that use Perl extensively include Priceline.com , Craigslist , IMDb , LiveJournal , DuckDuckGo , Slashdot and Ticketmaster . It is also an optional component of the popular LAMP technology stack for Web development , in lieu of PHP or Python .
Perl is often used as a glue language , tying together systems and interfaces that were not specifically designed to interoperate , and for " data munging " , that is , converting or processing large amounts of data for tasks such as creating reports . In fact , these strengths are intimately linked . The combination makes Perl a popular all @-@ purpose language for system administrators , particularly because short programs , often called " one @-@ liner programs " , can be entered and run on a single command line .
Perl code can be made portable across Windows and Unix ; such code is often used by suppliers of software ( both COTS and bespoke ) to simplify packaging and maintenance of software build- and deployment @-@ scripts .
Graphical user interfaces ( GUIs ) may be developed using Perl . For example , Perl / Tk and WxPerl are commonly used to enable user interaction with Perl scripts . Such interaction may be synchronous or asynchronous , using callbacks to update the GUI .
= = = Implementation = = =
Perl is implemented as a core interpreter , written in C , together with a large collection of modules , written in Perl and C. As of 2010 . The interpreter is 150 @,@ 000 lines of C code and compiles to a 1 MB executable on typical machine architectures . Alternatively , the interpreter can be compiled to a link library and embedded in other programs . There are nearly 500 modules in the distribution , comprising 200 @,@ 000 lines of Perl and an additional 350 @,@ 000 lines of C code ( much of the C code in the modules consists of character encoding tables ) .
The interpreter has an object @-@ oriented architecture . All of the elements of the Perl language — scalars , arrays , hashes , coderefs , file handles — are represented in the interpreter by C structs . Operations on these structs are defined by a large collection of macros , typedefs , and functions ; these constitute the Perl C API . The Perl API can be bewildering to the uninitiated , but its entry points follow a consistent naming scheme , which provides guidance to those who use it .
The life of a Perl interpreter divides broadly into a compile phase and a run phase . In Perl , the phases are the major stages in the interpreter 's life @-@ cycle . Each interpreter goes through each phase only once , and the phases follow in a fixed sequence .
Most of what happens in Perl 's compile phase is compilation , and most of what happens in Perl 's run phase is execution , but there are significant exceptions . Perl makes important use of its capability to execute Perl code during the compile phase . Perl will also delay compilation into the run phase . The terms that indicate the kind of processing that is actually occurring at any moment are compile time and run time . Perl is in compile time at most points during the compile phase , but compile time may also be entered during the run phase . The compile time for code in a string argument passed to the eval built @-@ in occurs during the run phase . Perl is often in run time during the compile phase and spends most of the run phase in run time . Code in BEGIN blocks executes at run time but in the compile phase .
At compile time , the interpreter parses Perl code into a syntax tree . At run time , it executes the program by walking the tree . Text is parsed only once , and the syntax tree is subject to optimization before it is executed , so that execution is relatively efficient . Compile @-@ time optimizations on the syntax tree include constant folding and context propagation , but peephole optimization is also performed .
Perl has a Turing @-@ complete grammar because parsing can be affected by run @-@ time code executed during the compile phase . Therefore , Perl cannot be parsed by a straight Lex / Yacc lexer / parser combination . Instead , the interpreter implements its own lexer , which coordinates with a modified GNU bison parser to resolve ambiguities in the language .
It is often said that " Only perl can parse Perl " , meaning that only the Perl interpreter ( perl ) can parse the Perl language ( Perl ) , but even this is not , in general , true . Because the Perl interpreter can simulate a Turing machine during its compile phase , it would need to decide the halting problem in order to complete parsing in every case . It is a long @-@ standing result that the halting problem is undecidable , and therefore not even perl can always parse Perl . Perl makes the unusual choice of giving the user access to its full programming power in its own compile phase . The cost in terms of theoretical purity is high , but practical inconvenience seems to be rare .
Other programs that undertake to parse Perl , such as source @-@ code analyzers and auto @-@ indenters , have to contend not only with ambiguous syntactic constructs but also with the undecidability of Perl parsing in the general case . Adam Kennedy 's PPI project focused on parsing Perl code as a document ( retaining its integrity as a document ) , instead of parsing Perl as executable code ( that not even Perl itself can always do ) . It was Kennedy who first conjectured that " parsing Perl suffers from the ' halting problem ' " , which was later proved .
Perl is distributed with over 250 @,@ 000 functional tests for core Perl language and over 250 @,@ 000 functional tests for core modules . These run as part of the normal build process and extensively exercise the interpreter and its core modules . Perl developers rely on the functional tests to ensure that changes to the interpreter do not introduce software bugs ; additionally , Perl users who see that the interpreter passes its functional tests on their system can have a high degree of confidence that it is working properly .
= = = Availability = = =
Perl is dual licensed under both the Artistic License 1 @.@ 0 and the GNU General Public License . Distributions are available for most operating systems . It is particularly prevalent on Unix and Unix @-@ like systems , but it has been ported to most modern ( and many obsolete ) platforms . With only six reported exceptions , Perl can be compiled from source code on all POSIX @-@ compliant , or otherwise @-@ Unix @-@ compatible platforms .
Because of unusual changes required for the Mac OS Classic environment , a special port called MacPerl was shipped independently .
The Comprehensive Perl Archive Network carries a complete list of supported platforms with links to the distributions available on each . CPAN is also the source for publicly available Perl modules that are not part of the core Perl distribution .
= = = = Windows = = = =
Users of Microsoft Windows typically install one of the native binary distributions of Perl for Win32 , most commonly Strawberry Perl or ActivePerl . Compiling Perl from source code under Windows is possible , but most installations lack the requisite C compiler and build tools . This also makes it difficult to install modules from the CPAN , particularly those that are partially written in C.
ActivePerl is a closed source distribution from ActiveState that has regular releases that track the core Perl releases . The distribution also includes the Perl package manager ( PPM ) , a popular tool for installing , removing , upgrading , and managing the use of common Perl modules . Included also is PerlScript , a Windows Script Host ( WSH ) engine implementing the Perl language . Visual Perl is an ActiveState tool that adds Perl to the Visual Studio .NET development suite .
Strawberry Perl is an open source distribution for Windows . It has had regular , quarterly releases since January 2008 , including new modules as feedback and requests come in . Strawberry Perl aims to be able to install modules like standard Perl distributions on other platforms , including compiling XS modules .
The Cygwin emulation layer is another way of running Perl under Windows . Cygwin provides a Unix @-@ like environment on Windows , and both Perl and CPAN are available as standard pre @-@ compiled packages in the Cygwin setup program . Since Cygwin also includes gcc , compiling Perl from source is also possible .
A perl executable is included in several Windows Resource kits in the directory with other scripting tools .
Implementations of Perl come with the MKS Toolkit and UWIN .
= = Database interfaces = =
Perl 's text @-@ handling capabilities can be used for generating SQL queries ; arrays , hashes , and automatic memory management make it easy to collect and process the returned data . For example , in Tim Bunce 's Perl DBI application programming interface ( API ) , the arguments to the API can be the text of SQL queries ; thus it is possible to program in multiple languages at the same time ( e.g. , for generating a Web page using HTML , JavaScript , and SQL in a here document ) . The use of Perl variable interpolation to programmatically customize each of the SQL queries , and the specification of Perl arrays or hashes as the structures to programmatically hold the resulting data sets from each SQL query , allows a high @-@ level mechanism for handling large amounts of data for post @-@ processing by a Perl subprogram . In early versions of Perl , database interfaces were created by relinking the interpreter with a client @-@ side database library . This was sufficiently difficult that it was done for only a few of the most @-@ important and most widely used databases , and it restricted the resulting perl executable to using just one database interface at a time .
In Perl 5 , database interfaces are implemented by Perl DBI modules . The DBI ( Database Interface ) module presents a single , database @-@ independent interface to Perl applications , while the DBD ( Database Driver ) modules handle the details of accessing some 50 different databases ; there are DBD drivers for most ANSI SQL databases .
DBI provides caching for database handles and queries , which can greatly improve performance in long @-@ lived execution environments such as mod perl , helping high @-@ volume systems avert load spikes as in the Slashdot effect .
In modern Perl applications , especially those written using web frameworks such as Catalyst , the DBI module is often used indirectly via object @-@ relational mappers such as DBIx : : Class , Class : : DBI or Rose : : DB : : Object that generate SQL queries and handle data transparently to the application author .
= = Comparative performance = =
The Computer Language Benchmarks Game , a project hosted by Alioth , compares the performance of implementations of typical programming problems in several programming languages . The submitted Perl implementations typically perform toward the high end of the memory @-@ usage spectrum and give varied speed results . Perl 's performance in the benchmarks game is typical for interpreted languages .
Large Perl programs start more slowly than similar programs in compiled languages because perl has to compile the source every time it runs . In a talk at the YAPC : : Europe 2005 conference and subsequent article " A Timely Start " , Jean @-@ Louis Leroy found that his Perl programs took much longer to run than expected because the perl interpreter spent significant time finding modules within his over @-@ large include path . Unlike Java , Python , and Ruby , Perl has only experimental support for pre @-@ compiling . Therefore , Perl programs pay this overhead penalty on every execution . The run phase of typical programs is long enough that amortized startup time is not substantial , but benchmarks that measure very short execution times are likely to be skewed due to this overhead .
A number of tools have been introduced to improve this situation . The first such tool was Apache 's mod perl , which sought to address one of the most @-@ common reasons that small Perl programs were invoked rapidly : CGI Web development . ActivePerl , via Microsoft ISAPI , provides similar performance improvements .
Once Perl code is compiled , there is additional overhead during the execution phase that typically isn 't present for programs written in compiled languages such as C or C + + . Examples of such overhead include bytecode interpretation , reference @-@ counting memory management , and dynamic type @-@ checking .
= = = Optimizing = = =
Because Perl is an interpreted language , it can give problems when efficiency is critical ; in such situations , the most critical routines can be written in other languages ( such as C ) , which can be connected to Perl via simple Inline modules or the more complex but flexible XS mechanism .
= = Perl 6 = =
At the 2000 Perl Conference , Jon Orwant made a case for a major new language @-@ initiative . This led to a decision to begin work on a redesign of the language , to be called Perl 6 . Proposals for new language features were solicited from the Perl community at large , which submitted more than 300 RFCs .
Wall spent the next few years digesting the RFCs and synthesizing them into a coherent framework for Perl 6 . He has presented his design for Perl 6 in a series of documents called " apocalypses " - numbered to correspond to chapters in Programming Perl . As of January 2011 , the developing specification of Perl 6 is encapsulated in design documents called Synopses - numbered to correspond to Apocalypses .
Perl 6 is not intended to be backward compatible , although there will be a compatibility mode . Perl 6 and Perl 5 are distinct languages with a common ancestry .
Thesis work by Bradley M. Kuhn , overseen by Wall , considered the possible use of the Java virtual machine as a runtime for Perl . Kuhn 's thesis showed this approach to be problematic . In 2001 , it was decided that Perl 6 would run on a cross @-@ language virtual machine called Parrot . This will mean that other languages targeting the Parrot will gain native access to CPAN , allowing some level of cross @-@ language development .
In 2005 , Audrey Tang created the pugs project , an implementation of Perl 6 in Haskell . This acted as , and continues to act as , a test platform for the Perl 6 language ( separate from the development of the actual implementation ) - allowing the language designers to explore . The pugs project spawned an active Perl / Haskell cross @-@ language community centered around the freenode # perl6 IRC channel .
As of 2012 , a number of features in the Perl 6 language show similarities to Haskell .
As of 2012 , Perl 6 development centers primarily around two compilers :
Rakudo Perl 6 , an implementation running on the Parrot virtual machine and the Java virtual machine . Developers are also working on MoarVM , a C language @-@ based virtual machine designed specifically for Rakudo .
Niecza , which targets the Common Language Runtime .
= = Future of Perl 5 = =
Development of Perl 5 is also continuing . Perl 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 0 was released in April 2010 with some new features influenced by the design of Perl 6 , followed by Perl 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 1 ( released on June 17 , 2011 ) , Perl 5 @.@ 16 @.@ 1 ( released on August 9 , 2012 . ) , and Perl 5 @.@ 18 @.@ 0 ( released on May 18 , 2013 ) . Perl 5 development versions are released on a monthly basis , with major releases coming out once per year .
Future plans for Perl 5 include making the core language easier to extend from modules , and providing a small , extensible meta @-@ object protocol in core .
The relative proportion of Internet searches for ' Perl programming ' , as compared with similar searches for other programming languages , steadily declined from about 10 % in 2005 to about 2 % in 2011 , and has remained around the 2 % level since .
= = Perl community = =
Perl 's culture and community has developed alongside the language itself . Usenet was the first public venue in which Perl was introduced , but over the course of its evolution , Perl 's community was shaped by the growth of broadening Internet @-@ based services including the introduction of the World Wide Web . The community that surrounds Perl was , in fact , the topic of Wall 's first " State of the Onion " talk .
= = = State of the Onion = = =
State of the Onion is the name for Wall ’ s yearly keynote @-@ style summaries on the progress of Perl and its community . They are characterized by his hallmark humor , employing references to Perl ’ s culture , the wider hacker culture , Wall ’ s linguistic background , sometimes his family life , and occasionally even his Christian background .
Each talk is first given at various Perl conferences and is eventually also published online .
= = = Perl pastimes = = =
JAPHs
In email , Usenet , and message board postings , " Just another Perl hacker " ( JAPH ) programs are a common trend , originated by Randal L. Schwartz , one of the earliest professional Perl trainers . In the parlance of Perl culture , Perl programmers are known as Perl hackers , and from this derives the practice of writing short programs to print out the phrase " Just another Perl hacker " . In the spirit of the original concept , these programs are moderately obfuscated and short enough to fit into the signature of an email or Usenet message . The " canonical " JAPH as developed by Schwartz includes the comma at the end , although this is often omitted .
Perl golf
Perl " golf " is the pastime of reducing the number of characters ( key " strokes " ) used in a Perl program to the bare minimum , much in the same way that golf players seek to take as few shots as possible in a round . The phrase 's first use emphasized the difference between pedestrian code meant to teach a newcomer and terse hacks likely to amuse experienced Perl programmers , an example of the latter being JAPHs that were already used in signatures in Usenet postings and elsewhere . Similar stunts had been an unnamed pastime in the language APL in previous decades . The use of Perl to write a program that performed RSA encryption prompted a widespread and practical interest in this pastime . In subsequent years , the term " code golf " has been applied to the pastime in other languages . A Perl Golf Apocalypse was held at Perl Conference 4 @.@ 0 in Monterey , California in July 2000 .
Obfuscation
As with C , obfuscated code competitions were a well known pastime in the late 1990s . The Obfuscated Perl Contest was a competition held by The Perl Journal from 1996 to 2000 that made an arch virtue of Perl 's syntactic flexibility . Awards were given for categories such as " most powerful " — programs that made efficient use of space — and " best four @-@ line signature " for programs that fit into four lines of 76 characters in the style of a Usenet signature block .
Poetry
Perl poetry is the practice of writing poems that can be compiled as legal Perl code , for example the piece known as Black Perl . Perl poetry is made possible by the large number of English words that are used in the Perl language . New poems are regularly submitted to the community at PerlMonks .
= = = Perl on IRC = = =
There are a number of IRC channels that offer support for the language and some modules .
= = = CPAN Acme = = =
There are also many examples of code written purely for entertainment on the CPAN . Lingua : : Romana : : Perligata , for example , allows writing programs in Latin . Upon execution of such a program , the module translates its source code into regular Perl and runs it .
The Perl community has set aside the " Acme " namespace for modules that are fun in nature ( but its scope has widened to include exploratory or experimental code or any other module that is not meant to ever be used in production ) . Some of the Acme modules are deliberately implemented in amusing ways . This includes Acme : : Bleach , one of the first modules in the Acme : : namespace , which allows the program 's source code to be " whitened " ( i.e. , all characters replaced with whitespace ) and yet still work .
= = Example code = =
In older versions of Perl , one would write the Hello World program as :
In later versions , which support the say statement , one can also write it as :
Good Perl practices require more complex programs to add the use strict ; and use warnings ; pragmas , leading into something like :
Here is a more complex Perl program , that counts down the seconds up to a given threshold :
The perl interpreter can also be used for one @-@ off scripts on the command line . The following example ( as invoked from an sh @-@ compatible shell , such as Bash ) translates the string " Bob " in all files ending with .txt in the current directory to " Robert " :
= = Criticism = =
Perl has been referred to as " line noise " by some programmers who claim its syntax makes it a write @-@ only language . The earliest such mention was in the first edition of the book Learning Perl , a Perl 5 tutorial book written by Randal L. Schwartz , in the first chapter of which he states : " Yes , sometimes Perl looks like line noise to the uninitiated , but to the seasoned Perl programmer , it looks like checksummed line noise with a mission in life . " He also stated that the accusation that Perl is a write @-@ only language could be avoided by coding with " proper care " . The Perl overview document perlintro states that the names of built @-@ in " magic " scalar variables " look like punctuation or line noise " . The perlstyle document states that line noise in regular expressions could be mitigated using the / x modifier to add whitespace .
According to the Perl 6 FAQ , Perl 6 was designed to mitigate " the usual suspects " that elicit the " line noise " claim from Perl 5 critics , including the removal of " the majority of the punctuation variables " and the sanitization of the regex syntax . The Perl 6 FAQ also states that what is sometimes referred to as Perl 's line noise is " the actual syntax of the language " just as gerunds and prepositions are a part of the English language . In a December 2012 blog posting , despite claiming that " Rakudo Perl 6 has failed and will continue to fail unless it gets some adult supervision " , chromatic stated that the design of Perl 6 has a " well @-@ defined grammar " as well as an " improved type system , a unified object system with an intelligent metamodel , metaoperators , and a clearer system of context that provides for such niceties as pervasive laziness " . He also stated that " Perl 6 has a coherence and a consistency that Perl 5 lacks . "
= Battle of Tigranocerta =
The Battle of Tigranocerta ( Armenian : Տիգրանակերտի ճակատամարտը , Tigranakerti tchakatamartə ) was fought on October 6 , 69 BC between the forces of the Roman Republic and the army of the Kingdom of Armenia led by King Tigranes the Great . The Roman force was led by Consul Lucius Licinius Lucullus , and Tigranes was defeated . His capital city of Tigranocerta was lost to Rome as a result .
The battle arose from the Third Mithridatic War being fought between Roman Republic and Mithridates VI of Pontus , whose daughter Cleopatra was married to Tigranes . Mithridates fled to seek shelter with his son @-@ in @-@ law , and Rome invaded the Kingdom of Armenia . Having laid siege to Tigranocerta , the Roman forces fell back behind a nearby river when the large Armenian army approached . Feigning retreat , the Romans crossed at a ford and fell on the right flank of the Armenian army . After the Romans defeated the Armenian cataphracts , the balance of Tigranes ' army , which was mostly made up of raw levies and peasant troops from his extensive empire , panicked and fled , and the Romans remained in charge of the field .
= = Background = =
Tigranes ' expansion into the Near East led to the creation of an Armenian empire that stretched almost across the entire region . With his father @-@ in @-@ law and ally securing the empire 's western flank , Tigranes was able to conquer territories in Parthia and Mesopotamia and annex the lands of the Levant . In Syria , he began the construction of the city of Tigranocerta ( also written Tigranakert ) , which he named after himself , and imported a multitude of peoples , including Arabs , Greeks , and Jews , to populate it . The city soon became the king 's headquarters in Syria and flourished as a great center for Hellenistic culture , complete with theaters , parks and hunting grounds .
This period of Armenian hegemony in the region , however , was coming close to an end with a series of Roman victories in the Roman – Mithridatic Wars . Friction between the two had existed for several decades , although it was during the Third Mithridatic War that the Roman armies under Lucullus made significant progress against Mithridates , forcing him to take refuge with Tigranes . Lucullus sent an ambassador named Appius Claudius to Antioch to demand that Tigranes surrender his father @-@ in @-@ law ; should he refuse , Armenia would face war with Rome . Tigranes refused Appius Claudius ' demands , stating that he would prepare for war against the Republic .
Lucullus was astonished upon hearing this in the year 70 , and he began to prepare for an immediate invasion of Armenia . Although he had no mandate from the Senate to authorize such a move , he attempted to justify his invasion by distinguishing as his enemy king Tigranes and not his subjects . In the summer of 69 , he marched his troops across Cappodocia and the Euphrates river and entered the Armenian province of Tsop 'k ' , where Tigranocerta was located .
= = The siege of Tigranocerta = =
Tigranes , who was residing at Tigranocerta in the summer of 69 , was not only astonished by the speed of Lucullus ' rapid advance into Armenia but by the fact that he had even launched such an operation in the first place . Unable to reconcile with this reality for a certain period of time , he belatedly sent a general named Mithrobarzanes with 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 cavalrymen to slow down Lucullus ' advance but his forces were cut to pieces and routed by the 1 @,@ 600 cavalry led by Sextilius , one of the legates serving under Lucullus . Learning of Mithrobarzanes ' defeat , Tigranes entrusted the defense of his namesake city to Mancaeus and left to recruit a fighting force in the Taurus Mountains . Nevertheless , Lucullus ' legates were able to disrupt two separate detachments coming to the aid of Tigranes and even located and engaged the king 's forces in a canyon in the Taurus . Lucullus , nevertheless , chose not to pursue Tigranes while he had an unimpeded path towards Tigranocerta ; he advanced and began to lay siege to it .
Tigranocerta was still an unfinished city when Lucullus laid siege to it in the late summer of 69 . The city was heavily fortified and according to the Greek historian Appian , had thick and towering walls that stood 25 meters high , providing a formidable defense against a prolonged siege . The Roman siege engines that were employed at Tigranocerta were effectively repelled by the defenders by the use of naphtha , making Tigranocerta , according to one scholar , the site of " perhaps the world 's first use of chemical warfare . "
However , the loyalty of the city 's population was untested : since Tigranes had forcibly removed many of its inhabitants from their native lands and brought them to Tigranocerta , their allegiance to the king was cast into doubt . They soon proved their unreliability : when Tigranes and his army appeared on a hill overlooking the city , the inhabitants " greeted his [ Lucullus ] appearance with shouts and din , and standing on the walls , threateningly pointed out the Armenians to the Romans . "
= = Forces = =
Appian claims that Lucullus had embarked from Rome with only a single legion ; upon entering Anatolia to make war against Mithridates , he added four more legions to his army . The overall size of this force consisted of 30 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 600 cavalry . Following Mithridates ' retreat to Armenia , Appian estimates Lucullus ' invading force to be only two legions and 500 horsemen , although it is highly improbable that he would have undertaken the invasion of Armenia with such a small army . Historian Adrian Sherwin @-@ White places the size of Lucullus ' force to 12 @,@ 000 seasoned legionaries ( composed of three legions ) , and 4 @,@ 000 provincial cavalry and light infantry . The Roman army was further bolstered by several thousand allied Gallic , Thracian , and Bithynian infantry and cavalry .
Tigranes ' army clearly held a numerical superiority over that of Lucullus ' . According to Appian , it numbered 250 @,@ 000 infantry and 50 @,@ 000 cavalry . Many scholars , however , doubt these figures accurately reflect the true number of Tigranes ' army and believe they are highly inflated . Some historians , most notably Plutarch , wrote that Tigranes considered Lucullus ' army far too small , and upon seeing it , is quoted to have said that " If they come as ambassadors , they are too many ; if they are soldiers , too few , " although some have expressed doubt on the veracity of this quote . Tigranes also possessed several thousand cataphracts , formidable heavily armored cavalry that were clad in mail armor and armed with lances , spears or bows .
= = Disposition and engagement = =
The two armies converged toward the Batman @-@ Su river slightly to the southwest to Tigranocerta .
Tigranes ' army was positioned on the east bank of the river while Lucullus , who had left a rear guard to continue the siege of the city , met the Armenian army on the river 's west bank . The Armenian army was formed of three sections . Two of Tigranes ' vassal kings led the left and right flanks , while Tigranes led his cataphracts in the center . The rest of his army stood in front of a hill , a position Lucullus soon exploited .
Roman troops at first attempted to dissuade Lucullus from engaging in battle since October 6 marked the day of the disastrous battle of Arausio , where the general Quintus Servilius Caepio and his Roman army were delivered a crushing defeat by the Germanic Cimbri and Teuton tribes . Ignoring his troops ' superstitious beliefs , Lucullus is said to have responded , " Verily , I will make this day , too , a lucky one for the Romans . "
Cowan and Hook suggest that Lucullus would have deployed the Romans in a simplex acies , that is to say a single line , so making the frontage of the army as wide as possible as a counter to the cavalry . He took several of his troops downriver , where the river was the easiest to ford , and at one moment , Tigranes believed that this move meant Lucullus was withdrawing from the battlefield .
Lucullus had initially decided to make a running charge with his infantry , a Roman military tactic that minimized the amount of time an enemy could utilize its archers and sling infantry prior to close combat engagement . However , he decided against this at the last moment when he realized that the Armenian cataphracts posed the greatest threat to his men , ordering instead a diversionary attack with his Gallic and Thracian cavalry against the cataphracts .
With the cataphracts ' attention fixated elsewhere , Lucullus formed two cohorts into maniples and then ordered them to ford across the river . His objective was to outflank Tigranes ' cataphracts by circling counterclockwise around the hill and attacking them from the rear .
Lucullus personally led the charge on foot and upon reaching the top of the hill , he yelled to his soldiers in an effort to buoy their morale : " The day is ours , the day is ours , my fellow soldiers ! " With this , he gave special instructions to the cohorts to attack the horses ' legs and thighs , since these were the only areas of the cataphracts which were not armored . Lucullus charged downwards along with his cohorts and his orders soon proved fatal : the lumbering cataphracts were caught by surprise and , in their attempts to break free from their attackers , careened into the ranks of their own men as the lines began to collapse .
The infantry , which was also made up of many non @-@ Armenians , began to break rank and confusion spread to the rest of the body of Tigranes ' army . While the great king himself took to flight with his baggage train northwards , the entire line of his army gave way . The casualties reported for Tigranes ' army are immense , with estimates given from 10 @,@ 000 to as many as 100 @,@ 000 men .
Plutarch says that on the Roman side , " only a hundred were wounded , and only five killed , " although such low figures are highly unrealistic . Cowan and Hook , while considering these losses ridiculous , think it 's clear that the battle was won with disproportionate losses .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
With no army left to defend Tigranocerta , and a foreign populace that gleefully opened the gates to the Romans , Lucullus ' army began the wholesale looting and plunder of the city . The city was literally deconstructed piece by piece . The king 's treasury , estimated to be worth 8 @,@ 000 talents , was looted and each soldier in the army was awarded 800 drachma . The battle also resulted in severe territorial losses : most of the lands in Tigranes ' empire to the south of the Taurus fell under the sway of Rome .
Despite the heavy losses Tigranes suffered , the battle was not decisive in ending the war . In retreating northwards , Tigranes and Mithridates were able to elude Lucullus ' forces , though losing again against the Romans during the battle of Artashat . In 68 , Lucullus ' forces ' began to mutiny , longing to return home , and he withdrew his forces from Armenia the following year .
The battle is highlighted by many historians specifically because Lucullus overcame the numerical odds facing his army . The Italian philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli remarked upon the battle in his book , The Art of War , where he critiqued Tigranes ' heavy reliance on his cavalry over his infantry .
= German Eastern Marches Society =
German Eastern Marches Society ( German : Deutscher Ostmarkenverein , also known in German as Verein zur Förderung des Deutschtums in den Ostmarken ) was a German radical , extremely nationalist xenophobic organization founded in 1894 . Mainly among Poles , it was sometimes known acronymically as Hakata or H @-@ K @-@ T after its founders von Hansemann , Kennemann and von Tiedemann . Its main aims were the promotion of Germanization of Poles living in Prussia and destruction of Polish national identity in German eastern provinces . Contrary to many similar nationalist organizations created in that period , the Ostmarkenverein had relatively close ties with the government and local administration , which made it largely successful , even though it opposed both the policy of seeking some modo vivendi with the Poles pursued by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg and Leo von Caprivi 's policies of relaxation of anti @-@ Polish measures . While of limited significance and often overrated , the organization formed a notable part of German anti @-@ democratic pluralist part of the political landscape of the Wilhelmine era .
Initially formed in Posen , in 1896 its main headquarters was moved to Berlin . In 1901 it had roughly 21 @,@ 000 members , the number rose to 48 @,@ 000 in 1913 , though some authors claim the membership was as high as 220 @,@ 000 . After Poland was re @-@ established following World War I in 1918 , the society continued its rump activities in the Weimar Republic until it was closed down by the Nazis in 1934 who created the new organisation with similar activity Bund Deutscher Osten .
= = Background = =
Following the Partitions of Poland in late 18th century , a large part of the former Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( namely the regions of Greater Poland and Royal , the later West Prussia ) was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia , the predecessor of the German Empire , which was formed in 1871 . Primarily inhabited by Poles , Greater Poland initially was formed into a semi @-@ autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen , granted with a certain level of self @-@ governance . However , under Otto von Bismarck 's government , the ethnic and cultural tensions in the region began to rise . This was paired by growing tendencies of nationalism , imperialism , and chauvinism within the German society . The tendencies went in two different directions , but were linked to each other . On one hand , a new world order was demanded with desires of creating a German colonial empire . And on the other , feelings of hostility towards other national groups within the German state were growing .
The situation was further aggravated by Bismarck 's policies of Kulturkampf that in Posen Province took on a much more nationalistic character than in other parts of Germany and included a number of specifically anti @-@ Polish laws that resulted in the Polish and German communities living in a virtual apartheid . Many observers believed these policies only further stoked the Polish independence movement . There is also a question regarding possible personal antipathy towards Poles behind Bismarck 's motivation in pursuing the Kulturkampf . Unlike in other parts of the German Empire , in Greater Poland — then known under the German name of Provinz Posen — the Kulturkampf did not cease after the end of the decade . Although Bismarck finally signed an informal alliance with the Catholic Church against the socialists , the policies of Germanization did continue in Polish @-@ inhabited parts of the country . However , with the end of von Bismarck 's rule and the advent of Leo von Caprivi , the pressure for Germanisation was lessened and many German landowners feared that this would lead to lessening the German control over the Polish areas and in the end deprive Germany of what they saw as a natural reservoir of workforce and land . Although the actual extent of von Caprivi 's concessions towards the Poles was very limited , the German minority of Greater Poland feared that this was a step too far , and that von Caprivi 's government would cede the power in Greater Poland to the Polish clergy and nobility . The Hakata slogan was : " You are standing opposite to the most dangerous , fanatic enemy of German existence , German honour and German reputation in the world : The Poles . "
= = Society = =
Under such circumstances a number of nationalist organizations and pressure
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, challenged the diagnosis of Schiavo 's physicians of Schiavo being in a persistent vegetative state ( PVS ) : " I question it based on a review of the video footage which I spent an hour or so looking at last night in my office " . Frist was criticized by a medical ethicist at Northwestern University for making a diagnosis without personally examining the patient and for questioning the diagnosis when he was not a neurologist . After her death , the autopsy showed signs of long @-@ term and irreversible damage to her brain consistent with PVS . Frist defended his actions after the autopsy .
= = Final local motions , death , autopsy , and burial = =
On March 24 , 2005 , Judge Greer denied a petition for intervention by the Department of Children & Families ( DCF ) and signed an order forbidding the department from " taking possession of Theresa Marie Schiavo or removing her " from the hospice and directed " each and every and singular sheriff of the state of Florida " to enforce his order . The order was appealed to the Second District Court of Appeals the following day , which resulted in an automatic stay under state law . While the stay was in effect , Florida Department of Law Enforcement personnel prepared to take custody of Terri and transfer her to a local hospital for reinsertion of the feeding tube . Once Greer was made aware of the stay , he ordered it lifted and all parties stood down . Governor Bush decided to obey the court order despite enormous pressure from the political right . If Bush ( or the Florida Legislature ) had ignored Greer 's order by attempting to remove her from the hospice , a confrontation between the Pinellas Park Police Department and the FDLE agents could have ensued . In jest , one official said local police discussed " ... whether we had enough officers to hold off the National Guard . "
Terri Schiavo died at a Pinellas Park hospice on March 31 , 2005 . Although there was concern that Schiavo would experience significant symptoms from dehydration with the removal of the feeding tube , studies have shown that patients who have their feeding tubes removed , such as the case of Schiavo , usually have a peaceful death .
After her death , Schiavo 's body was taken to the Office of the District 6 Medical Examiner for Pinellas and Pasco counties , based in Largo , Florida . The autopsy occurred on April 1 , 2005 . It revealed extensive brain damage . The manner of death was certified as " undetermined " . The autopsy was led by Chief Medical Examiner Jon R. Thogmartin , M.D. In addition to consultation with a neuropathologist ( Stephen J. Nelson , M.D. ) , Dr. Thogmartin also arranged for specialized cardiac and genetic examinations to be made . The official autopsy report was released on June 15 , 2005 . In addition to studying Terri Schiavo 's remains , Thogmartin scoured court , medical and other records and interviewed her family members , doctors and other relevant parties . Examination of Schiavo 's nervous system by neuropathologist Stephen J. Nelson , M.D. , revealed extensive injury . The brain itself weighed only 615 g ( 21 @.@ 7 oz ) , only half the weight expected for a female of her age , height , and weight , an effect caused by the loss of a massive number of neurons . Microscopic examination revealed extensive damage to nearly all brain regions , including the cerebral cortex , the thalami , the basal ganglia , the hippocampus , the cerebellum , and the midbrain . The neuropathologic changes in her brain were precisely of the type seen in patients who enter a PVS following cardiac arrest . Throughout the cerebral cortex , the large pyramidal neurons that comprise some 70 % of cortical cells – critical to the functioning of the cortex – were completely lost . The pattern of damage to the cortex , with injury tending to worsen from the front of the cortex to the back , was also typical . There was marked damage to important relay circuits deep in the brain ( the thalami ) – another common pathologic finding in cases of PVS . The damage was , in the words of Thogmartin , " irreversible , and no amount of therapy or treatment would have regenerated the massive loss of neurons . "
The cardiac pathologist who studied Schiavo 's heart found it and the coronary vessels to be healthy , which excludes the possibility that her initial collapse was the result of myocardial infarction , although there was a localized area of healed inflammation ( opening the possibility of myocarditis ) . Thogmartin found that " there was no proof that Terri Schiavo ever had an eating disorder such as bulimia . " Regarding the possibility of strangulation or domestic violence as a cause of Schiavo 's initial collapse , the report states : " No trauma was noted on any of the numerous physical exams or radiographs performed on Mrs. Schiavo on the day of , in the days after , or in the months after her initial collapse . Indeed , within an hour of her initial hospital admission , radiographic examination of her cervical spine was negative . Specifically , external signs of strangulation including cutaneous or deep neck injury , facial / conjunctival petechiae , and other blunt trauma were not observed or recorded during her initial hospital admission . Autopsy examination of her neck structures 15 years after her initial collapse did not detect any signs of remote trauma , but , with such a delay , the exam was unlikely to show any residual neck findings . "
Regarding the cause and manner of Schiavo 's death , Thogmartin wrote , " Mrs. Schiavo suffered severe anoxic brain injury . The cause of which cannot be determined with reasonable medical certainty . The manner of death will therefore be certified as undetermined . "
" We were not surprised the medical examiner said Terri 's brain was damaged , " said Bobby Schindler , Jr . , her brother , in an interview hours after the autopsy report was released . " The fact that the medical examiner ruled out bulimia and ruled out a heart attack , without a doubt , adds more questions . "
= = = Burial = = =
Schiavo 's body was cremated following the autopsy . Her parents offered a memorial Mass for her at the Holy Name of Jesus Catholic Church in Gulfport on April 5 . Father Frank Pavone , founder of Priests for Life , delivered the main homily ( Audio : MP3 Format ) .
On May 7 , Schiavo 's parents made public a complaint that they had not been informed of when and where the ashes of their daughter had been ( or were to be ) buried by Michael Schiavo . He was under court order to provide this information to them .
On June 20 , the cremated remains of Terri Schiavo were buried . The Schindlers ' attorney stated that the family was notified by fax only after the memorial service ; by then , the family had already started getting calls from reporters . The ashes were interred at Sylvan Abbey Memorial Park in Clearwater , Florida .
The epitaph ( pictured ) reads :
= = Ethical and legal issues = =
= = = Right @-@ to @-@ die = = =
The Schiavo case has often been compared to those of Karen Ann Quinlan and Nancy Cruzan , two other highly influential right @-@ to @-@ die cases . Quinlan entered a persistent vegetative state in 1975 , and her family was allowed to remove her from a ventilator in 1976 after a ruling by the New Jersey Supreme Court . She died of pneumonia in 1985 . Cruzan was diagnosed with PVS in 1983 and her legal case reached the Supreme Court , which ruled that " clear and convincing evidence " of her wishes to die under such circumstances was needed . Cruzan 's family did not have enough evidence of that , but later produced more . She died after being removed from life support in 1990 .
The Schiavo case differed from the Quinlan and Cruzan cases by involving settled law rather than breaking new legal ground on the right @-@ to @-@ die issue . The case instead involved a dispute between family members over what Schiavo 's wishes would have been for such a situation . According to medical ethicist Matthew Stonecipher , " The movement to challenge the decisions made for Terri Schiavo threatened to destabilize end @-@ of @-@ life law that had developed over the last quarter of the 20th century , principally through the cases of Karen Ann Quinlan and Nancy Cruzan . "
The outcome of the Schiavo case was also in part determined by a 1990 Florida case , Guardianship of Estelle Browning . In that case , George Felos , the attorney for Michael Schiavo in the Schiavo case , represented a Browning relative . Felos successfully argued before the Florida Supreme Court that Browning 's feeding tube should be removed . The elderly Browning had expressed in a living will her wish not to be kept alive by any artificial means , including receiving food and water " by a gastric tube or intravenously . " At that time it was common to remove people from ventilators , but the law in Florida wasn 't clear on removing them from feeding tubes . In a landmark ruling , the Florida Supreme Court decided that Browning had " the constitutional right to choose or refuse medical treatment , and that right extends to all relevant decisions concerning one 's health . "
= = = Disability rights = = =
During the years of legal proceedings , disability rights groups and activists closely monitored and involved themselves in the case . In March 2003 , twelve disability rights groups , led by Not Dead Yet , along with four other amici , filed an amicus curiae brief in which they opposed the removal of Schiavo 's feeding tube . They also used the Schiavo case to advocate for federal review in cases where third parties decide to withdraw life support from patients unable to give consent . They argued that persistent vegetative state is frequently misdiagnosed , and that the reasons for withdrawal of life support from a patient should be scrutinized since even family member surrogates can have conflicts of interest . The Palm Sunday Compromise granted the federal review they sought , but it was limited to only the Schiavo case .
= = Public opinion and activism = =
The seven @-@ year case generated a great deal of public attention and activism . There was extensive media coverage and both sides courted public opinion . In 2000 , the Schindlers created the Terri Schindler @-@ Schiavo Foundation to garner support . During the weeks when Schiavo 's feeding tube was removed in 2005 , activists kept up an around @-@ the @-@ clock vigil outside her hospice . The protests were described as loud but non @-@ violent . There were dozens of arrests , with most being for crossing a police line with water for Schiavo .
Two polls conducted shortly after Schiavo 's feeding tube was removed for the final time in 2005 showed that a large majority of Americans believed that Michael Schiavo should have had the authority to make decisions on behalf of his wife , Terri , and that the United States Congress overstepped its bounds with its intervention in the case . However , other polls seemed to favor the Schindler family 's position , and questions were raised about the wording of all the polls .
= = Developments since Schiavo 's death = =
Since Terri Schiavo 's death in March 2005 , her family and Michael Schiavo have clashed a number of times . Each side has also worked to promote their own causes related to the case . In April 2005 , the families disagreed over Schiavo 's burial . The Schindlers had wanted her body to be buried in Florida , while Michael Schiavo said at the time that he would cremate her body and then have her ashes buried in her home state of Pennsylvania . In June 2005 , however , Schiavo 's ashes were buried in Florida instead . The words " I kept my promise " were included on the marker , referring to his promise to follow what he said was her wish not to be kept alive artificially . The statement angered the Schindlers .
In December 2005 , Michael Schiavo created a political action committee , TerriPAC . It was formed to raise money to support right @-@ to @-@ die candidates and oppose candidates who had voted for government involvement in the Schiavo case . In 2007 , TerriPAC paid a $ 1 @,@ 350 fine to the Federal Election Commission for failing to file complete and timely records . Schiavo shut down the PAC later that year .
The Schindlers continued operation of the Terri Schindler Schiavo Foundation , with a new goal of helping individuals in situations similar to Terri 's . In April 2010 , Michael Schiavo charged that the Schindlers were improperly using Terri 's name , as he held the rights to it , and that the family was using the foundation in order to make money . A Florida television station looked at the foundation 's tax records and found that for 2008 , it paid 64 % of the $ 91 @,@ 568 it raised in salaries to Terri 's father , Robert Schindler , Sr. , her sister , Suzanne Vitadamo , and her brother , Robert Schindler , Jr . Their attorney said the foundation does its work effectively and that the high percentage for salaries was due to the small amount of money the foundation raises . He also said that the Schindlers had the right to use Terri 's name as she is a public figure . The foundation had been fined $ 1 @,@ 000 shortly before Schiavo 's death for failing to file timely paperwork . In September 2010 , the Schindlers renamed the organization the " Terri Schiavo Life and Hope Network . "
In 2006 , both Michael Schiavo and the Schindlers released books telling their sides of the story . Schiavo 's was called Terri : The Truth , while the Schindlers ' was titled A Life that Matters : The Legacy of Terri Schiavo – A Lesson for Us All .
= Stone Sour ( album ) =
Stone Sour is the debut studio album by American heavy metal band Stone Sour . It was recorded and produced by the band and Tom Tatman at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa , and was released on August 27 , 2002 , through Roadrunner Records . Writing for the album began in 2000 while vocalist Corey Taylor and guitarist Jim Root were still actively involved in their other band , Slipknot . Work began on the album after Slipknot had gone on hiatus following touring in support of their second album Iowa .
Following the release of the album , Stone Sour went on to promote it for almost a year ; releasing three singles and touring in several regions , including the United States and several countries in Europe . The album received generally positive reviews . It was praised for showing a diversity in Taylor 's vocals , which was not presented in Slipknot 's early albums . It was also certified Gold in the United States and two singles from the album received Grammy Award nominations for Best Metal Performance in consecutive years .
= = Development = =
In 2000 , Josh Rand contacted Corey Taylor after Taylor had returned from touring in Japan with his other band Slipknot about material he had been working on . Speaking about the experience , Taylor said , " we just started writing stuff and it started to happen " . The duo wrote 14 songs and began working in a studio on some demos . Taylor added that it got to a point where he said to Rand , " I think we 're going to have to put a real band together , because this is just too serious ! " After further enlisting the help of Joel Ekman and previous Stone Sour members Shawn Economaki and Jim Root , the band began working on the album at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa . Before the release of the album , the band went through several different names , most notably Superego , before later announcing that they would use their original name Stone Sour .
= = Marketing = =
Prior to the release of the album , the track " Bother " was featured on the soundtrack for the film Spider @-@ Man ; however , it was only credited to Corey Taylor . In support of the album , Stone Sour released two singles in quick succession ; " Get Inside " was the band 's first music video and it included live footage . Released shortly after , " Bother " also featured a music video .
Throughout October and November 2002 , Stone Sour toured the United States in support of the album with Chevelle and Sinch . In 2003 , the band continued to tour in support of the album ; including a European tour with Saliva , an American tour with Powerman 5000 , several appearances at European festivals , a UK tour with Murderdolls , amongst others .
The third single from the album , " Inhale , " was released in early 2003 , shortly after the previously unreleased track " Inside the Cynic " was featured on the soundtrack for Freddy vs. Jason . On October 21 , 2003 , a special edition version of Stone Sour was released which included " Inside the Cynic " , four additional unreleased tracks , a DVD which featured all three music videos and alternative cover artwork .
= = Musical style = =
Corey Taylor touted Stone Sour as " melodic hard rock with content and initiative . " Jason D. Taylor of Allmusic noted that although it is not displayed on early Slipknot releases , " [ Corey ] Taylor has the ability to actually sing , " citing Alice in Chains and Soundgarden as influences . Jason Taylor went on to state the album gets better after multiple listens . Jeff Modzelewski of 411mania wrote the album mixed " hostility , reservation , brutality and melody . " According to Modzelewski , the album has a " mainstream sound " with each of the band 's members standing out during one song or another . Don Kaye of Blabbermouth.net felt the message of " Bother " did not differ from Slipknot tracks , but was " presented in an utterly different musical vein " . Kaye also felt the album " holds its own ... in terms of heaviness and power . " " The band knows how to put together an energetic rocker , " wrote NY Rock ; elements such as the " melodic twist to the songs ... will please hardcore and metal fans . "
= = Critical reception = =
Stone Sour received generally positive reviews . Most reviewers offered some comparison to that of vocalist Taylor and guitarist Root 's other band Slipknot . While reviewing the album , Don Kaye wrote that " it 's rare that a musician offers up another venue for their talents that proves to be equal to their fulltime outfit , " stating that Stone Sour is one such case . While Rowan Shaeffer of Counterculture states that " Get Inside " is " the closest to Slipknot that Stone Sour get , " even comparing it to the Slipknot single " Left Behind " . Citing " the chugging rhythm , manic kick @-@ drums and shout @-@ along vocals " as specific elements that are reminiscent of Slipknot , adding that it was " an obvious choice for a single " as it would not alienate their potential audience of Slipknot fans . Jason D. Taylor noted the similarity in lyrical content to that of Slipknot 's ; however , he stated that vocalist Taylor comes across as less infuriated which " allows the songs themselves to settle smoothly , yet motivate the listener to feel the emotion " . NY Rock stated that the album has a " more balanced feel to it " than that of Slipknot 's most recent release at that time , Iowa .
Reviewers also noted upon the album 's versatility , specifically that of Taylor 's vocal range and abilities . Jeff Modzelewski praised the opening track " Get Inside " explaining , " the scorching speed @-@ metal verse and screaming chorus are played off pretty well against the melodic pre @-@ chorus " . Jason D. Taylor cited " Orchids " and " Take a Number " as songs which stand out because they " strike with surprising force for an alternative rock group " . On a similar note , Don Kaye said the album includes some " sinister , groove @-@ oriented metal gems that refreshingly stay away from nu metal cliches " . The most melodic track on the album , " Bother " , received specific attention from most reviewers . Modzelewski said that the track " seems to be the song that the album has been preparing everyone for " , further adding that Taylor proves " that he is a legitimate vocalist who doesn 't need to rely on destroying his vocal chords to make a good song " . In his review , Rowan Shaeffer stated the track was a specific highlight , but said that the change in style was " at odds with the rest of the material " on the album .
In 2003 , Stone Sour 's first single from the album , " Get Inside " , was nominated for the Best Metal performance at the 45th Grammy Awards . On March 20 , 2003 , Stone Sour was certified Gold in the United States . The following year , the album 's third single , " Inhale " , was also nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Corey Taylor , all music composed and performed by Stone Sour .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= Crewe Hall =
Crewe Hall is a Jacobean mansion located near Crewe Green , east of Crewe , in Cheshire , England . Described by Nikolaus Pevsner as one of the two finest Jacobean houses in Cheshire , it is listed at grade I. Built in 1615 – 36 for Sir Randolph Crewe , it was one of the county 's largest houses in the 17th century , and was said to have " brought London into Cheshire " .
The hall was extended in the late 18th century and altered by Edward Blore in the early Victorian era . It was extensively restored by E. M. Barry after a fire in 1866 , and is considered among his best works . Other artists and craftsmen employed during the restoration include J. Birnie Philip , J. G. Crace , Henry Weekes and the firm of Clayton and Bell . The interior is elaborately decorated and contains many fine examples of wood carving , chimneypieces and plasterwork , some of which are Jacobean in date .
The park was landscaped during the 18th century by Lancelot Brown , William Emes , John Webb and Humphry Repton , and formal gardens were designed by W. A. Nesfield in the 19th century . On the estate are cottages designed by Nesfield 's son , William Eden Nesfield , which Pevsner considered to have introduced features such as tile hanging and pargetting into Cheshire . The stables quadrangle is contemporary with the hall and is listed at grade II * .
The hall remained the seat of various branches of the Crewe family until 1936 , when the land was sold to the Duchy of Lancaster . It was used as offices after the Second World War , serving as the headquarters for the Wellcome Foundation for nearly thirty years . As of 2013 , it is used as a hotel , restaurant and health club .
= = History = =
= = = Sir Randolph Crewe , Civil War and the Restoration = = =
Crewe was the seat of the de Crewe ( or de Criwa ) family in the 12th and 13th centuries ; they built a timber @-@ framed manor house there in around 1170 . The manor passed to the de Praers family of Barthomley in 1319 by the marriage of Johanna de Crewe to Richard de Praers . Later in the 14th century it passed to the Fouleshurst ( or Foulehurst ) family , who held the manor jointly with that of Barthomley until around 1575 , when the estate was dispersed . Legal problems resulted in the lands being acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton , from whose heirs Sir Randolph Crewe ( 1559 – 1646 ) purchased an extensive estate including the manors of Crewe , Barthomley and Haslington in 1608 for over £ 6 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 03 million today ) .
Born in nearby Nantwich , reputedly the son of a tanner , Sir Randolph ( or Ranulph ) had risen through the legal profession to become a judge , member of parliament and the parliamentary Speaker . His fortune derived from his successful practice in chancery and other London courts . He briefly served as Lord Chief Justice in 1625 – 26 , but was dismissed by Charles I for his refusal to endorse a forced loan without the consent of parliament . He divided his enforced retirement between his London house and the Crewe estate . In 1615 , he commenced building a substantial hall at Crewe , either adjacent to the old house , which was by then in disrepair , or after demolishing it . He later wrote that " it hath pleased God of his abundant goodness to reduce the house and Mannor of the name to the name againe . "
A few years after the hall 's completion in 1636 , Civil War broke out . Like most of the legal families of Cheshire , the Crewe family was parliamentarian , and the hall was used as a garrison . In December 1643 , royalist forces under the command of Lord Byron occupied the area as they surrounded Nantwich , a major parliamentarian stronghold early in the First Civil War which lay some 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south west . A contemporary diarist , Edward Burghall , vicar of nearby Acton , described the subsequent action : " The royalists laid siege to Crewe Hall , where they within the house slew sixty , and wounded many , on St. John 's Day ; but wanting victuals and ammunition , they were forced to yield it up the next day , and themselves , a hundred and thirty @-@ six , became prisoners , stout and valiant soldiers , having quarter for life granted them . " On 4 February 1644 , shortly after the decisive parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Nantwich , the hall was retaken by Sir Thomas Fairfax 's forces .
Sir Randolph Crewe died a couple of years later , before the end of the First Civil War . His male line died out in 1684 , and the hall passed to the Offley family by the marriage of Sir Randolph 's great @-@ granddaughter , Anne Crewe , to John Offley of Madeley Old Manor , Staffordshire . Their eldest son , also John ( 1681 – 1749 ) , took the name Crewe in 1708 . The Offley – Crewe family was very wealthy at this time : John Offley Crewe 's income at his death was estimated at £ 15 @,@ 000 per year ( £ 2 @.@ 1 million today ) . Both John Offley Crewe and his son John Crewe ( 1709 – 1752 ) served as members of parliament for Cheshire .
= = = Barons Crewe and Marquess of Crewe = = =
Anne Crewe 's great @-@ grandson , John Crewe ( 1742 – 1829 ) , was created the first Baron Crewe in 1806 . A prominent Whig politician , he was a lifelong friend and supporter of Charles James Fox ; his wife Frances Crewe ( née Greville ; 1748 – 1818 ) was a famous beauty and political hostess who gave lavish entertainments at the hall . The Crewes ' social circle included many of the major figures of the day , and visitors to the hall during this period included politicians Fox and George Canning , philosopher Edmund Burke , playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan , poet William Spencer , musicologist Charles Burney , and artists Sir Joshua Reynolds and Sir Thomas Lawrence . John Crewe had the park landscaped and the hall extended , and also had the interior remodelled in the neo @-@ Classical style then fashionable . Some forty years later , his grandson Hungerford Crewe ( 1812 – 94 ) went to considerable expense to have the interiors redecorated in a more sympathetic Jacobethan style .
The house was insured in 1857 for £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 900 thousand today ) ; the contents at that time included books and wines ( insured for £ 2 @,@ 250 ) , mathematical and musical instruments ( £ 250 ) , and pictures ( £ 1 @,@ 000 ) . The art collection included several family portraits and other works by Sir Joshua Reynolds , which were saved from the fire that gutted the building early in January 1866 . Extensive restoration work for Hungerford Crewe was completed in 1870 .
Hungerford Crewe never married and on his death in 1894 , the barony became extinct . The hall was inherited by his nephew , Robert Milnes , Baron Houghton ( 1858 – 1945 ) , the son of Annabella Hungerford Crewe ; he adopted the name Crewe , to become Crewe @-@ Milnes . The Crewe title was revived as an earldom for him in 1895 , and he later became the Marquess of Crewe . A Liberal politician and poet , Crewe @-@ Milnes held several key Cabinet positions between 1905 and 1916 , and was a trusted aide to Asquith . He was also a friend of George V , and the King and Queen Mary stayed at the hall for three days in 1913 , while touring the Staffordshire Potteries .
The Crewe @-@ Milnes family left Crewe Hall in 1922 , and the house stood empty until the Second World War . Crewe @-@ Milnes offered the hall to Cheshire County Council as a gift in 1931 , ostensibly because his heirs did not wish to live in the house . After the council 's refusal , the majority of the estate was sold to the Duchy of Lancaster in 1936 . His grandson , writer Quentin Crewe , described Crewe @-@ Milnes as " both extravagant and poorly advised " .
= = = Calmic , Wellcome and hotel = = =
Early in the Second World War , Crewe Hall was used as a military training camp , repatriation camp for Dunkirk troops and a US army camp , becoming the gun operations headquarters for the north @-@ west region in 1942 . It housed a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp for German officers from 1943 . The hall was leased as offices in 1946 , becoming the headquarters of Calmic Limited , who eventually employed nearly 800 people at Crewe Hall . Calmic produced hygiene and medical products on the site including tablets , creams , analgesics and antibiotic aerosols ; they constructed industrial facilities adjacent to the hall including a drying and filtration plant and pharmaceutical packaging unit . After Wellcome 's acquisition of Calmic in 1965 , the hall served as the UK and Ireland headquarters of the Wellcome Foundation until the merger with Glaxo in 1995 . Wellcome produced liquids , tablets , creams and antibiotic aerosols at the site ; the hall itself was used for administration , but the stables block was rebuilt internally for use as laboratories and the industrial facilities were expanded .
In 1994 , the Duchy of Lancaster sold the Crewe Hall buildings and the adjacent industrial site , which became Crewe Hall Enterprise Park . The Crewe Hall buildings remained empty after Wellcome moved out and were sold to a hotel developer in 1998 ; the hall became a 26 @-@ bedroom hotel the following year . Several additional buildings in a modern style were constructed in the 21st century to extend the accommodation .
= = Architectural history = =
The Jacobean hall was built for Sir Randolph Crewe between 1615 and 1636 . The architect of the original building is unknown , although some historians have concluded that its design was based on drawings by Inigo Jones . Although of a relatively conservative design , similar to that of Longleat from half a century earlier , the hall seems to have been considered progressive in provincial Cheshire . The historian Thomas Fuller wrote in 1662 :
Sir Randal first brought the model of excellent building into these remoter parts ; yea , brought London into Cheshire , in the loftiness , sightliness , and pleasantness of their structures .
Hearth @-@ tax assessments of 1674 show the original hall to have been one of the largest houses in Cheshire , its 42 hearths being surpassed only by Cholmondeley House and Rocksavage , neither of which have survived . As depicted in a painting of around 1710 , the original building was square with sides of around 100 feet ( 30 m ) , and featured gabled projecting bays and groups of octagonal chimney stacks . Built around a central open courtyard , the interior had a great hall and long gallery ; the main entrance led to a screens passage and the main staircase was in a small east hall . Externally , there was a walled forecourt and formal walled gardens ; a range of separate service buildings was located to the west .
= = = Georgian and Jacobethan alterations = = =
The house remained unaltered for much of the 18th century , in contrast to most of the other principal seats in the county . It was described in 1769 as " a square of very old date ... more to be admired now for its antiquity than elegance or conveniency . " Work was carried out during the 1780s and 90s for John Crewe ( later the first Baron Crewe ) . A service wing to the west in a Jacobean revival style was added to the hall in 1780 . The principal interiors of the old building were redecorated in neo @-@ Classical style at this time , although the original layout with great hall , long gallery and drawing room was retained . Improvements were made to the wine cellars and bedrooms in 1783 , and J. Cheney was employed to build a new attic staircase and seven bedrooms in 1796 . Edmund Burke wrote in 1788 , " I am vastly pleased with this place . We build no such houses in our time . " The second Lord Palmerston , visiting in the same year , wrote :
But now by taste and judgment plann 'd ,
Throughout these scenes we find
The work of Art 's improving hand ,
With ancient splendour join 'd .
The house was altered again in 1837 – 42 by Edward Blore for Hungerford Crewe . Blore replaced a local architect , George Latham , who had been commissioned in 1836 . Many of Blore 's working drawings survive in the Royal Institute of British Architects archive . He carried out decorative work to the interior in the Jacobethan style and made major changes to the plan of the ground floor , which included replacing the screens passage with an entrance hall and covering the central courtyard to create a single @-@ storey central hall . He also fitted plate glass windows throughout and installed a warm @-@ air heating system . The total cost , including his work on estate buildings , was £ 30 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 @.@ 5 million today ) .
= = = E. M. Barry restoration = = =
Most of Blore 's work to the main hall was destroyed in the fire of 1866 . Hungerford Crewe is said to have asked Blore , then retired , to restore the building , but he declined . The restoration work was instead carried out by E. M. Barry , son of Sir Charles Barry , the architect of the Palace of Westminster , and the contractors Cubitt & Co . ; it was completed in 1870 , at a cost of £ 150 @,@ 000 ( £ 12 @.@ 9 million today ) . In a lecture to the Royal Academy , Barry later outlined his strategy for the restoration :
The greatest care has been taken to recover the design of Sir Randolph for such of the work as it has been possible to restore ... although with less roughness of execution and uncouthness of detail , particularly in respect of the human figure . Such peculiarities cannot , I think , be properly repeated in a modern reconstruction ... it is not the part of the nineteenth century restorer to reproduce matters which at best were the weaknesses of his predecessors . He ... should not seek , by a clever imitation of bygone tricks of construction or design , to deceive the spectator as to the age of his own work , and so pass off the latter as something which it is not .
Nikolaus Pevsner describes Barry 's reconstruction as " an extremely sumptuous job . " Peter de Figueiredo and Julian Treuherz consider it his finest work , attributing his success to being " directed by the powerful character of the existing building . " Barry 's work is considered to be , in general , more elaborate and more regular than the original . For the restoration of the interior , he employed several of the leading artists and craftsmen of the time , who had previously worked on the Palace of Westminster . Barry 's principal innovation was the addition of a tower to the west wing , which was required for water storage . Intended to unite the east and west wings of the hall , the effect is limited by the tower 's Victorian design . He also reorganised the plan of the building , opening up Blore 's central hall to create a two @-@ storey atrium , as well as providing more ground @-@ floor service rooms and generating twenty extra servants ' bedrooms in an attic by modifying the roof .
Local architect Thomas Bower performed some alterations to the house for Robert Crewe @-@ Milnes in 1896 , including extending the service wing . Few changes to the hall itself occurred during Calmic 's tenancy . The company installed central heating in around 1948 , and later constructed an office extension on the north side of the house , which was demolished a few years after the building 's conversion into an hotel . Calmic had undertaken only cosmetic maintenance work , and by the 1970s the fabric of the building was in poor repair . A major stonework fall from the north gable during high winds in 1974 led Wellcome to carry out an extensive restoration programme to both the interior and the exterior , which was completed in 1979 at a cost of £ 500 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 @.@ 3 million today ) .
= = Main hall = =
Crewe Hall is a grade @-@ I @-@ listed mansion located at SJ733540 in the civil parish of Crewe Green , ½ mile ( 1 km ) from the edge of Crewe . The architecture historian Nikolaus Pevsner considered the main hall to be one of the two finest Jacobean houses in Cheshire , the other being Dorfold Hall at Acton . Constructed in red brick with stone dressings and a lead and slate roof , the hall has two storeys with attics and basements . The eastern half of the present building largely represents the original Jacobean hall . The exterior survived the fire of 1866 and the majority of the diapered brickwork is original , although some of the stonework of the porch and the tops of the gables was renewed by E. M. Barry .
The south ( front ) face of the eastern wing has seven bays , with a balustraded parapet at eaves level . The central bay is set forward to form a stone centrepiece around the arched main entrance , which is flanked by fluted Ionic columns . Immediately above the entrance are doubled tapering pilasters flanking a three @-@ light window , all surmounted by a large cartouche decorated with strapwork . On the first floor of the central bay is a triple @-@ mullion window , and above the parapet is a coat of arms . Flanking the centrepiece are two bays with diapered brickwork and single @-@ mullion windows . The two ends of the south face are also
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with machine guns on the unarmed crowd , killing an estimated 200 – 250 . The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in nonviolence , willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them . One British Indian Army Soldier Chandra Singh Garwali and troops of the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles , refused to fire at the crowds . The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy penalties , including life imprisonment .
While Gandhi marched along India 's west coast , his close associate C. Rajagopalachari , who would later become sovereign India 's first Governor @-@ General , organized the Vedaranyam salt march in parallel on the east coast . His group started from Tiruchirappalli , in Madras Presidency ( now part of Tamil Nadu ) , to the coastal village of Vedaranyam . After making illegal salt there , he too was arrested by the British .
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom . Thousands of women , from large cities to small villages , became active participants in satyagraha . Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march , but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India . Usha Mehta , an early Gandhian activist , remarked that " Even our old aunts and great @-@ aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt . And then they would shout at the top of their voices : ' We have broken the salt law ! ' " The growing number of women in the fight for sovereignty and self @-@ rule was a " new and serious feature " according to Lord Irwin . A government report on the involvement of women stated " thousands of them emerged .... from the seclusion of their homes ... in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing : and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant . "
There were outbreaks of violence in Calcutta ( now Kolkata ) , Karachi , and Gujarat . Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non @-@ co @-@ operation movement , this time Gandhi was " unmoved " . Appealing for violence to end , at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents " for the finished sacrifices of their sons .... A warrior 's death is never a matter for sorrow . "
British documents show that the British government was shaken by satyagraha . Nonviolent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi . John Court Curry , a British police officer stationed in India , wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930 . Curry and others in British government , including Wedgwood Benn , Secretary of State for India , preferred fighting violent rather than nonviolent opponents .
= = Dharasana Satyagraha and Aftermath = =
Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march , though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India . He created a temporary ashram near Dandi . From there , he urged women followers in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth . He said that " a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth . Schools and colleges should become empty . "
For his next major action , Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat , 25 miles south of Dandi . He wrote to Lord Irwin , again telling him of his plans . Around midnight of 4 May , as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove , the District Magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily armed constables . He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities , and held without trial near Poona ( now Pune ) .
The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned , with Abbas Tyabji , a seventy @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old retired judge , leading the march with Gandhi 's wife Kasturba at his side . Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison . After their arrests , the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu , a woman poet and freedom fighter , who warned the satyagrahis , " You must not use any violence under any circumstances . You will be beaten , but you must not resist : you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows . " Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention . United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that :
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows . They went down like ten @-@ pins . From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls . The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow . Those struck down fell sprawling , unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders . In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies . Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes . The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down .... Finally the police became enraged by the non @-@ resistance .... They commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the abdomen and testicles . The injured men writhed and squealed in agony , which seemed to inflame the fury of the police .... The police then began dragging the sitting men by the arms or feet , sometimes for a hundred yards , and throwing them into ditches .
Vithalbhai Patel , former Speaker of the Assembly , watched the beatings and remarked , " All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever . " Miller 's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph operators in India . Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass . The story appeared in 1 @,@ 350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States Senate by Senator John J. Blaine .
Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world . Millions saw the newsreels showing the march . Time magazine declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year , comparing Gandhi 's march to the sea " to defy Britain 's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax . " Civil disobedience continued until early 1931 , when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin . It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms , and resulted in the Gandhi – Irwin Pact . The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931 .
= = Long @-@ term effect = =
Salt Satyagraha produced scant progress toward dominion status or self @-@ rule for India , and did not win any major concessions from the British . It also failed to attract Muslim support . Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934 . Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhi , who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme , which included his efforts to end untouchability in the Harijan movement . Even though British authorities were again in control by the mid @-@ 1930s , Indian , British , and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of claims by Gandhi and the Congress Party for sovereignty and self @-@ rule . The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognise that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of the Indians – Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent .
Nehru considered the Salt Satyagraha the high @-@ water mark of his association with Gandhi , and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians :
" Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery . But the real importance , to my mind , lay in the effect they had on our own people , and especially the village masses .... Non @-@ cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self @-@ respect and self @-@ reliance .... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression ; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole .... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress , under Gandhi 's leadership , must have the credit for it . "
More than thirty years later , Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King , Jr . , and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960s :
" Like most people , I had heard of Gandhi , but I had never studied him seriously . As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance . I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts . The whole concept of Satyagraha ( Satya is truth which equals love , and agraha is force ; Satyagraha , therefore , means truth force or love force ) was profoundly significant to me . As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhi , my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished , and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform . "
= = Partial re @-@ enactment in 2005 = =
To commemorate the Great Salt March , the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation proposed a partial re @-@ enactment of the first few kilometres on the 75th anniversary . The event was known as the " International Walk for Justice and Freedom " . Mahatma Gandhi 's great @-@ grandson Tushar Gandhi and several hundred fellow marchers followed the same route to Dandi . The start of the march on 12 March 2005 in Ahmedabad was attended by Sonia Gandhi , Chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance , as well as several Indian Cabinet Ministers , many of whom walked for the first few kilometres . The participants halted at Dandi on the night of 5 April , with the commemoration ending on 7 April .
A series of commemorative stamps were issued on the 75th anniversary of the Dandi March — denomination INR 5 , Date of Issue : 5 April 2005 .
= German submarine U @-@ 27 ( 1936 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 27 was a Type VIIA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine built for service in World War II . Her keel was laid down in November 1935 in Bremen . She was commissioned in August 1936 with Korvettenkapitän Hans Ibbeken in command . Ibbeken was relieved on 4 October 1937 , by Johannes Franz , who commanded the boat until 6 June 1939 when Hans @-@ Georg von Friedeburg assumed command for barely one month . He was relieved on 8 July again by Johannes Franz , who commanded the boat until her loss on 20 September 1939 .
U @-@ 27 had a very short career , with only one war patrol and only two enemy ships sunk . Following the sinking of two British trawlers , Davara on 13 September and Rudyard Kipling on 16 September , U @-@ 27 was hunted down and sunk west of Lewis , Scotland , by depth charges from the British destroyers HMS Fortune , Faulknor and Forester . All 38 crewmen survived and were made prisoner for the remainder of the war .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
U @-@ 27 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 1 April 1935 as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles . Her keel was laid down in the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen as yard number 908 on 11 November 1935 . After about nine months of construction , she was launched on 24 June 1936 and commissioned into the Kriegsmarine as the second Type VIIA submarine , ( after U @-@ 33 , which was commissioned a few months earlier ) , on 12 August under the command of Korvettenkapitän Hans Ibbeken .
= = = Design = = =
Like all Type VIIA submarines , U @-@ 27 displaced 626 tonnes ( 616 long tons ) on the surface and 745 t ( 733 long tons ) submerged . She was 64 @.@ 51 m ( 211 ft 8 in ) in overall length and had a 45 @.@ 50 m ( 149 ft 3 in ) pressure hull . U @-@ 27 's propulsion consisted of two MAN 6 @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ stroke M 6 V 40 / 46 diesel engines that totaled 2 @,@ 100 – 2 @,@ 310 PS ( 1 @,@ 540 – 1 @,@ 700 kW ; 2 @,@ 070 – 2 @,@ 280 bhp ) at maximum between 470 and 485 rpm giving a maximum speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) on the surface and a range of 6 @,@ 200 nmi ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The submarine was also equipped with two Brown , Boveri & Cie GG UB 720 / 8 electric motors that totaled 750 PS ( 550 kW ; 740 shp ) . Their maximum rpm was 322 and they could propel the submarine 95 nmi ( 176 km ; 109 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) when submerged , with an underwater maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The U @-@ boat 's test depth was 220 m ( 720 ft ) , but she could go as deep as 230 – 250 m ( 750 – 820 ft ) without having her hull crushed . U @-@ 27 's armament consisted of five 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four located in the bow and one in the stern ) . She could have up to 11 torpedoes on board or 22 TMA mines or 33 TMB mines . U @-@ 27 was also equipped with a 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 deck gun with 220 rounds . Her anti @-@ aircraft defenses consisted of one 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . U @-@ 27 had a crew of four officers and 40 to 56 enlisted men .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 27 had a very short career , conducting only one war patrol and sinking only two enemy vessels before she herself was sunk . She left Wilhelmshaven on her first war patrol on 23 August 1939 . For a period of 24 days , she traveled down the coast of Germany and neutral Belgium and the Netherlands , through the English Channel and out into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Ireland . Here , the boat sank two British trawlers , totaling 624 tons . The first attack took place at 2 : 55 on 13 September , 21 nmi ( 39 km ; 24 mi ) northwest of Tory Island , when the trawler Davara was shelled by U @-@ 27 's deck gun . Following the sinking of Davara , her captain and 11 other crew members were picked up by the steam merchant ship Willowpool . The second vessel to be sunk was the trawler Rudyard Kipling . The attack took place at 3 : 53 on 16 September , 100 nmi ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) west of the west coast of neutral Ireland , with the ship being sunk by scuttling charges from U @-@ 27 . Following the sinking of Rudyard Kipling , the submarine picked up the crew of the trawler who were then given food and warm clothes . Eight hours later , Rudyard Kipling 's crew were allowed to re @-@ enter their lifeboats to row the remaining 5 nmi ( 9 @.@ 3 km ; 5 @.@ 8 mi ) to Ireland .
= = = Fate = = =
The destroyers HMS Fortune and HMS Faulknor ( who sank U @-@ 39 six days earlier ) , had been part of a concerted effort to find and sink the U @-@ Boat that had been attacking trawlers . On 20 September 1939 , three torpedoes were fired at the warships , but failed to do any damage when they exploded prematurely . The British vessels replied with a series of depth charge attacks , one of which damaged the German submarine sufficiently to force it to the surface . Fortune 's ramming attack was curtailed when it became apparent that the U @-@ Boat was surrendering . All 38 crewmen survived and were taken prisoner . U @-@ 27 became the second German submarine to be sunk in World War II after U @-@ 39 was sunk on 14 September 1939 .
U @-@ 27 's skipper , Kapitänleutnant Johannes Franz was able , via code , to inform Bdu , the U @-@ boat high command , of the situation regarding the malfunctioning torpedoes from his prison camp .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
= 1904 Chappaqua tornado =
The 1904 Chappaqua tornado was an intense tornado that struck northern Westchester County , New York during the afternoon of July 16 , 1904 . As of 2009 , this tornado ranks as the strongest tornado to touch down in the county , ranking as F3 on the modern @-@ day Fujita Scale . The tornado formed around 3 : 30 pm EST within a severe thunderstorm near Chappaqua , New York . The tornado quickly began to produce damage in the hamlet , destroying several structures and killing two people . Homes were knocked off their foundations and rolled over along the tornado 's path . By 4 : 00 pm EST , the tornado dissipated and left $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1904 USD ; $ 2 @.@ 4 million 2009 USD ) worth of damage in its wake . Hail associated with the same storm cell also inflicted damage upon a few structures . The tornado is known as the worst disaster in the history of Chappaqua .
= = Synopsis = =
During the afternoon of July 16 , 1904 , a severe thunderstorm produced a strong tornado that touched down around 3 : 30 pm EST in Chappaqua , New York . Residents reported the first indication of the thunderstorm was a large black cloud approaching the region . The sky was reportedly completely dark as torrential rain and high winds commenced . Intense lightning and loud thunder prompted people to seek shelter in their cellars . The tornado tracked directly through Chappaqua before moving towards the Hudson River . Upon reaching the river , the tornado became a waterspout that was powerful enough to uncover the river bed below it . The waterspout eventually dissipated by 4 : 00 pm EST . The tornado was later rated as F3 on the modern @-@ day Fujita scale .
= = Impact = =
At the time of the tornado , roughly 1 @,@ 000 people lived in the hamlet of Chappaqua . Five homes and three barns were destroyed by the tornado and two people , 80 @-@ year @-@ old Mrs. Mary Hibbs and an unknown woman , were killed ; six additional people were injured . Orchards in the path of the tornado were completely destroyed and greenhouses were leveled . The severity of lightning during the storm caused many women to faint according to The New York Times .
The five homes destroyed were wood @-@ frame , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story buildings , one of which was lifted off its foundation and flipped over before falling to the ground , being demolished on impact . One of the home 's occupants was killed after the chimney fell on her . Another person died from shock after seeing her home destroyed . The other four homes were all located within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of each other . One of the destroyed homes belonged to Walter Snarles ; he saw the tornado approaching his home and saved his life by jumping out a window before the home was rolled over by the tornado . Another home belonged to Mrs. Hester Cox ; she sustained minor bruises after her home was also rolled over . Nearby , the home of Mr. Marrow was also destroyed ; at the time of the tornado , he , his daughter and his niece were inside . The home was turned over on its side ; debris injured the two girls , knocking the niece unconscious .
A barn belonging to Charles Dodge was destroyed , while the Kensico Cemetery sustained significant hail damage . All the glass on one of the conservatories was shattered . Within hours after the tornado , nearby firefighters rushed to the hamlet to assist victims of the storm . During the nighttime hours , they patrolled the streets and watched over destroyed homes to prevent looters from stealing any valuable items left in the debris . Property damage from the tornado was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1904 USD ) and five families were left homeless . Following an assessment of the damage , debris from destroyed homes was found upwards of 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Chappaqua , including a marriage certificate . A calf was picked up and tossed roughly 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) before landing in an open field unharmed . Two plants were also thrown roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) by the tornado .
= A5 ( Croatia ) =
The A5 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A5 ) is a motorway in Croatia spanning 55 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 5 mi ) . It connects Osijek , the largest city in Slavonia region , to the Croatian motorway network at the Sredanci interchange of the A3 motorway . The A5 represents a significant north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and is a part of the European route E73 . The A5 motorway route also follows Pan @-@ European corridor Vc . In addition to Osijek , the A5 motorway also passes near Đakovo .
The first section of the A5 , joining the Sredanci interchange to Đakovo , was opened in 2007 ; the route to Osijek opened in 2009 . As of September 2011 , the section south of the A3 , extending to the Sava River and border of Bosnia and Herzegovina , is under construction . Once the entire Pan @-@ European corridor Vc is completed , motorists will recognize the A5 's importance as a transit route . When completed , the corridor shall entail the A5 itself extended to the Hungarian border and connected to the Hungarian M6 motorway as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina 's A1 motorway and the A10 motorway , completing the corridor route at the Adriatic Sea coast . The current route requires no major structures , but as of September 2011 , two major bridges are under construction — across Sava and Drava rivers as the motorway extends south and north respectively .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction separated by a central reservation . All intersections of the A5 motorway are grade separated . There are four exits and four rest areas operating along the route . The motorway is tolled using a ticket system , integrated with the A3 , and each exit includes a toll plaza .
= = Route description = =
The A5 is an important north – south motorway covering 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) in the eastern Croatian region of Slavonia , connecting the region 's largest city , Osijek , to the remainder of the Croatian motorway system . The A5 's southern terminus joins the A3 motorway at the Sredanci interchange ; its northern terminus is near Osijek , connecting to the city 's southern bypass . As a part of the road network of Croatia , the A5 is a part of European route E73 . The motorway is of great importance to Croatia 's economic development , especially tourism , as it represents a major southward transport route from southern Hungary . The Pan @-@ European corridor Vc will include the A5 , and its completion will highlight the importance of the A5 motorway .
The cities and towns with an immediate connection to the A5 include Đakovo via the D7 and Čepin via the Ž4105 county road . The A5 motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction , with carriageways separated by the median . All existing interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except for Sredanci , which is a cloverleaf . The A5 features a number of rest areas which provide various services including restrooms , filling stations and restaurants . The motorway has four interchanges , providing access to several towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The motorway is maintained and operated by the state @-@ owned management company Hrvatske autoceste .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signaling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts and bridges , and areas where fog is common . The system uses variable traffic signs to communicate driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorists .
The A5 motorway runs through plains crossed by a number of watercourses and railways running perpendicular to the motorway route , requiring a variety of bridges and viaducts . Particular attention to the environment is also necessary , due to water supply and natural heritage zones , as well as nearby agricultural production .
= = Toll = =
The A5 is a tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed toll system . Toll charged along the A5 route between Osijek and the Sredanci interchange depends on the route traveled and ranges from 4 @.@ 00 kuna ( 0 @.@ 54 euro ) to 30 @.@ 00 kuna ( 4 @.@ 05 euro ) for passenger cars and 13 @.@ 00 kuna ( 1 @.@ 76 euro ) to 98 @.@ 00 kuna ( 13 @.@ 24 euro ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . Motorcycles are charged approximately half of the passenger car rate . The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards , debit cards and a number of prepaid toll collection systems . The latter include smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC , an electronic toll collection system which is used by motorways across Croatia , with discounted rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas . Toll collection systems along the A5 and A3 are unified ; vehicles switching from one motorway to the other at Sredanci , for example , do not pass toll plazas at the interchange .
In the first half of 2011 Hrvatske autoceste collected 508 @.@ 1 million kuna ( 68 @.@ 7 million euro ) in toll revenue , an increase of 2 @.@ 25 % compared to the same period in 2010 . However , the company reports revenue for the entire motorway network and does not provide data for individual motorways .
= = History = =
The first section of the A5 motorway , covering 23 @-@ kilometre ( 14 mi ) between the Sredanci interchange and Đakovo was opened on 9 November 2007 . This was Croatia 's first commitment to improve transport facilities along the Pan @-@ European transport corridor Vc , while providing a feeder motorway to the A3 toward Osijek , the largest city in the east of the country . Hrvatske autoceste invested 1 @.@ 4 billion kuna ( 189 million euro ) to construct the first section , completed in eighteen months by a consortium of Croatian construction companies . When the first section opened , construction on a second stretch of the A5 , reaching 32 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 20 @.@ 2 mi ) between Đakovo and Osijek , was announced on 15 November , with completion scheduled for December 2008 .
The route extension to Osijek was delayed by four months , but opened on 17 April 2009 . The construction works were completed in 17 months at a price of 2 @.@ 13 billion kuna ( 287 million euro ) . Completion of this section marked the start of toll collection on the A5 motorway . The motorway is nicknamed " Slavonika " , presumably because it spans Slavonia from North to South , although the Sredanci interchange with the A3 motorway is also called Slavonika by some media .
In general , motorways in Croatia have led to a positive economic impact on the cities and towns they connected , as well as aiding tourism in Croatia .
= = Further construction = =
As of September 2011 , 3 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) Sredanci – Svilaj border crossing section was under construction , representing the southernmost section of the A5 motorway . The new section includes an additional exit to Svilaj , a mainline toll plaza , a border crossing and a bridge across the Sava River . This bridge leads to Bosnia and Herzegovina , where the motorway is scheduled to continue as A1 motorway towards Sarajevo , Mostar and Ploče , reconnecting to the Croatian motorway network — A10 motorway . The section is scheduled for completion in 2014 .
An extension is also planned for the A5 motorway north of Osijek , across the Drava River , to the Hungarian border , where it will connect to the Hungarian M6 motorway at a Branjin Vrh / Ivándárda border crossing . This route will also contain two new exits near Čeminac and Beli Manastir and a new bridge over the Drava River . In July 2011 , a groundbreaking ceremony was held at the bridge construction site , as a preparation for extension of the A5 . In May 2012 , Hrvatske autoceste — the investor in the construction works contract — proposed cancellation of the construction works as a cost @-@ cutting measure , even though funding of the works was secured through European Investment Bank and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development loans .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted and reported by Hrvatske autoceste , the operator of the motorway , and is published by Hrvatske ceste . Variations between AADT and average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts during the summer . On average , the A5 motorway carries 14 % more ASDT than AADT . The largest increase , 15 % , of ASDT relative to AADT is observed on the Đakovo – Sredanci section .
The variations between the AADT and the ASDT traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries certain tourist traffic from Hungary to the Croatian motorway network and ultimately to the Adriatic Sea . On average the motorway carries 15 % increased volume of traffic during summer months . As the Hungarian M6 motorway is gradually extended towards the Croatian border and the A5 motorway 's northern terminus , the number of tourists traveling along this route in summer months is increasing .
= = Rest areas = =
There are four rest areas along the A5 motorway . Legislation identifies four types of rest areas : A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodations ; D @-@ type rest areas only offer parking spaces , possibly picnicking tables and benches and restrooms . Most rest areas along the A2 motorway generally follow this ranking system , although some offer extra services . Many filling stations along the Croatian motorway network have small convenience stores , and some offer LPG fuel .
The primary motorway operator , Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) , leases the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . There is a single such rest area operator on the A5 motorway : Petrol . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease fuel operations . The A5 motorway rest areas are accessible from both directions of the motorway and operate 24 hours a day , seven days a week .
= = Exit list = =
= Bobby Timmons =
Robert Henry " Bobby " Timmons ( December 19 , 1935 – March 1 , 1974 ) was an American jazz pianist and composer . He was a sideman in Art Blakey 's Jazz Messengers for two periods ( July 1958 to September 1959 ; February 1960 to June 1961 ) , between which he was part of Cannonball Adderley 's band . Several of Timmons ' compositions written when part of these bands – including " Moanin ' " , " Dat Dere " , and " This Here " – enjoyed commercial success and brought him more attention . In the early and mid @-@ 1960s he led a series of piano trios that toured and recorded extensively .
Timmons was strongly associated with the soul jazz style that he helped initiate ; this link to apparently simple writing and playing , coupled with drug and alcohol addiction , led to a decline in his career . Timmons died , aged 38 , from cirrhosis . His contribution to jazz remains undervalued .
= = Early life = =
Timmons was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the son of a minister . He had a sister , Eleanor . Both of his parents , and several aunts and uncles , played the piano . From an early age Timmons studied music with an uncle , Robert Habershaw , who also taught McCoy Tyner . Timmons first played at the church where his grandfather was minister ; this influenced his later jazz playing . He grew up in the same area as other future musicians , including the Heath brothers , Jimmy , Percy , and Tootie . Timmons ' first professional performances were in his local area , often as a trio that included Tootie Heath on drums . After graduating from high school Timmons was awarded a scholarship to study at the Philadelphia Musical Academy .
= = 1954 to spring 1961 = =
Timmons moved to New York in 1954 . He played with Kenny Dorham in 1956 , making his recording debut with the trumpeter in a live set in May of that year . He went on to play and record with Chet Baker in 1956 – 57 ( bassist Scott LaFaro was part of this band for a time ) , Sonny Stitt in 1957 , and Maynard Ferguson in 1957 – 58 . He also recorded as a sideman with hornmen Curtis Fuller , Hank Mobley , and Lee Morgan , all for Blue Note Records in 1957 .
Timmons became best known as a member of Art Blakey 's band the Jazz Messengers , which he was first part of from July 1958 to September 1959 , including for a tour of Europe . He was recruited for the Messengers by saxophonist Benny Golson , who said that " He was inventive , [ ... ] He could play bebop and he could play funky – he could play a lot of things , and I thought it was the element that Art needed . He hadn 't had anybody quite like Bobby , who could go here or go there , rather than walking in a single corridor . " By late 1958 Timmons was sharing bandmate Morgan 's East Sixth Street apartment and the pair had bought a piano , allowing Timmons to practice and Morgan to work on composing . From around the time he joined Blakey , Timmons , along with some of his fellow band members , was a heroin user . After leaving Blakey , Timmons joined Cannonball Adderley 's band , in October 1959 .
Timmons was also known as a composer during this period : The Encyclopedia of Jazz states that his compositions " Moanin ' " ( from the 1958 album of the same title ) , " This Here " , and " Dat Dere " " helped generate the gospel @-@ tinged ' soul jazz ' style of [ the ] late ' 50s and early ' 60s . " The first was written when Timmons was first with Blakey ; the others were composed when he was with Adderley . " This Here " ( sometimes " Dis Here " ) was a surprise commercial success for Adderley : recorded in concert in 1959 , it was released as part of the The Cannonball Adderley Quintet in San Francisco album while the band was still on tour , and they discovered its popularity only when they arrived back in New York and found crowds outside the Village Gate , where they were due to play .
Timmons was reported to be dissatisfied with the money he had received from " This Here " , and was enticed in February 1960 into leaving Adderley and returning to Blakey 's band by the offer of more pay . Timmons then appeared on further well @-@ known albums with the drummer , including A Night in Tunisia , The Freedom Rider and The Witch Doctor . His own recording debut as sole leader was This Here Is Bobby Timmons in 1960 , which contained his first versions of his best @-@ known compositions . In the same year , he played on recordings led by Nat Adderley , Arnett Cobb , and Johnny Griffin , among others ; on the first of these , Work Song , Timmons did not appear on all of the tracks , because he had been drinking heavily .
= = Summer 1961 to 1974 = =
Timmons left Blakey for the second time in June 1961 , encouraged by the success of his compositions , including jukebox plays of " Dat Dere " , which Oscar Brown had recorded after adding lyrics . Timmons then formed his own bands , initially with Ron Carter on bass and Tootie Heath on drums . They toured around the US , including the West Coast , but played most in and around New York . In the initial stages of this trio , Timmons liked the group sounds of the trios led by Red Garland and Ahmad Jamal . According to Tootie Heath , Timmons was at the peak of his fame at that point , but was addicted to heroin , and used a lot of the money that the band was paid maintaining his habit .
In 1963 Timmons ' playing , with Lewis Powers on bass and Ron McCurdy on drums , was described by a Washington Post reviewer as " flexible and adventuresome [ ... ] Glossing over everything is an undeniable sheen of church music and spirituals . " In 1965 the same reviewer commented that Timmons was employing musicians who were of much lower ability : " Timmons lacks a certain passion but I wonder if this is not the fault of his sidemen . " Timmons started playing vibes in the mid @-@ 1960s . He occasionally played organ , but recorded only one track on that instrument – a 1964 version of " Moanin ' " on From the Bottom . Recordings as a leader continued , usually as part of a trio or quartet , but , after joining Milestone Records around 1967 , Timmons ' album Got to Get It ! featured him as part of a nonet , playing arrangements by Tom McIntosh .
Timmons ' career declined quickly in the 1960s , in part because of drug abuse and alcoholism and partly as a result of frustration at being typecast as a composer and player of seemingly simple pieces of music . In 1968 he made his second , final , recording for Milestone , Do You Know the Way ? In the following year he played in a quartet led by Sonny Red , with Dexter Gordon on one of the saxophonist 's temporary returns to the US from Europe , and in a trio backing vocalist Etta Jones . Timmons continued to play in the early 1970s , mostly in small groups or in combination with other pianists , and mainly in the New York area .
According to saxophonist Jimmy Heath , Timmons joined Clark Terry 's big band for a tour of Europe in 1974 . He was unwell and drank on the plane to Sweden , and fell while drinking at the bar before the band 's first concert , in Malmö . Susceptible to blood clotting , he was flown back to the US . On March 1 , 1974 , he died from cirrhosis , at the age of 38 , at St Vincent 's Hospital in New York . He had been in hospital for a month . He was buried in Philadelphia , and was survived by his wife , Estelle , and son , also Bobby .
= = Playing style and influence = =
Timmons was known for using block chords , " a style in which the right hand creates the melody and the left hand moves with the rhythm of the right hand , but does not change voicing except to accommodate the chord changes . " His use of them was more aggressive , and less melodic , than that of Garland . The Penguin Guide to Jazz suggested that " Timmons ' characteristic style was a rolling , gospelly funk , perhaps longer on sheer energy than on harmonic sophistication . " In the opinion of Scott Yanow , stylistically , " somehow Bobby Timmons never grew beyond where he was in 1960 . " Gary Giddins , however , highlighted other facets of Timmons ' playing : the " lush [ Bud ] Powell @-@ inspired ballads , his clear , sharp , unsentimental long lines . " Carter also identified Powell as a primary influence on Timmons , and commented that his partner in the trio " was very giving , very loyal , played every night like it was his last chance to get it right . "
The funky aspects of Timmons ' playing influenced fellow pianists , including Les McCann , Ramsey Lewis , and Benny Green . Timmons is often mentioned as being under @-@ rated ; jazz writer Marc Myers commented in 2008 that " today , Timmons ' contribution to jazz – as an accompanist , writer , leader and innovator of a new sound – is vastly overlooked and undervalued . "
= = Compositions = =
Timmons wrote " a steady stream of infectious funky tunes " , stated Giddins . Timmons dismissed the idea that he was deliberately a composer : " I 'm a dilettante as a composer . I have never consciously sat down and tried to write a song . " He stated that his method of composing a new song might involve " whistling , playing around with the notes , or at a club . I 'll tell one musician to play this note , another that note , and we kick it around . " One account of the creation of " Moanin ' " was given by Golson : Timmons had the opening eight bars , which he often played between tunes , but formed the complete song only after Golson encouraged him to add a bridge .
= = Personality = =
Tootie Heath reported that , when they were on tour and Timmons was addicted to heroin , the pianist would routinely lie and sometimes pull out a knife to threaten people with . Carter , the bassist from that tour , stated that Timmons offered his bandmates a lot of encouragement to experiment and improve from performance to performance , and that he " was a really multi @-@ talented person and he was just a real sweetheart , a sweetheart of a man . " In Golson 's words , Timmons " had no ego about him , [ ... ] He was always upbeat , never downbeat , and he never maligned anybody unless it was in a humorous way . "
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader / co @-@ leader = = =
= = = As sideman = = =
Sources :
= Elizabeth Alkin =
Elizabeth Alkin ( c . 1600 – c . 1655 ) was a publisher , nurse and spy for the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War . Among the many derogatory names she was called by royalist sympathisers , that of Parliament Joan is one by which she is also commonly known .
= = Background and Civil War activities = =
Nothing is known of Alkin until 1645 ; because of comments of her age made later in life , her date of birth is taken to be around 1600 . She was the wife of Francis Alkin , a spy for the Parliamentarians who was hanged early in the English Civil War by royalist forces for his activities . She was the mother of three children .
In 1645 Alkin was employed by the earl of Essex , Sir William Waller , to be a spy for the Parliamentarians . She received a similar commission from Sir Thomas Fairfax two years later . Parliamentary records show that in 1645 she received payment from the Committee for the Advance of Money for uncovering the activities of George Mynnes , a Surrey @-@ based iron merchant , who was supplying metal to the royalist forces .
In the seventeenth century , daily news was published in newsbooks which tended to be small eight @-@ page publications , the forerunners of newspapers . They were usually sold on the street by what the historian Bob Clarke describes as " semi @-@ destitute female hawkers , known as Mercury Women " . Those publications supporting the royalist cause were closed down and the publishers prosecuted , and Alkin became involved in uncovering those behind the publication . In 1648 the royalist newsbooks the Mercurius Melancholicus and the Parliament Kite both referred to her attempts to uncover them , and the following year the Mercurius Pragmaticus called her an " old Bitch
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Fatah headquarters — as well as a mid @-@ sized Palestinian refugee camp — were located . The town 's name is the Arabic word for ' dignity ' , which elevated its symbolism in the eyes of the Arab people , especially after the collective Arab defeat in 1967 . The operation was in response to attacks , including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias , within the Israeli @-@ occupied West Bank . According to Said Aburish , the government of Jordan and a number of Fatah commandos informed Arafat that large @-@ scale Israeli military preparations for an attack on the town were underway , prompting fedayeen groups , such as George Habash 's newly formed Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) and Nayef Hawatmeh 's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) , to withdraw their forces from the town . Though advised by a sympathetic Jordanian Army divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to the nearby hills , Arafat refused , stating , " We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee . " Aburish writes that it was on Arafat 's orders that Fatah remained , and that the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued .
In response to persistent PLO raids against Israeli civilian targets , Israel attacks the town of Karameh , Jordan , the site of a major PLO camp . The goal of the invasion was to destroy Karameh camp and capture Yasser Arafat in reprisal for the attacks by the PLO against Israeli civilians , which culminated in an Israeli school bus hitting a mine in the Negev . However , plans for the two operations were prepared in 1967 , one year before the bus incident . When Jordan saw the size of the raiding forces entering the battle it was lead to the assumption that Israel had another goal of capturing Balqa Governorate to create a Golan Heights similar situation . Israel assumed that the Jordanian Army would ignore the invasion , but the latter fought alongside the Palestinians and opened heavy fire that inflicted losses upon the Israeli forces . This engagement marked the first known deployment of suicide bombers by Palestinian forces . The Israelis were repelled at the end of a day 's battle , having destroyed most of the Karameh camp and taken around 141 PLO prisoners . Both sides declared victory . On a tactical level , the battle went in Israel 's favor and the destruction of the Karameh camp was achieved . However , the relatively high casualties were a considerable surprise for the Israel Defense Forces and was stunning to the Israelis . Although the Palestinians were not victorious on their own , King Hussein let the Palestinians take credit . Some have alleged that Arafat himself was on the battlefield , but the details of his involvement are unclear . However , his allies – as well as Israeli intelligence – confirm that he urged his men throughout the battle to hold their ground and continue fighting .
The battle was covered in detail by Time , and Arafat 's face appeared on the cover of the 13 December 1968 issue , bringing his image to the world for the first time . Amid the post @-@ war environment , the profiles of Arafat and Fatah were raised by this important turning point , and he came to be regarded as a national hero who dared to confront Israel . With mass applause from the Arab world , financial donations increased significantly , and Fatah 's weaponry and equipment improved . The group 's numbers swelled as many young Arabs , including thousands of non @-@ Palestinians , joined the ranks of Fatah .
When the Palestinian National Council ( PNC ) convened in Cairo on 3 February 1969 , Yahya Hammuda stepped down from his chairmanship of the PLO . Arafat was elected chairman on 4 February . He became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Palestinian Revolutionary Forces two years later , and in 1973 , became the head of the PLO 's political department .
= = Confrontation with Jordan = =
In the late 1960s , tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly ; heavily armed Palestinian elements had created a virtual " state within a state " in Jordan , eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country . After their proclaimed victory in the Battle of Karameh , Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan . They set up roadblocks , publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces , molested women and levied illegal taxes — all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored . King Hussein considered this a growing threat to his kingdom 's sovereignty and security , and attempted to disarm the militias . However , in order to avoid a military confrontation with opposition forces , Hussein dismissed several of his anti @-@ PLO cabinet officials , including some of his own family members , and invited Arafat to become Prime Minister of Jordan . Arafat refused , citing his belief in the need for a Palestinian state with Palestinian leadership .
Despite Hussein 's intervention , militant actions in Jordan continued . On 15 September 1970 , the PFLP hijacked five planes and landed three of them at Dawson 's Field , located 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Amman . After the passengers were moved to other locations , three of the planes were blown up . This tarnished Arafat 's image in many western nations , including the United States , who held him responsible for controlling Palestinian factions that belonged to the PLO . Arafat , bowing to pressure from Arab governments , publicly condemned the hijackings and suspended the PFLP from any guerrilla actions for a few weeks . He had taken the same action after the PFLP attacked Athens Airport . The Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory , and the next day , King Hussein declared martial law . On the same day , Arafat became supreme commander of the PLA .
As the conflict raged , other Arab governments attempted to negotiate a peaceful resolution . As part of this effort , Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September . Arafat 's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders . Other heads of state took sides against Hussein , among them Muammar Gaddafi , who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal . A ceasefire was agreed upon between the two sides , but Nasser died of a massive heart attack hours after the summit , and the conflict resumed shortly afterward .
By 25 September , the Jordanian army achieved dominance , and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a ceasefire in Amman . The Jordanian army inflicted heavy casualties on the Palestinians — including civilians — who suffered approximately 3 @,@ 500 fatalities . After repeated violations of the ceasefire from both the PLO and the Jordanian Army , Arafat called for King Hussein to be toppled . Responding to the threat , in June 1971 , Hussein ordered his forces to oust all remaining Palestinian fighters in northern Jordan , which they accomplished . Arafat and a number of his forces , including two high @-@ ranking commanders , Abu Iyad and Abu Jihad , were forced into the northern corner of Jordan . They relocated near the town of Jerash , near the border with Syria . With the help of Munib Masri , a pro @-@ Palestinian Jordanian cabinet member , and Fahd al @-@ Khomeimi , the Saudi ambassador to Jordan , Arafat managed to enter Syria with nearly two thousand of his fighters . However , due to the hostility of relations between Arafat and Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad ( who had since ousted President Salah Jadid ) , the Palestinian fighters crossed the border into Lebanon to join PLO forces in that country , where they set up their new headquarters .
= = Headquarters in Lebanon = =
= = = Official recognition = = =
Because of Lebanon 's weak central government , the PLO was able to operate virtually as an independent state . During this time in the 1970s , numerous leftist PLO groups took up arms against Israel , carrying out attacks against civilians as well as military targets within Israel and outside of it .
Two major incidents occurred in 1972 . The Fatah subgroup Black September hijacked Sabena Flight 572 en route to Vienna and forced it to land at the Ben Gurion International Airport in Lod , Israel . The PFLP and the Japanese Red Army carried out a shooting rampage at the same airport , killing twenty @-@ four civilians . Israel later claimed that the assassination of PFLP spokesman Ghassan Kanafani was a response to the PFLP 's involvement in masterminding the latter attack . Two days later , various PLO factions retaliated by bombing a bus station , killing eleven civilians .
At the Munich Olympic Games , Black September kidnapped and killed eleven Israeli athletes . A number of sources , including Mohammed Oudeh ( Abu Daoud ) , one of the masterminds of the Munich massacre , and Benny Morris , a prominent Israeli historian , have stated that Black September was an armed branch of Fatah used for paramilitary operations . According to Abu Daoud 's 1999 book , " Arafat was briefed on plans for the Munich hostage @-@ taking . " The killings were internationally condemned . In 1973 – 74 , Arafat closed Black September down , ordering the PLO to withdraw from acts of violence outside Israel , the West Bank and Gaza Strip .
In 1974 , the PNC approved the Ten Point Program ( drawn up by Arafat and his advisers ) , and proposed a compromise with the Israelis . It called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of " liberated " Palestinian territory , which refers to areas captured by Arab forces in the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War ( present @-@ day West Bank , East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip ) . This caused discontent among several of the PLO factions ; the PFLP , DFLP and other parties formed a breakaway organization , the Rejectionist Front .
Israel and the US have alleged also that Arafat was involved in the 1973 Khartoum diplomatic assassinations , in which five diplomats and five others were killed . A 1973 United States Department of State document , declassified in 2006 , concluded " The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat . " Arafat denied any involvement in the operation and insisted it was carried out independently by the Black September group . Israel claimed that Arafat was in ultimate control over these organizations and therefore had not abandoned terrorism .
In addition , some circles within the US State Department viewed Arafat as an able diplomat and negotiator who could get support from many Arab governments at once . An example of that , we find in March 1973 that Arafat tried to arrange for a meeting between the President of Iraq and the Emir of Kuwait in order to resolve their disputes .
Also in 1974 , the PLO was declared the " sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people " and admitted to full membership of the Arab League at the Rabat Summit . Arafat became the first representative of a non @-@ governmental organization to address a plenary session of the UN General Assembly . In his United Nations address , Arafat condemned Zionism , but said , " Today I have come bearing an olive branch and a freedom fighter 's gun . Do not let the olive branch fall from my hand . " He wore a holster throughout his speech , although it did not contain a gun . His speech increased international sympathy for the Palestinian cause .
Following recognition , Arafat established relationships with a variety of world leaders , including Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin . Arafat was Amin 's best man at his wedding in Uganda in 1975 .
= = = Fatah involvement in Lebanese Civil War = = =
Although hesitant at first to take sides in the conflict , Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War . Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub @-@ groups such as the PFLP , DFLP and the Palestine Liberation Front ( PLF ) , Arafat aligned the PLO with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement ( LNM ) . The LNM was led by Kamal Jumblatt , who had a friendly relationship with Arafat and other PLO leaders . Although originally aligned with Fatah , Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad feared a loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides . He sent his army , along with the Syrian @-@ backed Palestinian factions of as @-@ Sa 'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command ( PFLP @-@ GC ) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside right @-@ wing Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM . The primary components of the Christian front were the Phalangists loyal to Bachir Gemayel and the Tigers Militia led by Dany Chamoun , a son of former President Camille Chamoun .
In February 1975 , a pro @-@ Palestinian Lebanese MP , Maarouf Saad , was shot and killed , reportedly by the Lebanese Army . His death , from his wounds , the following month , and the massacre in April of that year of 27 Palestinians and Lebanese travelling on a bus from Sabra and Shatila to the Tel al @-@ Zaatar refugee camp by Phalangist forces , precipitated the Lebanese Civil War . Arafat was reluctant to respond with force , but many other Fatah and PLO members felt otherwise . For example , the DFLP carried out several attacks against the Lebanese Army . In 1976 , an alliance of Christian militias with the backing of the Lebanese and Syrian armies besieged Tel al @-@ Zaatar camp in east Beirut . The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour , a Phalangist stronghold where they massacred 684 people and wounded many more . The Tel al @-@ Zaatar camp fell to the Christians after a six @-@ month siege in which thousands of Palestinians , mostly civilians , were killed . Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort .
PLO cross @-@ border raids against Israel grew during the late 1970s . One of the most severe — known as the Coastal Road massacre — occurred on 11 March 1978 . A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv @-@ Yafo . There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles , killing thirty @-@ seven civilians . In response , the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later , with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to the Litani River . The IDF achieved this goal , and Arafat withdrew PLO forces north into Beirut .
After Israel withdrew from Lebanon , cross @-@ border hostilities between PLO forces and Israel continued , though from August 1981 to May 1982 , the PLO adopted an official policy of refraining from responding to provocations . On 6 June 1982 , Israel launched an invasion of Lebanon to expel the PLO from southern Lebanon . Beirut was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF ; Arafat declared the city to be the " Hanoi and Stalingrad of the Israeli army . " The Civil War 's first phase ended and Arafat — who was commanding Fatah forces at Tel al @-@ Zaatar — narrowly escaped with assistance from Saudi and Kuwaiti diplomats . Towards the end of the siege , the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and the PLO — guarded by a multinational force of eight hundred US Marines supported by the US Navy — to exile in Tunis .
Arafat returned to Lebanon a year after his eviction from Beirut , this time establishing himself in the northern Lebanese city of Tripoli . This time Arafat was expelled by a fellow Palestinian working under Hafez al @-@ Assad . Arafat did not return to Lebanon after his second expulsion , though many Fatah fighters did .
= = Headquarters in Tunisia = =
Arafat and Fatah 's center for operations was based in Tunis , the capital of Tunisia , until 1993 . In 1985 Arafat narrowly survived an Israeli assassination attempt when Israeli Air Force F @-@ 15s bombed his Tunis headquarters as part of Operation Wooden Leg , leaving 73 people dead ; Arafat had gone out jogging that morning .
= = = First Intifada = = =
During the 1980s , Arafat received financial assistance from Libya , Iraq and Saudi Arabia , which allowed him to reconstruct the badly damaged PLO . This was particularly useful during the First Intifada in December 1987 , which began as an uprising of Palestinians against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . The word Intifada in Arabic is literally translated as " tremor " , however , it is generally defined as an uprising or revolt .
The first stage of the Intifada began following an incident at the Erez checkpoint where four Palestinian residents of the Jabalya refugee camp were killed in a traffic accident involving an Israeli driver . Rumors spread that the deaths were a deliberate act of revenge for an Israeli shopper that was stabbed to death by a Palestinian in Gaza four days earlier . Mass rioting broke out and within weeks and partly upon consistent requests by Abu Jihad , Arafat attempted to direct the uprising , which lasted until 1992 – 93 . Abu Jihad had previously been assigned the responsibility of the Palestinian territories within the PLO command and according to biographer Said Aburish , had " impressive knowledge of local conditions " in the Israeli @-@ occupied territories . On 16 April 1988 , as the Intifada was raging , Abu Jihad was assassinated in his Tunis household by an Israeli hit squad . Arafat had considered Abu Jihad as a PLO counterweight to local Palestinian leadership in the territories , and led a funeral procession for him in Damascus .
The most common tactic used by Palestinians during the Intifada was throwing stones , molotov cocktails , and burning tires . The local leadership in some West Bank towns commenced non @-@ violent protests against Israeli occupation by engaging in tax resistance and other boycotts . Israel responded by confiscating large sums of money in house @-@ to @-@ house raids . As the Intifada came to a close , new armed Palestinian groups — in particular Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad ( PIJ ) — began targeting Israeli civilians with the new tactic of suicide bombings , and internal fighting amongst the Palestinians increased dramatically .
= = = Change in direction = = =
In 1970 , Arafat declared : " Our basic aim is to liberate the land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River . We are not concerned with what took place in June 1967 or in eliminating the consequences of the June war . The Palestinian revolution 's basic concern is the uprooting of the Zionist entity from our land and liberating it . " However , in early 1976 , at a meeting with US Senator Adlai Stevenson III , Arafat suggested that if Israel withdrew a " few kilometers " from parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and transferred responsibility to the UN , Arafat could give " something to show his people before he could acknowledge Israel 's right to exist " .
On 15 November 1988 , the PLO proclaimed the independent State of Palestine . Though he had frequently been accused of and associated with terrorism , in speeches on 13 and 14 December Arafat repudiated ' terrorism in all its forms , including state terrorism ' . He accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and Israel 's right " to exist in peace and security " and Arafat 's statements were greeted with approval by the US administration , which had long insisted on these statements as a necessary starting point for official discussions between the US and the PLO . These remarks from Arafat indicated a shift away from one of the PLO 's primary aims — the destruction of Israel ( as entailed in the Palestinian National Covenant ) – and toward the establishment of two separate entities : an Israeli state within the 1949 armistice lines , and an Arab state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . On 2 April 1989 , Arafat was elected by the Central Council of the Palestine National Council , the governing body of the PLO , to be the president of the proclaimed State of Palestine .
Prior to the Gulf War in 1990 – 91 , when the Intifada 's intensity began to wear down , Arafat supported Saddam Hussein 's invasion of Kuwait and opposed the US @-@ led coalition attack on Iraq . He made this decision without the consent of other leading members of Fatah and the PLO . Arafat 's top aide Abu Iyad vowed to stay neutral and opposed an alliance with Saddam ; On 17 January 1991 , Abu Iyad was assassinated by the Abu Nidal Organization . Arafat 's decision also severed relations with Egypt and many of the oil @-@ producing Arab states that supported the US @-@ led coalition . Many in the US also used Arafat 's position as a reason to disregard his claims to being a partner for peace . After the end of hostilities , many Arab states that backed the coalition cut off funds to the PLO and began providing financial support for the organization 's rival Hamas and other Islamist groups . Arafat narrowly escaped death again on 7 April 1992 , when an Air Bissau aircraft he was a passenger on crash @-@ landed in the Libyan Desert during a sandstorm . Two pilots and an engineer were killed ; Arafat was bruised and shaken .
= = Palestinian Authority and peace negotiations = =
= = = Oslo Accords = = =
In the early 1990s , Arafat and leading Fatah officials engaged the Israeli government in a series of secret talks and negotiations that led to the 1993 Oslo Accords . The agreement called for the implementation of Palestinian self @-@ rule in portions of the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five @-@ year period , along with an immediate halt to and gradual removal of Israeli settlements in those areas . The accords called for a Palestinian police force to be formed from local recruits and Palestinians abroad , to patrol areas of self @-@ rule . Authority over the various fields of rule , including education and culture , social welfare , direct taxation and tourism , would be transferred to the Palestinian interim government . Both parties agreed also on forming a committee that would establish cooperation and coordination dealing with specific economic sectors , including utilities , industry , trade and communication .
Prior to signing the accords , Arafat — as Chairman of the PLO and its official representative — signed two letters renouncing violence and officially recognizing Israel . In return , Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin , on behalf of Israel , officially recognized the PLO . The following year , Arafat and Rabin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , along with Shimon Peres . The Palestinian reaction was mixed . The Rejectionist Front of the PLO allied itself with Islamists in a common opposition against the agreements . It was rejected also by Palestinian refugees in Lebanon , Syria , and Jordan as well as by many Palestinian intellectuals and the local leadership of the Palestinian territories . However , the inhabitants of the territories generally accepted the agreements and Arafat 's promise for peace and economic well @-@ being .
= = = Establishing authority in the territories = = =
In accordance with the terms of the Oslo agreement , Arafat was required to implement PLO authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . He insisted that financial support was imperative to establishing this authority and needed it to secure the acceptance of the agreements by the Palestinians living in those areas . However , Arab states of the Persian Gulf — Arafat 's usual source for financial backing — still refused to provide him and the PLO with any major donations because for siding with Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War . Ahmed Qurei — a key Fatah negotiator during the negotiations in Oslo — publicly announced that the PLO was bankrupt .
In 1994 , Arafat moved to Gaza City , which was controlled by the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) — the provisional entity created by the Oslo Accords . Arafat became the President and Prime Minister of the PNA , the Commander of the PLA and the Speaker of the PLC . In July , after the PNA was declared the official government of the Palestinians , the Basic Laws of the Palestinian National Authority was published , in three different versions by the PLO . Arafat proceeded with creating a structure for the PNA . He established an executive committee or cabinet composed of twenty members . Arafat also replaced and assigned mayors and city councils for major cities such as Gaza and Nablus . He began subordinating non @-@ governmental organizations that worked in education , health , and social affairs under his authority by replacing their elected leaders and directors with PNA officials loyal to him . He then appointed himself chairman of the Palestinian financial organization that was created by the World Bank to control most aid money towards helping the new Palestinian entity .
Arafat established a Palestinian police force , named the Preventive Security Service ( PSS ) , that became active on 13 May . It was mainly composed of PLA soldiers and foreign Palestinian volunteers . Arafat assigned Mohammed Dahlan and Jibril Rajoub to head the PSS . Amnesty International accused Arafat and the PNA leadership for failing to adequately investigate abuses by the PSS ( including torture and unlawful killings ) of political opponents and dissidents as well as the arrests of human rights activists .
Throughout November and December 1995 , Arafat toured dozens of Palestinian cities and towns that were evacuated by Israeli forces including Jenin , Ramallah , al @-@ Bireh , Nablus , Qalqilyah and Tulkarm , declaring them " liberated " . The PNA also gained control of the West Bank 's postal service during this period . On 20 January 1996 , Arafat was elected president of the PNA , with an overwhelming 88 @.@ 2 percent majority ( the other candidate was charity organizer Samiha Khalil ) . However , because Hamas , the DFLP and other popular opposition movements chose to boycott the presidential elections , the choices were limited . Arafat 's landslide victory guaranteed Fatah 51 of the 88 seats in the PLC . After Arafat was elected to the post of President of the PNA , he was often referred to as the Ra 'is , ( literally president in Arabic ) , although he spoke of himself as " the general " . In 1997 , the PLC accused the executive branch of the PNA of financial mismanagement causing the resignation of four members of Arafat 's cabinet . Arafat refused to resign his post .
= = = Other peace agreements = = =
In mid @-@ 1996 , Benjamin Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister of Israel . Palestinian @-@ Israeli relations grew even more hostile as a result of continued conflict . Despite the Israel @-@ PLO accord , Netanyahu opposed the idea of Palestinian statehood . In 1998 , US President Bill Clinton persuaded the two leaders to meet . The resulting Wye River Memorandum detailed the steps to be taken by the Israeli government and PNA to complete the peace process .
Arafat continued negotiations with Netanyahu 's successor , Ehud Barak , at the Camp David 2000 Summit in July 2000 . Due partly to his own politics ( Barak was from the leftist Labor Party , whereas Netanyahu was from the rightist Likud Party ) and partly due to insistence for compromise by President Clinton , Barak offered Arafat a Palestinian state in 73 percent of the West Bank and all of the Gaza Strip . The Palestinian percentage of sovereignty would extend to 90 percent over a ten- to twenty @-@ five @-@ year period . Also included in the offer was the return of a small number of refugees and compensation for those not allowed to return . Palestinians would also have " custodianship " over the Temple Mount , sovereignty on all Islamic and Christian holy sites , and three of Jerusalem 's four Old City quarters . Arafat rejected Barak 's offer and refused to make an immediate counter @-@ offer . He told President Clinton that , " the Arab leader who would surrender Jerusalem is not born yet . "
After the September 2000 outbreak of the Second Intifada , negotiations continued at the Taba summit in January 2001 ; this time , Ehud Barak pulled out of the talks to campaign in the Israeli elections . In October and December 2001 , suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups increased and Israeli counter strikes intensified . Following the election of Ariel Sharon in February , the peace process took a steep downfall . Palestinian elections scheduled for January 2002 were postponed — the stated reason was an inability to campaign due to the emergency conditions imposed by the Intifada , as well as IDF incursions and restrictions on freedom of movement in the Palestinian territories . In the same month , Sharon ordered Arafat to be confined to his Mukata 'a headquarters in Ramallah , following an attack in the Israeli city of Hadera ; US President George W. Bush supported Sharon 's action , claiming that Arafat was " an obstacle to the peace . "
= = Political survival = =
Arafat 's long personal and political survival was taken by most Western commentators as a sign of his mastery of asymmetric warfare and his skill as a tactician , given the extremely dangerous nature of politics of the Middle East and the frequency of assassinations . Some commentators believe his survival was largely due to Israel 's fear that he could become a martyr for the Palestinian cause if he were assassinated or even arrested by Israel . Others believe that Israel refrained from taking action against Arafat because it feared Arafat less than Hamas and the other Islamist movements gaining support over Fatah . The complex and fragile web of relations between the US , Israel , Saudi Arabia , and other Arab states contributed also to Arafat 's longevity as the leader of the Palestinians .
Israel attempted to assassinate Arafat on a number of occasions , but has never used its own agents , preferring instead to " turn " Palestinians close to the intended target , usually using blackmail . According to Alan Hart , the Mossad 's specialty is poison . According to Abu Iyad , two attempts were made on Arafat 's life by the Israeli Mossad and the Military Directorate in 1970 . In 1976 , Abu Sa 'ed , a Palestinian agent working for the Mossad , was enlisted in a plot to put poison pellets that looked like grains of rice in Arafat 's food . Abu Iyad explains that Abu Sa 'ed confessed after he received the order to go ahead , explaining that he was unable to go through with the plot because , " He was first of all a Palestinian and his conscience wouldn 't let him do it . " Arafat claimed in a 1988 interview with Time that because of his fear of assassination by the Israelis , he never slept in the same place two nights in a row .
= = = Relations with Hamas and other militant groups = = =
Arafat 's ability to adapt to new tactical and political situations was perhaps tested by the rise of the Hamas and PIJ organizations , Islamist groups espousing rejectionist policies with Israel . These groups often bombed non @-@ military targets , such as malls and movie theaters , to increase the psychological damage and civilian casualties . In the 1990s , these groups seemed to threaten Arafat 's capacity to hold together a unified nationalist organization with a goal of statehood .
An attack carried out by Hamas militants killed 29 Israeli civilians celebrating Passover , including many senior citizens . In response , Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield , a major military offensive into major West Bank cities . Mahmoud al @-@ Zahar , a Hamas leader in Gaza , stated in September 2010 that Arafat had instructed Hamas to launch what he termed " military operations " against Israel in 2000 when Arafat felt that negotiations with Israel would not succeed .
Some Israeli government officials opined in 2002 that the armed Fatah sub @-@ group al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs ' Brigades commenced attacks towards Israel in order to compete with Hamas . On 6 May 2002 , the Israeli government released a report , based in part on documents , allegedly captured during the Israeli raid of Arafat 's Ramallah headquarters , which allegedly included copies of papers signed by Arafat authorizing funding for al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades ' activities . The report implicated Arafat in the " planning and execution of terror attacks " .
= = = Attempts to marginalize = = =
Persistent attempts by the Israeli government to identify another Palestinian leader to represent the Palestinian people failed . Arafat was enjoying the support of groups that , given his own history , would normally have been quite wary of dealing with or supporting him . Marwan Barghouti ( a leader of al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades ) emerged as a possible replacement during the Second Intifada , but Israel had him arrested for allegedly being involved in the killing of twenty @-@ six civilians , and he was sentenced to five life terms .
Arafat was finally allowed to leave his compound on 2 May 2002 after intense negotiations led to a settlement : six PFLP militants , including the organization 's secretary @-@ general Ahmad Sa 'adat , wanted by Israel , who had been holed up with Arafat in his compound , would be transferred to international custody in Jericho . After the wanted men were handed over the siege was lifted . With that , and a promise that he would issue a call to the Palestinians to halt attacks on Israelis , Arafat was released . He issued such a call on 8 May . On 19 September 2002 , the IDF largely demolished the compound with armored bulldozers in order to isolate Arafat . In March 2003 , Arafat ceded his post as Prime Minister to Mahmoud Abbas amid pressures by the US .
After the Israeli security Cabinet on 11 September 2003 had decided that " Israel will act to remove this obstacle [ Arafat ] in the manner , at the time , and in the ways that will be decided on separately " , Israeli Cabinet members and officials had hinted on Arafat 's death and the Israeli military had begun making preparations for Arafat 's possible expulsion in the near future , many feared for his life . Israeli peace activists of Gush Shalom , Knesset members and others went into the Presidential Compound , prepared to serve as a human shield . The compound remained under siege until Arafat 's transfer to a French hospital , shortly before his death .
In 2004 , President Bush dismissed Arafat as a negotiating partner , saying he had " failed as a leader " and accused him of undercutting Abbas when he was prime minister ( Abbas resigned the same year he was given the position ) . Arafat had a mixed relationship with the leaders of other Arab nations . His support from Arab leaders tended to increase whenever he was pressured by Israel ; for example , when Israel declared in 2003 it had made the decision , in principle , to remove him from the Israeli @-@ controlled West Bank . In an interview with the Arabic news network Al Jazeera , Arafat responded to Ariel Sharon 's suggestion that he be exiled from the Palestinian territories permanently , by stating , " Is it his [ Sharon 's ] homeland or ours ? We were planted here before the Prophet Abraham came , but it looks like they [ Israelis ] don 't understand history or geography . "
= = Financial dealings = =
Under the Oslo Peace Accords , Israel undertook to deposit the VAT tax receipts on goods purchased by Palestinians into the Palestinian treasury . Until 2000 , these monies were transferred directly to Arafat 's personal accounts at Bank Leumi , in Tel Aviv .
In August 2002 , the Israeli Military Intelligence Chief alleged that Arafat 's personal wealth was in the range of US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . In 2003 the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) conducted an audit of the PNA and stated that Arafat diverted $ 900 million in public funds to a special bank account controlled by Arafat and the PNA Chief Economic Financial adviser . However , the IMF did not claim that there were any improprieties , and it specifically stated that most of the funds had been used to invest in Palestinian assets , both internally and abroad .
However , in 2003 , a team of American accountants — hired by Arafat 's own finance ministry — began examining Arafat 's finances . In its conclusions , the team claimed that part of the Palestinian leader 's wealth was in a secret portfolio worth close to $ 1 billion , with investments in companies like a Coca @-@ Cola bottling plant in Ramallah , a Tunisian cell phone company and venture capital funds in the US and the Cayman Islands . The head of the investigation stated that " although the money for the portfolio came from public funds like Palestinian taxes , virtually none of it was used for the Palestinian people ; it was all controlled by Arafat . And none of these dealings were made public . " An investigation conducted by the General Accounting Office reported that Arafat and the PLO held over $ 10 billion in assets even at the time when he was publicly claiming bankruptcy .
Although Arafat lived a modest lifestyle , Dennis Ross , former Middle East negotiator for Presidents George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton , stated that Arafat 's " walking @-@ around money " financed a vast patronage system known as neopatrimonialism . According to Salam Fayyad — a former World Bank official whom Arafat appointed Finance Minister of the PNA in 2002 — Arafat 's commodity monopolies could accurately be seen as gouging his own people , " especially in Gaza which is poorer , which is something that is totally unacceptable and immoral . " Fayyad claims that Arafat used $ 20 million from public funds to pay the leadership of the PNA security forces ( the Preventive Security Service ) alone .
Fuad Shubaki , former financial aide to Arafat , told the Israeli security service Shin Bet that Arafat used several million dollars of aid money to buy weapons and support militant groups . During Israel 's Operation Defensive Shield , the Israel army recovered counterfeit money and documents from Arafat 's Ramallah headquarters . The documents showed that , in 2001 , Arafat personally approved payments to Tanzim militants . The Palestinians claimed that the counterfeit money was confiscated from criminal elements .
= = Illness and death = =
The first reports of Arafat 's failing health by his doctors for what his spokesman said was the flu came on 25 October 2004 , after he vomited during a staff meeting . His condition deteriorated in the following days . Following visits by other doctors , including teams from Tunisia , Jordan , and Egypt — and agreement by Israel to allow him to travel — Arafat was taken to France on a French government jet , and was admitted to the Percy military hospital in Clamart , a suburb of Paris . On 3 November , he had lapsed into a gradually deepening coma .
Arafat was pronounced dead at 03 : 30 UTC on 11 November 2004 at the age of 75 of what French doctors called a massive hemorrhagic cerebrovascular accident ( hemorrhagic stroke ) . Initially , Arafat 's medical records were withheld by senior Palestinian officials , and Arafat 's wife refused an autopsy . French doctors also said that Arafat suffered from a blood condition known as disseminated intravascular coagulation , although it is inconclusive what brought about the condition . When Arafat 's death was announced , the Palestinian people went into a state of mourning , with Qur 'anic mourning prayers emitted from mosque loudspeakers throughout the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , and tires burned in the streets . The Palestinian Authority and refugee camps in Lebanon declared 40 days of mourning .
= = = Funeral = = =
On 11 November 2004 , a French Army Honor Guard held a brief ceremony for Arafat , with his coffin draped in a Palestinian flag . A military band played the French and Palestinian national anthems , and a Chopin funeral march . French President Jacques Chirac stood alone beside Arafat 's coffin for about ten minutes in a last show of respect for Arafat , whom he hailed as " a man of courage " . The next day , Arafat 's body was flown from Paris aboard a French Air Force transport plane to Cairo , Egypt for a brief military funeral there , attended by several heads of states , prime ministers and foreign ministers . Egypt 's top Muslim cleric Sayed Tantawi led mourning prayers preceding the funeral procession .
Israel refused Arafat 's wish to be buried near the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque or anywhere in Jerusalem , citing security concerns . Israel also feared that his burial would strengthen Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem . Following the Cairo procession , Arafat was " temporarily " buried within the Mukataa in Ramallah ; tens of thousands of Palestinians attended the ceremony . Arafat was buried in a stone , rather than wooden , coffin , and Palestinian spokesman Saeb Erekat said that Arafat would be reburied in East Jerusalem following the establishment of a Palestinian state . After Sheikh Taissir Tamimi discovered that Arafat was buried improperly and in a coffin — which is not in accordance with Islamic law — Arafat was reburied on the morning of 13 November at around 3 : 00 am . On 10 November 2007 , prior to the third anniversary of Arafat 's death , President Mahmoud Abbas unveiled a mausoleum for Arafat near his tomb in commemoration of him .
= = = Theories about the cause of death = = =
Numerous theories have appeared regarding Arafat 's death , with the most prominent being poisoning ( possibly by polonium ) and AIDS @-@ related illnesses , as well as liver disease or a platelet disorder .
In September 2005 , an Israeli @-@ declared AIDS expert claimed that Arafat bore all the symptoms of AIDS based on obtained medical records . But others , including Patrice Mangin of the University of Lausanne and The New York Times disagreed with this claim , insisting that Arafat 's record indicated that it was highly unlikely that the cause of his death was AIDS . Arafat 's personal doctor Ashraf al @-@ Kurdi and aide Bassam Abu Sharif maintained that Arafat was poisoned , possibly by thallium . A senior Israeli physician concluded that Arafat died from food poisoning . Both those claims were rejected by Haaretz and The New York Times . Then @-@ Palestinian foreign minister Nabil Shaath had also ruled out poisoning after talks with Arafat 's French doctors .
On 4 July 2012 , Al Jazeera published the results of a nine @-@ month investigation , which revealed that none of the causes of Arafat ’ s death suggested in several rumors could be true . Tests carried out by a Swiss scientific experts found traces of polonium in quantities much higher than could occur naturally on Arafat 's personal belongings . On 12 October 2013 , the British medical journal The Lancet published a peer @-@ reviewed article by the Swiss experts about the analysis of the 38 samples of Arafat 's clothes and belongings and 37 reference samples which were known to be polonium @-@ free , suggesting that Arafat could have died of polonium poisoning .
On 27 November 2012 , three teams of international investigators , a French , a Swiss , and a Russian team , collected samples from Arafat 's body and the surrounding soil in the mausoleum in Ramallah , to carry out an investigation independently from each other .
On 6 November 2013 , Al Jazeera reported that the Swiss forensic team had found levels of polonium in Arafat 's ribs and pelvis 18 to 36 times the average , and were 83 percent confident that polonium poisoning occurred , but Professor Bochud disagreed with this interpretation by Al Jazeera and only states that the poisoning hypothesis by polonium is " reasonably supported " . According to the Swiss expert team ( including notably experts in radio @-@ chemistry , radio @-@ physics and legal medicine ) , on a probability scale ranging from one to six , death by polonium poisoning is around five . Forensic Biologist Nathan Lents of the John Jay College of Criminal Justice , said the report 's results are consistent with a possible polonium poisoning , but " There 's certainly not a smoking gun here . " Derek Hill , a professor in radiological science at University College London who was not involved in the investigation , said " I would say it 's clearly not overwhelming proof , and there is a risk of contamination ( of the samples ) , but it is a pretty strong signal . ... It seems likely what they 're doing is putting a very cautious interpretation of strong data . "
On 26 December 2013 , a team of Russian scientists released a report saying they had found no trace of radioactive poisoning — a finding that comes after the French report found traces of the radioactive isotope polonium . Vladimir Uiba , the head of the Federal Medical and Biological Agency , said that Arafat died of natural causes ( without explaining which ) and the agency had no plans to conduct further tests . Unlike the Swiss report , the French and Russian reports were not made public , at the time . The Swiss experts read the French and Russian reports and explained that the radiologic data measured by the other teams support their conclusions of a
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probable death by polonium poisoning . In March 2015 a French prosecutor announced that his death was of natural causes , and the polonium and lead traces found were environmental .
= Massospondylus =
Massospondylus ( / ˌmæsoʊˈspɒndᵻləs / mas @-@ oh @-@ SPON @-@ di @-@ ləs ; from Greek , μάσσων ( massōn , " longer " ) and σπόνδυλος ( spondylos , " vertebra " ) ) is a genus of sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Early Jurassic Period ( Hettangian to Pliensbachian ages , ca . 200 – 183 million years ago ) . It was described by Sir Richard Owen in 1854 from remains discovered in South Africa , and is thus one of the first dinosaurs to have been named . Fossils have since been found at other locations in South Africa , Lesotho , and Zimbabwe . Material from Arizona 's Kayenta Formation , India , and Argentina has been assigned to this genus at various times , but the Arizonan and Argentinian material are now assigned to other genera .
The type species is M. carinatus ; seven other species have been named during the past 150 years , but only M. kaalae among these is still considered valid . Early sauropodomorphs systematics have undergone numerous revisions during the last several years , and many scientists disagree where exactly Massospondylus lies on the dinosaur evolutionary tree . The family name Massospondylidae was once coined for the genus , but because knowledge of early sauropodomorph relationships is in a state of flux , it is unclear which other dinosaurs — if any — belong in a natural grouping of massospondylids ; several 2007 papers support the family 's validity .
Although Massospondylus was long depicted as quadrupedal , a 2007 study found it to be bipedal . It was probably a plant eater ( herbivore ) , although it is speculated that the early sauropodomorphs may have been omnivorous . This animal , which was 4 – 6 metres ( 13 – 20 ft ) long , had a long neck and tail , with a small head and slender body . On each of its forefeet , it bore a sharp thumb claw that was used in defense or feeding . Recent studies indicate that Massospondylus grew steadily throughout its lifespan , possessed air sacs similar to those of birds , and may have cared for its young .
= = Description = =
Massospondylus was a mid @-@ size sauropodomorph , around 4 metres ( 13 ft ) in length and weighed approximately 1000 kilograms ( 2200 lb ) , although a few sources have estimated its length at up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . It was a typical early sauropodomorph , with a slender body , a long neck and a proportionally very small head . The vertebral column was composed of nine cervical ( neck ) vertebrae , 13 dorsal ( back ) vertebrae , three sacral ( hip ) vertebrae , and at least 40 caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The pubis faced forward , as with most saurischians . It had a slighter build than that of Plateosaurus , an otherwise similar dinosaur . The neck was proportionally longer than in most other plateosaurids , with the foremost cervicals being four times the length of their width . The forelimbs were only half the length of the hindlimbs but quite powerful , as indicated by the broad upper end of the humerus that provided attachment areas for a large arm musculature . Like Plateosaurus , it had five digits on each hand and foot . The hand was short and wide , with a large sickle shaped thumb claw used for feeding or defense against predators . The thumb was the longest finger in the hand , while the fourth and fifth digits were tiny , giving the forepaws a lopsided look .
= = = Cranial anatomy = = =
The small head of Massospondylus was approximately half the length of the femur . Numerous openings , or fenestrae , in the skull reduced its weight and provided space for muscle attachment and sensory organs . These fenestrae were present in pairs , one on each side of the skull . At the front of the skull were two large , elliptical nares , which were roughly half the size of the orbits . The orbits were proportionally larger in Massospondylus than in related genera , such as Plateosaurus . The antorbital fenestrae , smaller than those seen in Plateosaurus , were situated between the eyes and the nose . At the rear of the skull were two more pairs of temporal fenestrae : the lateral temporal fenestrae immediately behind the eye sockets , which were shaped like an inverted " T " in Massospondylus , and the supratemporal fenestrae on top of the skull . Small fenestrae also penetrated each mandible . The shape of the skull is traditionally restored as wider and shorter than that of Plateosaurus , but this appearance may be due just to differential crushing experienced by the various specimens . Some features of the skull are variable between individuals ; for example , the thickness of the upper border of the orbit and the height of the posterior maxilla . These differences may be due to sexual dimorphism or individual variation .
Tooth count is variable between individuals and increases with skull size . The premaxilla shows the constant number of four teeth per side in all known skulls ; however , in the maxilla , the tooth count ranges from 14 to 22 . There are 26 teeth in each side of the lower jaw in the largest known skull . The height of the teeth crowns decreases from front to back in the upper jaw , but was more or less constant in the lower jaw . The lack of pronounced tooth wear and the variable height of the crowns suggests that the teeth were replaced by succeeding new ones in relatively short time intervals . Notably , there was variation in the tooth morphology based on the position of the teeth in the jaw . The heterodonty present in Massospondylus is greater than that present in Plateosaurus , although not as pronounced as the specialization of teeth in Heterodontosaurus . Teeth closer to the front of the snout had round cross @-@ sections and tapered to points , unlike the back teeth , which were spatulate and had oval cross @-@ sections .
As with other early sauropodomorphs , it has been proposed that Massospondylus had cheeks . This theory was proposed because there are a few large holes for blood vessels on the surfaces of the jaw bones , unlike the numerous small holes present on the jaws of cheekless reptiles . The cheeks would have prevented food from spilling out when Massospondylus ate . Crompton and Attridge ( 1986 ) described skulls of Massospondylus as possessing pronounced overbites and suggested the presence of a horny beak on the tip of the lower jaw to make up the difference in length and account for tooth wear on the teeth at the tip of the snout . However , the difference in length may be a misinterpretation based on crushing in a top – bottom plane , and the possession of a beak is considered unlikely in recent studies .
= = Discovery = =
The first fossils of Massospondylus were described by paleontologist Sir Richard Owen in 1854 . Originally , Owen did not recognize these finds as those of a dinosaur ; instead he attributed them to " large , extinct , carnivorous reptiles " that were related to today 's lizards , chameleons and iguanas . This material , a collection of 56 bones , was found in 1853 by the government surveyor Joseph Millard Orpen in the Upper Elliot Formation at Harrismith , South Africa and was donated to the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London . Among the remains were vertebrae from the neck , back , and tail ; a shoulder blade ; a humerus ; a partial pelvis ; a femur ; a tibia ; and bones of the hands and feet . All these bones were found disarticulated , making it difficult to determine if all material belongs to a single species or not . However , Owen was able to distinguish three different types of caudal vertebrae , which he attributed to three different genera : Pachyspondylus , Leptospondylus and Massospondylus . Massospondylus was separated from the other two genera on the basis of its much longer caudal vertebrae , which also lead to the scientific name that has been derived from the Greek terms masson / μάσσων ' longer ' and sphondylos / σφόνδυλος ' vertebra ' . However , later it was shown that the putative caudal vertebrae of Massospondylus were actually cervical vertebrae and that all the material probably belongs only to a single species . On May 10 , 1941 , the Hunterian Museum was demolished by a German bomb , destroying all the fossils ; only casts remain .
Possible Massospondylus remains have been found in the Upper Elliot Formation , the Clarens Formation , and the Bushveld Sandstone of South Africa and Lesotho ; the Forest Sandstone and the Upper Karroo Sandstone of Zimbabwe . These remains consist of at least 80 partial skeletons and four skulls , representing both juveniles and adults . The report of Massospondylus from Arizona 's Kayenta Formation is based on a skull described in 1985 . The skull of the Kayenta specimen from Arizona is 25 % larger than the largest skull from any African specimen . The Kayenta specimen possesses four teeth in the premaxilla and sixteen in the maxilla . Uniquely among dinosaurs , it also had tiny , one @-@ millimetre- ( 0 @.@ 04 in- ) long palatal teeth . Recent restudy of African Massospondylus skulls , however , indicates that the Kayenta specimen does not pertain to Massospondylus . This Kayenta skull and associated postcranial elements , identified collectively as MCZ 8893 , has been recently referred to the newly described genus Sarahsaurus .
Massospondylus had also been reported from Argentina , but this has been reassessed as a closely related but distinct genus . The fossils included several partial skeletons and at least one skull , found in the Lower Jurassic Canon del Colorado Formation of San Juan , Argentina . This material was named Adeopapposaurus in 2009 .
= = = Species = = =
Many species have been named , although most are no longer considered valid . M. carinatus , named by Richard Owen , is the type species . Other named species include : M. browni Seeley , 1895 , M. harriesi Broom 1911 , M. hislopi Lydekker , 1890 , M. huenei Cooper , 1981 , M. kaalae Barrett 2009 , M. rawesi Lydekker , 1890 , and M. schwarzi Haughton , 1924 .
M. browni , M. harriesi , and M. schwarzi were all found in the Upper Elliot Formation of Cape Province , South Africa . All three are based on fragmentary material , and were regarded as indeterminate in the most recent review . M. browni is based on two cervical , two back , and three caudal vertebrae and miscellaneous hind limb elements . M. harriesi is known from a well @-@ preserved forelimb and parts of a hindlimb . M. schwarzi is known from an incomplete hind limb and sacrum . M. hislopi and M. rawesi were named from fossils found in India . M. hislopi is based on vertebrae from the Upper Triassic Maleri Formation of Andhra Pradesh , whereas M. rawesi is based on a tooth from the Upper Cretaceous Takli Formation of Maharashtra . M. hislopi was tentatively retained as an indeterminate sauropodomorph in the latest review , but M. rawesi may be a theropod or nondinosaur . M. huenei is a combination derived by Cooper for Lufengosaurus huenei , as he considered Lufengosaurus and Massospondylus to be synonyms . This synonymy is no longer accepted .
M. kaalae was described in 2009 on the basis of a partial skull from the Upper Elliot Formation in Eastern Cape of South Africa . This species is known from the same time and region as some specimens of M. carinatus . It differs from the type species in the morphology of the braincase , as well as in several other characters of the skull such as the proportions of the premaxilla .
= = = Dubious names = = =
Several dinosaurs are often considered synonymous with Massospondylus . These include the above @-@ mentioned Leptospondylus and Pachyspondylus , as well as Aristosaurus , Dromicosaurus , Gryponyx taylori and Hortalotarsus , which are dubious names of little scientific value . Hortalotarsus skirtopodus was named by Harry Seeley in 1894 . According to Broom ( 1911 ) , " Originally most of the skeleton was in the rock , and it was regarded by the farmers as the skeleton of a Bushman , but it is said to have been destroyed through fear that a Bushman skeleton in the rock might tend to weaken the religious belief of the rising generation . " Seeley however , states that most of the skeleton was lost by a failed attempt to free it from the rock by using gunpowder . Some partial leg bones were salvaged . Together with Massospondylus carinatus , Owen named Leptospondylus capensis and Pachyspondylus orpenii . Aristosaurus erectus was named by E.C.N. van Hoepen in 1920 based on a nearly complete skeleton . Hoepen also named Dromicosaurus gracilis , which consisted of a partial skeleton . Gryponyx taylori was named by Sidney H. Haughton in 1924 . It consists of hip bones . All of the above fossils come from the Hettangian or Sinemurian faunal stages of South Africa , where Massospondylus has been found . Under the rules of zoological nomenclature , these names are junior synonyms . They were named after Massospondylus was described in a scientific paper ; the name Massospondylus thus takes priority .
Ignavusaurus , known from a young specimen , may also be synonymous with Massospondylus .
= = Classification = =
Basal sauropodomorph systematics continue to undergo revision , and many genera once considered classic " prosauropods " have recently been removed from the group in phylogenetic nomenclature , on the grounds that their inclusion would not constitute a clade ( a natural grouping containing all descendants of a single common ancestor ) . Yates and Kitching ( 2003 ) published a clade consisting of Riojasaurus , Plateosaurus , Coloradisaurus , Massospondylus , and Lufengosaurus . Galton and Upchurch ( 2004 ) included Ammosaurus , Anchisaurus , Azendohsaurus , Camelotia , Coloradisaurus , Euskelosaurus , Jingshanosaurus , Lessemsaurus , Lufengosaurus , Massospondylus , Melanorosaurus , Mussaurus , Plateosaurus , Riojasaurus , Ruehleia , Saturnalia , Sellosaurus , Thecodontosaurus , Yimenosaurus and Yunnanosaurus in a monophyletic Prosauropoda . Wilson ( 2005 ) considered Massospondylus , Jingshanosaurus , Plateosaurus , and Lufengosaurus a natural group , with Blikanasaurus and Antetonitrus possible sauropods . Bonnan and Yates ( 2007 ) considered Camelotia , Blikanasaurus and Melanorosaurus possible sauropods . Yates ( 2007 ) placed Antetonitrus , Melanorosaurus , and Blikanasaurus as basal sauropods and declined to use the term Prosauropoda , as he considered it synonymous with Plateosauridae . However , he did not rule out the possibility that a small group of prosauropods consisting of Plateosaurus , Riojasaurus , Massospondylus and their closest kin were monophyletic .
Massospondylus is the type genus of the proposed family Massospondylidae , to which it gives its name . The Massospondylidae family may also include Yunnanosaurus , although Lu et al . ( 2007 ) placed Yunnanosaurus in its own family . Yates ( 2007 ) considered Massospondylus , Coloradisaurus , and Lufengosaurus massospondylids , with Yunnanosaurus in Anchisauria . Smith and Pol ( 2007 ) also found a Massospondylidae in their phylogenetic analysis , including Massospondylus , Coloradisaurus , and Lufengosaurus , as well as their new genus , Glacialisaurus . Adeopapposaurus , based on the fossils once thought to belong to a South American form of Massospondylus , was also classified as a massospondylid , as was Leyesaurus , another South American genus that was named in 2011 . Pradhania was originally regarded as a more basal sauropodomorph but new cladistic analysis performed by Novas et al . , 2011 suggests that Pradhania is a massospondylid . Pradhania presents two shared traits of the Massospondylidae recovered in their phylogenetic analysis , and the fossils of Pradhania were discovered from the same region and basin in India as M. hislopi .
= = Paleoecology = =
The faunas and floras of the Early Jurassic were similar worldwide , with conifers adapted for hot weather becoming the common plants ; basal sauropodomorphs and theropods were the main constituents of a worldwide dinosaur fauna . The environment of early Jurassic southern Africa has been described as a desert . African Massospondylus was a contemporary of temnospondyli ; turtles ; a sphenodontia ; rauisuchids ; early crocodylomorphs ; tritylodontid and trithelodontid therapsids ; morganucodontid mammals ; and dinosaurs including the small theropod Megapnosaurus rhodesiensis and several genera of early ornithischians , such as Lesothosaurus and the heterodontosaurids Abrictosaurus , Heterodontosaurus , Lycorhinus and Pegomastax . Until recently , Massospondylus was regarded as the only known sauropodomorph from the Upper Elliot Formation . However , newer finds revealed a diverse contemporary sauropodomorph fauna with six additional species , including Ignavusaurus , Arcusaurus and two unnamed taxa as well as two unnamed sauropods .
It is not clear which carnivores may have preyed on Massospondylus . Most of the theropods that have been discovered in rocks of Early Jurassic age in southern Africa , such as Megapnosaurus , were smaller than mid @-@ sized sauropodomorphs like Massospondylus . These smaller predators have been postulated as using fast slashing attacks to wear downsauropodomorphs , which could have defended themselves with their large hand and foot claws . The 6 @-@ metre- ( 20 ft- ) long carnivorous theropod Dracovenator lived during the same period ( Hettangian to Sinemurian stages ) as Massospondylus and has also been found in the Elliot Formation of South Africa .
= = Paleobiology = =
As with all dinosaurs , much of the biology of Massospondylus , including its behavior , coloration , and physiology , remains unknown . However , recent studies have allowed for informed speculation on subjects such as growth patterns , diet , posture , reproduction , and respiration .
A 2007 study suggested that Massospondylus may have used its short arms for defense against predators ( " defensive swats " ) , in intraspecies combat , or in feeding , although its arms were too short to reach its mouth . Scientists speculate that Massospondylus could have used its large pollex ( thumb ) claw in combat , to strip plant material from trees , digging , or for grooming .
= = = Growth = = =
A 2005 study indicated that Massospondylus ' sister taxon , Plateosaurus , exhibited growth patterns affected by environmental factors . The study indicated that , when food was plentiful or when the climate was favorable , Plateosaurus exhibited accelerated growth . This pattern of growth is called " developmental plasticity " . It is unseen in other dinosaurs , including Massospondylus , despite the close relationship between the two . The study indicated that Massospondylus grew along a specific growth trajectory , with little variation in the growth rate and ultimate size of an individual . Another study of age determination indicated that Massospondylus grew at a maximum rate of 34 @.@ 6 kg ( 76 @.@ 3 lb ) per year and was still growing at around 15 years of age .
= = = Diet = = =
Early sauropodomorphs such as Massospondylus may have been herbivorous or omnivorous . As recently as the 1980s , paleontologists debated the possibility of carnivory in the " prosauropods " . However , the hypothesis of carnivorous " prosauropods " has been discredited , and all recent studies favor a herbivorous or omnivorous lifestyle for these animals . Galton and Upchurch ( 2004 ) found that cranial characteristics ( such as jaw articulation ) of most basal sauropodomorphs are closer to those of herbivorous reptiles than those of carnivorous ones , and the shape of the tooth crown is similar to those of modern herbivorous or omnivorous iguanas . The maximum width of the crown was greater than that of the root , resulting in a cutting edge similar to those of extant herbivorous or omnivorous reptiles . Barrett ( 2000 ) proposed that basal sauropodomorphs supplemented their herbivorous diets with small prey or carrion . Gastroliths ( gizzard stones ) have been found in association with three Massospondylus fossils from the Forest @-@ Sandstone in Zimbabwe , and with a Massospondylus @-@ like animal from the Late Triassic of Virginia . Until recently , scientists believed that these stones functioned as a gastric mill to aid ingestion of plant material , compensating for its inability to chew , as it is the case in many modern birds . However , Wings and Sander ( 2007 ) showed that the polished nature and the abundance of those stones precluded a use as an effective gastric mill in most non @-@ theropod dinosaurs , including Massospondylus .
= = = Gait and range of motion = = =
Although long assumed to have been quadrupedal , a 2007 anatomical study of the forelimbs has questioned this , arguing that their limited range of motion precluded effective habitual quadrupedal gait . Neither could the forelimbs swing fore and behind in a fashion similar to the hindlimbs , nor could the hand be rotated with the palmar surfaces facing downwards . This inability to pronate the hand is also supported by in @-@ situ finds of articulated ( still @-@ connected ) arms that always show unrotated hands with palmar faces facing each other . The study also ruled out the possibility of " knuckle @-@ walking " and other forms of locomotion that would make an effective locomotion possible without the need to pronate the hand . Although its mass suggests a quadrupedal nature , Massospondylus would have been restricted to its hind legs for locomotion .
Since the discovery of rudimentary and nonfunctional clavicles in ceratopsians , it was assumed that these shoulder bones were reduced in all dinosaurs that did not have true furculae . Robert Bakker ( 1987 ) suggested that this would have allowed the shoulder blades to swing with the forelimbs in quadrupedal dinosaurs , increasing their functional forelimb length . This would have reduced the discrepancy of length between fore- and hindlimbs in a quadrupedal Massospondylus . However , a recent discovery shows that Massospondylus possessed well @-@ developed clavicles that were joined in a furcula @-@ like arrangement , acting like a clasp between the right and left shoulder blades and prohibiting any rotation of these bones . This discovery indicates that the clavicle reduction is limited to the evolutionary line leading to the ceratopsians . It also indicates that the furcula of birds is derived from clavicles .
Michael Cooper ( 1981 ) noted that the zygapophyses of the neck vertebrae were inclined , prohibiting significant horizontal movement of the neck , so that " consequently any significant movement in this direction must have been accomplished by a change in the position of the entire body " . This was contradicted in a recent study , noting that only the basalmost cervicals show inclined zygapophyses , allowing sufficient horizontal movement of the neck as a whole .
= = = Reproduction = = =
In 1976 , a clutch of seven 190 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Massospondylus eggs was found in Golden Gate Highlands National Park in South Africa by James Kitching , who identified them as most likely belonging to Massospondylus . It was nearly 30 years before extraction was started on the fossils of the 15 @-@ centimetre- ( 6 in- ) long embryos . They remain the oldest dinosaur embryos ever found . By early 2012 , at least 10 egg clutches from at least four fossiliferous horizons had been found , with up to 34 eggs per clutch . This indicates that this nesting site may have been used repeatedly ( site fidelity ) , by groups of animals ( colonial nesting ) ; in both cases , these represent the oldest evidence of this behaviour . Sedimentary structures indicate that the nesting area was in the vicinity of a lake . The eggshells were very thin ( about 0 @.@ 1 mm ) , allowing gas exchange even in a low oxygen and carbon dioxide rich environment , which indicates that the eggs were at least partly buried in the substrate . There are no hints that Massospondylus constructed nests ; however , the arrangement of the eggs in tight rows indicates that the eggs were pushed in this position by the adults .
The embryos probably represented near @-@ hatchlings . While the skeletal features were similar to those of the adults , the body proportions were very dissimilar . The head was big with a short snout and very large orbits , whose diameter amounts 39 % of the entire skull length . The neck was short , contrasting to the very long neck in the adults . Girdle bones and caudals were relatively tiny . The forelimbs were of equal length to the hindlimbs , indicating that newly hatched Massospondylus were quadrupedal , unlike the bipedal adults . The discovery of hatching footprints with manus impressions confirmed their quadrupedality . These impressions show that the hand was not pronated , with palm faces facing each other and the thumb facing forwards . The unpronated manus and the big head indicate that an effective locomotion was not possible for newly hatched Massospondylus . Notably , the near @-@ hatchings had no teeth , suggesting they had no way of feeding themselves . Based on the lack of teeth and the ineffective locomotion , scientists speculate that postnatal care might have been necessary . This is further supported by evidence that the hatchings remained at the nest sites until they had doubled in size .
Newly hatched juveniles are known from a second sauropodomorph , Mussaurus ; these remains resemble those of the embryonic Massospondylus , suggesting that quadrupedality was present in newly hatched Mussaurus and presumably other basal sauropodomorphs as well . The quadrupedality of the hatchings suggests that the quadrupedal posture of later sauropods may have evolved from retention of juvenile characteristics in adult animals , an evolutionary phenomenon known as pedomorphosis . This discovery therefore " sheds some light in the evolutionary pathways through which the peculiar adaptations of giant dinosaurs were attained " , stated French paleontologist Eric Buffetaut .
= = = Respiratory system = = =
Many saurischian dinosaurs possessed vertebrae and ribs that contained hollowed @-@ out cavities ( pneumatic foramina ) , which reduced the weight of the bones and may have served as a basic ' flow @-@ through ventilation ' system similar to that of modern birds . In such a system , the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac ; the upper back vertebrae , by the lung ; and the lower back and sacral ( hip ) vertebrae , by the abdominal air sac . These organs constitute a complex and very efficient method of respiration . " Prosauropods " are the only major group of saurischians without an extensive system of pneumatic foramina . Although possible pneumatic indentations have been found in Plateosaurus and Thecodontosaurus , the indentations were very small . One study in 2007 concluded that basal sauropodomorphs like Massospondylus likely had abdominal and cervical air sacs , based on the evidence for them in sister taxa ( theropods and sauropods ) . The study concluded that it was impossible to determine whether basal sauropodomorphs had a bird @-@ like flow @-@ through lung , but that the air sacs were almost certainly present .
= Up All Night : The Live Tour =
Up All Night : The Live Tour is a video album documenting the 3 January 2012 show of English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction 's Up All Night Tour . It was released on 28 May 2012 by Syco Music . Filmed at the International Centre in the British city of Bournemouth , the 73 @-@ minute recording was directed by Andy Saunders and produced by Saunders and Tom Bairstaw . Up All Night : The Live Tour features concert footage and backstage content .
It attracted positive commentary and global success , having topped the charts in twenty @-@ five countries and selling one million copies by August 2012 . The recording additionally obtained multi @-@ platinum certifications from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , Music Canada ( MC ) , the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Development and release = =
The 73 @-@ minute recording was directed by Andy Saunders , and was produced by Saunders and Tom Bairstaw . Security was provided by Preston Mahon and Jag Chagger . Karen Ringland was the band chaperone , and Jon Shone was the musical director . During the concert , Shone additionally performed key boards , Sandy Beales performed bass guitar , Josh Devine performed drums , and Dan Richards performed guitar . Paul Higgins , Richard Griffiths , Harry Magee , Will Bloomfield served as managers , and Marco Gastel assistant . Tom Bairstow carried out the video production , Rob Derbyshire soundtracks , and Rob Arbuckle screen 3D visualisations . Matt English served as show 's graphic designer , Helene Horlyck vocal coach , Louise Doyle creative director , Paul Roberts choreographer , Caroline Watson and Lydia Taylor costume stylists , and Crystabel Riley and Lou Teasdale groomers .
Up All Night : The Live Tour was available to pre @-@ order by early April 2012 . In support of the release , a preview of the recording , its performance of " Moments " , was released on 12 April . A 30 @-@ second preview of its " More than This " performance premiered on the CBS entertainment television news show Entertainment Tonight on 9 May . The entire " More than This " performance debuted on YouTube on 11 May , with MTV News editor Jocelyn Vena suggesting that fans would appreciate the recording 's sequences . The video album was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 28 May , by Syco Music and Columbia Records . One Direction held a global Twitter viewing party for Up All Night : The Live Tour on 31 May . Utilising the hashtag # 1DVDWatchParty , fans had the opportunity to talk to the band directly on Twitter as the group 's members and fans watched the recording simultaneously .
= = Reception = =
Up All Night : The Live Tour garnered positive commentary and global success , having topped the charts in twenty @-@ five countries and selling one million copies by August 2012 . A Yahoo ! contributor favoured the concert 's acoustic performances as showcasing the members ' individual tones and vocal prowess . Joanne Dorken , writing for MTV News , praised the group 's stage presence and the content itself as having " all the thrills and spills you would expect from a 1D concert " . She additionally deemed it " a must have for any Directioner " , a One Direction fan , as it gives " an up @-@ close @-@ and @-@ personal insight into the world " of the boy band . An editor for Sugarscape shared Dorken 's sentiments and summarised it as " all good fun " , but was dismayed by the choreography in the " What Makes You Beautiful " performance . The recording reached number six on the United Kingdom 's Official Video Chart , and had sold 61 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom by 2 August 2012 . In Australia , it debuted at number one on the ARIA DVD chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 90 @,@ 000 units in its first week of sale . The recording was ultimately certified nine times platinum in Australia for shipments of 135 @,@ 000 units .
In the United States , Up All Night : The Live Tour debuted at number one on Billboard 's Top Music Videos chart with first @-@ week sales of 76 @,@ 000 copies , surpassing sales of the Billboard 200 number one album , John Mayer 's Born and Raised , which sold 65 @,@ 000 copies . One Direction made US chart history as the feat marks the first time a music DVD had outsold the Billboard 200 number one album . Its opening figure also makes it the highest music DVD debut of 2012 and the second highest debut in the past five years behind Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall , which launched at number one in December 2011 , with 96 @,@ 000 copies . In the week ending 27 January 2013 , Up All Night : The Live Tour claimed its 30th week on top of the Top Music Videos Chart , which is longer than any other title since the chart originated in March 1995 . It surpassed Ray Stevens ' Comedy Video Classics , which logged 29 weeks on top in 1993 @-@ 1994 . The recording was ultimately certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 29 May 2013 , indicating shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Mexico the DVD debuted at number @-@ one of the Music DVD Chart selling over 10 @,@ 000 copies , being certified Gold in its first week . Two months after its release it had gone on to sell over 40 @,@ 000 copies and was certified double platinum by Mexican Recording Industry Association ( AMPROFON ) . Up All Night : The Live Tour ended up as the best selling International DVD of the year with sales of 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Track listing = =
Special features
" On Tour with One Direction "
Music videos of " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Gotta Be You " , and " One Thing "
= = Chart positions = =
= = Certifications = =
= Quagga catshark =
The quagga catshark ( Halaelurus quagga ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae . A small , slim @-@ bodied shark reaching 37 cm ( 15 in ) in length , it has a distinctive color pattern of narrow , dark brown vertical bars , which resemble those of the quagga . Its head is short and flattened , with a pointed snout tip that is not upturned .
Little is known of the quagga catshark 's natural history , as it is known only from nine specimens caught off southwestern India and eastern Somalia . Inhabiting the offshore waters of continental shelf at depths of 59 – 220 m ( 194 – 722 ft ) or more , it is a bottom @-@ dwelling predator of shrimps . It exhibits an oviparous mode of reproduction , with a record of a female containing eight eggs that were enclosed in brown capsules bearing long tendrils at the corners . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks sufficient data to assess the conservation status of this species . It is not economically valued but is taken as bycatch .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first specimen of the quagga catshark was a 27 cm ( 11 in ) long adult male collected by the paddle steamer RIMS Investigator from a depth of 187 m ( 614 ft ) off the Malabar Coast of India . It was described by British naturalist Alfred William Alcock in A Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Deep @-@ sea Fishes in the Indian Museum , published in 1899 . He assigned the new species to the genus Scyllium ( a synonym of Scyliorhinus ) and named it after the quagga ( Equus quagga quagga ) because of their similar color patterns . Later authors moved this species to the genus Halaelurus .
Only nine quagga catshark specimens have been recorded . In addition to Alcock 's type specimen , four males were trawled from off the eastern Somalian coast by the research ship RV Anton Bruun in 1964 . Four more individuals , two male and two female , were found amongst the contents of commercial fishing trawls conducted off Quilon , India in 2010 . A male specimen reported from the Gulf of Aden in 1939 was later re @-@ identified as a speckled catshark ( H. boesemani ) .
= = Description = =
Slender and firm @-@ bodied , the quagga catshark has a short and flattened head with a pointed snout . The slightly protruding tip of the snout is not upturned like in some other Halaelurus species . The anterior rims of the nostrils bear triangular flaps of skin . The small , horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head and have rudimentary nictitating membranes ; below the eyes are thick ridges , and behind them are tiny spiracles . The rather large mouth is curved , with the upper teeth exposed when closed . There are short furrows at the corners of the mouth . The jaws contain 26 – 28 upper and 27 lower tooth rows on each side ; in addition , there are three tooth rows at the upper symphysis ( jaw midpoint ) and one row at the lower . The teeth have three cusps . The five pairs of gill slits are placed higher than the level of the mouth ; the fifth pair are smaller than the rest .
The moderately large and rounded pectoral fins are positioned fairly close to the pelvic fins . Adult males have thin , tapering claspers with a denticle @-@ covered knob on the outer side near the tip . The first dorsal fin is placed just behind the pelvic fin bases , while the larger second dorsal fin is placed just behind the anal fin . The anal fin is larger than the second dorsal fin and comparable in size to the pelvic fins . The caudal fin has a small but discernible lower lobe and a large upper lobe with a notch in its trailing margin . The thick skin is covered by dermal denticles , which have arrowhead @-@ shaped crowns with a central ridge and three posterior teeth . This shark has a striking dorsal color pattern consisting of over 20 narrow , dark brown vertical bars on a light brown background ; the bars run from the head to the tail and extend onto the dorsal fins . The underside is off @-@ white , and the pectoral , pelvic , and anal fins have pale trailing margins . The largest known specimen is 37 cm ( 15 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The known specimens of the quagga catshark have been collected from the Laccadive Sea off southwestern India and from the Indian Ocean off Somalia . The Indian sharks were caught between the depths of 90 and 220 m ( 300 and 720 ft ) or possibly 280 m ( 920 ft ) , while the Somalian sharks were caught at depths of 59 to 70 m ( 194 to 230 ft ) . This is a bottom @-@ dwelling species found far from shore over the continental shelf .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the quagga catshark consists of deep @-@ living shrimps . Its reproduction is oviparous like the other members of its genus . One of the female Indian specimens was gravid with eight eggs , divided evenly between the two oviducts . The eggs are enclosed in brown purse @-@ shaped capsules measuring 3 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in length , with long coiled tendrils at their four corners . The smallest known specimen is 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long , which is probably close to the size at hatching . Males reach sexual maturity at between 28 and 35 cm ( 11 and 14 in ) long ; female maturation size is unknown .
= = Human interactions = =
The quagga catshark is harmless and is not utilized by humans . It is caught incidentally by demersal fisheries in bottom trawls and potentially other gear ; such fishing activity is very intense in Indian and Somalian waters , though specific data on this species is lacking . Therefore , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Data Deficient .
= Japanese battleship Haruna =
Haruna ( 榛名 ) , named after Mount Haruna , was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . Designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston , she was the fourth and last battlecruiser of the Kongō class , amongst the most heavily armed ships in any navy when built . Laid down in 1912 at the Kawasaki Shipyards in Kobe , Haruna was formally commissioned in 1915 on the same day as her sister ship , Kirishima . Haruna patrolled off the Chinese coast during World War I. During gunnery drills in 1920 , an explosion destroyed one of her guns , damaged the gun turret , and killed seven men . During her career , Haruna underwent two major reconstructions . Beginning in 1926 , the Imperial Japanese Navy rebuilt her as a battleship , strengthening her armor and improving her speed and power capabilities . In 1933 , her superstructure was completely rebuilt , her speed was increased , and she was equipped with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing carrier fleet , Haruna was reclassified as a fast battleship . During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Haruna transported Imperial Japanese Army troops to mainland China before being redeployed to the Third Battleship Division in 1941 . On the eve of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , she sailed as part of the Southern Force in preparation for the Battle of Singapore .
Haruna fought in almost every major naval action of the Pacific Theater during World War II . She covered the Japanese landings in Malaya ( in present @-@ day Malaysia ) and the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) in 1942 before engaging American forces at the Battle of Midway and during the Guadalcanal Campaign . Throughout 1943 , Haruna primarily remained at Truk Lagoon ( Micronesia ) , Kure Naval Base ( near Hiroshima ) , Sasebo Naval Base ( near Nagasaki ) , and the Lingga Islands ( in present @-@ day Indonesia ) , and deployed on several occasions in response to American carrier airstrikes on Japanese island bases . Haruna participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944 , engaging American vessels in the latter . In 1945 , Haruna was transferred to Kure Naval Base , where she was sunk by aircraft of Task Force 38 on 28 July 1945 .
= = Design and construction = =
Haruna was the fourth and last of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , a line of capital ships designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston . The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . The four battlecruisers of the Kongo @-@ class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time ; they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . Their heavy armament and armor protection ( which contributed 23 @.@ 3 percent of their displacement ) were greatly superior to those of any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Haruna was laid down at Kobe by Kawasaki on 16 March 1912 , with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Japan . Due to a shortage of available slipways , Haruna and her sister ship Kirishima were the first two capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy to be built in private shipyards . Launched on 14 December 1913 , Haruna 's fitting @-@ out began in early 1914 . She was completed on 19 April 1915 .
= = = Armament = = =
Haruna 's main battery consisted of eight 14 in ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main guns in four twin turrets ( two forward , two aft ) . The turrets were noted by the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness . Each of her main guns could fire high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells a maximum of 38 @,@ 770 yd ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a firing rate of two shells per minute . In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels before their opponents , Haruna and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with 14 in ( 36 cm ) guns . The main guns carried ammunition for 90 salvoes , and had an approximate barrel life of 250 to 280 rounds . In 1941 , separate dyes ( used to distinguish between shells fired from multiple ships ) were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongo @-@ class battleships , with Haruna 's armor @-@ piercing shells using black dye .
Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 6 in ( 15 cm ) 50 @-@ caliber medium guns in single casemates ( all located amidships ) , eight 3 in ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) guns and eight submerged 21 in ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . The six @-@ inch guns could fire five to six rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 500 rounds . The 6 " / 50 caliber gun was capable of firing both anti @-@ aircraft and anti @-@ ship shells , though the positioning of the guns on Haruna made antiaircraft firing impractical . During her second reconstruction , the older 3 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 5 in ( 13 cm ) dual @-@ purpose guns . These 5 " / 40 caliber guns could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 800 to 1 @,@ 500 rounds . The 5 " / 40 had the widest variety of shot types of Haruna 's guns , being designed to fire antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells . She was also armed with a large number of 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) antiaircraft machine guns . In 1943 , her secondary armament was reconfigured to eight 6 in ( 15 cm ) guns , twelve 5 in ( 13 cm ) guns , and finally by the end of 1944 one hundred and eight Type 96 antiaircraft autocannon in 30 triples and 18 single mounts .
= = Operational history = =
= = = 1915 – 1926 : Battlecruiser = = =
On 19 April 1915 , Haruna was formally commissioned at Kobe . On 13 December 1915 , after eight months of trials , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the Second Fleet . On 9 April 1916 , she departed Sasebo Naval Base for operations in the East China Sea , returning to Japan 10 days later . On 1 December 1916 , Captain Saburo Hyakutake assumed command of Haruna until 15 September 1917 , when Captain Naomi Taniguchi replaced him . On 1 December 1917 , she was placed in reserve , as hostilities in the Pacific theatre of World War I concluded .
On 12 September 1920 , Haruna was involved in gunnery drills off Hokkaidō when a breech explosion destroyed the starboard gun of the No. 1 turret , killing seven men and badly damaging the armored roof of the turret . A later investigation by the Imperial Japanese Navy concluded that a faulty fuse ignited the gunpowder bags in the breech , detonating the shell while still in the barrel . The turret was repaired at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , where the elevation of her 14 @-@ inch guns was also increased by seven degrees . Three months later , she was once again placed in reserve .
With the conclusion of World War I and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty , the size of the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly lessened , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and Japan . The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) . Provided that new additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) , existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved anti @-@ torpedo bulges and deck armor . By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I @-@ era capital ships remained active : the Ise @-@ class battleships , the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , and one of the Fusō @-@ class battleships ( Yamashiro ) .
= = = 1926 – 1933 : Reconstruction into battleship = = =
Unable to construct new capital ships until 1931 , Japan resorted to upgrading battleships and battlecruisers . In July 1926 , Haruna became the first of Japan 's vessels to undergo extensive modernization and modification , in drydock at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal . Over the next two years , her horizontal armor near her ammunition magazines was strengthened , and the machinery spaces within the hull were increased . Anti @-@ torpedo bulges were added along the waterline , as permitted by the Washington Treaty . She was refitted to accommodate three Type 90 Model 0 floatplanes . To increase her speed and power capacities , all 36 Yarrow boilers were removed and replaced with 16 newer boilers , and Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive turbines were installed . Haruna 's forward funnel was removed , and her second funnel was enlarged and lengthened . The modifications to her hull increased her armor weight from 6 @,@ 502 to 10 @,@ 313 long tons , directly violating the terms of the Washington Treaty . In July 1928 , Haruna — now capable of speeds of 29 kn ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) — was reclassified as a battleship .
Following new sea trials , Haruna was assigned on 10 December 1928 to the Fourth Battleship Division of the Second Fleet as the Emperor 's special ship . For the next 12 months , she operated between Sasebo , Port Arthur , and the East China Sea . On 1 February 1929 , Prince Takamatsu , the younger brother of Emperor Hirohito , was assigned to the crew . On 20 November 1929 , she was reassigned to the First Battleship Division . She was placed in reserve on 1 December 1930 .
On 22 April 1930 , Japan signed the London Naval Treaty , placing further restrictions on her maritime forces . In addition to the scrapping of several older battleships , Japan would not be permitted to construct new capital ships until 1937 . After minor fitting @-@ out work , her reconstruction begun in 1926 was declared complete on 1 October 1931 . On 8 November 1931 , she served as the Emperor 's ship during his official visit to Kumamoto prefecture .
In September 1931 , Japan invaded Manchuria . On 25 February 1933 , based on the report by the Lytton Commission , the League of Nations agreed that Japan 's invasion had violated Chinese sovereignty . Refusing to accept the organization 's judgment , Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day . Immediately following , Japan also withdrew from the Washington and London Naval Treaties , thus removing all restrictions on the number and size of her capital ships . Haruna was reactivated and assigned to the First Battleship Division on 20 May 1933 .
= = = 1933 – 1941 : Fast battleship = = =
On 1 August 1933 , Haruna was drydocked at Kure Naval Arsenal in preparation for upgrades that would enable her to escort Japan 's growing fleet of aircraft carriers . Her stern was lengthened by 26 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) , and her bridge was completely reconstructed according to Japan 's pagoda mast style of forward superstructure . Her 16 older boilers were removed and replaced with 11 oil @-@ fired Kampon Boilers and newer geared turbines . Catapults and rails were added to support three Nakajima E8N or Kawanishi E7K reconnaissance and spotter floatplanes .
Haruna 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches ( up from varying thicknesses of 6 to 8 inches ) , while diagonal bulkheads of depths ranging from 5 to 8 in ( 127 to 203 mm ) now reinforced the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 in ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . Her ammunition magazine protection was also strengthened to 4 @.@ 0 inches ( 10 cm ) . The reconstruction was finished on 30 September 1934 . Capable of more than 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) despite the significant increase in hull displacement , Haruna was now reclassified as a fast battleship .
On 28 October 1935 , Captain Jisaburō Ozawa assumed command of Haruna . On 1 June 1936 , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet . Throughout 1937 , Haruna conducted extensive gunnery drills and patrols off the coast of China , primarily in the vicinity of Tsingtao . On 7 July 1937 , Japan officially declared war on China , thus beginning the Sino @-@ Japanese War . One month later , Haruna transported Japanese Army forces to mainland China in preparation for campaigns into Chinese Nationalist territory . On 1 December 1937 , she was again placed in reserve . On 2 April 1940 , she was transferred from Sasebo to Taiwan . She was redesignated as a " special service ship " on 15 November 1940 , and five months later was attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet , based in Hashirajima .
= = = 1941 – 1942 : Early war service = = =
Haruna and Kongō departed the Hashirajima fleet anchorage on 29 November 1941 , to participate in the opening stage of the Pacific War as part of the Southern ( Malay ) Force 's Main Body , under the overall command of Vice @-@ Admiral Nobutake Kondō . On 4 December 1941 , the Main Body arrived off the coast of Southern Siam and Northern Malaya , in preparation for the invasion of Siam and the Malayan Peninsula four days later . When Britain 's " Force Z " – consisting of the battleship HMS Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser HMS Repulse – was quickly defeated by Japan 's land @-@ based and carrier aircraft , Haruna 's battlegroup withdrew from Malayan waters . The battlegroup subsequently sortied from Indochina for three days in mid @-@ December to protect a reinforcement convoy traveling to Malaya and again on 18 December to cover the Army 's landing at Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines . The Main Body departed Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina on 23 December bound for Taiwan , arriving two days later .
On 13 December 1941 , an erroneous report was published in the U.S. media that an American B @-@ 17 heavy bomber had bombed and mortally damaged Haruna during battle off Lingayen Gulf off the Philippines . No Japanese battleships were present , and Haruna was 1 @,@ 500 nmi ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) away in the Gulf of Siam at the time .
On 18 January 1942 , Kondō 's Main Force arrived in Palau alongside two fast carriers , with the intention of covering Japan 's invasion of Borneo and the Dutch East Indies . Haruna , Maya , and the fleet carriers Hiryū and Sōryū operated to the east of Mindanao until 18 February 1942 , when the Main Body departed Palau in preparation for " Operation J " , Japan 's invasion of the Dutch East Indies . On 25 February , the Third Battleship Division provided cover for air attacks on Java . Haruna bombarded Christmas Island on 7 March 1942 , then returned to Staring @-@ baai for 15 days of maintenance and rest . In April 1942 , Haruna joined five fleet carriers in attacks on Colombo in Ceylon . Following the destruction of HMS Dorsetshire on 5 April 1942 , Haruna was sent southwest to locate the remainder of the British Eastern Fleet , under the command of Admiral James Somerville . On 9 April , one of her floatplanes spotted the carrier HMS Hermes south of Trincomalee ; Japanese airstrikes sank the carrier the same day . Having crippled the offensive capability of Britain 's Eastern Fleet , the Third Battleship Division returned to Japan on 23 April . Haruna was drydocked throughout May 1942 for general repairs and refits .
On 29 May 1942 , Haruna joined her sister ship Kirishima as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's carrier strike force during the Battle of Midway . On 4 June , she was attacked in multiple airstrikes by American torpedo bombers , but she took no hits and succeeded in shooting down five American aircraft . On 5 June , she took on survivors from the four destroyed Japanese aircraft carriers before returning to Japan . She remained in Japan until September 1942 , undergoing minor refits in August of that year . On 6 September , Haruna transferred to Truk Lagoon alongside the rest of the Third Battleship Division , and on 10 September the ship sortied as part of Admiral Kondō 's Second Fleet into the Solomon Islands . On 20 September , the fleet was ordered to return to Truk .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Cape Esperance , the Japanese Army opted to reinforce their positions on Guadalcanal . To protect their transport convoy from enemy air attack , Admiral Yamamoto sent Haruna and Kongō , escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers , to bombard Henderson Field . Because of their high speed , the two battleships could bombard the field and withdraw before being subjected to air attack from aircraft carriers . On the night of 13 – 14 October , the two battleships shelled Henderson Field from a distance of 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , firing 973 14 @-@ inch shells . In the most successful Japanese battleship action of the war , the bombardment heavily damaged both runways , destroyed almost all available aviation fuel , incapacitated 48 of the airfield 's 90 aircraft , and killed 41 men . The Japanese troop convoy reached the island the next day .
During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 26 October 1942 , Haruna was attacked by a PBY Catalina flying boat but received no damage . In mid @-@ November , the battleship and other warships provided distant cover for the ultimately unsuccessful efforts to bombard Henderson Field again and land reinforcements on Guadalcanal . On 15 November 1942 , following the Japanese defeat and loss of Hiei and Kirishima during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , the Third Battleship Division returned to Truk , where it remained for the rest of 1942 .
= = = 1943 : Movement between bases = = =
Haruna engaged no enemy targets during 1943 . In late January 1943 , she participated in " Operation Ke " , as part of a diversionary force and distant cover supporting Japanese destroyers that were evacuating personnel from Guadalcanal . During 15 – 20 February 1943 , the Third Battleship Division transferred from Truk to Kure Naval Base . From 23 February to 31 March 1943 , Haruna was drydocked in Kure Naval Arsenal for upgrades , receiving additional Type 96 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) antiaircraft guns and armor . On 17 May 1943 , in response to the American invasion of Attu Island , Haruna sortied alongside Musashi , the Third Battleship Division , two fleet carriers , two cruisers and nine destroyers . Three days later , the submarine USS Sawfish discovered the task group , but was unable to attack . On 22 May 1943 , the task force arrived in Yokosuka , where it was joined by an additional three fleet carriers and two light cruisers ; the force was disbanded when Attu fell before the necessary preparations were finished . Throughout June 1943 , Haruna was refitted at Yokosuka . On 18 September 1943 , Haruna left Truk as part of a counterattack force in response to American raids on the Brown Islands in Micronesia , but no contact was made and the ship returned to the base .
On 17 October 1943 , Haruna again left Truk as part of an even larger force — five battleships , three fleet carriers , eight heavy cruisers , three light cruisers and numerous destroyers — in response to American raids on Wake Island . When no contact was made the force returned to Truk on 26 October 1943 . On 16 December 1943 , she arrived at Sasebo for refits and inland @-@ sea training .
= = = 1944 : Final combat actions = = =
On 25 January 1944 , Captain Kazu Shigenaga assumed command of Haruna while the ship was stationed at Kure . The Third Battleship Division departed Kure on 8 March 1944 . Arriving at Lingga on 14 March 1944 , the division remained for training until 11 May 1944 . On 11 May 1944 , Haruna and Admiral Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet departed Lingga for Tawitawi , where they were joined by Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's " Force C " . On 13 June , Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet departed Tawitawi for the Mariana Islands . During the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Haruna escorted Japanese fast carriers , and was hit by two 500 lb ( 230 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs on 20 June 1944 from U.S. carrier aircraft . On 24 June , she was drydocked in Kure for repairs and refitting . In August 1944 she transferred to Lingga .
In October 1944 , Haruna departed Lingga in preparation for " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , Japan 's counterattack during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the largest naval engagement in history . On 24 October , Haruna was lightly damaged by fragments from near misses by American carrier aircraft in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea . On 25 October , during the Battle off Samar , Haruna — as part of Admiral Kurita 's Centre Force — engaged escort carriers and destroyers of the U.S. 7th Fleet 's " Taffy 3 " . Her 14 in ( 36 cm ) shells straddled ( but did not hit ) two American escort carriers , before she dodged torpedoes launched by American destroyers . After a fierce defensive action by the American ships , Admiral Kurita elected to withdraw , ending the battle .
Following the Japanese Navy 's defeat at Leyte Gulf , Haruna returned to Brunei and Lingga for repairs . On 22 November 1944 , she ran aground on a coral reef near Lingga , suffering serious damage to her watertight compartments and forcing her to return to Sasebo , where the hull was patched and repaired . On 2 December 1944 , while returning to Japan from Southeast Asia as part of a task group , she evaded torpedoes fired by an American submarine . On 9 December , three more American submarines intercepted the task group ; USS Sea Devil , Plaice , and Redfish damaged the carrier Junyō and multiple destroyers with torpedoes . Unharmed , Haruna arrived at Sasebo the following day . At the end of 1944 , she transferred to Kure for full repairs and upgrading , having survived a year in which four other Japanese battleships had been lost .
= = = 1945 : Loss = = =
On 1 January 1945 , Haruna was removed from the deactivated Third Battleship Division and transferred to the First Battleship Division of the Second Fleet
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, seventy @-@ four draught horses and six pack horses . Each squadron , of 158 men , had a field headquarters and four troops . The Machine @-@ Gun Section , with two Maxim Guns , had one officer , twenty @-@ six other ranks , twenty riding horses and sixteen draught horses . Although the regiment used horses , they were not cavalry but mounted infantry , and expected to ride to the battlefield , dismount and then fight as traditional infantry . Attached to , but not part of , the regiment were medical and veterinary officers , an artificer , three more other ranks and another eighteen horses . The regiment was assigned to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , serving alongside two other regiments , the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the Canterbury Mounted Rifles .
= = = Embarkation = = =
The regiment conducted training until 24 September , when they received embarkation orders . Due to the fear of German warships being in the area , the wait for suitable escort ships delayed their departure until 15 October . With a short stop at Hobart , on 28 October they arrived at Albany , and anchored waiting to be joined by the Australian contingent . The combined convoy sailed on 1 November and reached Colombo on 15 November . Two days later it sailed into the Red Sea and the Suez Canal . They docked at Port Said on 2 December and Alexandria the next day . The regiment disembarked on 4 December and boarded a train for their camp in the Cairo suburb of Zeitoun . There they started a training programme , using the desert for manoeuvres , during both day and night .
In April 1915 the New Zealand and Australian forces , except the mounted troops , were sent to serve in the Gallipoli Campaign . Heavy casualties during the landings provided a need for reinforcements , so the regiment and other mounted troops , without their horses , were ordered to Gallipoli .
= = Gallipoli = =
On 8 May 1915 , the regiment , reduced to twenty @-@ five officers and 453 other ranks ( some men had to stay behind to look after the horses ) , with the remainder of the brigade , sailed for Gallipoli and landed three days later , under small arms fire , at ANZAC Cove , as part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) .
They relieved elements of the Royal Naval Brigade , with the regiment taking over from the Nelson and Deal Battalions , on the right flank . One squadron occupied the front line , one squadron the support trench , and the third was the reserve . The regiment was on the left , the Auckland Mounted Rifles in the centre , and the Canterbury Mounted Rifles on the right . They spent the next few days improving the fire trenches , constructing communications trenches , and enlarging tracks so men and guns could move forward quickly . This was done under Turkish machine @-@ gun and rifle fire .
= = = First combat = = =
At midnight on 18 May the Turkish troops opened fire on the regiment until 03 : 30 , then left their trenches and charged the mounted brigade , concentrating on the Auckland Mounted Rifles . The Turkish attackers were engaged by the regiment 's machine @-@ guns with enfilade fire and the attack petered out at dawn , leaving hundreds of Turkish dead . Both sides continued shooting at each other with artillery and small arms fire . At 13 : 25 General Alexander Godley , commanding that section of the beach @-@ head , ordered the regiment to counter @-@ attack the Turkish trenches at " The Nek " . Their first trench was one hundred yards ( 91 m ) across no man 's land with no cover at all . The regiment prepared to obey the order , but arranged it so that no one squadron would be wiped out . The men were selected in equal proportion from all three squadrons and Captain William Hardham VC was chosen to command them . Brigadier @-@ General Andrew Russell , commanding the brigade , contacted Godley to advise him of the circumstances of such an attack and Russell was told to " use his own judgement " so promptly called it off .
The morning of 20 May started the same way , with Turkish artillery and small arms fire being directed at the regiment 's trenches . This lasted until 16 : 30 when the firing ceased and white flags appeared above the Turkish trenches . The Turkish commander asked for an armistice , so that they could collect their dead and wounded lying in the open . But as it appeared they were using the time to bring forward reinforcements , repair defences and collect arms and ammunition from the dead , the armistice was turned down . Negotiations continued and a truce was agreed for 24 May between 07 : 30 and 17 : 00 . The regiment sent out men to collect and bury Allied dead . The next day the 3rd Light Horse Brigade relieved the regiment , and they moved to a safer area in the rear . Even when " resting " in the rear , they were not safe as it was constantly shelled , and work details had to be provided to move supplies and construct better defences .
= = = Defence of No.3 Post = = =
On 28 May the regiment had to man a position just captured by the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , called No.3 Post . The 6th Squadron was chosen and started improving the trenches on arrival . Daylight was at 03 : 30 and although having worked all night , they had made no real impression on the position and were exposed to Turkish fire all day . However , instead of abandoning the post , at 21 : 00 they were relieved by the 9th Squadron . An hour later Major Selwyn Chambers , commanding the 9th Squadron reported they were surrounded by about one thousand Turkish troops . At 23 : 35 communications with the 9th Squadron failed . The squadron were fighting off attacks , but could not stop Turkish troops reaching the edge of their trench and throwing hand grenades into their positions . A troop from the 2nd Squadron , sent as reinforcements , were unable to break through . So at midnight the remainder of the 2nd Squadron attempted to reach them , but instead had to dig in to defend themselves . Even though outnumbered , both squadrons managed to hold out , providing covering fire for each other . At 03 : 30 another Turkish attempt to capture their trenches began , this time from the south . When Turkish troops got into the left side of the 2nd Squadron trench , Major James Elmslie led a troop in a counter @-@ attack , clearing them out . At 06 : 30 , by using signal flags , communications with regimental headquarters were re @-@ established . Casualties were mounting and supplies of ammunition dwindling , and the defence was becoming untenable . The 6th Squadron managed to reach the 2nd Squadron 's position , but in the face of heavy Turkish fire , were unable to advance any further . Around 12 : 00 Turkish troops got into the 9th Squadrons trenches , forcing one troop to withdraw . After Captain Spragg of 9th Squadron located an abandoned supply of British ammunition , the New Zealanders were able to return fire at will without having to conserve ammunition . Nevertheless , the Turkish force , now numbering about three thousand men , continued their attacks all day .
At 19 : 00 Turkish troops captured the northern section of the 9th Squadron trench . With no chance of any relief during daylight , the commanding officer was informed that two squadrons from the Canterbury Mounted Rifles would try to relieve the 9th Squadron after 20 : 00 . By this time the 6th Squadron had fought their way round the southern slopes of the hill and got within one hundred yards ( 91 m ) of the 9th Squadron 's trench , but could make no further progress . As darkness approached Turkish fire reduced , and at 22 : 30 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles reached 9th Squadron and took over from them at 23 : 00 . The 9th Squadron moved to the rear followed an hour later by the 2nd and 6th Squadrons . During the battle the squadrons were outnumbered and fighting at close quarters , but their casualties were rather light at nineteen dead and fifty @-@ two wounded .
= = = Walker 's Ridge = = =
The regiment returned to the front on 7 June , relieving the 8th Light Horse Regiment on Walkers Ridge . The 2nd and 9th Squadrons manned the front trench , with the 6th Squadron in reserve . Trench warfare , shelling and sniping continued all month but there was no major attack . The regiment spent their time rotating through the front and resting at the rear . On 1 July reinforcements of four officers and ninety @-@ seven other ranks arrived . On 18 July the regiment returned to the front , relieving the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , each squadron with two troops forward and the other two in reserve . They remained there until 31 July when they were relieved by the 10th Light Horse Regiment . Returning to the rear , the regiment only had twenty @-@ four officers and 338 other ranks , almost 200 men short of full establishment .
= = = Chunuk Bair = = =
In August Godley planned a new offensive . The brigade was designated as the " Right Covering Force " , and allocated several objectives including " No.3 Post " , " Big Table Top " and " Destroyer Ridge " . The regiment , supported by a Maori pioneer battalion , were given " Destroyer Ridge " and " Big Table Top " to capture . On 5 August the regiment moved to their starting position at " No.1 Post " , the attack being planned for the following day . Two troops from 6th Squadron were to capture " Destroyer Ridge " , and then clear the route to " Big Table Top " , which the remainder of the regiment was to assault at 22 : 00 .
At 21 : 30 6 August the attack began ; after covering around two hundred yards ( 180 m ) the leading troops were discovered by a Turkish sentry . The 6th Squadron charged the trenches , killing the occupants , but it cost them two men dead and one wounded including the squadron commander . The rest of the squadron continued clearing the route for the regiment . Thick impenetrable bush , forced the regiment to move further east to continue . Scaling the north @-@ eastern face of the hill , they reached the summit at 22 : 55 , and attacked the Turks from the rear . The regiment worked to secure the position from attack by the Turkish forces . Their total casualties for the operation were eight dead and nine wounded , but they had captured 158 prisoners , without firing a shot . The next morning , 7 August , the 6th Squadron and Maoris rejoined the regiment , just as they came under heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . The next day the regiment , along with the Auckland Mounted Rifles , the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and two British battalions , were combined as No.1 Column commanded by Brigadier @-@ General Francis Johnston . The Column were to hold the ground already occupied and extend their lines to the south and east . Leaving the 9th Squadron defending " Big Table Top " , the rest of the regiment , 173 all ranks , reported to Johnstone at " Chailak Dere " , where they ordered to hold the position " to the last man " alongside the Otago Infantry Battalion . The regiment spent the night improving the crescent shaped position , on the rear slope of the hill . All during the following day , the attacking Turks , sky @-@ lining themselves at the crest of the hill , became easy targets for the regiment , and were engaged with enfilade fire , from the left and right of the regiment 's lines .
At 16 : 00 the regiment was attacked in force , but the Turks withdrew after suffering heavy casualties . But the British attack elsewhere had failed , and some units had been forced to retire , leaving the regiment exposed . They fought off attacks throughout the night , until 05 : 00 the next morning . Then for two hours they were harassed with sniper fire and hand grenades . Meldrum asked the brigade for reinforcements and more ammunition . There were no reserves of ammunition available and the only reinforcements were forty men from the 6th Battalion Loyal Regiment ( North Lancashire ) who were sent to assist , but did not arrive until noon . At 14 : 00 Meldrum reported he could now hold out until nightfall and at 22 : 30 they were relieved by the rest of the Loyal Regiment and the 5th Battalion Wiltshire Regiment . In the day 's fighting the regiment , from a total of 173 all ranks , had lost forty @-@ three dead and seventy @-@ four wounded .
Early on 10 August the survivors , less the 9th Squadron , moved into a camp at " No.1 Post " . The 9th Squadron , now one hundred men strong , remained at the front defending " Table Top " and " Old No.3 Post " . The next day at 19 : 30 the brigade moved back to man the inner defence line . The regiment , still without the 9th Squadron , occupied the " Camel 's Hump " with twelve men , and " Destroyer Ridge " with twenty @-@ five men , the remainder being held in reserve . They remained at the front until relieved on 23 August .
= = = Hill 60 = = =
On 21 August the regiment moved back to " Big Table Top " for the pending assault on Hill 60 . The attack , at 15 : 30 , succeeded in capturing around two hundred yards ( 180 m ) of Turkish trenches . Two days later , at 17 : 15 , the regiment was relieved and rejoined the brigade at Kabak Kuyu , but at 19 : 30 , five officers and 125 other ranks had to return to the front to defend the western slopes of Hill 60 . The same day , three officers and seventy @-@ seven other ranks arrived as reinforcements for the regiment . On 25 August those men still at the front were relieved by the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and Otago Mounted Rifles , in preparation for a night assault on Hill 60 by the brigade . The assault was postponed for two days to rest the men . Although the brigade was responsible for the centre objective during the assault , it could only provide three hundred men , with another one hundred men coming from the Australian 18th Battalion . The regiment 's contribution was five officers and 125 other ranks . The battle commenced with an hour @-@ long artillery bombardment . The Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles formed the first line of attack , the Wellington regiment and the Otago Mounted Rifles the second , and the Australians made up the third line . At 17 : 00 the attack began , and despite taking heavy casualties crossing no man 's land , the first Turkish line was captured . The Wellington regiment and Otago Mounted Rifles continued on , took out a machine @-@ gun post and captured the second Turkish trench , but sustained heavy casualties . On the other flanks the supporting assaults had failed , leaving the regiment and the Otago Mounted Rifles isolated on a narrow front . The brigade therefore consolidated the ground already captured and moved forward their machine @-@ guns to support the defence ; the forward defensive line was only forty men . The regiment 's casualties during the battle were fifty dead and fifty @-@ nine wounded . That night the remainder of the regiment moved into the front line . They fought off several counter @-@ attacks , losing another man killed and eleven wounded . On 29 August the regiment was relieved by the 163rd ( Norfolk & Suffolk ) Brigade , but remained in the reserve trenches for the next three days . Even there the number of casualties continued to increase , so that by 2 September there were only six officers and ninety @-@ nine men left in the regiment . Despite this , they still had to supply five officers and thirty @-@ nine other ranks to occupy a trench on " Cheshire Ridge " .
= = = Evacuation = = =
By 13 September the regiment 's strength was four officers and eighty other ranks . All of them except fourteen machine @-@ gunners were evacuated to the island of Lemnos . Of the original contingent who had landed in May only twenty @-@ four men were still with the regiment . On 10 November reinforcements increased the regiment 's total to nine officers and 363 other ranks , and they returned to Gallipoli , reaching the front line at Hill 60 on 27 November . Lack of manpower meant they could not fully man their trenches , so a system was adopted where six men manned a post , with only two on duty during the day . At night all men were awake and also patrolled between posts and into no man 's land .
On 17 December , orders for the complete evacuation of the peninsula were issued . The regiment started leaving the next day , when six officers and 155 other ranks left for Lemnos before dawn . Those left behind had to make it appear that the trenches were fully occupied . At 21 : 30 two thirds of the remainder were evacuated . Other smaller parties left the trenches between 01 : 40 and 02 : 05 , when the last officer and eleven other ranks moved down to the beach and were evacuated . The surviving 375 men of the regiment camped on Lemnos until transport was available to take them back to Egypt . Their involvement in the Gallipoli Campaign had cost the regiment a total of 640 casualties .
= = Sinai = =
= = = Katia = = =
On 22 December the regiment left Lemnos ; they disembarked at Alexandria four days later . On 27 December they arrived back at Zeitoun camp . There they were reunited with their horses , and reinforcements arrived to bring the regiment back up to full establishment , plus another ten percent . At the same time the Machine @-@ Gun Section was doubled from two to four guns . On 23 January 1916 the regiment were deployed in defence of the Suez Canal , reaching Serapeum on 29 January and Ferry Post Rail Head on 5 March where they took over from two infantry brigades . Later that month the brigade was assigned to the newly formed ANZAC Mounted Division , alongside three Australian light horse brigades and a British Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) brigade .
The regiment mixed defending the canal with further training , each man getting used to their arms and equipment . They carried 240 rounds of ammunition in two bandoleers , one around the horse 's neck . The horses also carried saddle wallets containing clothing and a blanket or great coat , water , rations , cooking utensils , empty sandbags , and a rope for tethering the horse . On 23 April they were ordered to move into the Sinai Desert to assist the 5th Mounted Brigade who were under attack . Travelling thirty miles ( 48 km ) overnight they reached Kantara at dawn and crossed the canal . However the Turkish force had withdrawn , so the brigade established a chain of observation posts in the desert . The Wellingtons were near Hill 70 , in the No.3 Section of the canal 's defence zone .
The regiment remained at Hill 70 until 12 May , when they moved twenty @-@ six miles ( 42 km ) north @-@ east to Maler . On arrival they established a line of observation posts and sent reconnaissance patrols further east into the desert . Four days later the 2nd Squadron sent a troop on a reconnaissance to Sabhket El Bardawil . On 18 May the regiment occupied the Katia Oasis , and the next day sent a patrol to Ard sixteen miles ( 26 km ) to the east . They gained their first sight of Turkish forces in the region , but they were too distant to engage . On 29 May the regiment , along with the rest of the brigade , travelled thirty miles overnight to Salmana , and early next morning surprised the Turkish garrison . The main part of the assault was carried out by the Auckland Mounted Rifles . The water supply at Salmana was insufficient for a complete mounted brigade , so they had to return to Maler that night . Between 21 – 23 June the regiment provided flank protection for the 1st Light Horse Brigade on a reconnaissance of Katia . Then , on their return to Maler , they were attached to the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , who gave them the nickname " Well and Trulys " . In July the regiment lost its machine @-@ gun section , which was transferred to the newly formed brigade Machine @-@ Gun Squadron . The Maxim guns were replaced by three Lewis guns , one per squadron . The loss of the section also reduced the regiment 's establishment to twenty @-@ four officers and 499 other ranks .
= = = Romani = = =
On 19 July , reconnaissance aircraft located a Turkish force in the desert moving west . The regiment and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade were ordered to establish a line of observation posts in their path . They were to send out patrols to locate them , but withdraw if attacked . If possible , they were to retire towards Romani , enticing the Turks to follow them . At dawn on 20 July the regiment located the Turks digging trenches near Ogratina . Rifle fire was exchanged and some prisoners were captured . The prisoners revealed that the force comprised twelve battalions with artillery support , planning to attack Romani .
Two days later , on 22 July , the regiment again encountered Turkish troops , this time at Sagia . Over the following days they were employed checking the Turkish positions and shadowing their line of march . On 28 July , the 2nd Squadron located a strong Turkish force at Umm Ugba two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Katia . Covered by artillery and machine @-@ guns , two of the regiment 's squadrons carried out a bayonet charge and captured the position . They lost two men dead and three wounded during the battle .
On 3 August , still with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , the regiment returned to Katia . Forming the vanguard , they came under Turkish fire on their approach , and as Katia appeared to be held in strength by the Turks , the brigade set up a line of observation posts to monitor them until nightfall . They then retired to Maler , unknowingly being followed by the Turks . At 23 : 30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade reported movement to their front , and thirty minutes later shots were exchanged at Mount Meredith and Hod El Enna . The regiment had just settled down for the night and were ordered to stand to . At 02 : 15 4 August , fighting broke out along the front line and two hours later the 1st Light Horse Brigade carried out a fighting withdrawal . At dawn the regiment was the brigade reserve behind the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments . By 05 : 00 the Turkish force was outflanking both their defences and the ANZAC Mounted Division headquarters , which was co @-@ located at the regiment 's position . Two hours later they were ordered to gallop to the front line . Riding through rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , they moved to the left and rear of the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments . Once the regiment 's position was established , the Australian regiments pulled back to form a line with them . As the Turks advanced and occupied the ridge line previously held by the light horse , they brought artillery and machine @-@ gun fire down onto the division 's rear areas . The situation appeared serious , and the regiment 's clerks were ordered to burn all their papers . Just before 10 : 00 reinforcements , consisting of a yeomanry regiment , two Scottish infantry companies and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , arrived and began attacking the Turkish left . By 18 : 00 they had captured the position . The regiment 's casualties during the day were twenty @-@ four wounded .
Orders were given for a counter @-@ attack the next morning . The assault started at 04 : 00 on 5 August , and the regiment charged forward on foot with bayonets fixed . Ignoring the machine @-@ gun and rifle fire they broke through the Turkish lines , capturing several hundred prisoners . Meldrum ordered their horses forward and they continued the attack on horseback . They stopped when they came under heavy artillery and machine @-@ gun fire approaching Katia . In the face of such fire they were unable to continue without more support , so dismounted and observed the Turkish positions . Gradually the rest of the division arrived and strengthened the regiment 's line . At 09 : 00 Meldrum was asked by the artillery for assistance . Two batteries following behind the advance were being attacked by Turkish infantry . So Meldrum sent two of his squadrons to help , but the Turkish attackers vanished before they arrived . At 10 : 00 Meldrum had to take over as temporary commander of the 2nd Light Horse brigade , and Major Spragg became the temporary regimental commanding officer . The next attack was timed for 14 : 30 ; the regiment would be part of the force assaulting Katia , on the front left , alongside the 6th Light Horse Regiment . Advancing through artillery and machine @-@ gun fire until they were five hundred yards ( 460 m ) from the Turkish lines , they halted and returned fire . At one stage the regiment had to bend their line , when the unit to their left gave ground and the Turkish forces moved forward trying to outflank them . Heavy fire from the regiment broke that attack , and the counter @-@ attacking Turks withdrew . By nightfall no further move forward was possible , and as the horses needed watering , the attack was called off . The regiment had fought all day , but their casualties were rather light ; one officer and nine other ranks wounded , some mortally . They had captured one thousand prisoners .
= = = Abd = = =
Having not slept for the last three days , the Wellingtons and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were rested . Meanwhile , the remainder of the division continued the counter @-@ attack against the Turkish rearguard . On 8 August the Turks were at Abd , and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were ordered forward . Reaching Katia later that day , they were ordered to march through the night to take part in the assault at dawn the next morning . Setting out at 23 : 00 , they were in position north @-@ west of Ard by 05 : 00 on 9 August . Half an hour later the Wellington regiment , in the vanguard , led the 2nd Light Horse Brigade on foot to capture a ridge of high ground half a mile ( .8 km ) from the Turkish main defence line . Once in position there , they came under constant artillery fire . Later the regiment again led the brigade to capture another ridge four hundred yards ( 370 m ) to their left , with the 2nd Squadron advancing on the left and the 9th Squadron on the right , supported by the 6th Squadron in reserve . The attack , which was covered by the 7th Light Horse Regiment , advanced through machine @-@ gun and rifle fire until the ridge was captured , but the New Zealanders then came under an intense artillery bombardment . At 13 : 30 the Turks counter @-@ attacked , reaching the 1st Light Horse Brigade who were alongside the Wellingtons , and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the other flank who were forced to retire . At 16 : 30 the division 's situation appeared untenable ; orders were issued to evacuate the wounded and for the whole line to retire , while remaining in contact with the Turks . By nightfall the regiment had returned to Oghratina . Their casualties were three dead and twenty @-@ nine wounded . The next day the regiment rested as the Turkish force withdrew . On 11 August they moved forward across the battleground ; the only Turkish troops they encountered were engaged in burying their dead . The next day the Turkish force had withdrawn to Salmana . On 27 August Meldrum resumed command of the regiment , which then moved back to Kantara , with a strength of twenty @-@ two officers and 407 other ranks .
= = = El Arish = = =
While at Kantara leave was granted for all ranks in Port Said and Sidi Bishr during September . On 10 October , once more part of the New Zealand brigade , the regiment moved forward to Maler , and reached Geeila , twenty @-@ five miles ( 40 km ) further east , on 24 October . The next phase of the campaign was an advance of fifty miles ( 80 km ) across the desert to El Arish . The regiment continued moving east , reaching Moseifig on 27 October , and a troop from the 9th Squadron located a good water supply at Gererat only fifteen miles ( 24 km ) from El Arish . On 11 November , the regiment advanced another fourteen miles ( 23 km ) east to Mustagidda , establishing outposts at Arnussi and Zoabitia . Overnight 15 / 16 November the post at Arnussi was attacked by Turkish camel troops , which withdrew before dawn . The Allied attack on El Arish began on 20 December , the New Zealand and 3rd Light Horse Brigades being chosen to carry out the final assault from the south , while the rest of the division cut off any retreat . By dawn the brigade was in sight of its objective , and the town was surrounded . They then discovered that the Turkish forces , aware of the advance , had evacuated the town three days earlier .
= = = Magdhaba = = =
That night , 22 / 23 December , the advance continued towards Magdhaba . This village was surrounded on three sides by a wadi , and defended by several redoubts which were covered by artillery and machine @-@ guns . At 05 : 00 the regiment dismounted four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the north @-@ east of the village . The attack started just before 10 : 00 . The regiment , positioned on the brigade 's right , headed towards their objective , Redoubt No.5. They galloped across the open ground , through artillery and machine @-@ gun fire , until they were 1 @,@ 600 yards ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) from the Turkish lines , at which point they dismounted and continued on foot . Their Lewis Guns , supported by a section from the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron , pinned down the Turkish defenders , while the assault continued . By 11 : 00 the 6th and 9th Squadrons were only five hundred yards ( 460 m ) from the objective when Harry Chauvel , who was in command of the ANZAC Mounted Division , asked the Desert Mounted Corps commander , Philip Chetwode , for permission to withdraw because he believed that no progress had been made . Chetwode instead ordered an all out assault . In the meantime , the regiment continued the advance anyway , and at 15 : 55 they fixed bayonets and charged the redoubt , capturing some of the Turkish defenders . At 16 : 40 the 10th Light Horse Regiment carried out a mounted charge into the middle of the position , and all resistance ceased . The battle had cost the regiment five dead .
= = Palestine = =
= = = Rafa = = =
On 9 January 1917 , around 01 : 00 , the regiment crossed the Egyptian – Palestine border , and continued northwards undetected until about 15 : 30 , when Turkish observation posts set off flares to alert their troops of the Allied approach . At 08 : 00 orders for the attack on Rafa were issued ; the brigade was to form the right flank . At 09 : 35 the whole brigade galloped forward to a position two miles east @-@ north @-@ east of their objective . The Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles were to attack " C " Redoubt , while the Wellington Regiment was placed in reserve with a secondary task of providing protection against any attack on the brigade from the area of Khan Yunis . Already low on ammunition , once the assault began the regiment had to be resupplied with 24 @,@ 000 rounds of machine @-@ gun ammunition . At 13 : 00 two of the regiment 's troops went forward to occupy a gap in the line between the New Zealand brigade 's position and that of the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade . Just before 14 : 00 one of the regiment 's flank patrols , two miles north @-@ east of Rafa , captured a Turkish officer and three Germans who , during questioning , claimed that the Rafa garrison consisted of 2 @,@ 000 men , with four mountain artillery guns , and that the 160th Regiment was en route to reinforce the defenders . Another patrol reported that two infantry battalions were heading to Rafa from Abu Khatli , while a third patrol reported that around 2 @,@ 000 men , about four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away , were coming from Khan Younis . Then another Turkish force was seen approaching , about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) away , but too far away to make out any details . At 15 : 45 the brigade was ordered to attack again , and fifteen minutes later another of the regiment 's patrols reported 500 Turkish troops approaching from the east .
The approaching Turkish forces convinced Chetwode to call off the attack . But at 16 : 30 , as the other brigades were retiring , the New Zealanders charged and captured their objective . This allowed them to bring enfilade fire onto the rest of the position . The rest of the division then resumed the attack and captured the village . By now the Turkish relief force was about two miles away to the north @-@ east . By 17 : 15 all the wounded had been evacuated and the covering patrols recalled . As there were no water supplies at Rafa , at 18 : 30 the brigade was ordered to withdraw back to Sheikh Zowaiid . Although not as heavily involved in the battle as other units , the regiment still had twelve men dead and eighteen wounded .
= = = Gaza = = =
At 02 @.@ 30 on 26 March , the regiment set out in thick fog for the assault on the town of Gaza . By 08 : 00 they had crossed the Wadi Ghuzze and reached Sheikh Abbas , confronted only by enemy aircraft and some Turkish camel patrols . Two hours later they were about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of Gaza , providing a guard force against any reinforcements that might approach from Hareira . The British assault did not go according to plan , and at 14 : 00 the ANZAC Mounted Division was ordered to attack the town from the north . The regiment galloped forward together with the rest of the New Zealand brigade , and occupied Meshahera Ridge north @-@ east of Gaza at 16 : 00 . Dismounting , the regiment moved into Gaza , with the 6th Squadron leading , followed by the 2nd Squadron , and the 9th Squadron bringing up the rear . At 16 : 25 they captured a Turkish field ambulance ; four officers , 125 other ranks and twenty vehicles . Continuing the assault through artillery and small arms fire , the 2nd and 9th Squadrons reached a cactus hedge . Cutting through it with their bayonets , they engaged the Turkish defenders behind it in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Two troops then charged across a lagoon , about 18 inches ( 460 mm ) deep , to capture a Turkish trench . To their right they sighted a Turkish artillery emplacement , and Meldrum ordered the position taken without delay . Two troops from the 2nd and one from the 9th Squadron carried out a bayonet charge and captured the guns intact . Back in the regiment 's centre they were held up by a strong Turkish defensive position at a cemetery . Instead of trying to attack the position , they held their line while the captured guns were recovered . The regiment was now some distance in front of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade to their left , and in danger of a flanking counter @-@ attack . To assist the defence of their position , they turned one of the captured guns onto the Turkish strong points , the inexperienced gun crew sighting by peering down the barrel until they could see their target .
At 18 : 35 , although Meldrum believed they could at least hold where they were , the regiment was ordered by Chetwode to withdraw . At 19 : 00 horse teams arrived to recover the guns , and at 19 : 45 they slowly retired back to the suburbs of Gaza . At 21 : 40 they rejoined the brigade and left the town . The next morning at 08 : 30 they arrived at Deir El Belah , where the division was now located . Casualties during the battle had again been rather light , at one dead and nineteen wounded . They had captured 197 prisoners , as well as the guns and field hospital .
The regiment 's involvement in the second attempt to capture Gaza began at 18 : 30 on 16 April . The brigade left Deir El Belah , marched through the night and at 04 : 30 the next morning were at a ford on the Wadi Ghuzze at Shellal . A Turkish machine @-@ gun post covering the crossing was taken out , and soon after the regiment formed the vanguard on the advance to the Rafa – Beersheba road . By midday , despite being attacked by hostile aircraft , they had established a line of observation posts beside Im Siri . Turkish cavalry patrols were observed in the distance , but they did not attempt an attack on the regiment . By nightfall the brigade was recalled to Shellal , where they camped for the night . The next day was similar , again setting up posts observing Turkish movements , then returning to Shellal after dark . The main assault on Gaza was floundering , and the next day the ANZAC Mounted Division was ordered to assist the Imperial Mounted Division in attacking the Atawineh Redoubt , six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south @-@ east of Gaza . To get into position for the attack , the brigade marched through the night . Initially held in reserve , the Wellingtons were sent to assist the 5th Mounted Brigade in an attack on " Sausage Ridge " , south of the Atawineh Redoubt . Getting into position at 11 : 30 , Meldrum ordered the 6th Squadron to assault along the length of the ridge , with the help of fire support from the 9th Squadron and the Inverness Battery Royal Horse Artillery . The attack was also supported by the 3rd Squadron Auckland Mounted Rifles on the right of the 6th Squadron . At 12 : 30 the attack had progressed around half way up the ridge , at which point the Leicestershire and half of the Ayeshire Battery Royal Horse Artillery arrived to support the assault . They could not , however , prevent around six hundred Turkish reinforcements reaching the redoubt .
Doubtful of their ability to capture the redoubt alone , at 13 : 15 Meldrum asked for reinforcements ; he was informed there were no more available . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles , advanced into a gap between the Wellingtons and the 5th Mounted Brigade , which eased the pressure . By 15 : 00 the superior Turkish numbers and their strong defences , forced Meldrum to commit his reserve , the 2nd Squadron and a section of the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron . At the same time , the horses were moved further to the rear so that they would be out of artillery range . At 15 : 15 the regiment 's right was counter @-@ attacked by three or four hundred Turkish troops . Fifteen minutes later Meldrum again asked for reinforcements ; he was again refused . Supported by their artillery , the regiment held out until 17 : 00 , when the Turks retired , having suffered heavy losses . An hour later the regiment was ordered to withdraw at nightfall . The 2nd Squadron reported that they had gained a position which allowed them to assault the redoubt . Meldrum , aware that the redoubt would have to be abandoned even if they were successful , refused to allow the assault . At 18 : 30 the Royal Horse Artillery withdrew . Then , confusingly , the regiment was ordered to remain where they were , until the yeomanry to their left had moved back . So it was not until 20 : 15 that the regiment left the front line . At 01 : 00 20 April the regiment reached the night camp at El Jemme . Their casualties during the battle amounted to one dead and twenty @-@ three wounded . The same night , this second attempt to capture Gaza was called off .
= = = Wadi Ghuzee line = = =
On 27 April Meldrum was promoted to brigadier @-@ general and given command of the New Zealand brigade , although he was temporarily replaced as commanding officer by Major Charles Dick . On 30 April the Wellington regiment returned to the front , manning a line of observation posts in the Weli Sheikh Nuran defence system . They were at the right of the British line , which stretched along the Wadi Ghuzze to the Mediterranean Sea , south of Gaza . As well as manning the trenches , they carried out mounted patrols into no man 's land . On 8 June it was their turn to return to the rear rest area at Marakeb , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Whyte assumed command of the regiment . On 8 July the 9th Squadron captured a Turkish outpost four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of Beersheba , from which they could clearly see the village 's defences . Ten days later the regiment assaulted what they believed was a strong Turkish position at Khalassa , but discovered the defenders had withdrawn before their approach . On 19 July a Turkish force attacked across the Wadi Imleih towards Karm . The regiment moved forward to occupy a line of observation posts the next day , but again discovered that the Turks had withdrawn . Over the next weeks the regiment carried out numerous patrols around Beersheba , checking on the Turkish defences and dispositions . On 18 August they were sent to Marakeb to rest . Four weeks later , on 18 September , they returned to the front line at Fukhari .
= = = Beersheba = = =
For the attack on Beersheba the New Zealand brigade was to move around the open Turkish left flank and assault the village from the east @-@ north @-@ east . They moved to Esani , fifteen miles ( 24 km ) to the south @-@ east , on 24 October , then on the next day the Wellingtons established a seven miles ( 11 km ) long observation line between two and three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south @-@ west of Beersheba . On 28 October the regiment moved another eight miles ( 13 km ) south @-@ east to Khalassa , then the next day to Asluj , sixteen miles ( 26 km ) to the south of Beersheba .
Over the night of 30 / 31 October the attack on Beersheba began ; the regiment formed part of the vanguard with the 6th Light Horse Regiment . At 00 : 45 , the 9th Squadron lead and the 2nd Squadron provided flank and rear protection as the Wellingtons left the main column to capture a Turkish position at Goz El Shegeib , eight miles ( 13 km ) south @-@ east of Beersheba . At 03 : 00 the position was secured - it was unoccupied - and the regiment remained there for instructions . Three hours later the 9th Squadron was attacked , from the north , by a squadron of Turkish cavalry . Supported by the 6th Squadron , they counter @-@ attacked and forced the Turks to withdraw towards Beersheba . The regiment then moved to rejoin the brigade , which was now five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the south @-@ east of Beersheba . Continuing to move forward , at 08 : 00 they captured Salem Irgeig . The regiment now became the brigade reserve ; the brigade assaulted the Saba Redoubt and captured it at 14 : 40 . The 2nd Squadron was sent to reinforce the Auckland Mounted Rifles for their attack on Tel el Saba , which they captured at 15 : 00 . The rest of the regiment were not involved in the battle , and Beersheba was eventually captured with a mounted charge by the 4th Light Horse Brigade . The Wellingtons casualties during the battle amounted to one dead and five wounded .
Holding their position overnight , at 07 : 00 the next morning the regiment advanced towards the crossing at El Likeyeh , seven miles ( 11 km ) to the north of Beersheba . Two hours later , just short of the crossing , the 6th Squadron , leading the regiment , were engaged by around 100 Turkish cavalry and two machine @-@ guns . The squadron , supported by the 9th Squadron , immediately counter @-@ attacked , and captured the position . They then continued on to their objective , where they met up with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade ( ICCB ) and held the crossing until nightfall , when they were relieved so that they could return and camp at the Saba Redoubt . A shortage of water had affected all the division 's operations , so on 2 November the brigade were moved eleven miles ( 18 km ) east to Bir Imshash .
= = = Ras El Nagb = = =
While the brigade was searching for water , the advance was running into problems . On 4 November the brigade was ordered to relieve the 5th Mounted Brigade at Ras El Nagb , thirteen miles ( 21 km ) north @-@ east of Beersheba . At 17 : 30 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles arrived , followed by the 6th Squadron of the Wellington Mounted Rilfes , who lined up to the left of the Canterbury regiment , facing towards Kheuwelfeh . Their opposition was estimated to be around two thousand men and three artillery batteries . At 03 : 00 on 3 November the Turks began their attack ; five hours later the 9th Squadron relieved the 6th Squadron in the front line . Only two hours later the 6th had to move back into the line , to the west of Ras El Nagb , where they stopped a Turkish attack trying to outflank the position . At 13 : 30 the 2nd Squadron came under a heavy artillery bombardment and suffered several casualties . After this the Turks carried out a bayonet charge , getting to within two hundred yards ( 180 m ) of the regiment 's lines before , under heavy fire , they were forced to withdraw . The regiment managed to hold their position , by the weight of their fire power , until nightfall . The next morning the regiment was relieved by the ICCB . The battle had cost them nine men wounded . Gaza was captured on 7 November , but the regiment remained around Ras El Nagb until the night of 9 November .
= = = Ayun Kara = = =
On 10 November the regiment returned to Beersheba , and the New Zealand brigade were ordered to move sixty miles ( 97 km ) across the British front to the opposite flank . Four days later , just after 11 : 00 , the 6th Squadron assisted the Canterbury Mounted Rifles in capturing a Turkish post defending the Wadi Hanein . But they could then see Turkish troops gathering in a nearby orange grove , and more Turkish troops to the north . When the rest of the brigade arrived Meldrum ordered an immediate attack . The regiment was to advance along the main road , with the Auckland Mounted Rifles on their left . The Somerset Battery Royal Horse Artillery and the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron would provide fire support . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles would be the reserve . At 13 : 30 , covered by artillery fire , the 9th Squadron started the assault . Their first target was a trench system at the top of the hill . Supported by covering fire from a 6th Squadron troop , they charged and captured the position , also capturing a Lewis Gun and a Turkish machine @-@ gun . As the 2nd Squadron secured the position , the 9th Squadron continued forward for their secondary objective , which they charged and captured ; here they captured two more machine @-@ guns . At 14 : 15 the Auckland Mounted Rifles sighted a strong Turkish force preparing for a counter @-@ attack , which began fifteen minutes later . Part of the assault came up against the left of the 9th Squadron , who fought off the attack with the support of five machine @-@ guns . On the other flank the Auckland Mounted Rifles were under severe pressure and the regiment was ordered to assist them . Two troops from the 2nd Squadron mounted and galloped forward around 200 yards ( 180 m ) across open ground . They then dismounted and charged a machine @-@ gun post on the top of a knoll . Engaging the defenders in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , they captured the post and another machine @-@ gun . From the knoll they were able to enfilade the Turkish troops attacking the Aucklanders , and forced them to retire . It was now 16 : 00 and the 9th Squadron , taking advantage of the Turkish withdrawal , charged and occupied the Turkish position in front of them . The 6th Squadron , on the right , also moved forward to support them . This prompted a general Turkish retirement , and by dusk they had left the battlefield . The Allies evacuated their wounded and , expecting another attack at dawn , prepared their defences . At 23 : 00 an Australian squadron and a camel squadron arrived to support the brigade . The regiment 's casualties during the battle were eleven dead and forty @-@ six wounded . Against that they had captured thirty @-@ four prisoners as well as seven machine @-@ guns and other military supplies .
= = = River Auja = = =
The next day , 15 November , the Turkish force had completely withdrawn . The brigade continued the advance north , stopping just beyond Richon @-@ le @-@ Zion . The next day , at 09 : 30 , patrols from the regiment entered the port of Jaffa . The town 's only inhabitants were the civilian population , the Turkish troops having evacuated the town beforehand . At 11 : 00 the regiment 's commander , Whyte , took formal possession of the Government buildings , posting guards at the German and Austrian Consulates and the post office .
Two days later , on 18 November , the regiment moved into a line of observation posts along the River Auja . The next day a troop from the 2nd Squadron were sent to locate crossing points across the river . They located a dam and a bridge to the north @-@ east . Dismounting and approaching on foot , they had one man wounded , who was later taken prisoner . The following day the regiment was relieved by the other rest of the brigade , and moved to the rear , returning to the front line on 21 November .
The brigade was ordered to mount an assault across the river at 13 : 00 on 24 November ; the regiment 's objective being Khirbet Hadrah . First across were the Canterbury Mounted Rifles who crossed by a ford at the rivers mouth . Behind them the 6th and 9th Squadrons crossed and moved along the river bank to the bridge at Jerisheh , which they captured at 15 : 30 , taking twenty @-@ two prisoners . With the bridge secure , the regimental headquarters and the 2nd Squadron moved across to reinforce the attack , which then captured Khirbet Hadrah , capturing twenty @-@ five prisoners and two machine @-@ guns .
With the crossing secured , the 161st ( Essex ) Brigade moved across the river to reinforce the defence . The Wellingtons established observation posts further to the north . The next morning the 2nd Squadron sent a patrol on a reconnaissance , which located a strong Turkish force approaching . By 05 : 30 this Turkish force were attacking the 2nd Squadron 's posts . At 07 : 00 the rest of the regiment , still south of the river , moved to support the defenders at Kirbet Hadrah , where they came under an artillery bombardment . At the same time the 2nd Squadron was ordered to fall back to support the infantry at Sheikh Muannis . The Turks continued their assault , and at 08 : 15 had forced the infantry to withdraw south of the river . Holding out until 09 : 30 , the last unit to cross back over the river was the 2nd Squadron . In an attempt to keep possession of a crossing , the 6th and 9th Squadrons moved to cover the ford at the river mouth where they managed to stop the Turkish advance four hundred yards ( 370 m ) short of the ford . That night the 161st Brigade took over all the defences , but the New Zealanders remained close by to support them . The regiment had twelve men wounded during the fighting . They remained in the area until 4 December , when the brigade left for Ibn Ibrak , to the south @-@ east of Jaffa , relieving the ICCB in the front line . On 11 December the regiment was attached to the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division at Beit Dejan as the army tactical reserve . Ten days later they were back with the New Zealand brigade , which was now north of the River Auja . The regiment encountered the Turkish rearguard at Ferrekhiyeh , but after locating the Turks ' positions , the regiment was ordered back to Beit Dejan . Then they were ordered to move back to Sukereir , arriving on Christmas Day 1917 .
= = Jordan Valley = =
= = = Jericho = = =
On 9 February the regiment started thirty @-@ five miles ( 56 km ) across country to Bethlehem , and by 17 February they were camped north @-@ east of Bethlehem around the Mar Elias Monastery and Ibn Obeid . The same day , Whyte was injured in an aeroplane crash and Major Spragg became the temporary commanding officer . The next day , orders were issued for the capture of Jericho . The regiment were attached to the 60th ( London ) Division and had to move that night to be in position to begin the advance at 06 : 00 the next morning . They were tasked to be ready to intercept any retreating Turkish forces from El Muntar , which would be attacked by the infantry division .
That evening , 18 February , the regiment moved out , but before long the width of the track forced them to dismount and lead their horses by hand in single file . At 22 : 30 the head of the column came under fire from Turkish cavalry . They forced the Turks to withdraw , and later surrounded and captured several prisoners , one being Ali Salem a well @-@ known Turkish spy . Continuing at 06 : 00 they captured their first objective two miles to the east of Mar Saba . Spreading out to capture any retreating Turkish forces , they advanced north , under fire , and at 10 : 40 joined up with the 60th Division . Mounted patrols were then sent out , one of which located a strong Turkish position . Located on the " Ancient Road " to Hill 306 and on to Hill 288 , the Turkish positions were supported by five artillery pieces at Neba Musa .
At 17 : 00 the regiment was released from their attachment to the 60th Division , and returned to the command of the New Zealand brigade , which was advancing along the Jordan Valley , joining them an hour later . Problems crossing the mountainous terrain postponed any attack until daylight . At 03 : 00 the brigade moved out again with the Wellingtons on the right , advancing towards Hill 306 , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles on the left towards Hill 288 and the Auckland Mounted Rifles forming the reserve . The 6th Squadron attacked Hill 306 from the south and the 2nd Squadron from the south @-@ west . At dawn they came up against a large group of Turks " in a fortress @-@ like position on the top of a steep hill @-@ face , bristling with machine guns , commanding the surrounding country " . With no artillery available , the squadrons were unable to advance with any speed , using only their small arms to support the assault . A gap appeared in the line between the regiment and the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , who had moved further north then had been intended . So the Auckland Mounted Rifles moved forward to assault Hill 288 instead . These galloped forward and captured Hill 288 , forcing the Turks to withdraw , and the Wellingtons occupied Hill 306 . Turkish artillery bombarded the hill , while their troops retired to the east . Holding an observation line overnight , at 06 : 00 the next morning the brigade advanced towards Jericho leaving the 9th Squadron to capture Rijm El Bahr , including its stores and boats , on the Dead Sea . Jericho was captured the same day by the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade . As a whole , the operation cost the Wellingtons one killed and four wounded . On 22 February the regiment returned to Bethlehem along the Jericho – Jerusalem road , eventually returning to the Mar Elias Monastery . They met their commanding officer , Whyte , who had now recovered from his injuries . Three days later the brigade crossed back to the west , returning to Richon .
= = = Amman = = =
A raid on Amman was the next operation for the regiment . The ANZAC Mounted Division , the 60th ( London ) Division and the ICCB would all take part . On 13 March the regiment started back to the Jordan Valley , through heavy rain . Orders for the raid were issued ; the brigade would advance on mountain tracks via the village of Ain Es Sir , then to Amman . The rains continued postponing the raid and it was not until 01 : 30 on 24 March that the brigade crossed the River Jordan , by pontoon bridge at Hajlah . At 09 : 30 the regiment , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and the 181st ( 2 / 6th London ) Brigade started clearing the area between the river and the foothills . At 11 : 25 they charged and captured three artillery pieces . The brigade advance continued at 15 : 00 , without the 6th Squadron which remained behind to assist the 181st Brigade in their assault on Es Salt . Still negotiating the mountain track , it started to rain again at 18 : 00 and the brigade camped for the night ; starting again next morning they reached Ain Es Sir just after midday . There they were forced to stop and wait for their supplies to catch up with them .
Early on 26 March the rest of the ANZAC Mounted Division arrived , and the ICCB that evening . To cut off Amman from reinforcements , one of the regiment 's troops set out that night and destroyed a section of the Hedjaz rail line to the south of the town . They returned the next morning without loss . Orders were issued for the attack on the town ; the brigade would assault from the south . The 2nd Squadron was to provide flank protection , located in the area four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of Es Sir . The rest of the regiment , including the headquarters , the 9th Squadron , and half a section of the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron , escorted a demolition party to destroy the railway station at Kissar , just under six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south of Amman . En route the 9th Squadron located a train carrying around three hundred Turkish troops , stopped in a cutting . When they opened fire the train pulled out towards Kissar , where it ran into a squadron from the Auckland Mounted Rifles and one of the 9th Squadron 's troops . Some of the Turks left the train to fight on foot , while the train continued on to Amman , leaving them behind . The regiment 's men left the demolition party to be escorted by troops from the ICCB , and returned to the brigade outside Amman .
On 28 March the brigade , reinforced by the 4th ( ANZAC ) Battalion ICCB , tried to capture Hill 3039 south @-@ west of Amman . The attack failed and further attempts were postponed until after nightfall . The night assault began at 02 : 00 ; two troops of the 9th Squadron were involved in the second line to protect the left flank . The attack was successful and the brigade commenced improvements to the defences in order to withstand any counter @-@ attack . The Wellingtons dug in at the centre of the position , with the Aucklands on their right and the Canterburys on the left . The expected counter @-@ attack started at 05 : 00 with an artillery bombardment . As the Turkish troop approached the brigade lines , at 09 : 20 an order to withdraw was given . As the regiment , the Canterburys and the cameliers started to retire , it allowed the Turks to reach the crest of Hill 3039 . It was then realised the order was mistaken , and the brigade officers rallied their man and charged back , forcing the Turks back down the hill . Further Turkish counter @-@ attacks continued throughout the day , and at 16 : 00 a troop from the 9th Squadron on the right flank , when the Turkish got close to their lines , had to do a counter @-@ attack of their own . By now it was appreciated that the division could not achieve their objectives , and a withdrawal back towards the Jordan river was ordered . By 22 : 30 the wounded had been evacuated and the regiment pulled back unopposed , reaching Ain Es Sir at 04 : 00 the next day . Turkish troops then closed on their position , but that evening the 6th Squadron rejoined the regiment . A line of observation posts were then established to monitor the approaching Turks . The regiment made plans to hold them off until the division passed through the village , and then withdraw back across the river . At 03 : 45 on 1 April , the 2nd Squadron formed a skirmish line to the north of Ain Es Sir , the 9th Squadron another line to the south @-@ east , while the 6th Squadron were the reserve . By 07 : 00 the brigade , bringing up the rear , reached the village . Once they had passed them the 6th Squadron joined the end of the line . At 07 : 45 the 2nd Squadron opened fire on Turkish troops coming from the north , while the 9th Squadron withdrew , followed soon after by the 2nd Squadron . As they entered the village , enemy troops in the hills opened fire on them . The squadron immediately counter @-@ attacked , supported by two troops from the 9th Squadron . The remainder of the regiment stopped three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the south , forming a defensive line . The Turkish troops in the hills were soon dealt with by the 2nd Squadron , and as they withdrew , the regiment was able to provide covering fire . Finally , just after 20 : 00 , they arrived back at Shunet Nimrin , and camped for the night . Their casualties during the raid were fourteen dead and eight wounded . The brigade recrossed the River Jordan at the Ghoraniyeh pontoon bridge on 2 April .
= = = Ghoraniyeh = = =
As the ANZAC Mounted Division pulled back to the west bank of the Jordan , the Wellingtons remained behind strengthening the defences at the Ghoraniyeh bridge @-@ head . On 18 April , the regiment , less the 6th Squadron , were part of a brigade force that advanced on the village of Shunet Nimrin . The operation was a deception to convince the Turks that further raids on Amman were imminent . The next day patrols from the regiment located a large Turkish force in the foothills around the village . The brigade positioned as if to attack them , then when they reinforced their position , the brigade withdrew . That night they crossed back over the river and camped outside Jericho . The regiment moved again on 23 April , to camp in the foothills to the south of Jericho .
On 30 April the second raid across the Jordan began , their objective this time to capture Es Salt . This time a much larger force was involved , under command of the Desert Mounted Corps . The Wellingtons and the rest of the New Zealand brigade were part of the force assigned to attack the village of Shunet Nimrin . At 03 : 30 when the brigade crossed over the Ghoraniyeh pontoon , the regiment came under command of the 180th ( 2 / 5th London ) Brigade , providing protection for their right flank as they advanced on the village . The difficult terrain and the strength of the Turkish defences hindered progress , and by dusk they were still some distance away from their objective . The next day the advance continued , but in the face of growing Turkish resistance , and with the arrival of Turkish reinforcements , they were in danger of being cut off and surrounded . So on 4 May the whole force withdrew back across the River Jordan , leaving the Wellingtons behind to protect the bridge @-@ head .
Many men were infected with malaria , and the regiment was periodically rotated away from the valley bottom to the western hills . Their first move back west was on the 16 May , when they moved to the brigade camp site near Talaat Ed Dumm , remaining there for the next thirteen days . On 30 May they moved to Solomon 's Pools , to the south of Bethlehem . On 14 June the regiment returned to the front line at Ain Ed Duk , two miles north of Jericho . There they established observation posts to monitor Turkish activity , remaining until they were relieved on 30 June .
= = = Abu Tellul = = =
On 9 July Major Charles Dick assumed temporary command of the regiment , while Whyte was on leave and the regiment was in the front line near Abu Tellul . On 13 July the neighbouring sector of the line , a salient defended by the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade , came under a heavy artillery bombardment . Some rounds landed on the regiment 's positions , causing casualties . At dawn on 14 July German soldiers attacked the light horse brigade . By 07 : 00 they had broken the Australian lines in the east , and the Wellingtons came under command of the light horse brigade to support their defence . Thirty minutes later the 9th Squadron advanced , on foot , along the Wadi Aujah , and occupied a position on the west of the salient just before the Germans ' Turkish allies attacked . The 9th Squadron managed to hold their line , but because they were engaging a far larger force , the 6th Squadron moved forward on their left to support them . The two squadrons ' lines were able to mutually support each other and engage the attacking Turks with a " withering fire " . Then the two squadrons and the light horse counter @-@ attacked , forcing back their opposition and capturing 400 prisoners , sixty @-@ one of them taken by the Wellingtons , along with a machine gun and a Bergman automatic rifle . The Turks continued to hold a position in the north until forced to withdraw by the New Zealanders . The regiment 's casualties during the battle were four dead and nine wounded . They remained at the front until 19 July when they rotated back to Talaat Ed Dumm .
= = = Chaytor 's Force = = =
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bo Naval Arsenal in preparation for her second reconstruction , which would enable her to function alongside Japan 's growing fleet of fast carriers . Her stern was lengthened by 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) , while her superstructure was rebuilt to allow for new fire @-@ control mechanisms . Her boilers were removed and replaced with eight new oil @-@ fired Kampon Boilers , and she received newer geared turbines . The elevation of her main and secondary battery was increased , and she was equipped with two Nakajima E8N " Dave " and Kawanishi E7K " Alf " reconnaissance floatplanes . To this end , aircraft catapults and launch @-@ rails were also refitted . Her older 3 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 5 @-@ inch dual @-@ purpose guns . She was also outfitted with twenty Type 96 25 mm antiaircraft guns in twin turrets , while two of her 6 inch guns and her remaining torpedo tubes were removed .
Kirishima 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches ( as opposed to varying thicknesses of 6 – 8 inches before the upgrades ) , while diagonal bulkheads of a depth ranging from 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) reinforced the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 inches ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . The armor around her ammunition magazines was also strengthened over the course of the refit . The reconstruction was declared complete on 8 June 1936 . Capable of speeds of up to 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 56 @.@ 5 km / h ; 35 @.@ 1 mph ) , Kirishima was reclassified as a fast battleship .
In August 1936 , Kirishima departed Sasebo alongside Fuso to patrol the Chinese coast off Amoy . From March 1937 to April 1939 , she was frequently deployed as a support vessel and troop transport during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . In November 1938 , Kirishima was designated the command vessel of the Third Battleship Division , and was under the command of Rear Admiral Chuichi Nagumo . In November 1939 , she was placed in reserve and fitted with additional armor on the front faces of her turrets and barbettes .
On 11 November 1941 , after a series of transfers between Japanese naval bases , Kirishima was outfitted in preparation for coming hostilities and assigned — alongside her sister ships — to the Third Battleship Division . On 26 November , Kirishima departed Hitokappu Bay , Kurile Islands in the company of Hiei and six Japanese fast carriers of the First Air Fleet Striking Force ( Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Shōkaku , and Zuikaku ) . On 7 December 1941 , aircraft from these six carriers attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at their home base of Pearl Harbor , sinking four U.S. Navy battleships and numerous other vessels . Following the attack and the declaration of war by the United States , Kirishima returned to Japan .
= = = 1942 : Combat and loss = = =
On 8 January 1942 , Kirishima departed Japan for Truk Naval Base in the Caroline Islands alongside the Carrier Strike Force . She provided escort during the invasion of New Britain on 17 January before returning to Truk . She sortied again in response to American carrier raids in the Marshall and Gilbert Islands . In March 1942 , while supporting fleet operations off of Java in the Dutch East Indies , one of Kirishima 's floatplanes bombed an enemy merchant vessel . South of Java , the Japanese fleet was surprised by the appearance of the destroyer USS Edsall . Hiei and Chikuma initially opened fire on the ship but failed to score any hits . After dive @-@ bombers from three of Admiral Nagumo 's carriers immobilized the destroyer , Kirishima and the other two ships resumed firing on Edsall until she sank .
In April 1942 , Kirishima and the Third Battleship division joined five fleet carriers and two cruisers in an attack against British naval bases in the Indian Ocean . On 5 April — Easter Sunday — the Japanese fleet attacked the harbor at Colombo in Ceylon , while seaplanes from the Tone spotted two fleeing British cruisers , both of which were later sunk by aerial attack . A floatplane from Kirishima also strafed a withdrawing oil tanker . On 8 April , Japanese carrier aircraft attacked the Royal Navy base at Trincomalee in Ceylon , only to find that all of Admiral James Somerville 's remaining warships had withdrawn the previous night . Returning from the attack , a floatplane from Kirishima 's sister ship Haruna spotted the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes and escorting destroyer HMAS Vampire , which was quickly sunk by a massive aerial attack . Upon returning to Japan , Kirishima was drydocked and her secondary armament configuration modified with the addition of 25 mm antiaircraft guns in twin mounts .
In June 1942 , Kirishima sailed as part of the Carrier Strike Force during the Battle of Midway , providing escort for Admiral Nagumo 's four fast carriers alongside Haruna . Following the disastrous battle , during which all four Japanese carriers were lost , she took on survivors from the four flattops before returning to Japan . In August 1942 , she departed Japan for the Solomon Islands in the company of Hiei , three carriers , three cruisers and eleven destroyers , in response to the American invasion of Guadalcanal . She escorted Japanese carriers during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons , during which the light carrier Ryūjō was sunk . Following the battle , the fleet returned to Truk Naval Base . During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands , Kirishima was part of Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe 's Vanguard Force , which provided distant cover to Nagumo 's carrier groups . She was attacked by American dive @-@ bombers on 26 October , yet remained undamaged .
On 10 November 1942 , Kirishima departed Truk alongside Hiei and eleven destroyers in preparation to shell American positions on Guadalcanal in advance of a major transport convoy of Japanese troops . U.S. Navy reconnaissance aircraft spotted the Japanese fleet several days in advance , and deployed a force of two heavy cruisers , three light cruisers and eight destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Daniel J. Callaghan in Ironbottom Sound to meet them . At 01 : 24 on 13 November , the Japanese force was detected 28 @,@ 000 yards ( 26 km ) out by the light cruiser USS Helena . In the ensuing First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , the American task force concentrated the majority of their firepower on the battleship Hiei . This enabled Kirishima to score multiple hits on the heavy cruiser USS San Francisco and Helena , while Hiei crippled the light cruiser USS Atlanta , killing Rear Admiral Norman Scott . Both Hiei and Kirishima then raked San Francisco with shellfire , killing Rear Admiral Callaghan . However , Hiei was in turn crippled by San Francisco and several American destroyers . With Hiei effectively out of the battle , Kirishima and the surviving destroyers withdrew to the north . On the morning of 13 November , she was ordered to tow Hiei to safety . However , the heavily damaged battleship came under air attack , and was eventually abandoned and scuttled .
On the evening of 13 November , Kirishima and her escorting destroyers were joined by the Fourth Cruiser Division and prepared to reenter Ironbottom Sound under the command of Admiral Nobutake Kondō . In the early morning of 14 November , three Japanese heavy cruisers bombarded Guadalcanal before withdrawing . Aware of the damage suffered by his ships the previous night , Admiral William Halsey reinforced the American naval units with the new battleships USS South Dakota and USS Washington . The two fleets made contact on 14 November at 23 : 01 . They exchanged gunfire and torpedoes , with four American destroyers disabled ( three would later sink ) , while the destroyer Ayanami was crippled by Washington and South Dakota .
At 23 : 40 , South Dakota suffered a series of electrical failures , crippling her radar , radios and gun batteries . Kirishima and the heavy cruiser Atago illuminated the battleship with searchlights , and almost all of Kondō 's force opened fire . Kirishima achieved hits on South Dakota with at least three 14 @-@ inch salvos and several salvos from her secondary battery , which knocked out the battleship 's fire control systems and communications but failed to penetrate her armor . Washington , undetected , managed to evade the Japanese fleet , and at midnight fired on Kirishima from 5 @,@ 800 yards ( 5 @,@ 300 m ) , point blank range for Washington 's 16 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber guns , which were easily capable of penetrating Kirishima 's armor at their maximum range . Kirishima was hit by at least nine primary and seventeen secondary battery projectiles , destroying her bow 14 @-@ inch turrets , jamming her rear 14 @-@ inch turrets and steering , setting her superstructure afire , and causing the battleship to list 18 degrees to starboard . Initially , the light cruiser Nagara attempted to tow her out of Ironbottom Sound . When it became clear she could not be salvaged , the surviving Japanese destroyers evacuated Admiral Kondō and the remaining survivors . Kirishima capsized at 03 : 25 on the morning of 15 November 1942 , with 212 crewmen lost .
= Delaware Route 3 =
Delaware Route 3 ( DE 3 ) is a state highway northeast of Wilmington in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from an interchange at Interstate 495 ( I @-@ 495 ) in Edgemoor north to DE 92 in Brandywine Hundred . The route passes through the suburban areas of Brandywine Hundred , Bellefonte , and Arden . It intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Edgemoor , US 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in Bellefonte , and I @-@ 95 near Bellevue State Park . DE 3 was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1968 , the route was designated between US 13 ( now US 13 Bus . ) north to DE 92 on Marsh Road . The route was moved to its current alignment and terminus by 1984 .
= = Route description = =
DE 3 begins at an intersection with Hay Road at an interchange with I @-@ 495 in an industrial section of Edgemoor , heading northwest on four @-@ lane divided Edgemoor Road . After the I @-@ 495 interchange , the road passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and intersects US 13 in areas of businesses . Past this intersection , DE 3 enters a more residential area as a three @-@ lane undivided road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane . The route narrows to two lanes and turns west and north , coming to an intersection with US 13 Bus . At this point , DE 3 turns northeast to form a concurrency with that route on four @-@ lane undivided Philadelphia Pike , running through residential and commercial areas . DE 3 splits from US 13 Bus. in Bellefonte by turning northwest onto Washington Street Extension , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route passes to the southwest of Mount Pleasant High School and turns north onto Marsh Road , a four @-@ lane undivided road that forms the western boundary of Bellevue State Park . The road becomes a divided highway as it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 .
Immediately after this interchange , DE 3 crosses under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road that heads into Brandywine Hundred , passing residential neighborhoods and a few businesses . The route gains a second southbound lane between Wilson Road / Veale Road and Silverside Road . The road turns northeast and forms the western border of Arden . DE 3 turns north again and runs between neighborhoods to the west and woodland to the east , ending at an intersection with DE 92 . Marsh Road continues north past this intersection as an unnumbered road toward the Pennsylvania border .
DE 3 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13 @,@ 893 vehicles at the Carr Road intersection to a low of 5 @,@ 021 vehicles on Washington Street Extension . None of DE 3 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 3 existed as a county road by 1920 . Four years later , the road was upgraded to a state highway between Philadelphia Pike and Harvey Road . The state highway was extended north to Naamans Road by 1931 . By 1968 , DE 3 was designated to run from US 13 ( now US 13 Business ) north to DE 92 along Marsh Road . DE 4 was extended onto the Washington Street Extension portion of present @-@ day DE 3 three years later . DE 4 was removed from Washington Street Extension by 1981 . Three years later , DE 3 was extended to I @-@ 495 in Edgemoor . At this time , DE 3 was realigned to follow Washington Street Extension from Marsh Road to a concurrency with US 13 Business , heading southwest along that route before heading southeast along Edgemoor Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Farleigh Hungerford Castle =
Farleigh Hungerford Castle , sometimes called Farleigh Castle or Farley Castle , is a medieval castle in Farleigh Hungerford , Somerset , England . The castle was built in two phases : the inner court was constructed between 1377 and 1383 by Sir Thomas Hungerford , who made his fortune working as a steward to John of Gaunt . The castle was built to a quadrangular design , already slightly old @-@ fashioned , on the site of an existing manor house overlooking the River Frome . A park was attached to the castle , requiring the destruction of a local village . His son , Sir Walter Hungerford , a successful knight and courtier to Henry V , became rich during the Hundred Years War with France and extended the castle with an additional , outer court , enclosing the parish church in the process . By Walter 's death in 1449 , the substantial castle was richly appointed and its chapel decorated with murals .
The castle largely remained in the hands of the Hungerford family over the next two centuries , despite periods during the War of the Roses in which it was held by the Crown following the attainder and execution of members of the family . At the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 , the castle , modernized to the latest Tudor and Stuart fashions , was held by Sir Edward Hungerford . Edward declared his support for Parliament , becoming a leader of the Roundheads in Wiltshire . Farleigh Hungerford was seized by Royalist forces in 1643 , but recaptured by Parliament without a fight near the end of the conflict in 1645 . As a result , it escaped slighting following the war , unlike many other castles in the south @-@ west of England .
The last member of the Hungerford family to hold the castle , Sir Edward Hungerford , inherited it in 1657 , but his gambling and expensive living forced him to sell the property in 1686 . By the 18th century the castle was no longer lived in by its owners and fell into disrepair ; in 1730 it was bought by the Houlton family , when much of it was broken up for salvage . Antiquarian and tourist interest in the now ruined castle increased through the 18th and 19th centuries . The castle chapel was repaired in 1779 and became a museum of curiosities , complete with the murals rediscovered on its walls in 1844 and a number of rare lead anthropomorphic coffins from the mid @-@ 17th century . In the 1915 Farleigh Hungerford Castle was sold to the Office of Works and a controversial restoration programme began . It is now owned by English Heritage , who operate it as a tourist attraction , and the castle is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
= = History = =
= = = 11th - 14th centuries = = =
After the Norman Conquest of England , the manor of Ferlege in Somerset was granted by William the Conqueror to Roger de Courcelles . Ferlege evolved from the Anglo @-@ Saxon name faern @-@ laega , meaning " the ferny pasture " , and itself later evolved into Farleigh . William Rufus gave the manor to Hugh de Montfort , who renamed it Farleigh Montfort . The manor passed from the Montfort family to Bartholomew de Bunghersh in the early years of the reign of Edward III .
Sir Thomas Hungerford bought the property from the Bunghersh family in 1369 for £ 733 . By 1385 the manor was known as Farley Hungerford , after its new owner . Sir Thomas Hungerford was a knight and courtier , who became rich as the Chief Steward to the powerful John of Gaunt and then the first recorded Speaker of the House of Commons . Thomas decided to make Farleigh Hungerford his principal home and , between 1377 and 1383 , built a castle on the site ; unfortunately he did not acquire the appropriate licence to crenellate from the king before commencing building , and Thomas had to acquire a royal pardon in 1383 .
Thomas 's new castle adapted the existing manor complex overlooking the head of the River Frome . Although the castle sat on a low spur it was overlooked by higher ground from the west and the north and was not ideally placed from a purely defensive perspective . Contemporary castle designs included the construction of huge , palatial tower keeps and apartments for the most powerful nobles , such as Kenilworth , expanded by Thomas 's patron , John of Gaunt ; or the construction of smaller , French influenced castles such as that seen at nearby Nunney Castle , built by one of Thomas 's fellow nouveau riche landowners . By contrast , Farleigh Hungerford drew on the tradition of quadrangular castles that had begun in France during the early 13th century , in which the traditional buildings of an unfortified manor were enclosed by a four @-@ sided outer wall and protected with corner towers . The style was well established by the late 14th century , even slightly old fashioned .
The castle was formed around a court , later called the inner court , enclosed by a curtain wall with a circular tower on each corner and a gatehouse at the front ; the north @-@ east tower was larger than the others , perhaps to provide additional defences . Over time the towers acquired their own names : the north @-@ west tower was called the Hazelwell Tower ; the north @-@ east the Redcap Tower and the south @-@ west the Lady Tower . The ground fell away sharply on most sides of the castle , but its south and west sides were protected with a wet moat , using a dam fed from a nearby spring using a pipe . The gatehouse had twin towers and a drawbridge .
Opposite the entrance , and running across the middle of the court , was the great hall of the castle , with a grand porch and steps leading up to the first floor , where prestigious guests would have been entertained amongst carved wall @-@ panels and murals . The design of the hall may have emulated Gaunt 's hall at Kenilworth ; at the very least , it was a powerful symbol of Thomas 's authority and status . The west side of the inner court included the castle kitchen , bakery , well and other service facilities ; on the east side was the lord 's great chamber and a range of other accommodation for other guests . Behind the great hall was a smaller courtyard or garden . Thomas appears to have built up his new castle in stages , with the curtain wall being built first , with the corner towers added afterwards .
A park was established next to the castle ; a park was highly prestigious and it enabled Thomas to engage in hunting , provided the castle with a supply of venison as well as generating income . Most of the village of Wittenham had to be destroyed to make way for the park and the site eventually became a deserted village . A new parish church , St Leonard 's Chapel , was built by Thomas just outside the castle , after he had demolished the earlier , simpler 12th @-@ century church during the construction of the inner court . Thomas died in 1397 and was buried in the newly built St Anne 's Chapel , forming the north transept of St Leonard 's Chapel .
= = = 15th century = = =
Sir Walter Hungerford inherited Farleigh Hungerford castle upon the death of his mother , Joan , in 1412 . Walter 's first political patron was John of Gaunt 's son , Henry IV , and later he became a close companion of Henry 's own son , Henry V ; Henry V made Walter , like his father before him , the Speaker of the Commons in 1414 . Walter prospered : he became known as an expert jouster , in 1415 fought at the battle of Agincourt during the Hundred Years War , was made Steward of the Royal Household and was a major figure in government during the 1420s , serving as the Treasurer of England and as one of the legal guardians of the young Henry VI . Despite having to pay a ransom of £ 3 @,@ 000 to the French after his son was captured in 1429 , Walter , by now created Baron Hungerford , amassed considerable wealth from his various sources of income , which included the right to one hundred marks ( £ 66 ) per year from the town of Marlborough , the wool taxes from Wells , and the ransoms gained from the taking of French prisoners . As a result , he was able to buy more land , acquiring around 110 new manors and estates over the course of his life .
Between 1430 and 1445 Walter expanded the castle considerably . An outer court was built to the south side of the original castle , with its own towers and an additional gatehouse which formed the new entrance to the castle . These new defences were less strong than those of the original inner court , and indeed the eastern gatehouse was not crenellated at the time . A barbican was built , extending the older gatehouse to the inner court . The new court enclosed the parish church , which became the castle chapel , with a replacement church being built by Walter in the village . Walter had the chapel decorated with a number of murals , depicting scenes from the story of Saint George and the Dragon ; Saint George was a favoured saint of Henry V , and associated with the prestigious Order of the Garter , of which Walter was a proud member . A house was built next to the chapel for the use of the chantry priest . Walter also legally combined the two parishes of Farleigh in Somerset and Wittenham in Wiltshire , which formed part of his castle 's park , altering the county boundaries of Somerset and Wiltshire in the process . As a village , Wittenham disappeared completely .
Walter left the castle to his son , Robert Hungerford . Records of the castle at the time show considerable luxuries , including valuable tapestries up to 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long , silk bedclothes , rich furs and silver bowls and utensils . Unfortunately , Robert 's eldest son , the later Lord Moleyns , was captured by the French at the battle of Castillon , which was fought at the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 . The huge ransom of over £ 10 @,@ 000 required to ensure his release financially crippled the family , and Lord Moleyns did not return to England until 1459 . By this time England had entered the period of civil conflict between the Houses of York and Lancaster known as the Wars of the Roses . Moleyns was a Lancastrian supporter and fought against the Yorkists in 1460 and 1461 , leading to first his exile and then his attainder , under which Farleigh Hungerford Castle was seized by the Crown . Moleyns was captured and executed in 1464 , and his eldest son , Thomas , met the same fate in 1469 .
The Yorkist Edward IV gave Farleigh Hungerford Castle to his brother Richard , then Duke of Gloucester , in 1462 . Edward and Richard 's brother George Plantagenet may have taken up residence at the castle ; his daughter Margaret was certainly born there . Richard became king in 1483 and gave the castle to John Howard , the Duke of Norfolk . Meanwhile , the late Robert 's youngest son , Sir Walter , had become a close supporter of Edward IV ; nonetheless , he joined the failed revolt of 1483 against Richard and ended up detained in the Tower of London . When Henry Tudor invaded England in 1485 , Walter escaped custody and joined the invading Lancastrian army , fighting alongside Henry at the Battle of Bosworth . Victorious , the newly crowned Henry VII returned Farleigh Hungerford to Walter in 1486 .
= = = 16th century = = =
Sir Walter Hungerford died in 1516 , leaving Farleigh Hungerford Castle to his son , Sir Edward . Edward was a successful member of Henry VIII 's court and died in 1522 , leaving the castle to his second wife , Agnes . After Edward 's death , however , it emerged that Agnes had been responsible for the murder of her former , first husband , John Cotell : two of her servants had strangled him at Farleigh Hungerford Castle , before burning his body in the castle oven to destroy any evidence . Agnes appears to have been motivated by a desire for the wealth that would follow her second marriage to Sir Edward , but in 1523 Agnes and the two servants were hung for murder in London .
Due to this execution , Edward 's son , another Walter , inherited the castle instead of Agnes . Walter became a political client of Thomas Cromwell , the powerful chief minister of Henry VIII , and operated on his behalf in the local region . Walter became dissatisfied with his third wife , Elizabeth , after her father became a political liability to him , and Walter detained her in one of the castle towers for several years . Elizabeth complained that while she was imprisoned she was starved in an attempt to kill her , and subjected to several poisoning attempts . She was probably kept in the north @-@ west tower , although the south @-@ west " Lady Tower " is named after her . When Cromwell fell from power in 1540 , so did Walter , who was executed for treason , witchcraft and homosexuality : Elizabeth was allowed to remarry , but the castle reverted to the Crown .
Walter 's son , also called Walter , bought back the castle from the Crown in 1554 for £ 5 @,@ 000 . Farleigh Hungerford Castle and the surrounding park remained in good condition — indeed , unusually for the time , the visiting antiquarian John Leland was able to praise its " praty " ( pretty ) and " stately " condition — but Walter continued to update the property , including adding more fashionable , Elizabethan style windows and improving the east range of the inner court , which became the main living area for the family . Walter 's second wife , Jane , was a Roman Catholic and during the turbulent religious politics of the later Tudor period , their marriage collapsed , with Jane going into exile . Walter and Jane 's only son died young and , after the Walter 's death in 1596 , the castle passed to his brother , Sir Edward .
= = = 17th century = = =
Sir Edward Hungerford died in 1607 , leaving Farleigh Hungerford to his great @-@ nephew , another Sir Edward Hungerford . Edward continued to develop the castle , installing new windows in the medieval buildings of the inner court . In 1642 , however , the Civil War broke out in England between the supporters of King Charles and those of Parliament . As a reformist Member of Parliament and a Puritan , Edward was an active supporter of Parliament and volunteered himself as the leader of its forces in the neighbouring county of Wiltshire ; unfortunately this put him at odds with Sir Edward Bayntun , a Wiltshire gentleman with similar ambitions . The resulting feud between the two men turned violent before Parliament finally settled the issue by appointing Hungerford as its commander in Wiltshire at the start of 1643 . His military record during the conflict was unexceptional : he abandoned several towns to advancing Royalist armies and fought on the losing side at the battle of Roundway Down , although he did successfully seize Wardour Castle in 1643 .
Farleigh Hungerford Castle was captured by a Royalist unit in 1643 , following a successful campaign by the King 's forces across the south @-@ west . The castle was taken without a fight by Colonel John Hungerford , a half @-@ brother of Edward , who installed a garrison that then supported itself by pillaging the surrounding countryside . Several Parliamentary raids against Farleigh Hungerford were undertaken during 1644 , but they failed to take back the castle . By 1645 , however , the Royalist cause was close to military collapse ; Parliamentary forces began to mop up the remaining Royalist garrisons in the south @-@ west , and on 15 September they reached the castle . Colonel Hungerford immediately surrendered on good terms , and Sir Edward Hungerford peacefully reinstalled himself in the undamaged castle . As a result of this process , the castle escaped being slighted , or deliberately destroyed , by Parliament , unlike many other castles in the region , such as Nunney .
On Edward 's death in 1648 , Anthony Hungerford , his half @-@ brother , inherited the castle . The north chapel was extensively renovated during this period by Edward 's widow , Margaret Hungerford , who covered the walls with pictures of saints , cherubs , clouds , ribbons , crowns and heraldry , as part of an elaborate tomb for her and Edward which cost £ 1 @,@ 100 ( £ 136 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms ) . The renovation effectively blocked most of the access into the north chapel , making the new tomb the focus of attention for any visitor or religious activity . A number of lead , anthropomorphic coffins , some with moulded faces or death masks , were laid down in the crypt in the mid- to late @-@ 17th century . Four men , two women and two children were embalmed in the castle in this way , probably including Edward and Margaret , as well as the final Sir Edward Hungerford , his wife , son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law . Such lead coffins were extremely expensive during the period and reserved for the wealthiest in society . Originally the lead coffins would have been encased in wood , but this outer casing has since been lost .
Anthony passed on both the castle and a considerable fortune to his son , yet another Sir Edward Hungerford , in 1657 . After his marriage , Edward enjoyed an income of around £ 8 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 ) a year , making him a very wealthy man . Edward lived a lavish lifestyle , however , including giving a huge gift of money to the exiled Charles II shortly before his restoration to the throne , and later entertaining the royal court at Farleigh Hungerford Castle in 1673 . Edward later fell out with the king over the proposal that the Roman Catholic James II should succeed to the throne on Charles 's death , and after the discovery of the Rye House Plot in 1683 the castle was searched by royal officials looking for stocks of weapons that might be used in a possible revolt .
Meanwhile , Edward had been living a truly extravagant lifestyle , including extensive gambling , resulting in his running up debts of some £ 40 @,@ 000 , which in 1683 forced him to sell many of his estates in Wiltshire . Over the next two years , Edward incurred further debts of around £ 38 @,@ 000 ( £ 5 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 ) and in 1686 was finally forced to sell his remaining lands in the south @-@ west , including Farleigh Hungerford Castle , to Sir Henry Bayntun , who purchased them for £ 56 @,@ 000 ( £ 7 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 ) . Bayntun lived in the castle for a few years , until his death in 1691 .
= = = 18th - 20th centuries = = =
From the 18th century onwards , Farleigh Hungerford Castle slipped into decline . In 1702 , the castle was sold on to Hector Cooper , who lived in Trowbridge ; in 1730 it was passed in turn to the Houlton family , who had purchased the estates surrounding the castle . The Houlton family broke up castle 's stone walls and the internal contents for salvage . Some of the parts , such as the marble floors , were reused at Longleat or in the Houlton 's new house , Farleigh House , built nearby in the 1730s ; other elements were reused by local villagers . By the end of the 1730s the castle was ruinous and , although the castle chapel was repaired and brought back into use in 1779 , the north @-@ west and north @-@ east towers had both collapsed by the end of 1797 . The outer court became a farm yard , with the priest 's house becoming the farm house . The castle 's park was reassigned to serve Farleigh House instead .
Antiquarian curiosity in the castle had begun as early as 1700 , when Peter Le Neve visited and recorded some of the architectural details , but interest increased in the 19th century . This was partially due to the work of the local curate , the Reverend J. Jackson , who undertook the first archaeological excavations at the site during the 1840s , uncovering many of the foundations of the inner court . 17th and 18th century stained glass windows from the continent were installed in the chapel , where the 15th century wall paintings were rediscovered in 1844 . The then owner , Colonel John Houlton , turned the chapel into a museum of curiosities , where for a small fee visitors could see sets of armour , what was said to be a pair of Oliver Cromwell 's boots and other English Civil War artefacts , including letters from Cromwell written to the Hungerfords .
The foundations that Jackson discovered during the excavations were left exposed for the benefit of visitors and larger numbers of tourists began to come to the castle to see the ruins , including Louis @-@ Napoléon Bonaparte in 1846 . The lead coffins in the chapel crypt were popular with tourists , although the coffins were extensively damaged by those visitors keen to see the contents inside . The south @-@ west tower , completely covered by thick ivy , collapsed in 1842 , after local children accidentally set fire to the vegetation that was , by then , holding the tower together . Battlements were added to the east gatehouse during this period , transforming the appearance of its original gabled roof .
In 1891 , most of Farleigh Hungerford Castle was sold by the Houlton family to Lord Donington , whose heir in turn sold it onto Lord Cairns in 1907 . Cairns passed the castle to the Office of Works in 1915 , by which time it was almost all heavily overgrown with ivy . The Office of Works began a process of controversial restoration work , removing the ivy and repairing the stone work ; the result was critiqued by H. Avray Tipping at the time as " giving the whole castle the effect of a new concrete building " . Further excavations took place in 1924 as part of the project , which retained the castle as a tourist attraction . The last inhabitants of the farmhouse left in 1959 , when the last parts of the outer court were sold to the government and restored . Attempts were made to preserve the wall paintings in the chapel during 1931 and 1955 , but the treatments , which involved the use of red wax , stained the paintings and caused considerable damage : the wax was removed in the 1970s . Further excavations followed around the chapel and the priest 's house in 1962 and 1968 . English Heritage took over responsibility for running the castle in 1983 .
= = = 21st century = = =
Today , most of Farleigh Hungerford Castle is ruined . In the inner court only the exposed foundations remain of most of the castle buildings , along with the shells of the south @-@ west and south @-@ east towers . Unusually for English castles , the outer court has survived better than the inner . The restored eastern gatehouse is carved with the badge of the Hungerfords and the initials of the first Sir Edward Hungerford , who had them carved there between 1516 and 1522 . The priest 's house remains intact , measuring 39 feet ( 11 @.@ 9 m ) by 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) with two rooms on the ground floor and four rooms above .
In Saint Leonard 's Chapel , the outlines of many of the medieval murals can still be made out , with the painting of Saint George and Dragon still in particularly good condition — historian Simon Roffey describes this work , one of only four such surviving works in England , as " remarkable " . The late 17th century tombs of the Hungerfords remain intact in the north transept chapel dedicated to Saint Anne . The surviving lead anthropomorphic coffins in the crypt are archaeologically significant : although numerous in the late 16th and 17th centuries , few lead coffins survive today and Farleigh Hungerford Castle has what historian Charles Kightly considers " the best collection " in the country .
The castle site is run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . It is a Scheduled Monument and a Grade I listed building .
= Animal coloration =
Animal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces . Some animals are brightly coloured , while others are hard to see . In some species , such as the peacock , the male has strong patterns , conspicuous colours and is iridescent , while the female is far less visible .
There are several separate reasons why animals have evolved colours . Camouflage enables an animal to remain hidden from view . Signalling enables an animal to communicate information such as warning of its ability to defend itself ( aposematism ) . Animals also use colour in advertising , signalling services such as cleaning to animals of other species ; to signal sexual status to other members of the same species ; and in mimicry , taking advantage of another species ' warning coloration . Some animals use colour to divert attacks by startle ( deimatic behaviour ) , surprising a predator e.g. with eyespots or other flashes of colour , and possibly by motion dazzle , confusing a predator 's attack by moving a bold pattern ( such as zebra stripes ) rapidly . Some animals are coloured for physical protection , such as having pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn , while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for temperature regulation . Finally , animals can be coloured incidentally . For example , blood is red because the haem pigment needed to carry oxygen is red . Animals coloured in these ways can have striking natural patterns .
Animals produce colour in different ways . Pigments are particles of coloured material . Chromatophores are cells containing pigment , which can change their size to make their colour more or less visible . Some animals , including many butterflies and birds , have microscopic structures in scales , bristles or feathers which give them brilliant iridescent colours . Other animals including squid and some deep @-@ sea fish can produce light , sometimes of different colours . Animals often use two or more of these mechanisms together to produce the colours and effects they need .
= = History = =
Animal coloration has been a topic of interest and research in biology for centuries .
In his 1665 book Micrographia , Robert Hooke describes the " fantastical " ( structural , not pigment ) colours of the Peacock 's feathers :
The parts of the Feathers of this glorious Bird appear , through the Microscope , no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers ; for , as to the naked eye ' tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends out multitudes of Lateral branches , ... so each of those threads in the Microscope appears a large long body , consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts .
... their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies , which are exceeding thin , and lie very close together , and thereby , like mother of Pearl shells , do not onely reflect a very brisk light , but tinge that light in a most curious manner ; and by means of various positions , in respect of the light , they reflect back now one colour , and then another , and those most vividly . Now , that these colours are onely fantastical ones , that is , such as arise immediately from the refractions of the light , I found by this , that water wetting these colour 'd parts , destroy 'd their colours , which seem 'd to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction .
According to Charles Darwin 's 1859 theory of natural selection , features such as coloration evolved by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage . For example , individuals with slightly better camouflage than others of the same species would , on average , leave more offspring . In his Origin of Species , Darwin wrote :
When we see leaf @-@ eating insects green , and bark @-@ feeders mottled @-@ grey ; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter , the red @-@ grouse the colour of heather , and the black @-@ grouse that of peaty earth , we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger . Grouse , if not destroyed at some period of their lives , would increase in countless numbers ; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey ; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey , so much so , that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons , as being the most liable to destruction . Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse , and in keeping that colour , when once acquired , true and constant .
Henry Walter Bates 's 1863 book The Naturalist on the River Amazons describes his extensive studies of the insects in the Amazon basin , and especially the butterflies . He discovered that apparently similar butterflies often belonged to different families , with a harmless species mimicking a poisonous or bitter @-@ tasting species to reduce its chance of being attacked by a predator , in the process now called after him , Batesian mimicry .
Edward Bagnall Poulton 's strongly Darwinian 1890 book The Colours of Animals , their meaning and use , especially considered in the case of insects argued the case for three aspects of animal coloration that are broadly accepted today but were controversial or wholly new at the time . It strongly supported Darwin 's theory of sexual selection , arguing that the obvious differences between male and female birds such as the Argus pheasant were selected by the females , pointing out that bright male plumage was found only in species " which court by day " . The book introduced the concept of frequency @-@ dependent selection , as when edible mimics are less frequent than the distasteful models whose colours and patterns they copy . In the book , Poulton also coined the term aposematism for warning coloration , which he identified in widely differing animal groups including mammals ( such as the skunk ) , bees and wasps , beetles , and butterflies .
Frank Evers Beddard 's 1892 book , Animal Coloration , acknowledged that natural selection existed but examined its application to camouflage , mimicry and sexual selection very critically . The book was in turn roundly criticised by Poulton .
Abbott Handerson Thayer 's 1909 book Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom , completed by his son Gerald H. Thayer , argued correctly for the widespread use of crypsis among animals , and in particular described and explained countershading for the first time . However , the Thayers spoilt their case by arguing that camouflage was the sole purpose of animal coloration , which led them to claim that even the brilliant pink plumage of the flamingo or the roseate spoonbill was cryptic — against the momentarily pink sky at dawn or dusk . As a result , the book was mocked by critics including Theodore Roosevelt as having " pushed [ the " doctrine " of concealing coloration ] to such a fantastic extreme and to include such wild absurdities as to call for the application of common sense thereto . "
Hugh Bamford Cott 's 500 @-@ page book Adaptive Coloration in Animals , published in wartime 1940 , systematically described the principles of camouflage and mimicry . The book contains hundreds of examples , over a hundred photographs and Cott 's own accurate and artistic drawings , and 27 pages of references . Cott focussed especially on " maximum disruptive contrast " , the kind of patterning used in military camouflage such as disruptive pattern material . Indeed , Cott describes such applications :
the effect of a disruptive pattern is to break up what is really a continuous surface into what appears to be a number of discontinuous surfaces ... which contradict the shape of the body on which they are superimposed .
= = Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration = =
= = = Camouflage = = =
One of the pioneers of research into animal coloration , Edward Bagnall Poulton classified the forms of protective coloration , in a way which is still helpful . He described : protective resemblance ; aggressive resemblance ; adventitious protection ; and variable protective resemblance . These are covered in turn below .
Protective resemblance is used by prey to avoid predation . It includes special protective resemblance , now called mimesis , where the whole animal looks like some other object , for example when a caterpillar resembles a twig or a bird dropping . In general protective resemblance , now called crypsis , the animal 's texture blends with the background , for example when a moth 's colour and pattern blend in with tree bark .
Aggressive resemblance is used by predators or parasites . In special aggressive resemblance , the animal looks like something else , luring the prey or host to approach , for example when a flower mantis resembles a particular kind of flower , such as an orchid . In general aggressive resemblance , the predator or parasite blends in with the background , for example when a leopard is hard to see in long grass .
For adventitious protection , an animal uses materials such as twigs , sand , or pieces of shell to conceal its outline , for example when a caddis fly larva builds a decorated case , or when a decorator crab decorates its back with seaweed , sponges and stones .
In variable protective resemblance , an animal such as a chameleon , flatfish , squid or octopus changes its skin pattern and colour using special chromatophore cells to resemble whatever background it is currently resting on ( as well as for signalling ) .
The main mechanisms to create the resemblances described by Poulton – whether in nature or in military applications – are crypsis , blending into the background so as to become hard to see ( this covers both special and general resemblance ) ; disruptive patterning , using colour and pattern to break up the animal 's outline , which relates mainly to general resemblance ; mimesis , resembling other objects of no special interest to the observer , which relates to special resemblance ; countershading , using graded colour to create the illusion of flatness , which relates mainly to general resemblance ; and counterillumination , producing light to match the background , notably in some species of squid .
Countershading was first described by the American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer , a pioneer in the theory of animal coloration . Thayer observed that whereas a painter takes a flat canvas and uses coloured paint to create the illusion of solidity by painting in shadows , animals such as deer are often darkest on their backs , becoming lighter towards the belly , creating ( as zoologist Hugh Cott observed ) the illusion of flatness , and against a matching background , of invisibility . Thayer 's observation " Animals are painted by Nature , darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky 's light , and vice versa " is called Thayer 's Law .
= = = Signalling = = =
Colour is widely used for signalling in animals as diverse as birds and shrimps . Signalling encompasses at least three purposes :
advertising , to signal a capability or service to other animals , whether within a species or not
sexual selection , where members of one sex choose to mate with suitably coloured members of the other sex , thus driving the development of such colours
warning , to signal that an animal is harmful , for example can sting , is poisonous or is bitter @-@ tasting . Warning signals may be mimicked truthfully or untruthfully .
= = = = Advertising = = = =
Advertising coloration signals an animal 's capability to other animals . These may be of the same species , as in sexual selection , or of different species , as in cleaning symbiosis . Signals , which often combine colour and movement , may be understood by many different species ; for example , the cleaning stations of the banded coral shrimp Stenopus hispidus are visited by different species of fish , and even by reptiles such as hawksbill sea turtles .
= = = = Sexual selection = = = =
Darwin observed that the males of some species , such as birds of paradise , were very different from the females .
Darwin explained such male @-@ female differences in his theory of sexual selection in his book The Descent of Man . Once the females begin to select males according to any particular characteristic , such as a long tail or a coloured crest , that characteristic is emphasized more and more in the males . Eventually all the males will have the characteristics that the females are sexually selecting for , as only those males can reproduce . This mechanism is powerful enough to create features that are strongly disadvantageous to the males in other ways . For example , some male birds of paradise have wing or tail streamers that are so long that they impede flight , while their brilliant colours may make the males more vulnerable to predators . In the extreme ,
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onda 's Start Up With Jane Fonda workout videos . Ciao Italia ultimately reached the top of the chart , remaining there for eight weeks . It was the 27th top selling music videocassette for 1988 . The video was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . Ciao Italia debuted and peaked at number three on the Canadian RPM Top 10 Video chart on June 9 , 1990 . It was present for a total of eight weeks on the chart . It also charted at number three on the Finnish DVD chart in 2009 . Ciao Italia was also certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Formats = = =
It was released on VHS , Laserdisc and later DVD , in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 on the single @-@ sided , single @-@ layered DVD .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Ciao Italia : Live from Italy video liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Ontario Highway 12 =
King 's Highway 12 , commonly referred to as Highway 12 and historically known as the Whitby and Sturgeon Bay Road , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The highway connects the eastern end of the Greater Toronto Area ( GTA ) with Kawartha Lakes ( via Highway 7 ) , Orillia and Midland before ending at Highway 93 . It forms a part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway system from north of Sunderland to Coldwater . Highway 12 connects several small towns along its 146 km ( 91 mi ) route , and bypasses a short distance from many others . It is signed as a north – south route between Whitby and Orillia , and as an east – west route from there to Midland . The rural portions of the highway feature a posted speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , often dropping to 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) through built @-@ up areas . The entire route is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
Highway 12 was first established in early 1922 between Highway 2 in Whitby and Lindsay . The section running east from Sunderland became part of Highway 7 before route numbering was introduced in 1925 . Highway 12 was then routed through Beaverton and around the eastern and northern shores of Lake Simcoe to Orillia and later to Midland ; Beaverton was bypassed during the 1960s . The section south of Highway 7 in Brooklin was transferred to the Regional Municipality of Durham in mid @-@ 1997 and redesignated as Durham Regional Highway 12 . A majority of Highway 12 follows the historic Whitby and Sturgeon Bay Road , constructed in the mid @-@ 1800s to connect Whitby and Penetanguishene , both important naval ports of the time .
= = Route description = =
The highway begins at the hydro easement ( the future location of Highway 407 ) just south of the community of Brooklin in the town of Whitby . It travels north and joins with Highway 7 on the southern edge of Brooklin . Highway 7 travels west to Markham , and is signed concurrently with Highway 12 for 39 @.@ 1 km ( 24 @.@ 3 mi ) north of this point to Sunderland . North of Sunderland , Highway 7 separates and travels east to Lindsay ; Highway 12 thereafter is designated as the Central Ontario Route of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway .
The highway continues north , following the eastern and northern shores of Lake Simcoe and bypassing Beaverton while curving to the northwest towards Orillia . It bypasses south of Orillia , and shares a routing with Highway 11 northwards for approximately two kilometres between interchanges 131 and 133 . At the latter interchange , Highway 12 branches northwest towards Coldwater , where it joins Highway 400 between interchanges 141 and 147 ; this concurrency is not signed .
At Waubaushene , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway designation continues north along Highway 400 towards Parry Sound and Sudbury , while Highway 12 continues west towards Victoria Harbour , Port McNicoll , and the Martyrs ' Shrine . The highway ends at a junction with Highway 93 at the western town limits of Midland .
= = History = =
The oldest portion of Highway 12 was originally known as the Coldwater Portage and later the Coldwater Road , connecting the modern sites of Orillia and Coldwater by a 14 mi ( 23 km ) trail . Upper Canada Governor John Colborne surveyed the portage in 1830 and ordered it to be widened for wagon use . As the area was settled and an increasing need for land connection with the south arose , a new road was proposed from Whitby to Sturgeon Bay ( near Waubaushene ) . In February 1843 , the residents formally petitioned the government to construct the route . The Sturgeon Bay Road , from Coldwater to Sturgeon Bay , was opened as a rough wagon road in 1844 . The Atherley Narrows , separating Lake Simcoe from Lake Couchiching , were surveyed in the early 1840s and the first causeway and bridge constructed in the years that followed . The portion of the route between Whitby and Orillia , however , was still under construction during the second half of the decade .
Highway 12 was first introduced into the provincial highway system on January 22 , 1922 , The highway , initially known as the Whitby – Lindsay Road , was not numbered until the summer of 1925 . The route followed the present – day Highway – 12 from Whitby to Sunderland , then travelled east to Lindsay .
Highway assumptions carried out on June 22 and July 2 , 1927 , extended Highway 7 east from Brampton to Peterborough . In doing so , it became concurrent with Highway 12 between Whitby and Sunderland . The route of Highway 12 between Sunderland and Lindsay was renumbered as part of Highway 7 at this time . Highway 12 was later extended north to Orillia , via Beaverton . This was accomplished through two assumptions. on August 17 , the majority of the route through Brock , Thorah and Mara Townships was assumed . Several more miles were assumed on December 28 , 1927 , extending Highway 12 as far as Orillia . On August 5 , 1931 , Highway 12 was extended from Orillia to Midland . The majority of the route paralleled an existing railway that was constructed over a native portage .
Highway 12 remained unaltered for several decades , until the mid @-@ 1960s , when the Beaverton Bypass was constructed . On November 4 , 1966 , the 10 @.@ 3 km ( 6 @.@ 4 mi ) bypass opened , routing Highway 12 to the east . Portions of the former route of Highway 12 were renumbered as Highway 48B . The highway again remained unchanged for several decades , until a short portion of the southern end of the highway was decommissioned in the late 1990s . On April 1 , 1997 , the portions of Highway 12 south of Brooklin were transferred to the Regional Municipality of Durham , which subsequently redesignated the road as Durham Regional Highway 12 .
Prior to the highway downloadings of 1997 and 1998 , Highway 12 was also not routed along Highway 400 between Coldwater and Waubaushene , but instead followed a separate route , parallel to the 400 , along what is now Simcoe County Road 16 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 12 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= St John 's Church , Manchester =
St John 's Church , Manchester , also known as St John 's , Deansgate , was an Anglican parish church in Manchester , England , established in 1769 and demolished in 1931 . Its site is now that of St John 's Gardens , situated between Lower Byrom Street , Byrom Street and Quay Street .
St John 's Church was built in 1769 by Edward Byrom , a co @-@ founder of the first bank in Manchester . Its parish encompassed a large and important section of the city of Manchester . The first rector , John Clowes , held the office for 62 years until his death in 1831 . Clowes preached the first Sunday school sermon in the Manchester area , introduced Swedenborgianism there and was prominent in championing Whit Walks . Clowes was succeeded by William Huntington , who had held the post of curate since 1826 and continued as rector until his death in 1874 . Huntington established the Sunday school , for which he laid the foundation stone in 1827 . In 1906 , around 250 children attended the Sunday school and the church had numerous affiliated groups , such as a Penny Bank and a Choral Society . By the early 1900s , the graveyard was overshadowed on its northern side by a warehouse built on the Quay Street site of the Byrom family residence , and with a declining congregation and some redundancy of provision given the nearby St Matthew 's Church , the Manchester diocese decided to merge the parish of St John 's with St Matthew 's in 1927 . As a result , the church was demolished in 1931 .
The church has been described as the first significant building in Manchester to be constructed in the Gothic Revival style of architecture . Construction of the tower , which contained a peal of eight bells manufactured by Lester and Pack , was completed in May 1770 . The first restoration took place in 1821 , including a re @-@ roofing paid for by a daughter of Byrom . Between 1874 and 1878 work was done at a cost of £ 1600 and in 1898 the lighting was converted from gas to electric . The church bells , which were described as " among the best peal of bells in Manchester " , were rehung in 1832 and again around 1883 . The roof collapsed in 1924 and was rebuilt by 1926 . Among people who were commemorated in the church windows were John Owens , and Sir Thomas Bazley .
Today the graveyard of the church is commemorated by a stone cross and a plaque states that more than 22 @,@ 000 bodies lie buried in the vicinity . Among those buried in the churchyard are John Owens , the founder of Owens College , and William Marsden , who founded the concept of a half @-@ day holiday on Saturdays .
= = Origins = =
The rapid population growth of Manchester during the mid @-@ 18th century saw a rising demand for more churches . St John 's Church was built in 1769 by Edward Byrom ( 13 June 1724 – 24 April 1773 ) , a co @-@ founder of the first bank in Manchester and the oldest surviving son of John Byrom , whose affluent family was well known in the area . According to William Shaw , a local historian and fellow of Owens College , the church was " intended for the ' genteel ' residents who were migrating to the south side of the town " .
Byrom obtained permission from Edmund Keene , the Bishop of Chester , and was supported by many prominent local people . Its parish , which was not formalised until at least 1839 , encompassed an area described by the Manchester Courier in 1900 as
Between Quay @-@ street and Brazennose @-@ street on the north , and the Central Station and Bridgewater @-@ street on the south . Its eastern boundary is the Town Hall ( which is within the parish ) , Cooper @-@ street , and Lower Mosley @-@ street ; and its western limit the River Irwell , forming the boundary of Manchester and Salford . [ Thus it covered ] a large and important section of the city of Manchester .
J. M. W. Turner sketched the tower of St John 's and two nearby church spires in 1831 . The sketch is in the Tate 's collection .
= = Structure = =
Although contemporary sources such as the Manchester Mercury name Byrom as the sponsor of the building , they do not identify his architect . The church was described by the English author and historian Clare Hartwell as being the first significant building in Manchester to be constructed in the Gothic Revival style of architecture . It had galleries supported by slender cast @-@ iron columns . The foundation stone was laid by Edward Byrom on 28 April 1768 and Keene performed the consecration on 7 July 1769 , when the sermon was given by John Byrom 's friend , John Clayton . Construction of the tower , which contained a peal of eight bells manufactured by Lester and Pack , was completed in May 1770 .
The first restoration took place in 1821 , including a re @-@ roofing paid for by a daughter of Byrom . Between 1874 and 1878 work was done at a cost of £ 1600 and in 1898 the lighting was converted from gas to electric , substantial internal modifications were carried out and repairs made to the clock tower which cost around £ 2200 . The church bells , which were described by a local journalist for the Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser as " among the best peal of bells in Manchester " , were rehung in 1832 and again around 1883 . The tower had clock dials on all four sides . A minute hand was added to the clock in 1833 and its mechanism was replaced around 1906 . The graveyard was paved with tombstones .
In 1906 , the church was looking to raise funds to acquire and convert the nearby St John 's Hospital of Manchester and Salford for the Ear for use as a rectory .
The roof collapsed in 1924 and was rebuilt by 1926 . Among people who were commemorated in the church windows were John Owens , and Sir Thomas Bazley . Another window was of some antiquity , originating from a convent in Rouen , France , and presented to the church by a grateful French refugee priest . This Entry to Jerusalem window were moved in 1929 to the Church of St Mary the Virgin , Eccles and windows depicting St John , St Peter and St Matthew , dating from 1760 by William Peckitt , were at some time moved to St Ann 's Church in the city .
= = Functions = =
The church held the right to conduct the marriages of people throughout Manchester , not only from within its parish , until 1874 . Despite this , there were no such services for the first 35 years of its existence , perhaps because of the continued popularity of the Collegiate Church as a venue for weddings but probably because the latter insisted on collecting its own fees for marriages held in other local churches , which effectively doubled the cost of being married at St John 's rather than at the Collegiate Church . Later , after the rights of the Collegiate Church were curtailed , some weeks saw more than 100 marriage services at St John 's in the years just before 1874 . Burials ceased completely in 1900 but there had been very few for some years previously because the available space had been exhausted and most graves were full .
In 1827 , the church erected a building dedicated as a Sunday school . This was also used as a day school from 1838 . In 1906 , around 250 children attended the Sunday school and the church had numerous affiliated groups , such as a Penny Bank and a Choral Society . The day school accommodation was at that time condemned by the Board of Education as unfit for purpose and it was operating under a stay issued by the board . In the same year , Hannah Mitchell , a suffragette , was arrested at the day school for protesting during an election campaign speech by Winston Churchill . The building was closed in 1908 and a new school building opened on Gartside Street in 1910 at a cost of £ 4000 . This new facility was used only as Sunday school because , said the local clergy , the Board of Education put too many administrative obstacles and demands in their way , such as stipulating such a small attendance roll as to render any day school uneconomic and insisting on a dedicated playground despite there being a large open space next door that was traditionally used for that purpose . According to the foundation stone of the new school building , the church had operated the first Sunday school in Manchester , although Shaw attributes that distinction to a Mr Fildes , a Methodist whose establishment began operating from a Travis Street cellar in 1782 . Shaw says that several other schools preceded that of St John 's .
Around 1781 , the church had been the base for one of Manchester 's eight fire engines .
= = Clergy = =
A condition imposed by Byrom was that he had the right to present the living . The first rector , John Clowes , held the office for 62 years until his death in 1831 . He was commemorated by two stone tablets in the church , one by either Richard Westmacott or his son , erected after his death and one , the only example of the work of John Flaxman in Manchester , to celebrate his 50th anniversary as rector . Clowes preached the first Sunday school sermon in the Manchester area , introduced Swedenborgianism there and was prominent in championing Whit Walks .
Clowes was succeeded by William Huntington , who had held the post of curate since 1826 and continued as rector until his death in 1874 . Huntington established the Sunday school . Huntington 's successor as rector was John Henn , who held office for 14 years before moving to Heaton Chapel . The next rector , G. R. Youngman , was in office from 1888 until his death in 1890 . His position was taken by E. F. Leach . The last rector was Herbert Edmonds .
William Cowherd , a Swedenborgian proponent of teetotalism and vegetarianism , was a curate in the late 1700s , before leaving to establish the Bible Christian Church in Salford .
= = Demise = =
By the early 1900s , the graveyard was overshadowed on its northern side by a warehouse built on the Quay Street site of the Byrom family residence . The area had been residential — Richard Cobden was among those who lived nearby and attended the church — but changed in character during the 19th century , as many homes once occupied by affluent families became lodging houses and the locale became increasingly a place of business . Those who did live there , or were patients in the nearby hospitals , were poor and unable to contribute significantly to the funds of the church and its schools . Fundraising bazaars were held in the 1890s and 1900s at the Free Trade Hall , in a nearby area that was more salubrious .
Falling attendances due to the commercial nature of the district , and also a sense that there was some redundancy of provision given the nearby St Matthew 's Church , caused the Manchester diocese to review the status of St John 's and its parish in the 1920s . Following an internal review and a public consultation , in 1927 it was formally proposed that the two parishes should be merged as St Matthew 's parish . The diocese preferred to retain St Matthew 's and demolish St John 's , at least in part because the former was a more recent construction . This was a reversal of a proposal made in 1919 , when the predominantly transient Roman Catholic population of the St Matthew 's parish was given as a reason to merge it into St John 's .
The Ecclesiastical Commissioners proposed to hand over the church site to Manchester Corporation in 1929 , with the hope that the city would convert it into an open space similar to Parsonage Gardens . The Manchester Guardian had reported a similar proposal to convert the " bleak expanse " of the graveyard into a " open , cultivated space " in 1914 .
The church was demolished in 1931 . It is commemorated by a stone cross and a plaque states that more than 22 @,@ 000 bodies lie buried in the vicinity . Among those buried in the churchyard are John Owens , founder of Owens College , the forerunner of Manchester University and William Marsden , who pioneered the concept of a half @-@ day holiday on Saturdays .
= Brazilian monitor Pará =
The Brazilian monitor Pará was the lead ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . Pará participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Pará was disarmed and discarded in 1884 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Pará carried a single 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The 70 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . It had a maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . Most unusually the gun 's Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Service = =
Pará was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 21 May 1867 and commissioned on 15 June 1867 . She was towed to the Río de la Plata on 20 June 1867 and steamed up the Paraná River , although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá . On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads , including Pará , sailed past Humaitá at night . Pará and her two sister ships , Alagoas and Rio Grande , were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . The monitor had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent her from sinking . Pará was repaired by 27 February when she joined a squadron dispatched to capture the town of Laureles . On 15 October she bombarded Angostura Fort in company with Brasil , Silvado , Rio Grande and her sister Ceará . On 17 May 1869 she joined a blockading squadron on the Jejuy and Araguaya Rivers . After the war Pará was assigned to the newly formed Mato Grosso Flotilla . She was disarmed and discarded on 10 December 1884 at Ladário .
= London Necropolis railway station =
London Necropolis railway station was the Waterloo , London terminus of the London Necropolis Railway . The London Necropolis Railway was opened in 1854 as a reaction to severe overcrowding in London 's existing graveyards and cemeteries . It aimed to use the recently developed technology of the railway to move as many burials as possible to the newly built Brookwood Cemetery in Brookwood , Surrey . This location was within easy travelling distance of London , but distant enough for the dead not to pose any risk to public hygiene . There were two locations for the station ; the first was in operation from 1854 to 1902 , the second from 1902 to 1941 .
Although it had its own branch line into Brookwood Cemetery , most of the route of the London Necropolis Railway ran on the existing London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) . Consequently , a site was selected in Waterloo , near the LSWR 's recently opened London terminus at Waterloo Bridge station ( now London Waterloo ) . The building was specifically designed for the use of mourners . It had many private waiting rooms , which could also be used to hold funeral services , and a hydraulic lift to raise coffins to platform level . Existing railway arches were used for the storage of bodies .
In 1899 the location of the terminus was blocking the expansion of Waterloo station . After much negotiation , the LSWR reached agreement with the London Necropolis Company , the owners of the cemetery and the railway : in return for the existing site , the LSWR re @-@ equipped the London Necropolis Railway and supplied it with a new station on Westminster Bridge Road . This new building was designed to contrast with other funeral directors ' premises by being as attractive as possible . In 1902 the railway moved into the new building , and the earlier station was demolished .
On 16 April 1941 , during World War II the station was heavily damaged in an air raid . Much of the building was destroyed and the tracks to the station were rendered unusable . Although some funeral trains continued to run from nearby Waterloo station , the London terminus was never used again . Following the end of the war the London Necropolis Company decided that reopening the London Necropolis Railway was not financially worthwhile , and the surviving part of the station building was sold as office space . This remnant remains intact , and relatively unaltered since its opening .
= = Background = =
In the first half of the 19th century the population of London more than doubled , from a little under a million people in 1801 to almost two and a half million in 1851 . The city 's dead had been buried in and around the local churches . With a limited amount of space for burials , the oldest graves were regularly exhumed to free space for new burials . Despite the rapid growth in population , the amount of land set aside for use as graveyards remained unchanged at approximately 300 acres ( 0 @.@ 5 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) , spread across around 200 small sites . Even relatively fresh graves had to be exhumed to free up space for new burials , their contents being unearthed and scattered . Decaying corpses contaminated the water supply , and the city suffered regular epidemics of cholera , smallpox , measles and typhoid . A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London 's burial grounds had become so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one . In 1848 – 49 a cholera epidemic killed 14 @,@ 601 people in London and overwhelmed the burial system completely .
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemics and the findings of a Royal Commission , the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis ( Burials Act ) was passed in 1851 . Under the Burials Act , new burials were prohibited in what were then the built @-@ up areas of London .
= = = London Necropolis Company = = =
Sir Richard Broun and Richard Sprye proposed to use the emerging technology of mechanised land transport to solve the problem of London 's dead . Broun and Sprye envisaged buying a single very large tract of land around 23 miles ( 37 km ) from London in Brookwood near Woking , Surrey , to be called Brookwood Cemetery or the London Necropolis . At this distance , the land would be far beyond the maximum anticipated size of the city 's growth , greatly reducing any potential hazards . The London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) – which had connected London to Woking in 1838 – would enable bodies and mourners to be shipped from London to the site easily and cheaply . Although the Brookwood site was a long distance from London , Broun and Sprye argued that the speed of the railway made it both quicker and cheaper to reach than the seven existing cemeteries , all of which required a slow and expensive horse @-@ drawn hearse to carry the body and mourners from London to the burial site .
On 30 June 1852 the promoters of the Brookwood scheme were given Parliamentary consent to proceed , and the London Necropolis and National Mausoleum Company ( LNC ) was formed . The former Woking Common , owned by the Earl of Onslow at Brookwood was chosen as the site for the new cemetery . To prevent the LSWR from exploiting its monopoly on access to the cemetery , the private Act of Parliament authorising the scheme bound the LSWR to carry corpses and mourners to the cemetery in perpetuity and set a maximum tariff which could be levied on funeral traffic , but did not specify detail of how the funeral trains were to operate .
On 7 November 1854 the new cemetery opened and the southern Anglican section was consecrated by Charles Sumner , Bishop of Winchester . On 13 November the first scheduled London Necropolis Railway train left the new London Necropolis railway station for the cemetery , and the first burial ( that of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street , Southwark Borough ) took place .
= = First station ( 1854 – 1902 ) = =
A site for the London terminus near Waterloo had been suggested by Sir Richard Broun . Its proximity to the River Thames meant that bodies could be cheaply transported to the terminus by water from much of London , while being situated near three major Thames bridges meant that the area was easily accessed from both north and south of the river by road . The arches of the huge brick viaduct carrying the LSWR into Waterloo Bridge station ( now London Waterloo station ) were easily converted into mortuaries . Broun also felt that the journey out of London from Waterloo Bridge would be less distressing for mourners : while most of the rail routes out of London ran through tunnels and deep cuttings , or through densely populated areas , at this time the urban development of what is now south London had not taken place and the LSWR route ran almost entirely through parkland and countryside . The LNC also contemplated taking over the LSWR 's former terminus at Nine Elms railway station ( which following the 1848 opening of the much more convenient Waterloo Bridge station was used only for goods traffic , chartered trains taking migrants to North America , and the private trains of the royal family ) as either the main or a secondary terminus . Despite objections from local residents concerned about the effects of potentially large numbers of dead bodies being stored in a largely residential area , in March 1854 the LNC settled on a single terminus in Waterloo and purchased a plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street ( now Leake Street ) for the site .
Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station , which was approved in June 1854 . The station was completed in October 1854 , at a total construction cost of £ 23 @,@ 231 14s 4d ( about £ 1 @.@ 97 million in terms of 2016 spending power ) . On 13 November 1854 the first train left London for the new London Necropolis .
Tite and Cubitt 's design was based around a three @-@ storey main building , separated from the LSWR 's main viaduct by a private access road beneath the LNC 's twin rail lines . The private access road was intended to allow mourners to arrive and leave discreetly , and to avoid the need for hearses to stop in the public road . The ground floor contained a grand entrance hall and staircase for mourners attending first and second class funerals , a smaller entrance hall and staircase for those attending lower classes of funeral , and two mortuaries which occupied the majority of the floor . A large room adjacent to the mortuary held a reserve stock of around 300 coffins . Most mourners would have commissioned their own coffins , or used coffins bought by the deceased during their lifetime but , explained an official of the LNC ( in 1898 ) the reserve of coffins was kept so that " should a guest die in a hotel , and the landlord wished to keep it quiet , we are notified , and in the middle of the night we come for the corpse , and take it away in one of our ready @-@ made wooden overcoats " . The first floor held the LNC 's boardroom , the LNC 's funerary workshops , a series of separate waiting rooms for those attending second and third class funerals , and the building 's main toilets . The second floor , level with the LSWR railway line , held the train shed covering the two private rail lines and the single platform at which the trains stopped , eight or nine waiting rooms for first class mourners , and further toilets for their use . A steam @-@ powered lift carried coffins from the lower floors to the platform level . A glass roof was positioned in order that no shadow be cast on the hearse carriage waiting at the platform at the time the trains were scheduled to depart , and the western wall was windowless to avoid passengers using the LSWR station being able to see into the Necropolis station . Glass panels inset between the two rail lines allowed sunlight through to the private access road below . Unlike most railway stations of the period , the designs of the first , second and third class waiting rooms were largely identical with only superficial differences .
Although the original terminus did not have its own chapel , on some occasions mourners would not be able or willing to make the journey to a ceremony at Brookwood but for personal or religious reasons were unable to hold the funeral service in a London church . On these occasions one of the waiting rooms would be used as a makeshift funeral chapel . One of the more notable funerals to be held at the terminus was that of Friedrich Engels , co @-@ creator ( with Karl Marx ) of modern communism , who died in London on 5 August 1895 . Engels had expressed a wish to be cremated and his ashes scattered at sea , but there was no crematorium near London . The LNC had an arrangement with Woking Crematorium , by which Necropolis Railway stations and trains could be used by mourners attending cremations at Woking . For Engels 's funeral on 10 August 1895 around 150 people attended a morning service in a waiting room at the LNC terminus . Although the cremation was scheduled for 1 : 15 pm formalities with the death certificate delayed the departure , and the special train did not arrive at the cemetery 's North station ( the station serving the part of the cemetery reserved for non @-@ Anglicans ) until after 4 : 00 pm . The majority of the mourners remained at North station in the cemetery , and only 12 mourners accompanied the coffin to Woking ; as the service had already been held in London , on arrival at Woking , Engels 's body was transferred straight from the hearse to the furnace . Engels 's ashes ( cremated remains ) were recovered from the furnace and transferred to an unrecorded location in Brookwood Cemetery , and 17 days later removed from the cemetery and scattered from Beachy Head ( in East Sussex ) . Karl Marx 's daughter Eleanor Marx died in 1898 and was also cremated at Woking following a service at the LNC 's London terminus ( probably in the same room in which Engels 's service had been held three years previously ) and carriage to North station by the Necropolis Railway . Woking Crematorium , first used for human cremation in 1885 , cooperated closely with the LNC , as they hoped to prevent the LNC building their own crematorium at Brookwood . The LNC never built their own crematorium , although a columbarium ( building for the storage of cremation ashes ) was added to Brookwood Cemetery in 1910 .
For extremely large funerals such as those of major public figures , the LSWR would provide additional trains from Waterloo to Brookwood station on the main line to meet the demand . Charles Bradlaugh , Member of Parliament for Northampton , was a vocal advocate of Indian self @-@ government and a popular figure among the Indian community in London , many of whom attended his funeral on 3 February 1891 . Over 5 @,@ 000 mourners , including 21 @-@ year @-@ old Mohandas Gandhi , were carried on three long special LSWR trains , one of which was 17 carriages long .
In 1874 , with Waterloo Bridge station becoming extremely busy , the LSWR attempted to take over one of the LNC 's two rail lines . An 1875 agreement between the LSWR and LNC permitted the LSWR to take over the westernmost track ( that not served by the platform ) , in return for improved terms on the lease of the land currently leased by the LNC from the LSWR , and the LSWR taking over the maintenance of the structure supporting the LNC lines . In 1876 and 1877 the roof and western wall of the LNC train shed were demolished and replaced with a cantilevered awning over the single platform ; the platform was extended to compensate for the loss of the second line .
= = = Waterloo expansion proposal = = =
In 1889 Waterloo Station ( renamed from Waterloo Bridge station in 1886 ) was equipped with new signals , which required a gantry spanning all the lines into the station . In return for the LSWR cladding the LNC 's entrance on Westminster Bridge Road with white glazed brick , the LNC gave consent for the stanchion supporting the gantry to rest on the LNC 's platform , while reserving the right to demand the gantry be removed . At this time the LSWR also leased a small plot of land west of the Westminster Bridge Road entrance to serve as the site of new offices for the LNC , designed by Cyril Bazett Tubbs .
As the site of the Necropolis station had been intentionally chosen to abut the arches of the LSWR 's viaduct , it acted as an obstacle to any increase in the number of lines serving Waterloo station . Urban growth in the area of what is now south west London , through which trains from Waterloo ran , led to congestion at the station , only slightly alleviated by the LSWR 's 1877 takeover of the western LNC track . In the 1890s the situation became untenable , and the LSWR began to investigate the possibility of repositioning the LNC station to permit the expansion of the main line terminus .
In 1896 the LSWR formally presented the LNC with a proposal to provide the LNC with a new station in return for the existing station . The LNC agreed to the proposals , but with a number of conditions attached . The LSWR was to allow the LNC control of the design of the new station , lease the new station to the LNC for a token rent in perpetuity , provide new rolling stock , remove any limit on the number of passengers using the Necropolis service , and provide the free carriage of machinery and equipment to be used in the cemetery . The LNC had an extremely strong negotiating position as their existing site was crucial to any expansion of Waterloo station , and in addition they had the legal right to demand the removal of the stanchion supporting Waterloo 's signal gantry . Although the LSWR was extremely unhappy at what they considered excessive demands , they had no choice but to comply . In May 1899 the companies signed an agreement , in which the LSWR gave in to every LNC demand . In addition the LSWR paid £ 12 @,@ 000 compensation ( about £ 1 @.@ 22 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) for the inconvenience of relocating the LNC station and offices , and agreed that mourners returning from the cemetery could travel on any LSWR train to Waterloo , Vauxhall or Clapham Junction .
= = Second station ( 1902 – 1941 ) = =
The site for the replacement terminus was identified in 1896 , and bought by the LSWR in 1899 for £ 5 @,@ 500 ( about £ 444 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) . South of the existing station and on the opposite side of Westminster Bridge Road , its main entrance was at 188 Westminster Bridge Road . The site was roughly S @-@ shaped : the entrance from Westminster Bridge Road led to a strip of land at a right angle to the entrance and running behind existing buildings on Westminster Bridge Road . This in turn led to the location identified for the two new rail lines , at a right angle to the central strip ( i.e. parallel to the entrance ) . Work on the new station began in the summer of 1900 , and was completed on 8 February 1902 at a total construction cost to the LSWR of £ 43 @,@ 494 ( about £ 4 @.@ 26 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) excluding the cost of the land .
While construction was underway the original terminus remained in use , although the LSWR was granted running rights through the station . On 23 February Major J. W. Pringle of the Board of Trade inspected the new building and expressed concerns over the safety of the arrangements for trains entering the station from the main line , which entailed crossing the LSWR 's multiple tracks . He was also unhappy about the newly installed passenger lifts and the unfinished nature of the passenger terminus , but nonetheless approved the limited use of the new station for funeral trains . Soon after the transfer of LNC services to the new building the LSWR viaduct was widened to serve a greatly enlarged Waterloo station , destroying all traces of the original LNC terminus .
The new building , also designed by Cyril Bazett Tubbs , was designed for attractiveness and modernity to contrast with the traditional gloomy decor associated with the funeral industry . A narrow four @-@ storey office building stood at 188 Westminster Bridge Road . The ground floor was taken up by a large arch leading to a waiting room , an office for general enquiries , and the long driveway leading to the station itself ; above this were the LNC 's offices and boardrooms .
First class mourners entered through the driveway under the office building which turned sharply left to run beneath a glass canopy parallel to Westminster Bridge Road ; this stretch was faced with glazed white brick and lined with palm and bay trees . The driveway ran past mortuaries and storerooms to the lifts and stairs to the platforms , and also to a secondary entrance on Newnham Terrace ( off Hercules Road ) . Above the mortuaries and storerooms were the LNC 's workshops . Lifts and an elaborate wrought @-@ iron staircase led from the lower two floors to platform level on the second floor . This upper level housed a sumptuous oak @-@ panelled Chapelle Ardente , intended for mourners unable to make the journey to Brookwood to pay their respects to the deceased . A short and wide pathway led to the first class platform , lined with waiting rooms and a ticket office ; the first class platform was equipped with five separate waiting rooms to keep mourners from different funeral parties separate .
A glass screen separated the first class platform and circulating area from the platform and circulating area for third class passengers . The third class section was entered from the secondary entrance in Newnham Terrace , and was more sparsely furnished and not equipped with lifts . From the Newnham Terrace entrance a staircase led to a single communal waiting room on the first floor , and to the third class platform on the second floor , much shorter than the first class platform .
There was still an ability to transport large parties on occasions . The funeral of Indian businessman Sir Nowroji Saklatwala on 25 July 1938 saw 155 mourners travelling first class on a dedicated LNC train .
= = Operations = =
The London Necropolis Company offered three classes of funerals . A first class funeral allowed the person buying the funeral to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery ; at the time of opening , first class prices began at £ 2 10s ( about £ 212 in 2016 terms ) for a basic 9 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 1 @.@ 2 m ) plot with no special coffin specifications . It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral . Second class funerals cost £ 1 ( about £ 85 in 2016 terms ) and allowed some control over the burial location . The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings ( about £ 42 in 2016 terms ) ; if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re @-@ use the grave in future . Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals ; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish . Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves ( other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave ) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased , third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site . ( The families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial , but this practice was rare . ) Despite this , Brookwood 's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period , all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor . Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays , which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day off work . As theatrical performances were banned on Sundays at this time , it also made Brookwood a popular choice for the burial of actors for the same reason , to the extent that actors were provided with a dedicated section of the cemetery near the station entrance .
For those third class funerals paid for by the parish , two third class tickets would be provided at the parish 's expense ( one ticket in the case of a child 's death ) . Further mourners for third class funerals were obliged to pay for their own tickets to the Necropolis .
On arrival at the terminus the mourners would be led either to one of the dedicated first class waiting rooms ( for first and second class funerals ) or to the communal third class waiting room . The coffin would be discreetly unloaded from the hearse and sent to the platform level by lift . Those attending first and second class funerals would be permitted to watch the coffins being loaded onto the train if they so wished . ( After the relocation to the new London terminus in 1902 , some funeral services would be held in the Chapelle Ardente at platform level , for those cases where mourners were unable to make the journey to Brookwood . ) Each door of the waiting train would be labelled with the name of the deceased , to ensure all passengers travelled with the correct funeral party ; the names of the deceased being carried on the train would be called in turn , and that person 's mourners would board the train .
At the time the service was inaugurated , the LNC 's trains were divided both by class and by religion , with separate Anglican and Nonconformist sections of the train . This distinction applied to both living and dead passengers . Intended to prevent persons from different social background from mixing and potentially distressing mourners and to prevent bodies of persons from different social classes being carried in the same compartment rather than to provide different facilities , the carriages intended for all classes and religions were very similar in design , and the primary difference was different ornamentation on the compartment doors .
At 11 @.@ 35 am ( 11 @.@ 20 am on Sundays ) the train would leave London for Brookwood , arriving at Necropolis Junction ( where the branch line into the cemetery left the main LSWR line ) at 12 @.@ 25 pm ( 12 @.@ 20 pm on Sundays ) .
The train only ran if there was a coffin or passengers at the London terminus waiting to use it , and both the journey from London to Brookwood and the later return would be cancelled if nobody was due to leave London that morning . It would not run if there was only a single third or second class coffin to be carried , and in these cases the coffin and funeral party would be held until the next service . Generally the trains ran direct from London to the cemetery , other than occasional stops to take on water . Between 1890 and 1910 the trains also sometimes stopped at Vauxhall and Clapham Junction for the benefit of mourners from south west London who did not want to travel via the Waterloo terminus , but these intermediate stops were discontinued and never reinstated . After 1 October 1900 the Sunday trains were discontinued , and from 1902 the daily train service was ended and trains ran only as required .
= = Destruction = =
During the Second World War Waterloo station and the nearby Thames bridges were a significant target for Axis bombing , and there were several near @-@ misses on the Necropolis station during the London Blitz of 1940 – 41 . Although there were several interruptions to the Necropolis train service owing to enemy action elsewhere on the line , the Necropolis station was undamaged during the early stages of the bombing campaign , and services generally continued as normal .
During the night of 16 – 17 April 1941 , in one of the last major air raids on London , bombs repeatedly fell on the Waterloo area , and the LNC 's good fortune in avoiding damage to their facilities finally ran out . In the early stages of the air raid the rolling stock stored in the Necropolis siding was burned , and the railway arch connecting the main line to the Necropolis terminus was damaged , although the terminal building itself remained unscathed .
At 10 @.@ 30 pm multiple incendiary devices and high explosive bombs struck the central section of the terminus building . While the office building and platforms survived , the workshops , driveway and Chapelle Ardente were destroyed , along with the third class waiting room . The Divisional Engineer of the Southern Railway ( SR , which had absorbed the LSWR in the 1923 restructuring of Britain 's railways ) inspected the damage at 2 @.@ 00 pm on 17 April , and his report read simply " Necropolis and buildings demolished " .
On 11 May 1941 the station was officially declared closed . The last recorded funeral carried on the London Necropolis Railway was that of Chelsea Pensioner Edward Irish ( 1868 – 1941 ) , buried on 11 April 1941 . The SR offered the LNC the temporary use of platform 11 or 12 of Waterloo station to allow the service to be continued , but refused to allow the LNC to continue to sell cheap tickets to visitors travelling to and from the cemetery stations other than those involved in a funeral that day , meaning those visiting the cemetery had little reason to choose the LNC 's irregular and infrequent trains over the SR 's fast and frequent services to their own Brookwood railway station . The LNC attempted to negotiate a deal by which bona fide mourners could still travel cheaply to the cemetery on the 11 @.@ 57 am service to Brookwood ( the SR service closest to the LNC 's traditional departure time ) , but the SR management ( themselves under severe financial pressure owing to wartime constraints and damage ) refused to entertain any compromise .
= = Closure = =
In September 1945 , following the end of hostilities , the directors of the LNC met to consider whether to rebuild the terminus and reopen the London Necropolis Railway . Although the main line from Waterloo to Brookwood had remained in use throughout the war and was in good condition , the branch line from Brookwood into the cemetery had been almost unused since the destruction of the London terminus . With the soil of the cemetery causing the branch to deteriorate even when it had been in use and regularly maintained , the branch line was in extremely poor condition .
Although the original promoters of the scheme had envisaged Brookwood Cemetery becoming London 's main or only cemetery , the scheme had never been as popular as they had hoped . In the original proposal , Sir Richard Broun had calculated that over its first century of operations the cemetery would have seen around five million burials at a rate of 50 @,@ 000 per year , the great majority of which would have utilised the railway . In reality at the time the last train ran on 11 April 1941 , almost 87 years after opening , only 203 @,@ 041 people had been buried in the cemetery . Before the outbreak of hostilities increased use of motorised road transport had damaged the profitability of the railway for both the LNC and the SR . Faced with the costs of rebuilding the cemetery branch line , building a new London terminus and replacing the rolling stock damaged or destroyed in the air raid , the directors concluded that " past experience and present changed conditions made the running of the Necropolis private train obsolete " . In mid @-@ 1946 the LNC formally informed the SR that the Westminster Bridge Road terminus would not be reopened .
The decision prompted complicated negotiations with the SR over the future of the LNC facilities in London . In December 1946 the directors of the two companies finally reached agreement . The railway @-@ related portions of the LNC site ( the waiting rooms , the caretaker 's flat and the platforms themselves ) would pass into the direct ownership of the SR , while the remaining surviving portions of the site ( the office block on Westminster Bridge Road , the driveway and the ruined central portion of the site ) would pass to the LNC to use or dispose of as they saw fit . The LNC sold the site to the British Humane Association in May 1947 for £ 21 @,@ 000 ( about £ 741 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) , and the offices of the LNC were transferred to the Superintendent 's Office at Brookwood . The SR continued to use the surviving sections of the track as occasional sidings into the 1950s , before clearing what remained of their section of the site .
With most of the LNC 's business being operated by road , an agreement on 13 May 1946 allowed the LNC to make use of SR services from Waterloo to Brookwood station for funerals , subject to the condition that should the service be heavily used the SR ( British Railways after 1948 ) reserved the right to restrict the number of funeral parties on any given train . Although one of the LNC 's hearse carriages had survived the bombing it is unlikely that this was ever used , and coffins were carried in the luggage space of the SR 's coaches . Coffins would either be shipped to Brookwood ahead of the funeral party and transported by road to one of the mortuaries at the disused cemetery stations , or travel on the same SR train as the funeral party to Brookwood and be transported from Brookwood station to the burial site or chapel by road .
= = = The site today = = =
The site of the first terminus was cleared during the expansion of the viaduct into Waterloo in the early 20th century , and no trace of it remains . Most of the site of the second station was sold by the LNC and built over with new office developments in the years following the end of the Second World War , but the office building on Westminster Bridge Road , over the former entrance to the station driveway , remains relatively unaltered externally although the words " London Necropolis " carved into the stone above the driveway have been covered . Refurbishments and cleaning in the 1980s restored the façade of the building to an appearance similar to that of the time of its building . Other than iron columns in Newnham Terrace which once supported the Necropolis Railway tracks , and a surviving section of the internal driveway used as a car park , the Westminster Bridge Road building is the only surviving part of the London Necropolis Railway in London .
= Church of the Holy Mother of God , Donja Kamenica =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God ( Serbian : Црква свeте Богородице , Crkva svete Bogorodice ; Bulgarian : Църква „ Света Богородица “ , Tsarkva „ Sveta Bogoroditsa “ ) is a medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the village of Donja Kamenica in Knjaževac municipality , Zaječar District , eastern Serbia . The church is generally considered to have been built in the 14th century , when this area was part of the Second Bulgarian Empire 's Vidin appanage , though alternative datings have been proposed .
While small , the Church of the Holy Mother of God is notable for its unusual architectural style , in particular for its high narthex flanked by two sharp @-@ pointed towers . These features , which hint at Hungarian or Transylvanian influences , are highly atypical for medieval Bulgarian church architecture . The church is richly decorated on the inside , with as many as eleven frescoes of historical figures . One of these portraits , captioned as a despot , is variously identified as an eponymous son of Bulgarian tsar Michael Shishman or as an undocumented son of co @-@ tsar Michael Asen IV ; earlier speculation that the image depicted Serbian noble Mihailo Anđelović or Michael Shishman himself have since fallen out of favor with art historians . In addition to these early portraits , the interior walls of the church were painted with canonical murals , which can stylistically be assigned to the 14th – 15th century . The church was reconstructed in 1958 and has been under Serbian state protection since 1982 .
= = History and architecture = =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God lies in the eastern Serbian village of Donja Kamenica , some 10 to 15 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) southeast of Knjaževac , northeast of Niš and not far from the Bulgarian border . The church is located at the square in the centre of the village , by the left bank of the Trgoviški Timok river and along an old military road from Pirot to Vidin . The church acquired its name due to its abundance of frescoes featuring Mary , the mother of
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it had secured a deal to distribute 12 Years a Slave to international markets . In April 2012 , a few weeks before principal photography , New Regency Productions agreed to co @-@ finance the film . Because of a distribution pact between 20th Century Fox and New Regency , Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired the film 's United States distribution rights . However , instead of paying for the distribution rights , Fox Searchlight made a deal in which it would share box @-@ office proceeds with the financiers of the independently financed film . 12 Years a Slave was commercially released on October 18 , 2013 in the United States for a limited release of 19 theaters , with a wide release in subsequent weeks . The film was initially scheduled to be released in late December 2013 , but " some exuberant test screenings " led to the decision to move up the release date . The film was distributed by Entertainment One in the United Kingdom .
= = = Marketing = = =
Due to both the film 's explicit nature and award contender status , 12 Years a Slave 's financial success was being watched closely . Many analysts compared the film 's content to other drama films of a similar vein such as Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) and The Passion of the Christ ( 2004 ) , which became box office successes despite their respective subject matters . " It may be a tough subject matter , but when handled well ... films that are tough to sit through can still be commercially successful , " said Phil Contrino of Boxoffice Magazine . Despite its content , the film 's critical success has assisted its domestic distribution by Fox Searchlight that began with a limited released aimed primarily towards art house and African @-@ American patrons . The film 's release was gradually widened in subsequent weeks , similarly to how the studio had successfully done in years prior with films such as Black Swan and The Descendants . International release dates for 12 Years a Slave were largely delayed to early 2014 in order to take advantage of the attention created by awards seasons .
During its marketing campaign , 12 Years a Slave received unpaid endorsements by celebrities such as Kanye West and Sean Combs . In a video posted by Revolt , Combs urged viewers to see 12 Years a Slave by stating : " This movie is very painful but very honest , and is a part of the healing process . I beg all of you to take your kids , everybody to see it . ... You have to see this so you can understand , so you can just start to understand . "
= = = Home media = = =
Following its cinematic release in theaters , the Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on March 4 , 2014 . Special features for the DVD include ; a Closed Caption option , The Team - Meet the creative minds assembled by Director Steve McQueen and bring Solomon Northup 's journey to life bonus selection , and The Score - Follow film Composer Hans Zimmer creating his dramatic score feature . In supplemental fashion , a widescreen hi @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc version of the film was also released on the same day . Special features include ; a historical portrait from Director Steve McQueen 's documentary feature , cast and crew interviews , The Team special feature , and The Score selection . An additional viewing option for the film in the media format of Video on demand has been made available as well .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
12 Years a Slave earned $ 187 @.@ 7 million , including $ 56 @.@ 7 million in the United States . During its opening limited release in the United States , 12 Years a Slave debuted with a weekend total of $ 923 @,@ 715 on 19 screens for a $ 48 @,@ 617 per @-@ screen average . The following weekend , the film entered the top ten after expanding to 123 theatres and grossing an additional $ 2 @.@ 1 million . It continued to improve into its third weekend , grossing $ 4 @.@ 6 million at 410 locations . The film release was expanded to over 1 @,@ 100 locations on November 8 , 2013 . In 2014 , 12 Years a Slave was the 10th most @-@ illegally downloaded movie , with 23 @.@ 653 million such downloads , according to Variety .
= = = Critical response = = =
12 Years a Slave received near @-@ universal acclaim by critics and audiences , for its acting ( particularly Ejiofor , Fassbender and Nyong 'o ) , Steve McQueen 's direction , John Ridley 's screenplay , its production values , and its faithfulness to Solomon Northup 's account . Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 96 % of critics gave the film a " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 304 reviews with an average score of 9 / 10 , with the site 's consensus stating , " It 's far from comfortable viewing , but 12 Years a Slave 's unflinchingly brutal look at American slavery is also brilliant — and quite possibly essential — cinema . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 97 ( out of 100 ) based on 48 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be " universal acclaim " . It is currently one of the site 's highest @-@ rated films as well as the best reviewed film of 2013 . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an " A " grade .
Richard Corliss of TIME heralded the film and its director , Steve McQueen , by stating : " Indeed , McQueen 's film is closer in its storytelling particulars to such 1970s exploitation @-@ exposés of slavery as Mandingo and Goodbye , Uncle Tom . Except that McQueen is not a schlockmeister sensationalist but a remorseless artist . " Corliss draws parallels with Nazi Germany , saying , " McQueen shows that racism , aside from its barbarous inhumanity , is insanely inefficient . It can be argued that Nazi Germany lost the war both because it diverted so much manpower to the killing of Jews and because it did not exploit the brilliance of Jewish scientists in building smarter weapons . So the slave owners dilute the energy of their slaves by whipping them for sadistic sport and , as Epps does , waking them at night to dance for his wife 's cruel pleasure . " Gregory Ellwood of HitFix gave the film an " A- " rating , stating , " 12 Years is a powerful drama driven by McQueen 's bold direction and the finest performance of Chiwetel Ejiofor 's career . " He continued by praising the performances of Fassbender and Nyong 'o , citing Nyong 'o as " the film 's breakthrough performance [ that ] may find Nyong 'o making her way to the Dolby Theater next March . " He also admired the film 's " gorgeous " cinematography and the musical score , as " one of Hans Zimmer 's more moving scores in some time . " Paul MacInnes of The Guardian scored the film five out of five stars , writing , " Stark , visceral and unrelenting , 12 Years a Slave is not just a great film but a necessary one . "
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised it as " a new movie landmark of cruelty and transcendence " and as " a movie about a life that gets taken away , and that 's why it lets us touch what life is . " He also commented very positively about Ejiofor 's performance , while further stating , " 12 Years a Slave lets us stare at the primal sin of America with open eyes , and at moments it is hard to watch , yet it 's a movie of such humanity and grace that at every moment , you feel you 're seeing something essential . It is Chiwetel Ejiofor 's extraordinary performance that holds the movie together , and that allows us to watch it without blinking . He plays Solomon with a powerful inner strength , yet he never soft @-@ pedals the silent nightmare that is Solomon 's daily existence . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone , gave the film a four @-@ star rating and said : " you won 't be able to tuck this powder keg in the corner of your mind and forget it . What we have here is a blistering , brilliant , straight @-@ up classic . " He later named the film the best movie of 2013 .
Manohla Dargis wrote , in her review for The New York Times , " the genius of 12 Years a Slave is its insistence on banal evil , and on terror , that seeped into souls , bound bodies and reaped an enduring , terrible price . " The Daily Telegraph 's Tim Robey granted the film a maximum score of five stars , stating that " it 's the nobility of this remarkable film that pierces the soul , " while praising Ejiofor and Nyong 'o's performances . Tina Hassannia of Slant Magazine said that " using his signature visual composition and deafening sound design , Steve McQueen portrays the harrowing realism of Northup 's experience and the complicated relationships between master and slave , master and master , slave and slave , and so on . " David Simon , the creator of the TV series The Wire , highly praised the movie , commenting that " it marks the first time in history that our entertainment industry , albeit with international creative input , has managed to stare directly at slavery and maintain that gaze " .
The film , however , was not without its criticisms . Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice was more critical of the film . While praising Ejiofor 's work , she stated : " It 's a picture that stays more than a few safe steps away from anything so dangerous as raw feeling . Even when it depicts inhuman cruelty , as it often does , it never compromises its aesthetic purity . " Peter Malamud Smith of Slate criticized the story , saying , " 12 Years a Slave is constructed as a story of a man trying to return to his family , offering every viewer a way into empathizing with its protagonist . Maybe we need a story framed on that individual scale in order to understand it . But it has a distorting effect all the same . We 're more invested in one hero than in millions of victims ; if we 're forced to imagine ourselves enslaved , we want to imagine ourselves as Northup , a special person who miraculously escaped the system that attempted to crush him . " Describing this as " the hero problem " , Malamud Smith concluded his review explaining , " We can handle 12 Years a Slave . But don 't expect 60 Years a Slave any time soon . And 200 Years , Millions of Slaves ? Forget about it . " Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club opined that McQueen is " essentially tone @-@ deaf when it comes to performance , and skirts by on casting . " The film " lacks a necessary emotional continuity . I don ’ t think it ’ s something the movie is denying in the way it intentionally denies so many other conventions ; it ’ s still structured around an ending that ’ s supposed to function as a release , but because it can ’ t organize that sense of catharsis it so badly needs , it just feels as though McQueen is scurrying for an exit . Also : The cast is wildly uneven . " At The Guardian , black Canadian author Orville Lloyd Douglas said he would not be seeing 12 Years a Slave , explaining : " I 'm convinced these black race films are created for a white , liberal film audience to engender white guilt and make them feel bad about themselves . Regardless of your race , these films are unlikely to teach you anything you don 't already know . "
= = = Accolades = = =
12 Years a Slave has received numerous awards and nominations . It earned three Academy Awards , including Best Picture . It won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama . The film also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film , while Ejiofor received the Best Actor award . In addition , the motion picture has been named as one of the best films of 2013 by various ongoing critics , appearing on 100 critics ' top @-@ ten lists in which 25 had the film in their number @-@ one spot . This is both the most of any film released in its production year .
= The Job ( The Office ) =
" The Job " is the third season finale of the U.S. version of The Office , and the show 's 52nd and 53rd episodes overall . In this episode , Michael prepares for his interview for the corporate job and names Dwight as his successor , whose managing methods are unpopular . Jan arrives at the office to see Michael and everyone is shocked when it appears she has undergone breast augmentation . Jim and Karen also interview for the corporate position , and Pam deals with the consequences of her earlier outburst .
The episode was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur , and was directed by Ken Kwapis . It was cut down from an hour and twelve minutes to forty @-@ two minutes , making it the season 's second hour @-@ long episode after " A Benihana Christmas " . Kwapis carefully shot Jim 's reaction shots , as he did not want to reveal Jim 's choice of Karen or Pam to the audience . The cast were unaware how the season would end , as multiple endings were shot by the crew . Filming wrapped up in April 2007 .
The finale first aired in the United States on May 17 , 2007 on NBC . An estimated 7 @.@ 9 million viewers watched the episode ; it earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 12 ratings share among adults 18 @-@ 49 , making it rank first for the night . Television critics gave positive reviews to the finale . It won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . In addition , Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Confident that he will get the corporate job in New York City , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) sells his condo and names Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) his successor as Regional Manager . Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) cheerfully withstands her colleagues ' teasing over her speech from " Beach Games , " and tells Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) that she is not sorry about what she said but regrets putting Karen in an awkward position . Meanwhile , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) asks Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) whom he finds more attractive between Karen and Pam . Though Jim initially refuses to answer , he becomes intrigued when Kevin starts to compare the two women . He tells Kevin to keep thinking about it in a joking way , but appears to be very interested in the results .
Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) arrives at the office to win Michael back . In a panic , Michael consults the women of the office . Pam tells him not to reconcile with Jan. Michael attempts to reject Jan , but reverses himself immediately when he sees that she has had a breast augmentation . Jim and Karen drive to New York City together and spend the night before their interviews . Karen tells Jim that if either of them gets the job , both should move to New York . She promises to do so , but is met with awkward silence when she asks Jim to reciprocate . Meanwhile , Dwight begins his new regime , assigning Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) the role of his number two and asking Pam to be his secret " Assistant to the Regional Manager . " Dwight 's new motivational style is not popular , and so he and Andy repaint the walls of Dwight 's new office black in order to instill fear .
During his interview at Corporate , Michael learns from CFO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) that he is interviewing for the job currently held by Jan , who will be fired . Michael goes to Jan 's office after the interview and quickly bumbles into revealing her impending termination . Jan storms into Wallace 's office , interrupting Karen 's interview , and refuses to leave . After Jan is escorted out by security , Michael learns that he will not be getting the position . On the drive home , Jan tells Michael that she will make their relationship her " full @-@ time job " . Upon hearing that , Michael becomes visibly uncomfortable .
Jim 's interview with David goes well until he discovers an encouraging note from Pam along with a yogurt lid medal ( reminiscent of an earlier episode ) . Jim recalls a conversation with Pam after her confession on the beach . He discreetly admits that he left Scranton because of her rejection and that he feels that he has " never really come back , " meaning that he has been actively fighting his feelings for her . Pam tells him that she wishes that he would come back .
Just as Pam is telling the cameras that she does not think that it would work out between her and Jim , he bursts into the room and asks her out to dinner . Stunned , she agrees , and Jim says , " Alright . Then , it 's a date . " After Jim exits the room , Pam becomes visibly joyous and forgets what she was talking about .
During a phone call , David Wallace offers the job to Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who accepts and immediately breaks up with Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) .
= = Production = =
" The Job " was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur . It was directed by Ken Kwapis , who had , around the same time , directed The Office actor John Krasinski in the 2007 film License to Wed . Script reading for the episode took place on a beach during the filming of the season 's twenty @-@ third episode , " Beach Games " . Actress Kate Flannery remarked that " we were so excited that we almost had another hot dog eating contest . Not . It 's a great script . Lots of questions answered . Lots . The Office fans have been anxiously awaiting a one @-@ hour episode , and guess what ? You got it . " The original cut of the episode was an hour and twelve minutes long , and had to be edited down to forty @-@ two minutes of screentime . It was the second Office episode to fill the entire hour timeslot ; the first was the third season episode " A Benihana Christmas " .
Krasinski received a haircut due to production on another film , which he thought " ended up working perfectly " for the season finale . Co @-@ creator Greg Daniels had wanted Jim to get a haircut for a while , as he thought it would " change [ him ] up a little bit . " Krasinski thought it was " really smart " to make it seem like Karen 's idea . Kwapis was careful with Jim 's reaction shots in the episode , as he did not want to " tip anything " to the audience about Jim 's choice of Karen or Pam . Kwapis explained , " That to me was actually one of the big challenges of the episode is how to keep you on your toes in terms of not knowing where the story was going . " Jim 's flashback scene with Pam on the beach was initially intended to be the cold open of the episode before Michael Schur suggested it be moved . Kwapis shot multiple endings , and the cast was unaware how the season would end .
Jenna Fischer enjoyed doing her individual scenes with Rainn Wilson because their characters rarely interacted one @-@ on @-@ one . The filming of these scenes took place on the last days of production for the season , and not many people were still on set . The episode finished shooting in April 2007 . Two weeks before the finale , actor Oscar Nunez gave brief allusions in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , " There will be some movement . Major things moving . Major shifts that affect the entire office . So there 's some good stuff coming up . That 's all I can say . "
= = Reception = =
The episode first aired in the United States on May 17 , 2007 , several days after NBC announced a fourth season . " The Job " attracted 7 @.@ 9 million viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 12 ratings share among adults 18 to 49 . It ranked first for the night in that demographic , and was NBC 's highest among adults and total viewers in its timeslot since the broadcast of " Cocktails " . Among total viewers , The Office ranked third in its timeslot ( behind a CBS tribute to the retiring Bob Barker and ABC 's first season finale of Ugly Betty ) .
The season finale received generally positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West wrote that it " was hands down one of the most satisfying hours of television I have ever had the pleasure of watching , " explaining that it created " entirely new dynamics " for the fourth season , hit " all major beats , " and had " real story progression " and heart . Give Me My Remote writer Kath Skerry declared that the episode was " brilliantly written , acted , and well paced . It was filled with twists and turns that I didn ’ t see coming . And I know that it sounds cliche , and I know saying it sounds cliche , sounds cliche . Maybe I ’ m being cliche but I don ’ t care . I am what I am – a full fledged Office addict who got exactly what she wanted , and in fact needed from the finale . " James Poniewozik of Time magazine voiced similar sentiments , believing the finale to be a " good if not great season @-@ ender , and if the conclusion didn ’ t have the holy @-@ crap factor of The Kiss last year , Pam ’ s closeup reaction to Jim ’ s return during her interview was – like everything Jenna Fischer does on this show – winning and sweet . " Poniewozik disliked how the season left Karen , calling it " an uncharacteristic way to end this love triangle , which was distinguished by the writers ’ refusal to make anyone the bad guy . "
IGN 's Travis Fickett rated " The Job " 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . He believed that the episode " pulled off some rather brilliant turns " with the storylines concerning Jan and Jim , Karen , and Pam . Fickett opined however that the episode was at its weakest during the Dwight 's take @-@ over scenes in Scranton , as he knew Michael would be returning . He concluded his review on a more positive note by commenting that Ryan 's selection " makes for some interesting scenarios for next season . All in all this was a funny episode that wrapped up some key story lines while still leaving open some questions to be answered next season . It wasn 't a home run finale , but it certainly has us eagerly await the fall premiere . " AOL TV contributor Jay Black highlighted scenes he found humorous , including Dwight 's preferred choice of an assistant and Michael 's reaction to Jan 's implants . He gave the episode " 7 Shrute Bucks out of 7 . " Various cast members were also lauded for their performances , including Jenna Fischer , John Krasinski , and Melora Hardin .
In an article written after the episode 's broadcast , actress Kate Flannery observed that " lots of questions " were answered and that it was " like a movie . " Referring to the agreed @-@ to date between Jim and Pam , Flannery said , " The point is that the elephant in the room has not only been addressed but asked to dinner . Makes Season 4 seem filled with possibilities – like an empty glass in front of a full bar . " In an article written around the time of actor Steve Carell 's last performance on The Office in 2011 , IGN 's Cindy White listed Michael 's quote about Jan 's " breast enhancement " as among the best of the series . Dan Philipps , another writer for IGN , ranked Jim 's date proposal among the best moments for the couple , stating that " after toying with fans ' expectations for two whole seasons , the series ' writers finally allowed fans to breathe a sigh of relief . For many , the moment was well worth the wait . "
For their writing of " The Job " , Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy , beating The Office episodes " Local Ad " and " Phyllis 's Wedding " as well as episodes of 30 Rock , Flight of the Conchords , and Pushing Daisies . At the 59th Creative Arts Emmy Awards , editors David Rogers and Dean Holland won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . For her work in " The Job " , Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series , but lost to Jaime Pressly for her performance in My Name is Earl .
= Coropuna =
Coropuna is a dormant volcano in the southern Peruvian Andes and belonging to the Central Volcanic Zone ; its summit reaches an altitude of 6 @,@ 377 metres ( 20 @,@ 922 feet ) above sea level . The volcano , located 155 kilometres ( 96 miles ) from Arequipa , is mostly made of lava flows on a basement formed by Miocene ignimbrites . Coropuna has been active for at least five million years , with the bulk of the current cone having formed during the Pliocene – Pleistocene .
The volcano is covered by a thick ice cap , the second largest in the tropics , that has existed since at least the Pliocene and has undergone several phases of expansion and reduction . As of 2016 , the ice cap is in retreat ; one estimate predicts that it will disappear by 2045 . The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people , and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be a hazard to surrounding populations if the mountain returns to volcanic activity .
The mountain was considered sacred by the Inca , and a number of archaeological sites have been discovered there . The Inca built the highest irrigation system in the world on Coropuna .
= = Geography and geology = =
Part of the Cordillera Ampato , it is Peru 's largest and highest volcano . Coropuna is located south of the Pucuncho basin in the Peruvian Andes and 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) away from the Pacific coast . Neighbouring volcanoes are the 5 @,@ 498 @-@ metre ( 18 @,@ 038 ft ) Firura ( 15 ° 14 ′ S 72 ° 48 ′ W ) and the 6 @,@ 093 @-@ metre ( 19 @,@ 990 ft ) Solimana ( 15 ° 24 ′ S 72 ° 52 ′ W ) . Firura is a structure with two dome shaped summits , while Solimana features a caldera and a high , glacially affected topography . Another volcano , Ampato , lies 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) southeast .
Ten summits , including four main ones , separated by broad saddles , form the Coropuna massif , which covers an area of 20 × 12 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 4 × 7 @.@ 5 mi ) at 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude . Another description counts six main summits arranged in an ellipse . Mapping of the volcano is made difficult by the ice cap . The main summits are found in the western part of the massif , and two are aligned in a north – south direction with heights of 6 @,@ 377 metres ( 20 @,@ 922 ft ) and 6 @,@ 350 metres ( 20 @,@ 830 ft ) . The eastern part features two summits : a central one has an ice @-@ filled crater at 6 @,@ 234 metres ( 20 @,@ 453 ft ) , and the eastern one , at 6 @,@ 305 metres ( 20 @,@ 686 ft ) , is the summit that has generated the most recent lava flows . Cerro Cuncaicha forms a spur on Coropuna 's eastern flank . All of these summits have a mostly smooth appearance . The volcano developed in two phases : Coropuna I , at 4 @,@ 200 – 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 – 16 @,@ 400 ft ) , has a conical shape ; other summits , including Coropuna II , have grown above it . The terrain of Coropuna has moderate slopes rising from a basement of 4 @,@ 600 metres ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) . Erosion has incised deep gorges around Coropuna . The total volume of Coropuna is about 283 cubic kilometres ( 68 cu mi ) .
Volcanism in the Andes originates in the collision of the Pacific Ocean floor with the South American Plate . This collision generates tectonic forces which lift up blocks of the Central Andes and create fissures through which magma reaches the surface . Coropuna is part of the northern Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) and , along with Ampato – Sabancaya – Hualca Hualca , Chachani , and El Misti , forms part of the main volcanic arc . Coropuna , Sara Sara , and Solimana are close to the northern border of the CVZ , where the Benioff zone becomes shallower . In this area , the Andes mountains are still growing , and erosion has cut deep valleys into them . The area also features numerous fault zones , best visible south and southwest of Coropuna where shifts of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) and more have occurred . Coropuna lies on a line of volcanoes that runs from Solimana to Sabancaya .
The bulk of the volcano was formed in the Quaternary , with activity commencing in the Miocene . Five million years ago , the first latiandesites were erupted . The minor eruptive centres of Pumaranra and Antapuna are K @-@ Ar dated at 1 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 11 and 1 @.@ 02 ± 0 @.@ 11 million years old . Much of the volcano was constructed by lava flows .
= = = Volcanic history and future threat = = =
Coropuna is constructed on Tertiary ignimbrites that form the Puna ( one of which is dated 14 million years ) ; these are completely buried around the volcano . The dates of these ignimbrites are not entirely clear . The Barroso group beneath Coropuna is dated 5 @.@ 3 million years by K @-@ Ar . Beginning in the mid @-@ Pliocene , the Coropuna I and Coropuna II volcanoes were constructed by large lava flows . Of the former there remain only planezes , sectors that were once part of the volcano but are now separated by gaps created through erosion . Evidence found in the Majes river valley indicates that volcanic activity frequently resulted in lahars when parts of the ice cap melted under the influence of volcanic activity . Some explosive activity has thrown lava bombs up to 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) away .
The bulk of the volcano was formed during the Pliocene and Pleistocene , one tephra deposit being carbon @-@ 14 dated to 27 @,@ 200 – 37 @,@ 370 BP . In the early Holocene , andesite lava flows overran late moraines . Strong glacial and other erosion effects can be seen on Coropuna . Chlorine @-@ 36 exposure dating has found ages of 6 @,@ 000 years ago for the western lava flow and 2 @,@ 000 years ago and less for the eastern lava flows . These flows are tens of meters thick and 5 – 9 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 6 mi ) long and are only weakly eroded , conserving most of their breccia cover . Each of these lava emissions is associated with the formation of mudflows from lava – ice interaction . The youngest date reported for one of these lava flows is 1 @,@ 100 ± 100 years ago .
Present @-@ day activity includes a chain of warm springs associated with the volcano . An earthquake swarm and associated ground deformation were observed near Coropuna and Sabancaya in 2001 , and the 2001 southern Peru earthquake caused seismic swarms at Coropuna . Interaction between the ice cap and future eruptive activity is considered to be a hazard at Coropuna , especially in light of the extreme altitude differences that are found in the territory . The consequent sudden melting of the glaciers could endanger towns in the valleys . Likewise , earthquakes could result in the collapse of part of the ice cap . There is a hazard of lahars which is further augmented by the extreme relief around the volcano , with a difference in height of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) within a horizontal space of 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Several towns are located downstream of Coropuna , including Viraco , Machahuay , Salamanca , Chichas , Yanaquihua , Andaray , and Punta Colorada . The town of Camaná at the mouth of the Majes has 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = = Petrology = = =
Petrologically , dark @-@ coloured andesites form the bulk of the lavas , while ignimbrites are rhyodacitic . The andesites contain plagioclase and quartz as well as smaller amounts of amphibole and biotite . Pyroxene and titanomagnetite are also found . The groundmass of Coropuna rocks contains plagioclase and pyroxene embedded in brown glass , the whole having a hyalophilic ( glassy ) appearance . The magmas originated at a depth of 8 – 12 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 mi ) . Earlier andesites are more basic than later ones .
Based on chemical and petrographic data , the lavas formed from water @-@ poor source material at depth . Phenocrysts formed at depths of less than 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) . Temperatures of Coropuna 's eruption products are estimated at 700 – 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 – 2 @,@ 192 ° F ) . The magmas , during their whole journey to the surface , moved over vertical distances of 70 – 120 kilometres ( 43 – 75 mi ) . During this ascent , secondary magmas were formed that generated intermediate and felsic rocks . Post @-@ eruption , meltwater derived from the ice cap has caused hydrothermal alteration of the volcano .
= = Ice cap = =
The Coropuna glacier is located 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) northwest of Arequipa . Exceeded in size solely by the Quelccaya ice cap , it is the second @-@ largest tropical ice cap in the world . The highest point of the Coropuna ice cap is measured at 6 @,@ 446 metres ( 21 @,@ 148 ft ) altitude . A 2010 study showed the average thickness was 80 @.@ 8 ± 16 @.@ 5 metres ( 265 ± 54 ft ) , with a total volume of 4 @.@ 62 ± 0 @.@ 94 cubic kilometres ( 1 @.@ 11 ± 0 @.@ 23 cu mi ) . In 1962 at least 17 glaciers combined to form this ice cap . Present @-@ day outlet glaciers reach down to 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) and 5 @,@ 100 metres ( 16 @,@ 700 ft ) on the southern and northern side , respectively . The northeastern glaciers are smaller than the southeastern ones . Beneath the glacier above 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) altitude , gelifluction and other periglacial features form the terrain . No significant valley glaciers are present on Coropuna .
There is evidence of glaciation during the Coropuna I stage of volcanic activity ; the mountain was glaciated at least since the Pliocene . During the Last Glacial Maximum , Coropuna 's longest glacier was the 12 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) -long Quebrada Ullulo glacier , and the ice cap covered a surface area of at least 365 square kilometres ( 141 sq mi ) . Outlet glaciers descended to 4 @,@ 540 feet ( 1 @,@ 380 m ) and 3 @,@ 780 metres ( 12 @,@ 400 ft ) altitude on the northern and southern flank , respectively . Equilibrium line altitudes ranged from 5 @,@ 120 – 5 @,@ 230 metres ( 16 @,@ 800 – 17 @,@ 160 ft ) on the northern side to 4 @,@ 700 – 4 @,@ 800 metres ( 15 @,@ 400 – 15 @,@ 700 ft ) on the southern side . Aside from a north – south gradient , a possibly wind sublimation @-@ driven east – west gradient in equilibrium line altitudes is visible . In addition to Ullulo on the northern flank , other outlet glaciers were Huayllaura and Quipchane on the southern flank , Pucunchiloyocc on the western flank , and Cospanjaon on the eastern flank . Based on chlorine @-@ 36 accumulation data on moraines , it has been determined that the volcano underwent a major expansion between 20 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 years ago , a minor expansion 12 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 years ago , and another minor expansion 9 @,@ 000 years ago . On the southern flank , a major expansion took place 14 @,@ 000 years ago and a minor one 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . Evidence has been found of a later minor expansion 6 @,@ 000 years ago . It has been determined that in the late Holocene , the snowline was located at 5 @,@ 200 – 5 @,@ 775 metres ( 17 @,@ 060 – 18 @,@ 947 ft ) of elevation .
Coropuna 's largest moraines were formed during the Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) , about 25 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago . The Ullulo moraine on the northern flank is the largest , with a relief of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Gravel and boulders form the bulk of the LGM moraines . There are several stages of moraines between these LGM moraines and the present @-@ day ones , some linked to the late 19th @-@ century advance and other more extensive ones to late glacial advances . All of these moraines are crisp and have been well preserved by the arid conditions . The moraines within 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) of the present @-@ day ice margin are steep @-@ sided . The current retreat has left small and poorly developed terminal moraines .
In 1970 Coropuna 's glaciers formed 4 % of Peru 's total glacier surface . The Coropuna ice cap has shrunk between 1955 and 2008 , from 122 @.@ 7 square kilometres ( 47 @.@ 4 sq mi ) to 48 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 18 @.@ 6 sq mi ) surface area . Much of the surface loss happened in the 1980s and 1990s . This shrinkage of 1 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 54 sq mi ) per year may result in the disappearance of the ice cap by 2045 . The surface area of the ice cap as measured by satellite images decreased from 105 ± 16 square kilometres ( 40 @.@ 5 ± 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) in 1975 to 96 ± 15 square kilometres ( 37 @.@ 1 ± 5 @.@ 8 sq mi ) in 1986 , 64 ± 8 square kilometres ( 24 @.@ 7 ± 3 @.@ 1 sq mi )
in 1996 , 56 ± 6 square kilometres ( 21 @.@ 6 ± 2 @.@ 3 sq mi ) in 2003 , and to 47 square kilometres ( 18 sq mi ) in 2007 . It is likely that some ice masses will disappear soon , while others will persist for decades . Further , the snowline has risen much higher than the glacier termini . This retreat mirrors the retreat of most glaciers in the world since the end of the Little Ice Age .
Coropuna is drained by deep gorges , with water eventually reaching the Arma and Majes rivers , both of which empty into the Pacific Ocean . During the dry season , Coropuna 's glaciers are a major source of water for the region , and concern has been raised that their disappearance may result in water shortages at a time when population growth has increased water consumption and begun to create conflict over water distribution . 30 @,@ 000 people depend on the Coropuna glacier in one way or the other , 8 @,@ 000 of them just for their water supply .
A major ice core was drilled in 2003 on Coropuna , covering more than 16 @,@ 000 years . Ice cores indicate that the Coropuna glacier receives mostly continental dust , and that 4 @,@ 200 years ago there was a severe drought , while 5 @,@ 200 years ago a wet and cold period occurred . More recent data show a severe drought from 1790 to 1796 . Fossil remains of rock glaciers have been found on the southeastern flank at altitudes of 4 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 250 metres ( 14 @,@ 760 – 17 @,@ 220 ft ) .
= = Climate and vegetation = =
Close to the ice , diurnal temperature variation dominates seasonal effects . The temperature has generally increased in the area ( 0 @.@ 1 ° C ( 0 @.@ 2 ° F ) per decade since 1939 ) , with El Niño events possibly playing a role . Analysis of plankton in Lake Titicaca indicates that a glacial climate prevailed until 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago .
Because of the rain shadow of the Andes and the temperature inversion over the Pacific , the climate is arid , with precipitation of 390 millimetres ( 15 in ) per year at 6 @,@ 080 metres ( 19 @,@ 950 ft ) altitude . Water cannot reach Coropuna from the Pacific Ocean . Most precipitation ( 70 – 90 % ) falls during summer ( December – March ) . A sharp reduction in precipitation was found during the El Niño years of 1982 – 1983 and 1992 . These events were also accompanied by lower cloud cover , higher temperatures , and lower wind speed , increasing the glacier surface loss . However , the El Niño of 1997 – 1998 was accompanied by high precipitation . Precipitation mostly originates from the Atlantic Ocean via the Amazon basin . Pollen data tend to be dominated by local species during dry spells . Occasionally , strong southern cold outbreaks reach Coropuna 's latitudes . As evidenced by the Sajsi ( 25 @,@ 000 – 19 @,@ 000 years ago ) , Tauca ( 18 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 years ago ) , and Coipasa ( 13 @,@ 000 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) lake highstands , ice age humidity was much higher in the Altiplano .
Based on mapping , in 1955 the equilibrium line altitude had a mean elevation of 5 @,@ 687 ± 49 metres ( 18 @,@ 658 ± 161 ft ) but has since then risen by 80 – 90 metres ( 260 – 300 ft ) . As is the case farther south in Chile , the snowline altitude is chiefly governed by precipitation and not by temperature . Winds in the Coropuna area are chiefly from the east .
Coropuna rises over the Puna , a grassland at an altitude of 4 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 800 metres ( 13 @,@ 100 – 15 @,@ 700 ft ) that contains Asteraceae shrubs . Local plant families and genera attested by pollen data are Asteroideae , Poaceae , and Polylepis . Vegetation ends at 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude . Beneath this line it is composed of Azorella compacta and ichu grass . Cushion plants are also frequent around 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) . The arid climate means that the flora is highly xerophilic . Marsh vegetation and a distinct peat bog are found in wetter parts of Coropuna 's slopes . Polylepis woodlands are found on the southern slope .
= = Religious and archaeological importance = =
In Inca mythology , Coropuna was identified as an Apu , a sacred mountain . An Inca path leading up the mountain has been found , with bones and pottery fragments up to 6 @,@ 200 metres ( 20 @,@ 300 ft ) . Over thirty archaeological sites , many of them predating the Incas , have been found around Coropuna . The Inca sites are the highest ones , though some occur next to bogs such as the one next to the village Maucta Llacta . The influence of human habitation on the environment is noticeable from 2 @,@ 200 BP onward .
The Inca used the waters of Coropuna , building an irrigation system that drew water from the glaciers at 5 @,@ 600 metres ( 18 @,@ 400 ft ) altitude , the highest irrigation system in the world .
= = Books = =
Biggar , John ( 2005 ) . The Andes : A Guide for Climbers ( 3rd ed . ) . Andes Publishing ( Scotland ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 9536087 @-@ 2 @-@ 7 . 304 pp .
González @-@ Ferrán , Oscar ( 1995 ) . Volcanes de Chile ( in Spanish ) . Santiago , Chile : Instituto Geográfico Militar . ISBN 956 @-@ 202 @-@ 054 @-@ 1 . 640 pp . ( also includes volcanoes of Argentina , Bolivia , and Peru )
De Silva , Shanaka L. ; Francis , Peter ( 1991 ) . Volcanoes of the Central Andes . Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 53706 @-@ 6 . 216 pp .
" Coropuna " . Global Volcanism Program . Smithsonian Institution .
Reinhard , Johan ( 1999 ) . " Coropuna : Lost Mountain Temple of the Incas . " South American Explorers Journal 58 : 5 , 26 – 30 .
Reinhard , Johan ( 2005 ) . The Ice Maiden : Inca Mummies , Mountain Gods , and Sacred Sites in the Andes . Washington , D.C. : National Geographic Society . ISBN 0 @-@ 7922 @-@ 6838 @-@ 5 .
Ziólkowski , Mariusz ( 2008 ) . " Coropuna y Solimana : Los Oráculos de Condersuyos . " In Adivinación y oráculos en le Mundo Andino Antiguo , Curatola , Marco and Mariusz Ziólkowski ( eds . ) , pp. 121 – 159 . Fundo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú , Lima .
= Max Boot =
Max Boot ( born September 12 , 1969 ) is an American author , consultant , editorialist , lecturer , and military historian . He has been a prominent advocate of American values in foreign policy . He once described his ideas as " American might to promote American ideals . " He identifies as a conservative , once joking that " I grew up in the 1980s , when conservatism was cool " . Boot worked as a writer and editor for Christian Science Monitor and then for The Wall Street Journal in the 1990s . He is now Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow in National Security Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations . He has written for numerous publications such as The Weekly Standard , The Los Angeles Times , and The New York Times , and he has also authored well @-@ reviewed and best @-@ selling books of military history . Boot 's most recent book , titled Invisible Armies , came out in 2013 , and it details the history of guerrilla warfare .
= = Personal life = =
Boot was born in Moscow . His parents , both Russian Jews , later emigrated from the Soviet Union to Los Angeles , where he was raised . Max Boot was educated at the University of California , Berkeley ( BA , History , 1991 ) and Yale University ( MA , Diplomatic History , 1992 ) . He started his journalistic career writing columns for the Berkeley student newspaper The Daily Californian . He later stated that he believes he is the only conservative writer in that paper 's history . Boot and his family currently live in the New York area .
= = Career = =
Boot is the Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow in National Security Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations , a contributing editor to The Weekly Standard and the Los Angeles Times , and a regular contributor to other publications such as The Wall Street Journal , The Washington Post and The New York Times . He blogs for Commentary Magazine on its page Contentions . He serves as a consultant to the U.S. military and as a regular lecturer at U.S. military institutions such as the Army War College and the Command and General Staff College .
Boot worked as a writer and as an editor for The Christian Science Monitor from 1992 to 1994 . He moved to The Wall Street Journal for the next eight years . He wrote an investigative column called ' Rule of Law ' about legal issues . After a short , four @-@ year career with the column , he rose to the position of editor of the Op @-@ Ed page .
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Boot left the Journal in 2002 , and he then joined the Council on Foreign Relations . He became a ' Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow ' with the group . His writings with the Council appeared in several publications such as The New York Post , The Times , Financial Times , and International Herald Tribune in 2002 .
Boot wrote Savage Wars of Peace , a study of small wars in American history , with Basic Books in 2002 . The title came from Kipling 's poem ' White Man 's Burden ' . James A. Russell in Journal of Cold War Studies criticized the book , saying that " Boot did none of the critical research , and thus the inferences he draws from his uncritical rendition of history are essentially meaningless . " Benjamin Schwarz argued in The New York Times that Boot asked the U.S. military to do a " nearly impossible task " , and he criticized the book as " unrevealing " . Victor Davis Hanson in History News Network gave a positive review , saying that " Boot 's well @-@ written narrative is not only fascinating reading , but didactic as well " . Robert M. Cassidy in Military Review labeled it " extraordinary " . Boot 's book also won the 2003 General Wallace M. Greene Jr . Award from the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation as the best non @-@ fiction book recently published pertaining to Marine Corps history .
Boot wrote numerous articles with the Council in 2003 and 2004 . The World Affairs Councils of America named Boot one of " the 500 most influential people in the United States in the field of foreign policy " in 2004 . He also worked as member of the Project for the New American Century ( PNAC ) in 2004 .
He published the work War Made New , an analysis of revolutions in military technology since 1500 , in 2006 . The book 's central thesis is that a military succeeds when it has the dynamic , forward @-@ looking structures and administration in place to exploit new technologies . It concludes that the U.S. military may lose its edge if it does not become flatter , less bureaucratic , and more decentralized . The book received praise from Josiah Bunting III in The New York Times , who called it " unusual and magisterial " , and criticism from Martin Sieffin in The American Conservative , who called it " remarkably superficial " .
Boot wrote many more articles with the Council in 2007 , and he received the Eric Breindel Award for Excellence in Opinion Journalism that year . In an April 2007 episode of Think Tank with Ben Wattenberg , Boot stated that he " used to be a journalist " and that he currently views himself purely as a military historian . Boot served as a foreign policy adviser to Senator John McCain in his 2008 United States presidential election bid . He stated in an editorial in World Affairs Journal that he saw strong parallels between Theodore Roosevelt and McCain . Boot continued to write for the Council in several publications in 2008 and 2009 .
Boot wrote for the Council through 2010 and 2011 for various publications such as Newsweek , The Boston Globe , The New York Times , and The Weekly Standard among others . He particularly argued that President Obama 's health care plans made maintaining the U.S. ' superpower status harder , that withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq occurred prematurely while making another war there more likely , and that the initial U.S. victory in Afghanistan had been undone by government complacency though forces could still pull off a victory . He also wrote op @-@ eds criticizing planned budget austerity measures in both the U.S. and the U.K. as hurting their national security interests .
In September 2012 , Boot co @-@ wrote with Brookings Institution senior fellow Michael Doran a New York Times op @-@ ed titled " 5 Reasons to Intervene in Syria Now " , advocating U.S military force to create a countrywide no @-@ fly zone reminiscent of NATO 's role in the Kosovo War . He stated first and second that " American intervention would diminish Iran 's influence in the Arab world " and that " a more muscular American policy could keep the conflict from spreading " with " sectarian strife in Lebanon and Iraq " . Third , Boot argued that " training and equipping reliable partners within Syria 's internal opposition " could help " create a bulwark against extremist groups like Al Qaeda " . He concluded that " American leadership on Syria could improve relations with key allies like Turkey and Qatar " as well as " end a terrible human @-@ rights disaster " .
Boot 's most recent book , titled Invisible Armies , came out in 2013 , and it details the history of guerrilla warfare going through various cases of successful and unsuccessful insurgent efforts such as the fighting during the American war of independence , the Vietnam War , the current Syrian Civil War . He additionally states that traditional , conventional army tactics as employed by the American military under the administrations of President Bush and President Obama against guerrilla organizations have produced big strategic failures . Boot has discussed his book in various programs such as the Hoover Institution 's Uncommon Knowledge series. appearing on it in January 2014 .
= = Beliefs = =
In general , Boot considers himself to be a " natural contrarian " . He is in favor of limited government at home and American leadership abroad . He strongly opposed Donald Trump 's presidential candidacy in 2016 .
= W. G. Grace in the 1878 English cricket season =
W. G. Grace is believed to have considered retirement from cricket before the 1878 season after he was seriously injured in a shooting accident the previous autumn which nearly cost him the sight of an eye . Having recovered , he reconsidered and in 1878 played in 33 matches , 24 of which are generally recognised as first @-@ class . His main roles in the season were captain of Gloucestershire County Cricket Club and both match organiser and captain of the United South of England Eleven ( USEE ) . In addition , he represented Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , the Gentlemen in the Gentlemen v Players fixture and the South in the North v South series . 1878 was a cold , wet summer and not one of Grace 's better seasons as a batsman , but he was very effective in such conditions as a right arm medium pace roundarm bowler and completed a sixth successive " double " by scoring 1 @,@ 151 runs and taking 152 wickets in the recognised first @-@ class matches .
Grace was always notorious for gamesmanship and moneymaking during his cricket career and he cut an especially controversial figure in 1878 . After the season ended , he and his brother E. M. Grace were called to account by the Gloucestershire membership and a special enquiry was ordered to investigate their blatant " shamateurism " . As amateur players , they should only have been claiming reasonable expenses for travel and accommodation but they were accused of claiming inflated expenses and appearance fees . The matter came to a head after Surrey County Cricket Club refused to meet their expense claims when Gloucestershire played at The Oval in June . Prior to the same match , Grace was accused of " kidnapping " the Australian player Billy Midwinter when he insisted that Midwinter was contractually bound to play for Gloucestershire and not the Australian touring team . A furious altercation between Grace and members of the Australian party took place in front of bystanders outside The Oval , but Grace got his way and Midwinter played for Gloucestershire .
The season was notable for the MCC v Australians match at Lord 's in May . Grace played for MCC in the match that , completed in a single day , is considered a milestone in cricket history . In July , Gloucestershire made their first visit to Old Trafford to play Lancashire and the match was immortalised by Francis Thompson in his idyllic poem " At Lord 's " .
On a personal level , Grace was still unqualified as a doctor and had a growing family to support , his daughter Bessie being born in May . When not playing cricket , he had to study a backlog of medical theory . He did not qualify as a doctor until the end of the following year . He then needed a practice and this was effectively purchased for him by MCC in 1878 after they launched a National Testimonial on his behalf , though the underlying and hopeful purpose of the appeal was to terminate Grace 's embarrassing mercenary activity .
= = Background = =
It is believed that Grace contemplated retirement from cricket in the winter of 1877 – 78 . He had been seriously injured in a shooting accident in September 1877 , which nearly cost him the sight of one eye , and this may have caused him to review his life . Still unqualified as a doctor and with a growing family to support , Grace had doubts about his long @-@ term security even though he was making considerable profit from cricket by way of " grossly inflated " expense claims and appearance fees . Unexpectedly , Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) solved his financial problems by voting him a National Testimonial with a view to purchasing a medical practice out of the proceeds . It was hoped that a regular income would " end the embarrassment of his blatant shamateurism " . One of Grace 's biographers , Bernard Darwin , who knew him personally , wrote that the arrival of the first Australian touring team " tipped the beam in favour of cricket " but it was also the case that no one , especially Grace , took the Australian players too seriously . It is more likely that A. J. Webbe was right when he said : " W. G. never could have given up cricket " .
Grace was living in Gloucestershire in 1878 . He and his wife Agnes had moved to London in February 1875 when he was assigned to St Bartholomew 's Hospital to further his medical education . They lived in an Earl 's Court apartment until autumn 1877 when they returned to Gloucestershire and lived with Grace 's elder brother Henry , who was a general practitioner ( GP ) at Kingswood , near Bristol . The Graces already had two sons and their third child Bessie was born in May 1878 . When not playing cricket , Grace had to study a backlog of medical theory and , after the season ended , he was assigned to Westminster Hospital for his final year of medical practice ; the family moved back to London and lived at Acton until he finally qualified in November 1879 .
By the time Grace celebrated his 30th birthday in July 1878 , he was arguably the most famous man in England ; but he was also one of the most controversial on account of his gamesmanship and moneymaking . Both of these aspects were subject to serious challenge in the light of events in 1878 .
= = May : the season begins = =
1878 was a " chilly and wet summer " in which the bad wickets reduced " all ( batsmen ) to comparative impotence " but enabled bowlers to dominate and cause " havoc " . This summed up Grace 's season too , for he was outstanding in the field but he struggled with the bat , as his statistics plainly show .
The season began in cold , wet conditions and Grace did not start well . He was conscious of his domestic and medical distractions , the most pressing of which was the birth of his daughter just before the famous match at Lord 's between MCC and the Australians .
Grace 's first match was for the United South of England Eleven ( USEE ) against Twenty of Rochdale from Thursday , 2 May to Saturday , 4 May at Butcher 's Meadow in Rochdale . The match was drawn after USEE had been behind on first innings . Although they saved the game , largely because Grace scored 57 in the second innings , it was not an auspicious performance by a team that included W. G. and Fred Grace along with five players who had taken part in the inaugural Test series in Australia the previous year : Henry Charlwood , Harry Jupp , James Lillywhite , Billy Midwinter and James Southerton . From Rochdale , Grace travelled by train to London for his next fixture on Monday , 6 May and Tuesday , 7 May which was for MCC at Lord 's against a team called the Colts of England . It was another odds match with 11 against 22 and another draw . Grace made scores of 15 and 9 . His team included A. N. Hornby , Alfred Shaw and Fred Morley .
On Thursday , 9 May , Grace was in Cambridge and played for an England XI against Cambridge University at Fenner 's . This was a three @-@ day match culminating on Saturday , 11 May and was the opening first @-@ class fixture of the season . Cambridge had one of its strongest @-@ ever teams in 1878 and won by 79 runs after having to follow on . Grace scored 45 and 11 , and he was the outstanding bowler in the match with 10 wickets .
Grace returned to London and played in his next match , starting on Monday , 13 May , for MCC against an England XI at Lord 's . This was another first @-@ class fixture , scheduled for three days but completed in two , the mostly professional England XI winning by 3 wickets . MCC won the toss , batted first and totalled 93 , half of which were scored by Grace himself with 47 . England reached 75 – 6 at the close and were all out for 115 on Tuesday morning , but MCC were then dismissed for only 58 , Grace having been first out for 1 . Nevertheless , England struggled to complete their victory and lost 7 wickets in scoring the necessary 37 runs . In cold , damp conditions it was therefore a bowlers ' match . Grace was dismissed in both innings by Tom Emmett , who was well supported by Billy Midwinter and Alex Watson . The MCC attack was led by Alfred Shaw , who took 10 wickets . Grace bowled in the first innings only and returned figures of 3 – 43 . Grace 's 47 in the first innings was the top score in the game , the second highest being 30 by Arthur Shrewsbury for England . Grace sustained a thumb injury during the match which prevented him taking part in the England second innings .
Grace was inactive for over a week after that match , partly because of his injury but also as his daughter was born in London , and his next appearance was in Ireland where he played for the USEE against 15 past and present players of the University of Dublin at its College Park venue . This match was played over three days , starting on Thursday , 23 May . A guest player in the USEE team was the Australian batsman Charles Bannerman . However , Grace and Bannerman scored just 11 and 1 respectively in the USEE first innings , while Fred Grace and Bannerman 's fellow Australian Midwinter scored 46 and 64 . The match was ruined by the weather and ended in a draw .
On Sunday , 26 May , the USEE team caught the ferry back to England and Grace continued by train to London , probably in the company of Bannerman and Midwinter , as all three were due to take part in another match at Lord 's the following day . They could not have guessed that the match would be remembered as , to quote Grace 's biographer Simon Rae , " arguably the most momentous six hours in cricket history " .
= = Monday , 27 May 1878 – MCC v Australians at Lord 's = =
CricketArchive states without elaboration that : " the match was scheduled for three days but completed in one " . Having won the toss , MCC were dismissed for 33 and then they bowled out the Australians for 41 . MCC hoped for a better total in the afternoon but were skittled for a mere 19 . The Australians needed 12 to win and were by no means sure of getting them , but they did , and won a sensational match by 9 wickets . With a match aggregate of 105 runs , it remains the lowest scoring first @-@ class match on record . In his ghost @-@ written Reminiscences ( 1899 ) , Grace recalled that there had been " only four and a half hours of actual cricket " net of the lunch interval and breaks between innings .
With James Lillywhite acting as their agent , the first official Australian team to tour England was managed by John Conway and captained by Dave Gregory . As Billy Midwinter was already in England , he joined his compatriots ahead of their opening game . The other ten players in the party were Charles Bannerman , his brother Alec , future Test captain Billy Murdoch , wicket @-@ keeper Jack Blackham , Frank Allan , George Bailey , Harry Boyle , Tom Garrett , Tom Horan and the original " Demon Bowler " , Fred Spofforth .
Play started at three minutes past twelve on a " sticky wicket " , a wet pitch drying out as the sun began to shine . Only a small crowd was present and it all began well enough for Grace as he hit the opening ball of the match from Allan for four . But another firm shot off his legs sent the second ball straight to Midwinter and Grace was " easily caught at square leg " . Another wicket fell to Boyle in the next over and MCC were 5 – 2 but , with Hornby and Arthur Ridley seemingly settling in , they pushed the total on to 27 . Then there was a change of bowling and Spofforth came on instead of Allan . Spofforth 's first spell at Lord 's was " truly demonic " . Within another 11 overs , MCC were all out , Spofforth taking 6 – 4 in just 5 @.@ 3 overs including a hat @-@ trick with the wickets of George Hearne , Alfred Shaw and George Vernon . Shaw and Morley took five wickets apiece as they dismissed the Australians for 41 but Gregory decided to open his second innings attack with Spofforth and Boyle . The decisive moment was Spofforth 's second ball to Grace , which clean bowled him for 0 . The MCC innings lasted just 50 minutes , Boyle taking 6 – 3 and Spofforth 4 – 16 . As news of the proceedings spread , the crowd grew in the afternoon sunshine and they " mobbed the Australians as they left the field in a spirit of non @-@ partisan enthusiasm " . Around 500 had been present at the start but the number grew to 4 @,@ 742 by the end ; the receipts of £ 119 7s were given to the Australians and MCC paid the expenses .
So ended a " memorable day of cold and puddles and calamity " . Afterwards , the match was seized upon by the media and widely reported by the press . The news " spread like wildfire and created a sensation in London and throughout England " . The satirical magazine Punch responded to the event by publishing a parody of Byron 's poem The Destruction of Sennacherib including a wry commentary on Grace 's contribution :
The Australians came down like a wolf on the fold ,
The Mary 'bone Cracks for a trifle were bowled ; Our Grace before dinner was very soon done ,
And Grace after dinner did not get a run .
No one in England had taken the Australians very seriously at first , even though they had beaten Lillywhite 's team in the inaugural Test match , and no one was too surprised when they lost their tour opener by an innings to the strong Nottinghamshire attack of Shaw and Morley on a rain @-@ affected wicket . This perception of Australian cricketers was immediately and permanently revised such that " henceforth a match between Australia and any representative English team would overshadow any of the ' great matches ' " . Although the match did not mark the birth of international cricket , it was the point in time at which the English sporting public wholeheartedly embraced the concept . As Lord Hawke put it :
( 27 May 1878 ) this marked the commencement of the modern era of cricket .
As for William Gilbert Grace , his whole approach to cricket was about what was needed to win the game in hand and he never took kindly to defeat . But , two decades later in his Reminiscences , he gave the Australians due credit for their " glorious victory " .
= = June : MCC v Derbyshire = =
A whole week passed before Grace reappeared , again at Lord 's , on Monday , 3 June . He played seven matches in June , all first @-@ class , starting with MCC v Derbyshire . This was a three @-@ day match completed on the Tuesday with MCC winning by 5 wickets . Derbyshire won the toss , elected to bat and Grace proceeded to bowl them out for a mere 36 . His figures were 8 – 23 . Derbyshire then bowled MCC out for 74 , Grace scoring 7 . Grace took 2 more wickets in Derbyshire 's second innings of 118 to give him his second 10 @-@ wicket match of the season . He scored 37 in the second innings as MCC made 81 – 5 to take the match .
Despite Grace 's presence , this match attracted few spectators as it coincided with the Surrey v Australians match at The Oval , which drew very large crowds . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack commented that " the Australians were attracting monster gatherings at The Oval on the days that this match was played , consequently very few visitors were at Lord 's " .
= = June : North v South = =
There were three North v South fixtures in June . The first two were played at Prince 's Cricket Ground and Lord 's with the South as the " home " team ; the third took place at the end of the month at Trent Bridge as a home game for the North .
The match at Prince 's began on Thursday , 6 June and was played over three days , ending in a draw after being impacted by the weather . The North won the toss and batted first , scoring 156 all out and 196 – 5 . In their only innings , the South scored 197 all out . Grace opened the bowling for the South and took 4 – 73 and 2 – 59 . Once more he failed with the bat and was caught and bowled for 4 , again losing his wicket to the irrepressible Tom Emmett . The match raised about £ 100 for the Cricketers ' Fund Friendly Society .
The match at Lord 's was the following Monday , 10 June , and this time a full match could take place over three days . The North won by 3 wickets after scoring 180 and 226 – 7 in reply to the South 's 202 and 203 . Although his team lost , Grace could take consolation from his best batting performance of the season so far , and his first half @-@ century , as he scored 45 and 77 . He had 9 wickets in the match with 5 – 60 and 4 – 89 . The match was played for the benefit of the Marylebone Professional Cricketers ' Fund and drew an attendance of 10 @,@ 858 on the first day , which was Whit Monday .
Grace was directly involved in a controversial incident in this match when Dick Barlow was given out hit the ball twice . Barlow did something that is commonplace by knocking the ball away with his bat after he had " dead @-@ batted " it ( i.e. , played a defensive stroke to stop the ball at his feet ) . The problem was that Barlow then " dashed a couple of yards down the pitch and back again " to tease the fielders and amuse the spectators . The joke backfired when Grace , fielding nearby , appealed on the grounds that Barlow had hit the ball twice and then " attempted a run " . Barlow never had any intention of attempting a run but the Laws of cricket had to be observed and he was given out . It was just one in a catalogue of incidents that highlighted Grace 's determination to " win at all costs " .
The third match in the series began on Thursday , 27 June at Trent Bridge and the South won by 10 wickets after forcing the North to follow on . The South won the toss and decided to bat , scoring 204 with Grace contributing 12 before again being dismissed by Emmett . Grace took 9 wickets ( 6 – 46 and 3 – 64 ) as the North were bowled out for 116 and 136 to leave the South needing 49 to win . Grace did not bat in the second innings , allowing his elder brother E. M. Grace and Richard Humphrey to secure the 10 wicket victory . The match was played for the benefit of George Parr , who received about £ 250 .
There was a fourth North v South match at The Oval in September but Grace did not play and the North won by an innings and 123 runs . In between the second and third North v South games , Grace played for the Gentlemen of England against the Australians at Prince 's and then twice for Gloucestershire in away matches at The Oval against Surrey and Hove against Sussex .
= = June : Gentlemen v Australians and first Gloucestershire matches = =
Grace and his amateur colleagues took a measure of revenge at Prince 's as they defeated the Australians by an innings and 1 run . The match began on Monday , 17 June and was completed within two days . The Australians won the toss and decided to bat , but were bowled out for only 75 with Grace and Allan Steel taking 4 wickets apiece . The Gentlemen scored 139 ( Grace 25 ) and then dismissed the tourists for 63 , Grace taking 2 wickets in support of Steel 's 7 – 35 .
The County Championship was a semi @-@ official competition in 1878 as it was not formally structured until December 1890 , but the age @-@ old ad hoc claims on behalf of a " Champion County " had been regulated somewhat by the introduction of residential criteria for players in 1873 . Gloucestershire , who had been recognised as the champions in 1877 , were expected to be in contention for the title again as the county fixtures began in 1878 .
The first match began under a cloud of Grace @-@ inspired controversy on Thursday , 20 June at The Oval , where Gloucestershire were beaten by 16 runs . Surrey made 150 ( Grace 4 – 43 ) and 136 ( Grace 6 – 70 ) , but Gloucestershire 's response was 111 ( Grace 40 ) and 159 ( Grace 31 ) . This was a fine all @-@ round performance by Grace , though he would not have been happy with two more innings under 50 , and it serves to illustrate just how much Gloucestershire depended on him . The next match at Hove began the following Monday , 24 June , and Gloucestershire won by an innings and 67 runs after losing the toss and being asked to field . Sussex were all out for 93 ( Grace 0 – 21 ) and 71 ( Grace 4 – 13 ) ; in between , Gloucestershire made 231 despite Grace scoring a duck . His brothers did the batting in this one , Fred scoring 71 and E. M. 53 .
= = June : the Midwinter incident = =
Gloucestershire arrived shorthanded at The Oval on 20 June . Their regular players present were the three Grace brothers , their cousin Walter Gilbert , wicket @-@ keeper James Bush and batsmen James Cranston and Thomas Matthews . They also had the inexperienced William Woof , Carleton Haynes and Edward Wright , all of whom made their first @-@ class debuts against Surrey . That was ten , so another player had to be found and Grace decided to take action .
The Australian Billy Midwinter had played for Gloucestershire in 1877 and , as luck or the fixture list would have it , he was at Lord 's on 20 June to represent the Australians against Middlesex . Midwinter was at net practice when he saw W. G. and E. M. Grace , accompanied by James Bush , approaching . They argued that he was under contractual obligation to play for Gloucestershire if required and Grace demanded that he accompany them to The Oval at once . One source says that Midwinter was still under a contractual obligation to Gloucestershire and that the Australian press had reported this before the team embarked . Midwinter 's reaction to Grace 's demand is unknown but Tom Horan later wrote that Midwinter " did not seem to know his own mind for two minutes together " . Whether he was in agreement or not , Midwinter did go to The Oval with the Graces . They were pursued by Conway , Gregory and Boyle who caught them at The Oval gates where a furious altercation ensued in front of bystanders . In another account , the incident is dismissed as " an amusing little quarrel " . The argument was serious enough and was fuelled by a long @-@ standing " antagonism " between Grace and Conway which dated back to Grace 's 1873 visit to Australia . At one point , Grace called the Australians " a damned lot of sneaks " , though he later apologised in a letter to Gregory . In the end , Grace got his way and Midwinter stayed with Gloucestershire for the rest of the season , although he did not play for the county against the Australians in September , due to a hand injury .
Grace may have felt pleased that he had got his man but he did not get his expenses , for Surrey refused to pay them . There was a subscript the following winter when Grace and his brother E. M. were called to account by the Gloucestershire membership and a special enquiry was ordered .
= = July : Gentlemen v Players = =
There were two Gentlemen v Players matches in 1878 and they took place consecutively in early July . The first was played at The Oval , starting on Thursday , 4 July , and the second at Lord 's , starting on Monday , 8 July . A.N. Hornby captained the Gentlemen at The Oval and Grace at Lord 's . The Gentlemen won both matches : by 55 runs at The Oval ; and by 206 runs at Lord 's .
Grace 's bad wicket batting skills were fully tested in the first innings at The Oval and he scored 40 in a total of only 76 , Alfred Shaw and Fred Morley taking five wickets each for the Players . The Players replied with 122 to take a first innings lead of 46 . Grace took 2 – 37 in support of Allan Steel who claimed 6 – 60 . The Gentlemen produced a much better batting performance on the Friday and scored 202 , Grace again top @-@ scoring with 63 . He then took 3 – 30 as the Players were bowled out for 101 , the match ending on Friday afternoon .
Under Grace 's leadership at Lord 's , the Gentlemen batted very well and totalled 310 on the first day before reducing the Players to 39 – 4 at the close . Grace scored 90 , his highest score of the season so far , and was well supported by Alfred and Edward Lyttelton . The Players recovered on Tuesday morning , thanks to a seventh wicket century stand by John Selby and Tom Emmett , to reach 231 all out which left the Gentlemen with a first innings lead of 79 . Grace took 2 – 31 . In the second innings , Grace was bowled by Shaw for 2 with the score at 6 – 1 but his opening partner A. P. Lucas steadied the innings with 91 and was well supported by Ridley , Edward Lyttelton and Steel . The Gentlemen finally amassed 326 to leave the Players needing 406 to win . They were never in the hunt and , although Selby was defiant with another half @-@ century , Grace took 4 – 55 to lead the Gentlemen to victory .
= = July : USEE tour = =
Most of July was taken up with USEE matches which were Grace 's " bread and butter " at the time . The team travelled to Melton Mowbray , Holbeck ( near Leeds ) , Newcastle upon Tyne , Bolton and Birmingham to play odds games against local opposition .
Grace took 21 wickets in the match against the 22 men of Melton Mowbray in a three @-@ day match starting on Monday , 1 July . He scored 42 and 57 not out in his two innings , the match ending in a draw . Grace caught the evening train to be in London ready for the first Gentlemen v Players match at The Oval , starting on Thursday , 4 July .
The next USEE match at Leeds Holbeck followed the second Gentlemen v Players fixture and began on Thursday , 11 July . The opposition had 18 players and included the Yorkshire batsman Louis Hall , the lay preacher who was famously the sole teetotaller in the Yorkshire team at that time . Besides Grace himself , other noted players in the USEE team were Fred Grace , Billy Midwinter , Henry Charlwood and James Southerton . Grace took 20 wickets in the match and , batting at number six ( he was habitually an opening batsman despite his status as an all @-@ rounder ) , scored 22 and 73 . The USEE won by 193 runs . The railways served Grace well in July and he was immediately away north to Newcastle upon Tyne for the next engagement against Eighteen of Newcastle upon Tyne , starting on Monday 15 July . The Newcastle team included Dick Barlow , Alex Watson and Arnold Fothergill so Grace may have bitten off more than he could chew . Fothergill dismissed him for 5 in the first innings after Newcastle had made a sizeable 251 ( Barlow 42 ) . The USEE were humiliatingly bowled out for 66 and had to follow on . Grace could only score 14 in a second innings total of 116 and Newcastle won the match in two days by an innings and 69 runs .
The USEE had a scare against Eighteen of Bolton in the three @-@ day match starting on Thursday , 18 July . They won by just 21 runs having been slightly behind on first innings . Grace and Southerton bowled the Bolton team out but the difference was a second innings of 63 by Charlwood in a total of just 120 . Grace scored 51 and 22 and took 20 wickets . The USEE won the final match of this tour , starting on Monday , 22 July , against Twenty @-@ two of Birmingham by 5 wickets , having been 23 behind on first innings . The USEE had a strong Gloucestershire flavour in this match with all three Grace brothers , Midwinter , Gilbert and Cranston involved . Birmingham scored 128 and 119 , Grace taking 21 wickets . USEE scored 105 and 144 – 5 , Grace making 7 and 59 . He needed the support of his brother E. M. , who scored 52 not out , to secure the five wicket victory .
= = July / August : Gloucestershire 's northern tour = =
Gloucestershire made their first visit to Old Trafford Cricket Ground on Thursday , 25 July , to play Lancashire and this was the match immortalised by Francis Thompson in his idyllic poem At Lord 's :
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though my own red roses there may blow ;
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though the red roses crest the caps , I know .
For the field is full of shades as I near a shadowy coast , And a ghostly batsman plays to the bowling of a ghost , And I look through my tears on a soundless @-@ clapping host
As the run stealers flicker to and fro ,
To and fro :
O my Hornby and my Barlow long ago !
It 's Glo 'ster coming North , the irresistible ,
The Shire of the Graces , long ago !
It 's Gloucestershire up North , the irresistible ,
And new @-@ risen Lancashire the foe !
A Shire so young that has scarce impressed its traces , Ah , how shall it stand before all @-@ resistless Graces ? O , little red rose , their bats are as maces
To beat thee down , this summer long ago !
This day of seventy @-@ eight they are come up north against thee
This day of seventy @-@ eight long ago !
The champion of the centuries , he cometh up against thee ,
With his brethren , every one a famous foe !
The long @-@ whiskered Doctor , that laugheth the rules to scorn , While the bowler , pitched against him , bans the day he was born ; And G.F. with his science makes the fairest length forlorn ;
They are come from the West to work thee woe !
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though my own red roses there may blow ;
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though the red roses crest the caps , I know .
For the field is full of shades as I near a shadowy coast , And a ghostly batsman plays to the bowling of a ghost , And I look through my tears on a soundless @-@ clapping host
As the run stealers flicker to and fro ,
To and fro :
O my Hornby and my Barlow long ago !
Grace was not " the long @-@ whiskered Doctor " for he was still unqualified in 1878 : it was his elder brother E. M. ( a coroner ) " that laugheth the rules to scorn " . Grace was of course " the champion of the centuries " , although he had still not scored one in 1878 . The opening ( and closing ) verse of the poem is the most famous stanza ever written about cricket and it eulogised two Lancashire players who were widely known as " Monkey " ( AN Hornby ) and " Stonewaller " ( Dick Barlow ) .
The match was played over three days and culminated in a draw on Saturday , 27 July . Lancashire won the toss and decided to bat , but were dismissed for only 89 after rain shortened the first day 's play . Grace took 3 – 44 and the left arm spinner Robert Miles took 7 – 38 . Gloucestershire responded with 116 , Grace making the top score of 32 . At close of play on the second day , Lancashire had made 90 – 0 with Hornby on 68 and Barlow on 15 ; and the legend of the run stealers was born in the mind of the watching Francis Thompson . Hornby and Barlow put on 108 for the first wicket and then Barlow was out for 26 . Hornby went on to score exactly 100 and Lancashire 's total was 262 ( Grace 1 – 65 ) . Gloucestershire scored 125 – 5 in the last innings with Grace , batting at six , on 58 not out at the close .
Gloucestershire went over the Pennines to Sheffield and began the next game against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane on Monday , 29 July . Gloucestershire were soundly beaten by 244 runs , a big margin at the time . Yorkshire scored 158 and 360 ; Gloucestershire scored 201 to claim a good first innings lead but were then bowled out for 73 and crashed to a heavy defeat . Grace batted quite well , scoring 62 and 35 . With the ball , he took 2 – 48 and 4 – 128 . They were undone by the bowling of Billy Bates who took 11 wickets in the match , including 7 – 38 in the second innings ; while George Ulyett and Ephraim Lockwood both scored centuries in Yorkshire 's second innings . The match was played for the benefit of Tom Emmett , who received £ 616 13s 1d .
The final leg of Gloucestershire 's northern tour was at Trent Bridge where they played Nottinghamshire from Thursday , 1 August , to Saturday , 3 August . This match was drawn after rain intervened . Gloucestershire scored 165 ( Grace 9 ) and 253 ( Grace 116 ) . Nottinghamshire scored 258 ( Grace 2 – 91 ) and 10 for 1 ( Grace ( 1 – 2 ) . So Grace finally made his first ( and only ) century of the 1878 season , surprisingly against arguably the strongest bowling attack in the country .
= = August : Canterbury Cricket Week = =
The 1878 Canterbury Festival consisted of two first @-@ class matches played between Monday , 5 August and Friday , 9 August. at the St Lawrence Ground in Canterbury . The first match , between Thirteen of Kent and an England XI , finished early on the Wednesday . The second match , between Twelve of Kent and Twelve of MCC , began later the same afternoon and finished on Friday afternoon . Grace played in both games , representing England and MCC . The Kent XIII won the match against England by 8 wickets . Grace scored 21 and 14 ; with the ball , he took 5 – 72 and 1 – 21 . Kent defeated MCC in the twelves game by 9 wickets after Grace was out for 0 and 1 . He took 4 – 82 in Kent 's first innings total of 216 but did not bowl in the second innings when Kent needed just 20 to win .
= = August / September : Gloucestershire at home = =
From Monday , 12 August to Friday , 6 September , Grace was entirely involved with Gloucestershire who played seven matches in less than four weeks . Six of these were at home and one , against an England XI , was at The Oval . Gloucestershire played its home games at the College Ground , Cheltenham and at the Clifton College Close Ground .
Gloucestershire 's return game against Nottinghamshire began on Monday , 12 August , at Clifton College . Gloucestershire won a low @-@ scoring match by 109 runs after batting first . They totalled 127 ( Grace 26 ) and 137 ( Grace 6 ) which were modest scores , but Nottinghamshire 's replies amounted only to 84 and 71 . Grace produced another fine bowling performance with figures of 5 – 29 and 6 – 35 against one of the strongest batting sides in England . Alfred Shaw was unable to play for Nottinghamshire .
In a three @-@ day match starting on Thursday , 15 August , the England XI defeated Gloucestershire at The Oval by 6 wickets after Grace had won the toss for his county and decided to bat . They scored 118 ( Grace 25 ) and England replied with 163 ( Grace 3 – 67 ) . Rain prevented play for most of the Friday and Gloucestershire in their second innings had reached 27 – 1 at the end of the day . On the Saturday , England bowled them out for 118 ( Grace 29 ) with Tom Emmett taking 8 – 51 ( 12 – 93 in the match ) . Grace took 3 – 39 in England 's second innings as they made 7 – 44 to win by six wickets . Midwinter suffered a hand injury in the field when he attempted to stop a powerful drive played by George Ulyett ; he was unable to play again in 1878 .
The Cheltenham Festival took place the following week with two matches on the College Ground : against Sussex starting on Monday , 19 August ; and a return against Yorkshire starting on Thursday , 22 August . Gloucestershire made short work of Sussex , winning by an innings and 24 runs in less than two days . Grace made only 2 of Gloucestershire 's total of 198 but he was again outstanding with the ball and took 13 wickets in the match ( 6 – 18 and 7 – 88 ) . The Yorkshire match was drawn after being ruined by the weather . Yorkshire had claimed a first innings lead after Grace was yet again dismissed by Tom Emmett , this time for 10 , but he compensated by having taken 6 – 77 to restrict the Yorkshire lead to 39 . He captured a further two wickets in the second innings before the match was washed out .
On Monday , 26 August , Gloucestershire met Lancashire again at the Clifton College Close Ground and , despite another good innings by Hornby , Gloucestershire this time were victorious by 8 wickets . Grace had won the toss and put Lancashire in to bat first . Grace the bowler was once more the star performer as he took 7 – 77 and 5 – 32 , but this time he did well with the bat and made a good 49 in difficult conditions . His brother Fred scored 73 not out and this was crucial to the Gloucestershire success . Grace scored 20 not out in the second innings as Gloucestershire made 32 – 2 to win .
A return match against Surrey began on Thursday , 29 August , at Clifton College Close Ground and Gloucestershire were fortunate to get a draw after being forced to follow on . For once this season , Grace struggled to take wickets and could manage only 1 – 86 in Surrey 's total of 232 which was made over two days because of rain . Gloucestershire struggled to 84 – 9 at the close on Friday , Grace out for 3 , and were immediately dismissed for 84 on Saturday . Grace was out for 25 in the second innings but Fred again came to the rescue with 63 as Gloucestershire held on for the draw , scoring 161 – 4 . An oft @-@ recounted incident involving Grace occurred in this match . While he was batting , he had run three when a fielder 's throw caused the ball to lodge in his shirt and he seized the opportunity to complete several runs before the fielders forced him to stop . He disingenuously claimed that he would have been out handled the ball if he had removed it and , following a discussion , the umpires agreed that only the initial three runs should be awarded as the ball was dead ( out of play ) when it went into his shirt .
= = County Championship = =
Gloucestershire played 10 matches against the other first @-@ class county clubs and ended with a record of 4 wins , 4 draws and 2 defeats . This was not good enough for them to retain the title they had claimed in 1877 , when they had won 7 and drew 1 of 8 matches played . The main claimant was unbeaten Middlesex but they had only played 6 matches and Roy Webber , deploying a " rationalisation " method based on a points system used by the official competition in the 20th century , argued that Nottinghamshire was the champion county in 1878 .
= = September : Gloucestershire v Australians = =
On Thursday , 5 September , the Australians arrived at Clifton for what promised to be an explosive encounter . Midwinter did not play for Gloucestershire due to his hand injury but his absence probably counted for little as the Australians took due revenge on the Graces and beat Gloucestershire soundly by 10 wickets inside two days . Spofforth had 12 wickets in the match , taking 7 – 49 and 5 – 41 as Gloucestershire struggled to 112 and 85 , Grace making 22 and 5 . As it happened , Spofforth did not get his wicket , though he caught Grace off Boyle in the first innings . In the second , Grace was lbw to Garrett . Grace could take only 1 – 90 in the Australian first innings of 183 , in which Spofforth , who really did have a score to settle , top @-@ scored with 44 . To completely make his point , Spofforth then opened the Australian second innings in which he and Bailey scored the necessary 17 without loss . It was the first time Gloucestershire , formed in 1870 , had been beaten in a home match .
= = September : Essex v USEE = =
Grace 's final appearance in 1878 was for the USEE against Twenty of Essex in a two @-@ day match at Witham , starting on Friday , 13 September . The game was played for the benefit of the Essex and USEE stalwart Frank Silcock . Essex at this time was not a first @-@ class club but capable of providing the USEE with a stern test , especially with odds in their favour , and they had by far the best of a drawn game . Essex scored 175 and 235 ; USEE replied with 134 and 65 – 5 , so Essex would almost certainly have won with more time . Grace starred with the ball and took a total of 26 wickets . But his indifferent form with the bat haunted him right to the end of the season and he could only score 10 and 4 .
= = The expenses inquiry = =
It was in November 1878 that MCC defined amateur status . Their dictum was that " a gentleman ought not to make any profit from playing cricket " . This was carefully worded so that an amateur was allowed to claim reasonable expenses , but controversy persisted about what were " reasonable expenses " and what were actually " fees " . Fred Grace fell foul of this by claiming a fee for representing the USEE and was subsequently banned from representing the Gentlemen in matches at Lord 's . W. G. Grace got around his USEE fee by having it classed as a salary for his work in organising the matches .
The controversy rumbled on and there was a long debate in the press through the winter of 1878 – 79 about the various payments received by the " amateurs " of Gloucestershire . The enquiry at Gloucestershire CCC took place in January 1879 . W. G. and E. M. Grace were forced to answer charges that they had claimed " exorbitant expenses " , one of the few times that their money @-@ making activity was seriously challenged . The claim had been submitted to Surrey re the controversial 1878 match in which Billy Midwinter was brought in as a late replacement , but Surrey refused to pay it and this provoked the enquiry . The Graces managed to survive " a protracted and stormy meeting " with E. M. retaining his key post as club secretary , although he was forced to liaise in future with a new finance committee and abide by stricter rules . The incident served to highlight an ongoing issue about the nominal amateur status of the Grace brothers . Like all amateur players , they claimed expenses for travel and accommodation to and from cricket matches , but there is plenty of evidence that the Graces made rather more money by playing than their basic expenses would allow and W. G. in particular " made more than any professional " .
The national testimonial voted for Grace by MCC was realised six months later in the form of a presentation to him by Lord Fitzhardinge at Lord 's on 22 July 1879 in the form of a marble clock , two bronze ornaments and a cheque for £ 1 @,@ 458 .
= = Season summary = =
Despite his troubles in 1878 , it was another good season for Grace on the field as he completed a sixth successive double with 1 @,@ 151 runs and 153 wickets . He made 24 first @-@ class appearances , scoring 1 @,@ 151 runs with a highest score of 116 at an average of 28 @.@ 77 . He completed one century and five half @-@ centuries . In the field , he held 42 catches and took 153 wickets with a best analysis of 8 – 23 . His bowling average was 14 @.@ 43 ; he took five wickets in an innings 13 times and ten wickets in a match six times .
Grace was seventh in the overall national batting averages and third among those batsmen who completed 10 innings . The two above him were John Selby ( 31 @.@ 26 ) and Edward Lyttelton ( 29 @.@ 96 ) . In terms of runs scored , Grace was one of only two players to complete 1 @,@ 000 . The other was George Ulyett who made 1 @,@ 270 at an average of 27 @.@ 02 . Due to generally damp conditions , 1878 was not a good season for batsmen with only 14 centuries being scored ; only one player , A. J. Webbe , scored two .
Grace 's bowling average of 14 @.@ 50 left him eighth among bowlers who took 100 wickets , the best of whom was Allan Steel with 164 wickets at 9 @.@ 43 . Grace 's 153 wickets was the fourth highest tally behind Alfred Shaw ( 201 ) , Fred Morley ( 197 ) and Allan Steel ( 164 ) .
Grace had an outstanding season as a fielder , holding 42 catches in just 24 appearances . His tally was higher than anyone else including wicket @-@ keepers . The second highest was Alfred Shaw with 32 catches in 30 appearances . The best performance by a wicket @-@ keeper was Ted Pooley of Surrey who held 25 catches and completed 31 stumpings .
= = Footnote = =
= Duffless =
" Duffless " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 18 , 1993 . After getting arrested for drunk driving , Homer tries to remain sober , at Marge 's request . Meanwhile , Lisa attempts to prove that Bart is less intelligent than a hamster after he ruins her first science fair project . It was written by David M. Stern , and directed by Jim Reardon . The episode received a positive reception .
= = Plot = =
Bart has a dream that he is at the school science fair presenting a Go @-@ Go Ray . He zaps all the teachers , resulting in their dancing uncontrollably . Principal Skinner declares him the winner , but Bart wakes up realizing it was Lisa messing with him .
At breakfast , Lisa shows the family her science fair project , a steroid @-@ enhanced tomato that she hopes will cure world hunger . Bart 's project is to study the effects of cigarette smoking on dogs ; his " volunteer " is Santa 's Little Helper .
At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , Homer ducks out of work early and accompanies Barney on a tour of the Duff brewery . After the tour , Homer refuses to let the exceptionally drunk Barney drive home and forces him to hand over his keys . On their way out of the parking lot , their car is pulled over by Police Chief Wiggum , along with Eddie and Lou . They administer a breathalyzer test to Homer , which he fails . He is arrested , his license is revoked , and he must attend traffic school and Alcoholics Anonymous meetings .
At school , three days before the science fair , Lisa leaves her super tomato under Bart 's care for a moment and he takes the opportunity to hurl it at Skinner while he is bent over tying his shoe . When Lisa sees what Bart has done with her project , she is furious . Lisa appeals to Marge for help , who suggests she run a hamster through a maze . Lisa takes the idea to heart , but instead of just testing the intelligence of a rodent , she pits a hamster against an unknowing Bart to find out who is smarter . After two simple tests , the hamster leads two to zero .
In bed , Marge gives Homer a magazine quiz about his drinking . Hearing his answers , she asks him to give up beer for a month , to which he agrees . Homer tries not to think about beer while he rides Lisa 's bike to work . After a series of severe temptations , Homer crashes the bike as hundreds of bottles of Duff parachuted down on him from a blimp .
Bart later discovers Lisa 's plans to humiliate him at the science fair and preempts them with a project of his own , " Can hamsters fly planes ? " . Lisa tries to reason that his project has no scientific merit , but everyone ignores her . A cute hamster sitting in the cockpit of a miniature plane wins over Skinner and he hands Bart the winning ribbon , much to Lisa 's dismay .
At Homer 's Alcoholics Anonymous meeting , he is kicked out by Reverend Lovejoy after confessing that his desperation for the taste of beer led him to " sneak into the football stadium and eat the dirt underneath the bleachers " . But he exhibits more positive changes such as losing weight , saving over $ 100 and no longer sweating while he eats . After thirty days of sobriety , Homer rushes back to Moe 's , despite Marge asking him to stay home . However , after seeing how alcohol has ruined the lives of Barney and the other barflies , he turns around and goes home . Homer and Marge ride a bike into the sunset .
= = Production = =
Bart 's go @-@ go ray idea was " stolen " from the opening credits of Johnny Quest . Mike Reiss said they did not want to show the hamster getting shocked but had to for plot purposes . The first line Richard Nixon says , during the Duff commercial , was taken verbatim from the Kennedy @-@ Nixon Debate during the 1960 Presidential Campaign . Adolf Hitler 's head , among other things , can be seen going by in bottles of Duff when the quality control man is not paying attention .
The episode contains the first appearance of Sarah Wiggum .
The episode contains a two @-@ second snippet of footage from " Bart the Daredevil " : a close @-@ up of Homer making a disappointed face and saying " D 'oh ! " when he gets arrested .
= = Cultural references = =
When Bart reaches for the cupcakes and collapses , it is a parody of a scene in A Clockwork Orange , where the main character Alex reaches for a woman 's breasts . The Duff clock is a parody of the " It 's a Small World " clock . In the Duff TV advertisement , a group of women were leading an anti @-@ sexism protest in front of the McMahon and Tate building , a reference to the advertising agency from Bewitched . The scene toward the end where Moe points toward individual customers declaring they will " be back " before pointing toward and addressing the viewer ( later revealed to be Barney via a cutaway ) is a parody of the end of the film Reefer Madness . The final scene , where Homer and Marge cycle into the distance while " Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head " plays is a reference to the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid . Homer 's song " It was a Very Good Beer " is sung to the tune of the 1961 song " It Was a Very Good Year " ; one of its lyrics is Homer stating he stayed up and listened to the music of the British band Queen . Bart sitting in the chair , stroking the hamster is a reference to James Bond character Ernst Stavro Blofeld , who strokes a cat in his chair .
= = Reception = =
" Duffless " aired during February sweeps and finished 19th in the weekly ratings for the week of February 15 – 21 , 1993 with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 2 and was viewed in 14 @.@ 2 million homes . It was the highest rated show from the Fox Network that week .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood said , " A superb episode with a sincere message . Homer is excellent throughout , but it is the cameos by Principal Skinner and Edna Krabappel that steal the show , especially the latter 's reaction to Milhouse 's Slinky . " Entertainment Weekly ranked the episode as number eleven on their list of the top twenty @-@ five The Simpsons episodes .
= Women in early modern Scotland =
Women in early modern Scotland , between the Renaissance of the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of industrialisation in the mid @-@ eighteenth century , were part of a patriarchal society , though the enforcement of this social order was not absolute in all aspects . Women retained their family surnames at marriage and did not join their husband 's kin groups . In higher social ranks , marriages were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations in which women as matchmakers or mothers could play a major part . Women were a major part of the workforce , with many unmarried women acting as farm servants and married women playing a part in all the major agricultural tasks , particularly during harvest . Widows could be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading , but many at the bottom of society lived a marginal existence .
Women had limited access to formal education and girls benefited less than boys from the expansion of the parish school system . Some women were taught reading , domestic tasks , but often not writing . In noble households some received a private education and some female literary figures emerged from the seventeenth century . Religion may have been particularly important as a means of expression for women and from the seventeenth century women may have had greater opportunities for religious participation in movements out side of the established kirk . Women had very little legal status at the beginning of the period , unable to act as witnesses or legally responsible for their own actions . From the mid @-@ sixteenth century they were increasingly criminalised , with statutes allowing them to be prosecuted for infanticide and as witches . Seventy @-@ five per cent of an estimated 6 @,@ 000 individuals prosecuted for witchcraft between 1563 and 1736 were women and perhaps 1 @,@ 500 were executed . As a result , some historians have seen this period as characterised by increasing concern with women and attempts to control and constrain them .
= = Status = =
Early modern Scotland was a patriarchal society , in which men had total authority over women . From the 1560s the post @-@ Reformation marriage service underlined this by stating that a wife " is in subjection and under governance of her husband , so long as they both continue alive " . As was common in Western Europe , Scottish society stressed a daughter 's duties to her father , a wife 's duties to her husband and the virtues of chastity and obedience . Given very high mortality rates , women could inherit important responsibilities from their fathers and from their husbands as widows . Evidence from towns indicates that around one in five households were headed by women , often continuing an existing business interest . In noble society , widowhood created some very wealthy and powerful women , including Catherine Campbell , who became the richest widow in the kingdom when her husband , the ninth earl of Crawford , died in 1558 and the twice @-@ widowed Margaret Ker , dowager lady Yester , described in 1635 as having " the greatest conjunct fie [ fiefdom ] that any lady hes in Scotland " .
In politics the theory of patriarchy was complicated by regencies led by Margaret Tudor and Mary of Guise and by the advent of a regnant queen in Mary , Queen of Scots from 1561 . Concerns over this threat to male authority were exemplified by John Knox 's The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women ( 1558 ) , which advocated the deposition of all reigning queens . Most of the political nation took a pragmatic view of the situation , accepting Mary as queen , but the strains that this paradox created may have played a part in the later difficulties of the reign . How exactly patriarchy worked in practice is difficult to discern . Scottish women in this period had something of a reputation among foreign observers for being forthright individuals , with the Spanish ambassador to the court of James IV noting that they were " absolute mistresses of their houses and even their husbands " .
= = Family and marriage = =
Unlike in England , where kinship was predominately cognatic ( derived through both males and females ) , in Scotland kinship was agnatic , with members of a group sharing a ( sometimes fictional ) common ancestor . Women retained their original surname at marriage , symbolising that they did not join their husband 's kin , and marriages were intended to create friendship between kin groups , rather than a new bond of kinship . Women could marry from the age of 12 ( while for boys it was from 14 ) and , while many girls from the social elite married in their teens , most in the Lowlands only married after a period of life @-@ cycle service , in their twenties , by which they accrued resources , status and skills that would allow them to establish a household . Normally marriage followed handfasting , a period of betrothal , which in the Highlands may have effectively been a period of trial marriage , in which sexual activity may have been accepted as legitimate . Highland women , based on the higher birth rate of the Highlands , might have married earlier than their Lowland counterparts .
Marriages , particularly higher in society , were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations over the tocher ( dowry ) . Some mothers took a leading role in negotiating marriages , as Lady Glenorchy did for her children in the 1560s and 1570s , or as matchmakers , finding suitable and compatible partners for others . Before the Reformation , the extensive marriage bars for kinship meant that most noble marriages necessitated a papal dispensation , which could later be used as grounds for annulment if the marriage proved politically or personally inconvenient , although there was no divorce as such . Separation from bed and board was allowed in exceptional circumstances , usually adultery . Under the reformed Kirk , divorce was allowed on grounds of adultery , or of desertion . Scotland was one of the first countries to allow desertion as legal grounds for divorce and , unlike England , divorce cases were initiated relatively far down the social scale .
= = Work = =
Women acted as an important part of the workforce . In addition to the domestic tasks carried out by wives and female servants , many unmarried women worked away from their families as farm servants and married women worked with their husbands around the farm , taking part in all the major agricultural tasks . They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest , forming most of the reaping team of the bandwin . Women also played an important part in the expanding textile industries , spinning and setting up warps for men to weave . In the Highlands they may have been even more significant as there is evidence that many men considered agricultural work to be beneath their status and in places they may have formed the majority of the rural workforce . There were roles that were the preserve of women alone , including as midwives and wet @-@ nurses . There is evidence of single women engaging in independent economic activity , particularly for widows , who can be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading . Some were highly successful , like Janet Flockhart , an Edinburgh Wadwife or moneylender , who had been left a widow with seven children after her third husband 's suicide , and who managed her business affairs so successfully that she had amassed a moveable estate of £ 22 @,@ 000 by her death in the late sixteenth century . Lower down the social scale the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence and were particularly vulnerable in times of economic hardship . " Masterless women " , who had no responsible fathers or husbands may have made up as much as 18 per cent of all households and particularly worried authorities who gave instructions to take particular notice of them .
= = Education and writing = =
By the end of the fifteenth century , Edinburgh had schools for girls , sometimes described as " sewing schools " , and probably taught by lay women or nuns . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers , which may have extended to women . From the mid @-@ seventeenth century there were boarding schools for girls , particularly in Edinburgh or London . These were often family @-@ sized institutions headed by women . Initially these were aimed at the girls of noble households , but by the eighteenth century there were complaints that the daughters of traders and craftsmen were following their social superiors into these institutions . By the eighteenth century many poorer girls were being taught in dame schools , informally set up by a widow or spinster to teach reading , sewing and cooking .
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women , vied with a desire , intensified after the Reformation , for women to take personal moral responsibility , particularly as wives and mothers . In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible , but most commentators , even those that tended to encourage the education of girls , thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys . In the lower ranks of society , they benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation , but were usually outnumbered by boys , often taught separately , for a shorter time and to a lower level . They were frequently taught reading , sewing and knitting , but not writing . Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 per cent , from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth centuries and perhaps 85 per cent for women of all ranks by 1750 , compared with 35 per cent for men .
Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women , of which Queen Mary is the most obvious example . By the early eighteenth century their education was expected to include basic literacy and numeracy , musical instruments ( including lute , viol and keyboard ) , needlework , cookery and household management , while polite accomplishments and piety were also emphasised . From the seventeenth century they were some notable aristocratic female writers . The first book written by a woman and published in Scotland was Elizabeth Melville 's Ane Godlie Dreame in 1603 . Later major figures included Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw ( 1627 – 1727 ) and Lady Grizel Baillie ( 1645 – 1746 ) . There are 50 autobiographies extant from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth century , of which 16 were written by women , all of which are largely religious in content .
= = Religion = =
Historian Katharine Glover argues that women had less means of public participation than men and that as a result piety and an active religious life may have been more important for women from the social elite . Church going played an important part in the lives of many women . Women were largely excluded from the administration of the kirk , but when heads of households voted on the appointment of a new minister some parishes allowed women in that position to participate .
The upheavals of the seventeenth century saw women autonomously participating in radical religion . The most prominent examples were the women who threw their cuttie @-@ stools at the dean who was reading the new " English " service book in St. Giles Cathedral in 1637 , precipitating the Bishop 's Wars ( 1639 – 40 ) , between the Presbyterian Covenanters and the king , who favoured an episcopalian structure in the church , similar to that in England . They were later said to have been led by Edinburgh woman Jenny Geddes . According to R. A. Houston , women probably had more freedom of expression and control over their spiritual destiny in groups outside the established church such the Quakers , who had a presence in the country from the mid @-@ seventeenth century . The principle of male authority could be challenged when women chose different religious leaders from their husbands and fathers . Among the Cameronians , who broke away from the kirk when episcopalianism was re @-@ established at the Restoration in 1660 , several reports indicate that women could preach and excommunicate , but not baptise . Several women are known to have been executed for their part in the movement .
= = Crime and the law = =
At the beginning of the period , women had a very limited legal status . A married woman had few property rights and could not make a will without her husband 's permission , although jurists expected this to be given . Men had considerable latitude in disciplining the women under their authority and although a handful of cases turn up in higher courts , and the kirk session did intervene to protect women from domestic abuse , it was usually only when the abuse began to disturb public order . The criminal courts refused to recognise women as witnesses , or as independent criminals , and responsibly for their actions was assumed to lie with their husbands , fathers and kin . As a result , a married woman could not sell property , sue in court or make contracts without her husband 's permission .
In the post @-@ Reformation period there was a criminalisation of women . Women were disciplined in kirk sessions and civil courts for stereotypical offenses including scolding and prostitution , which were seen as deviant , rather than criminal . Through the 1640s there were independent commissions set up to try women for child murder and , after pressure from the kirk , a law of 1690 placed the presumption of guilt on a woman who concealed a pregnancy and birth and whose child later died . In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement , Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1563 , similar to that passed in England one year earlier , which made the practice of witchcraft itself and consulting with witches capital crimes . Between the passing of the act and its repeal in 1736 , an estimated 6 @,@ 000 persons were tried for witchcraft in Scotland . Most of the accused , some 75 per cent , were women , with over 1 @,@ 500 executed , and the witch hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . Various reasons for the Scottish witch @-@ hunt , and its more intense nature than that in England , have been advanced by historians . Many of the major periods of prosecution coincided with periods of intense economic distress and some accusations may have followed the withdrawal of charity from marginal figures , particularly the single women that made up many of the accused . Changing attitudes to women , particularly in the reformed kirk , which may have perceived women as more of a moral threat , have also been noted . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .
= Positive Black Soul =
Positive Black Soul ( also known as PBS ) is a hip hop group based in Dakar , Senegal , one of the first such collectives in the country . Founded in 1989 , the group is composed
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later the players received 50 @,@ 000 euros for their successful title defense . In 2009 , one million of the 6 @.@ 7 million DFB members were female .
The 2003 World Cup title marked the breakthrough for the women ’ s national football team in Germany . The final was watched by 10 @.@ 48 million viewers on German television ( a 33 @.@ 2 percent market share ) and the German team was welcomed home by almost 10 @,@ 000 fans at Frankfurt 's city hall . Later that year , they were honoured as the 2003 German Sports Team of the Year . Nia Künzer 's World Cup winning golden goal was voted Germany 's 2003 Goal of the Year , the first time the award was won by a female player . Since 2005 , almost all of the women ’ s national football team 's matches have been shown live on German television .
The final of the 2007 Women 's World Cup was seen by 9 @.@ 05 million television viewers ( a 50 @.@ 5 percent market share ) . After the team returned to Germany , they were celebrated by a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 in Frankfurt . In December 2007 , all players of the World Cup squad received the Silberne Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) , the highest state decoration for athletes in Germany . National coach Silvia Neid was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit on ribbon by German president Horst Köhler .
In 2009 , the team 's six home matches had an average attendance of 22 @,@ 753 . In a survey of German football fans , 65 percent of the male and 62 percent of the female respondents said they were interested in women 's football . However , this popularity is mostly limited to international matches . Although the number of spectators in the women 's Bundesliga has more than doubled since 2003 , the average attendance in the 2007 – 08 season ( 887 ) was still less than three percent of that of the men 's Bundesliga ( 38 @,@ 612 ) .
Today , women 's football is socially accepted in Germany , although one of the main points of criticism remains the alleged lack of quality compared to the men ’ s game . The German women ’ s national team has played several exhibition matches against male teams , most notably losing 0 – 3 to the VfB Stuttgart Under @-@ 17 squad in preparation for the 2003 World Cup . Most German players dismiss comparisons between the quality of men 's and women 's football ; Renate Lingor has said they are " two entirely different sports " . Players such as Simone Laudehr , Ariane Hingst and Melanie Behringer have stated that men ’ s football is played at a much faster pace , but also has more interruptions and brutal tackling than the women 's game . Linda Bresonik has said she generally prefers to watch men 's football .
= = Results and fixtures = =
= = = UEFA Women 's Euro 2017 = = =
= = = Fixtures = = =
= = Current squad = =
The following 18 players were called up for the 2016 Summer Olympics .
Caps and goals as of 22 July 2016 .
Head coach : Silvia Neid
= = Records = =
Birgit Prinz , a former team captain who retired after the 2011 World Cup , holds the record for Germany appearances , having played 214 times from 1994 to 2011 . She is one of 16 German players to have reached 100 caps . Kerstin Stegemann is second , having played 191 times . Bettina Wiegmann , Germany 's team captain during the 2003 World Cup win , comes fourth with 154 games . Prinz exceeded Wiegmann ’ s record as the most capped player in November 2006 . Wiegmann is the only honorary captain of the German women ’ s national football team .
The title of Germany ’ s highest goalscorer is also held by Prinz . She scored her first goal in July 1994 against Canada and finished her career with 128 goals ( averaging 0 @.@ 60 goals per game ) . Heidi Mohr , as well as being the second @-@ highest scorer , is also the most prolific with 83 goals coming from 104 games ( averaging 0 @.@ 80 goals per game ) . Two players share the record for goals scored in one match : Conny Pohlers scored five goals in October 2001 against Portugal , and Inka Grings scored five times in February 2004 , again facing Portugal . Silvia Neid , the current German national coach , is the fifth highest goalscorer with 48 goals in 111 games .
The largest margin of victory achieved by Germany is 17 – 0 against Kazakhstan during a European Championship qualifying game in November 2011 . The record defeat , a 0 – 6 deficit against the United States , occurred during a friendly match in March 1996 .
Silke Rottenberg has the most appearances for a goalkeeper with 126 caps and 67 games without conceding a goal . Current goalkeeper Nadine Angerer is second , with 124 games ( 80 without conceding a goal ) . Bettina Wiegmann holds the record of 14 goals from penalty kicks ; Renate Lingor comes in second with 8 goals . Tina Wunderlich scored the team 's only own goal in the semi @-@ final of the 2000 Summer Olympics against Norway ; it was the game 's only goal .
The German team also holds several international records . In 2007 , they were the first to win two consecutive Women 's World Cup titles and they achieved the biggest win in tournament history by beating Argentina 11 – 0 . Germany is also the only team to win either the men 's or women 's World Cup without conceding a goal and the only country to win both World Cups . With 14 goals , Prinz became the overall top goalscorer at the Women 's World Cup in 2007 , and she and Brazilian Marta are the only women to have received the FIFA World Player of the Year award at least three times .
= = Titles = =
= New Don Pedro Dam =
New Don Pedro Dam , often known simply as Don Pedro Dam , is an earthen embankment dam across the Tuolumne River , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northeast of La Grange , in Tuolumne County , California . The dam was completed in 1971 , after four years of construction , to replace the 1924 concrete @-@ arch Don Pedro Dam .
The dam serves mainly for irrigation water storage , flood control and hydroelectricity production , and impounds Don Pedro Reservoir in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada .
The New Don Pedro Dam is owned and operated by the Modesto Irrigation District ( MID ) and Turlock Irrigation District ( TID ) . At 585 feet ( 178 m ) tall , the dam is the tenth highest in the U.S. and its reservoir is the sixth largest artificial lake in California .
The original dam was named for the old mining town of Don Pedros Bar on the Tuolumne River , which in turn takes its name from prospector Pierre " Don Pedro " Sainsevain .
= = Background = =
Shortly after their formation in 1887 , the MID and TID acquired water rights to the Tuolumne River to secure a water supply for their combined 1 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 600 km2 ) service area in the San Joaquin Valley . After selling revenue bonds totaling $ 4 @.@ 1 million , the two irrigation districts began construction of the Don Pedro Dam ( now known as Old Don Pedro Dam ) in 1921 , about one and a half miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) upriver of the present location of New Don Pedro Dam . Upon its completion in 1923 , this 284 @-@ foot ( 87 m ) concrete gravity arch dam was the highest dam in the world , forming a 289 @,@ 000 @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 356 km3 ) reservoir with a surface area of 3 @,@ 086 acres ( 1 @,@ 249 ha ) . The dam 's 15 megawatt ( MW ) hydroelectric plant , later expanded to 37 @.@ 5 MW , delivered its first power in October 1923 .
Expanding Don Pedro or constructing a new dam altogether was first seriously considered in the 1940s because the existing dam could only store a year 's supply of water for valley farmers , with no guarantee that a multiyear drought could be weathered . An enlarged Don Pedro would provide a " bank " of water storage for prolonged droughts , capture more spring runoff , and provide increased flood control . Another proponent of a high dam was the city of San Francisco , which also sought a share of the Tuolumne 's water and decided to cooperate with the irrigation districts to construct the new dam . The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation made tentative studies for a high dam on the Tuolumne River as part of its Central Valley Project , though it later dropped the plans in favor of other sites .
= = Construction = =
In 1961 , an overwhelming majority of voters in the TID and MID service areas and San Francisco approved bond issues to finance the construction of a new dam . The irrigation districts hoped to complete the dam by 1966 , but concerns that the dam would further impact decreasing populations of king salmon in the Tuolumne put a temporary stop to the project . In fact , it was not until that year that the Federal Power Commission ( now Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ) licensed the irrigation districts to go ahead on New Don Pedro .
The $ 49 @.@ 7 million primary construction contract for the dam was awarded to Guy F. Atkinson Company on August 22 , 1967 . When he first saw the dam site , chief engineer John Goodier was reported to have said " [ it 'd be a ] tough nut to crack " . Clearing the dam site began immediately afterwards , in addition to the construction of access roads and a camp for construction workers . Construction of the dam 's service spillway began a week later on August 29 . On September 22 , 1967 , work began on the diversion tunnel that would allow the river to bypass the construction site . The 3 @,@ 415 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 041 m ) tunnel was fully excavated by March 13 of the following year and lined with reinforced concrete by August . On September 7 , a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) cofferdam was constructed and the diversion tunnel began to carry the flow of the Tuolumne . As the dam site dried out , the foundations were excavated down to bedrock ; cracks in the rock were injected with so @-@ called " dental concrete " to stabilize the foundation .
Construction of the embankment began on September 16 , 1968 using the hydraulic fill method . The dam 's massive concrete emergency spillway was completed on January 19 , 1969 . However , severe flooding on January 26 destroyed the cofferdam and all of the construction site 's bridges , putting work a month behind schedule . Cleanup proceeded at a rapid pace and placing of impervious material for the dam 's core commenced on February 27 . For the next fifteen months , a fleet of massive 125 @-@ ton ( 113 t ) dump trucks delivered an almost constant stream of dirt and rock to the site , and the dam wall rose at an average rate of one and a half feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) per day . The workforce peaked at 500 men in mid @-@ 1969 and on December 10 , the service spillway was completed . On May 28 , 1970 , the embankment was finally topped out with the last of over 250 @,@ 000 truckloads of material .
After the clearing of over 7 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 800 ha ) of the future reservoir site and the relocation of several roads that ran through it , the diversion tunnel was closed and water began to rise behind New Don Pedro . The rising lake submerged Old Don Pedro Dam on April 12 , 1970 and inundated the Gold Rush town of Jacksonville by June . The powerhouse and penstocks were completed by August 1970 , after lengthy delays and setbacks due to the sheer scale of the generators , pipes and gates used in their construction . Some of the individual components were so heavy that a truck delivering one of the penstock sections sank up to its trailer bed in the road , and another was crushed when the driver braked , inadvertently snapping the chains that held the load in place .
The total cost of the New Don Pedro Dam project , including site preparations , reservoir clearing and road relocations , was $ 115 @,@ 679 @,@ 000 . The dam was formally dedicated on May 22 , 1971 to a crowd of over 3 @,@ 000 people . Among the dedication ceremonies were a speech by San Francisco mayor Joseph Alioto and a beef barbecue hosted by TID .
= = Design and usage = =
Rising 585 feet ( 178 m ) above its foundations and 560 feet ( 170 m ) above the Tuolumne River , New Don Pedro is a massive earth and rock fill structure containing 16 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 12 @,@ 810 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material . The 1 @,@ 900 @-@ foot ( 580 m ) long dam is 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide at the crest and over 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) wide at the base . High water releases are controlled by four sets of gates . A set of internal gates in the diversion tunnel can release up to 7 @,@ 370 cubic feet per second ( 209 m3 / s ) , while a hollow jet valve at the base of the dam can discharge 3 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 88 m3 / s ) . The service spillway , controlled by three 45 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 7 m × 9 @.@ 1 m ) radial gates , has a capacity of 172 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 4 @,@ 900 m3 / s ) , and finally the emergency spillway , a 995 @-@ foot ( 303 m ) long concrete overflow structure , can discharge more than 300 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 8 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) .
The hydroelectric plant at the base of the dam has four generators capable of producing 203 MW combined . The TID 's share is 139 MW or 68 @.@ 47 % , while MID receives 64 MW or 31 @.@ 53 % . Three generators , each with a capacity of 55 MW , were included in the original design of the dam while an additional 38 MW generator was incorporated in 1989 . The plant generates an average of 618 @.@ 4 million kilowatt hours ( KWh ) of electricity each year , equal to an average output of 70 @.@ 6 MW . The cities of Modesto and Turlock receive a large share of their power supplies from New Don Pedro Dam .
Don Pedro Reservoir has a capacity of 2 @,@ 030 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 2 @.@ 50 km3 ) , of which 340 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 42 km3 ) is reserved for flood control and 1 @,@ 381 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @.@ 703 km3 ) is available for irrigation , municipal water supply , and hydroelectric generation . The flood control reservation is one of the smallest among major California reservoirs because it allows for more water to be stored for power generation , but this has often resulted in inadequate flood protection such as in 1997 when the dam released more than 50 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 1 @,@ 400 m3 / s ) – almost six times the capacity of downstream levees . The bottom 309 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 381 km3 ) is considered dead storage , or the lowest point at which water can be released to generate power . At an elevation of 804 feet ( 245 m ) ( service spillway crest ) , the reservoir is 25 miles ( 40 km ) long , and has an area of 12 @,@ 960 acres ( 5 @,@ 240 ha ) with 160 miles ( 260 km ) of shoreline . The maximum elevation of the reservoir at the crest of the emergency spillway is 830 feet ( 250 m ) above sea level .
During construction of the dam , it was anticipated that the large size and scenic location of the reservoir , coupled with its proximity to urban centers , would make it a large tourist draw . A $ 40 @,@ 000 plan was put forth to develop the reservoir for recreational activities . This entailed the construction of campsites , picnic areas , boat ramps , a landing strip , and hiking trails , including on 14 of the 33 islands in the lake . Don Pedro has become a popular summer destination in Central California , attracting 360 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 visitors each year .
= = Future development = =
In 1923 , the same year that Old Don Pedro was completed , the City of San Francisco finished construction of O 'Shaughnessy Dam , which forms a reservoir in the upper Tuolumne River 's Hetch Hetchy Valley and is the focus of one of the most longstanding environmental controversies in United States history . Proponents of the dam 's removal , including former Sierra Club president David Brower , suggest raising New Don Pedro Dam to replace the storage that would be lost with the draining of Hetch Hetchy . Increasing the height of New Don Pedro by just 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) would add about 360 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 44 km3 ) to the reservoir 's storage capacity , replacing most of the storage in Hetch Hetchy , though new tunnels would have to be built to deliver water from Don Pedro Reservoir to the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct and there would be a net loss of hydroelectric generation from O 'Shaughnessy . Of note is that San Francisco is already entitled to 453 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 559 km3 ) of the water stored in Don Pedro , although this allocation is overruled by the senior water rights of the irrigation districts during dry years .
TID is currently investigating the feasibility of constructing a large pumped @-@ storage hydroelectric plant on Lake Don Pedro in order to better meet peaking power demands without releasing extra water at New Don Pedro Dam . The proposed Red Mountain Bar Project would involve building a 465 @-@ foot ( 142 m ) high dam across a canyon adjacent to Lake Don Pedro , creating a reservoir with a capacity of 25 @,@ 000 to 42 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 031 to 0 @.@ 052 km3 ) . Water would be pumped into this new reservoir using power generated at New Don Pedro Dam during periods of low electricity demand , while during high demand water would be released through a penstock to an 880 MW generating facility . As of September 2011 , poor economic conditions had put the project " on hold indefinitely " .
= Walt Whitman =
Walter " Walt " Whitman ( / ˈhwɪtmən / ; May 31 , 1819 – March 26 , 1892 ) was an American poet , essayist , and journalist . A humanist , he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism , incorporating both views in his works . Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon , often called the father of free verse . His work was very controversial in its time , particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass , which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality .
Born in Huntington on Long Island , Whitman worked as a journalist , a teacher , a government clerk , and — in addition to publishing his poetry — was a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War . Early in his career , he also produced a temperance novel , Franklin Evans ( 1842 ) . Whitman 's major work , Leaves of Grass , was first published in 1855 with his own money . The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic . He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892 . After a stroke towards the end of his life , he moved to Camden , New Jersey , where his health further declined . When he died at age 72 , his funeral became a public spectacle .
= = Life and work = =
= = = Early life = = =
Walter Whitman was born on May 31 , 1819 , in West Hills , Town of Huntington , Long Island , to parents with interests in Quaker thought , Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman . The second of nine children , he was immediately nicknamed " Walt " to distinguish him from his father . Walter Whitman , Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders : Andrew Jackson , George Washington , and Thomas Jefferson . The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months . The couple 's sixth son , the youngest , was named Edward . At age four , Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn , living in a series of homes , in part due to bad investments . Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy , given his family 's difficult economic status . One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4 , 1825 .
At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling . He then sought employment for further income for his family ; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer 's devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot , edited by Samuel E. Clements . There , Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting . He may have written " sentimental bits " of filler material for occasional issues . Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head . Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward , possibly as a result of the controversy .
= = = Early career = = =
The following summer Whitman worked for another printer , Erastus Worthington , in Brooklyn . His family moved back to West Hills in the spring , but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner , editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long @-@ Island Star . While at the Star , Whitman became a regular patron of the local library , joined a town debating society , began attending theater performances , and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New York Mirror . At age 16 in May 1835 , Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn . He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though , in later years , Whitman could not remember where . He attempted to find further work but had difficulty , in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district , and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837 . In May 1836 , he rejoined his family , now living in Hempstead , Long Island . Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838 , though he was not satisfied as a teacher .
After his teaching attempts , Whitman went back to Huntington , New York to found his own newspaper , the Long Islander . Whitman served as publisher , editor , pressman , and distributor and even provided home delivery . After ten months , he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell , whose first issue appeared on July 12 , 1839 . There are no known surviving copies of the Long @-@ Islander published under Whitman . By the summer of 1839 , he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica , Queens with the Long Island Democrat , edited by James J. Brenton . He left shortly thereafter , and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841 . One story , possibly apocryphal , tells of Whitman 's being chased away from a teaching job in Southold , New York in 1840 . After a local preacher called him a " Sodomite " , Whitman was allegedly tarred and feathered . Biographer Justin Kaplan notes that the story is likely untrue , because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter . Biographer Jerome Loving calls the incident a " myth " . During this time , Whitman published a series of ten editorials , called " Sun @-@ Down Papers — From the Desk of a Schoolmaster " , in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841 . In these essays , he adopted a constructed persona , a technique he would employ throughout his career .
Whitman moved to New York City in May , initially working a low @-@ level job at the New World , working under Park Benjamin , Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold . He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers ; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle .
He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s . Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free @-@ soil " Barnburner " wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper 's owner , Isaac Van Anden , who belonged to the conservative , or " Hunker " , wing of the party . Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party .
In 1858 , Whitman published a 47 @,@ 000 word series called Manly Health and Training under the pen name Mose Velsor . Apparently he drew the name Velsor from Van Velsor , his mother 's family name . This self @-@ help guide recommends beards , nude sunbathing , comfortable shoes , bathing daily in cold water , eating meat almost exclusively , plenty of fresh air , and getting up early each morning . Present @-@ day writers have called Manly Health and Training " quirky " , " so over the top " , " a pseudoscientific tract " , and " wacky " .
= = = Leaves of Grass = = =
Whitman claimed that after years of competing for " the usual rewards " , he determined to become a poet . He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres which appealed to the cultural tastes of the period . As early as 1850 , he began writing what would become Leaves of Grass , a collection of poetry which he would continue editing and revising until his death . Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic and used free verse with a cadence based on the Bible . At the end of June 1855 , Whitman surprised his brothers with the already @-@ printed first edition of Leaves of Grass . George " didn 't think it worth reading " .
Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself and had it printed at a local print shop during their breaks from commercial jobs . A total of 795 copies were printed . No name is given as author ; instead , facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer , but 500 lines into the body of the text he calls himself " Walt Whitman , an American , one of the roughs , a kosmos , disorderly , fleshly , and sensual , no sentimentalist , no stander above men or women or apart from them , no more modest than immodest " . The inaugural volume of poetry was preceded by a prose preface of 827 lines . The succeeding untitled twelve poems totaled 2315 lines — 1336 lines belonging to the first untitled poem , later called " Song of Myself " . The book received its strongest praise from Ralph Waldo Emerson , who wrote a flattering five @-@ page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends . The first edition of Leaves of Grass was widely distributed and stirred up significant interest , in part due to Emerson 's approval , but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly " obscene " nature of the poetry . Geologist John Peter Lesley wrote to Emerson , calling the book " trashy , profane & obscene " and the author " a pretentious ass " . On July 11 , 1855 , a few days after Leaves of Grass was published , Whitman 's father died at the age of 65 .
In the months following the first edition of Leaves of Grass , critical responses began focusing more on the potentially offensive sexual themes . Though the second edition was already printed and bound , the publisher almost did not release it . In the end , the edition went to retail , with 20 additional poems , in August 1856 . Leaves of Grass was revised and re @-@ released in 1860 again in 1867 , and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman 's life . Several well @-@ known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman , including Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau .
During the first publications of Leaves of Grass , Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again , specifically with Brooklyn 's Daily Times starting in May 1857 . As an editor , he oversaw the paper 's contents , contributed book reviews , and wrote editorials . He left the job in 1859 , though it is unclear if he was fired or chose to leave . Whitman , who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals , left very little information about himself in the late 1850s .
= = = Civil War years = = =
As the American Civil War was beginning , Whitman published his poem " Beat ! Beat ! Drums ! " as a patriotic rally call for the North . Whitman 's brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front . On December 16 , 1862 , a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included " First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore " , which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George . He made his way south immediately to find him , though his wallet was stolen on the way . " Walking all day and night , unable to ride , trying to get information , trying to get access to big people " , Whitman later wrote , he eventually found George alive , with only a superficial wound on his cheek . Whitman , profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs , left for Washington on December 28 , 1862 with the intention of never returning to New York .
In Washington , D.C. , Whitman 's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part @-@ time work in the army paymaster 's office , leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals . He would write of this experience in " The Great Army of the Sick " , published in a New York newspaper in 1863 and , 12 years later , in a book called Memoranda During the War . He then contacted Emerson , this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post . Another friend , John Trowbridge , passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Salmon P. Chase , Secretary of the Treasury , hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department . Chase , however , did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Leaves of Grass .
The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864 . On September 30 , 1864 , Whitman 's brother George was captured by Confederates in Virginia , and another brother , Andrew Jackson , died of tuberculosis compounded by alcoholism on December 3 . That month , Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum . Whitman 's spirits were raised , however , when he finally got a better @-@ paying government post as a low @-@ grade clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior , thanks to his friend William Douglas O 'Connor . O 'Connor , a poet , daguerreotypist and an editor at the Saturday Evening Post , had written to William Tod Otto , Assistant Secretary of the Interior , on Whitman 's behalf . Whitman began the new appointment on January 24 , 1865 , with a yearly salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 . A month later , on February 24 , 1865 , George was released from capture and granted a furlough because of his poor health . By May 1 , Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkship and published Drum @-@ Taps .
Effective June 30 , 1865 , however , Whitman was fired from his job . His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior , former Iowa Senator James Harlan . Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who " were seldom at their respective desks " , he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass . O 'Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General 's office on July 1 . O 'Connor , though , was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study , The Good Gray Poet , in January 1866 . The fifty @-@ cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot , established the poet 's nickname and increased his popularity . Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of " O Captain ! My Captain ! " , a relatively conventional poem on the death of Abraham Lincoln , the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman 's lifetime .
Part of Whitman 's role at the Attorney General 's office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for Presidential pardons . " There are real characters among them " , he later wrote , " and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary . " In August 1866 , he took a month off in order to prepare a new edition of Leaves of Grass which would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher . He hoped it would be its last edition . In February 1868 , Poems of Walt Whitman was published in England thanks to the influence of William Michael Rossetti , with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved . The edition became popular in England , especially with endorsements from the highly respected writer Anne Gilchrist . Another edition of Leaves of Grass was issued in 1871 , the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident . As Whitman 's international fame increased , he remained at the attorney general 's office until January 1872 . He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother who was now nearly eighty and struggling with arthritis . He also traveled and was invited to Dartmouth College to give the commencement address on June 26 , 1872 .
= = = Health decline and death = = =
After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873 , Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brother — George Washington Whitman , an engineer — at 431 Stevens Street in Camden , New Jersey . His mother , having fallen ill , was also there and died that same year in May . Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed . He remained at his brother 's home until buying his own in 1884 . However , before purchasing his home , he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother 's home in Stevens Street . While in residence there he was very productive , publishing three versions of Leaves of Grass among other works . He was also last fully physically active in this house , receiving both Oscar Wilde and Thomas Eakins . His other brother , Edward , an " invalid " since birth , lived in the house .
When his brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law were forced to move for business reasons , he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street ( now 330 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard ) . First taken care of by tenants , he was completely bedridden for most of his time in Mickle Street . During this time , he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davis — the widow of a sea captain . She was a neighbor , boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street . She moved in with Whitman on February 24 , 1885 , to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent . She brought with her a cat , a dog , two turtledoves , a canary , and other assorted animals . During this time , Whitman produced further editions of Leaves of Grass in 1876 , 1881 , and 1889 .
While in Southern New Jersey Whitman spent a good portion of his time in the then quite pastoral community of Laurel Springs between 1876 and 1884 , converting one of the Stafford Farm buildings to his summer home . The restored summer home has been preserved as museum by the local historical society . Part of his Leaves of Grass was written here , and in his Specimen Days he wrote of the spring , creek and lake . To him , Laurel Lake was " the prettiest lake in : either America or Europe . "
As the end of 1891 approached , he prepared a final edition of Leaves of Grass , a version that has been nicknamed the " Deathbed Edition . " He wrote , " L. of G. at last complete — after 33 y 'rs of hackling at it , all times & moods of my life , fair weather & foul , all parts of the land , and peace & war , young & old . " Preparing for death , Whitman commissioned a granite mausoleum shaped like a house for $ 4 @,@ 000 and visited it often during construction . In the last week of his life , he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote : " I suffer all the time : I have no relief , no escape : it is monotony — monotony — monotony — in pain . "
Whitman died on March 26 , 1892 . An autopsy revealed his lungs had diminished to one @-@ eighth their normal breathing capacity , a result of bronchial pneumonia , and that an egg @-@ sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs . The cause of death was officially listed as " pleurisy of the left side , consumption of the right lung , general miliary tuberculosis and parenchymatous nephritis . " A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home ; over one thousand people visited in three hours . Whitman 's oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him . Four days after his death , he was buried in his tomb at Harleigh Cemetery in Camden . Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery , with friends giving speeches , live music , and refreshments . Whitman 's friend , the orator Robert Ingersoll , delivered the eulogy . Later , the remains of Whitman 's parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum .
= = Writing = =
Whitman 's work breaks the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose @-@ like . He also used unusual images and symbols in his poetry , including rotting leaves , tufts of straw , and debris . He also openly wrote about death and sexuality , including prostitution . He is often labeled as the father of free verse , though he did not invent it .
= = = Poetic theory = = =
Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass , " The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it . " He believed there was a vital , symbiotic relationship between the poet and society . This connection was emphasized especially in " Song of Myself " by using an all @-@ powerful first @-@ person narration . As an American epic , it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity of the common people . Leaves of Grass also responded to the impact that recent urbanization in the United States had on the masses .
= = Lifestyle and beliefs = =
= = = Alcohol = = =
Whitman was a vocal proponent of temperance and in his youth rarely drank alcohol . He once stated he did not taste " strong liquor " until he was thirty and occasionally argued for prohibition . One of his earliest long fiction works , the novel Franklin Evans ; or , The Inebriate , first published November 23 , 1842 , is a temperance novel . Whitman wrote the novel at the height of popularity of the Washingtonian movement though the movement itself was plagued with contradictions , as was Franklin Evans . Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the book and called it a " damned rot " . He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while he was under the influence of alcohol himself . Even so , he wrote other pieces recommending temperance , including The Madman and a short story " Reuben 's Last Wish " . Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol , enjoying local wines and champagne .
= = = Religion = = =
Whitman was deeply influenced by deism . He denied any one faith was more important than another , and embraced all religions equally . In " Song of Myself " , he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of them — a sentiment he further emphasized in his poem " With Antecedents " , affirming : " I adopt each theory , myth , god , and demi @-@ god , / I see that the old accounts , bibles , genealogies , are true , without exception " . In 1874 , he was invited to write a poem about the Spiritualism movement , to which he responded , " It seems to me nearly altogether a poor , cheap , crude humbug . " Whitman was a religious skeptic : though he accepted all churches , he believed in none . God , to Whitman , was both immanent and transcendent and the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development . American Philosophy : An Encyclopedia classes him as one of several figures who " took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world . "
= = = Sexuality = = =
Though biographers continue to debate his sexuality , he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions . However , there is disagreement among biographers as to whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men . Whitman 's sexual orientation is generally assumed on the basis of his poetry , though this assumption has been disputed . His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy , individualistic way common in American culture before the medicalization of sexuality in the late 19th century . Though Leaves of Grass was often labeled pornographic or obscene , only one critic remarked on its author 's presumed sexual activity : in a November 1855 review , Rufus Wilmot Griswold suggested Whitman was guilty of " that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians . " Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life . Some biographers have suggested that he may not have actually engaged in sexual relationships with males , while others cite letters , journal entries , and other sources that they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships . English poet and critic John Addington Symonds spent twenty years in correspondence trying to pry the answer from him . In 1890 he wrote to Whitman , " In your conception of Comradeship , do you contemplate the possible intrusion of those semi @-@ sexual emotions and actions which no doubt do occur between men ? " In reply , Whitman denied that his work had any such implication , asserting " [ T ] hat the calamus part has even allow 'd the possibility of such construction as mention 'd is terrible — I am fain to hope the pages themselves are not to be even mention 'd for such gratuitous and quite at this time entirely undream 'd & unreck 'd possibility of morbid inferences — wh ' are disavow 'd by me and seem damnable , " and insisting that he had fathered six illegitimate children . Some contemporary scholars are skeptical of the veracity of Whitman 's denial or the existence of the children he claimed .
Peter Doyle may be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman 's life . Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866 , and the two were inseparable for several years . Interviewed in 1895 , Doyle said : " We were familiar at once — I put my hand on his knee — we understood . He did not get out at the end of the trip — in fact went all the way back with me . " In his notebooks , Whitman disguised Doyle 's initials using the code " 16 @.@ 4 " ( P.D. being the 16th and 4th letters of the alphabet ) . Oscar Wilde met Whitman in America in 1882 and told the homosexual @-@ rights activist George Cecil Ives that Whitman 's sexual orientation was beyond question — " I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lips . " The only explicit description of Whitman 's sexual activities is secondhand . In 1924 , Edward Carpenter told Gavin Arthur of a sexual encounter in his youth with Whitman , the details of which Arthur recorded in his journal . Late in his life , when Whitman was asked outright whether his " Calamus " poems were homosexual , he chose not to respond . The manuscript of his love poem " Once I Pass 'd Through A Populous City " , written when was Whitman was 29 , indicates it was originally about a man .
Another possible lover was Bill Duckett . As a teenager , he lived on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman , living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles . Duckett was fifteen when Whitman bought his house at 328 Mickle Street . From at least 1880 , Duckett and his grandmother , Lydia Watson , were boarders , subletting space from another family at 334 Mickle Street . Because of this proximity , it is obvious that Duckett and Whitman met as neighbors . Their relationship was close , with the youth sharing Whitman 's money when he had it . Whitman described their friendship as " thick " . Though some biographers describe him as a boarder , others identify him as a lover . Their photograph [ pictured ] is described as " modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait " , part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends , and encrypting male – male desire . Yet another intense relationship of Whitman with a young man was the one with Harry Stafford , with whose family Whitman stayed when at Timber Creek , and whom he first met when Stafford was 18 , in 1876 . Whitman gave Stafford a ring , which was returned and re @-@ given over the course of a stormy relationship lasting several years . Of that ring , Stafford wrote to Whitman , " You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me , and that was death . "
There is also some evidence that Whitman may have had sexual relationships with women . He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress , Ellen Grey , in the spring of 1862 , but it is not known if it was also sexual . He still had a photograph of her decades later , when he moved to Camden , and he called her " an old sweetheart of mine " . In a letter , dated August 21 , 1890 , he claimed , " I have had six children — two are dead " . This claim has never been corroborated . Toward the end of his life , he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from the New York Herald that he had " never had a love affair " . As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote , " the discussion of Whitman 's sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges . "
= = = Sunbathing and swimming = = =
Whitman reportedly enjoyed bathing naked and sunbathing nude . In his work Manly Health and Training written under the pseudonym Mose Velsor , he advises men to swim naked . In A Sun @-@ bathed Nakedness , he wrote ,
Never before did I get so close to Nature ; never before did she come so close to me … Nature was naked , and I was also … Sweet , sane , still Nakedness in Nature ! – ah if poor , sick , prurient humanity in cities might really know you once more ! Is not nakedness indecent ? No , not inherently . It is your thought , your sophistication , your fear , your respectability , that is indecent . There come moods when these clothes of ours are not only too irksome to wear , but are themselves indecent .
= = = Shakespeare authorship = = =
Whitman was an adherent of the Shakespeare authorship question , refusing to believe in the historic attribution of the works to William Shakespeare of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Whitman comments in his November Boughs ( 1888 ) regarding Shakespeare 's historical plays :
Conceiv 'd out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalism — personifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy , its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste , with its own peculiar air and arrogance ( no mere imitation ) — only one of the " wolfish earls " so plenteous in the plays themselves , or some born descendant and knower , might seem to be the true author of those amazing works — works in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature .
= = = Slavery = = =
Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported the Wilmot Proviso . At first he was opposed to abolitionism , believing the movement did more harm than good . In 1846 , he wrote that the abolitionists had , in fact , slowed the advancement of their cause by their " ultraism and officiousness " . His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process , as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own . In 1856 , in his unpublished The Eighteenth Presidency , addressing the men of the South , he wrote " you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you " . Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that
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even free African @-@ Americans should not vote and was concerned at the increasing number of African @-@ Americans in the legislature .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Walt Whitman has been claimed as America 's first " poet of democracy " , a title meant to reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character . A British friend of Walt Whitman , Mary Smith Whitall Costelloe , wrote : " You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman , without Leaves of Grass ... He has expressed that civilization , ' up to date , ' as he would say , and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him . " Modernist poet Ezra Pound called Whitman " America 's poet ... He is America . " Andrew Carnegie called him " the great poet of America so far " . Whitman considered himself a messiah @-@ like figure in poetry . Others agreed : one of his admirers , William Sloane Kennedy , speculated that " people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ " .
The literary critic , Harold Bloom wrote , as the introduction for the 150th anniversary of Leaves of Grass :
If you are American , then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother , even if , like myself , you have never composed a line of verse . You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States . They might include Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick , Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , and Emerson 's two series of Essays and The Conduct of Life . None of those , not even Emerson 's , are as central as the first edition of Leaves of Grass .
In his own time , Whitman attracted an influential coterie of disciples and admirers . Some , like Oscar Wilde and Edward Carpenter , viewed Whitman both as a prophet of a utopian future and of same @-@ sex desire – the passion of comrades . This aligned with their own desires for a future of brotherly socialism .
Whitman 's vagabond lifestyle was adopted by the Beat movement and its leaders such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac in the 1950s and 1960s as well as anti @-@ war poets like Adrienne Rich and Gary Snyder . Lawrence Ferlinghetti numbered himself among Whitman 's " wild children " , and the title of his 1961 collection Starting from San Francisco is a deliberate reference to Whitman 's Starting from Paumanok . Whitman also influenced Bram Stoker , author of Dracula , and was the model for the character of Dracula . Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which , to Stoker , was Whitman , with whom he corresponded until Whitman 's death . Other admirers included the Eagle Street College , an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace in Eagle Street , Bolton , to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman . The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites . Its members held an annual ' Whitman Day ' celebration around the poet 's birthday .
Whitman 's poetry has been set to music by a large number of composers ; indeed it has been suggested his poetry has been set to music more than any other American poet except for Emily Dickinson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . Those who have set his poems to music have included John Adams , Ernst Bacon , Leonard Bernstein , Benjamin Britten , Rhoda Coghill , Ronald Corp , George Crumb , Frederick Delius , Howard Hanson , Karl Amadeus Hartmann , Hans Werner Henze , Paul Hindemith , Ned Rorem , Ralph Vaughan Williams , Kurt Weill , and Roger Sessions . " Crossing , " an opera composed by Matthew Aucoin and inspired by Whitman 's Civil War diaries , premiered in 2015 .
On May 16 , 1957 , the Walt Whitman Bridge , which crosses the Delaware River near his home in Camden , was opened .
In 1997 , the Walt Whitman Community School opened , becoming the first private high school catering to LGBT youth .
In 2009 , Whitman was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame .
In 2013 , Whitman was inducted into the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display that celebrates LGBT history and people .
Based on Kai Grehn 's German translation of the cycle in 2005 , a radio feature and bilingual " Kinder Adams / Children of Adam " double @-@ CD audio book , including a complete reading by Iggy Pop was released by Hörbuch Hamburg , Germany in 2014 , also featuring Marianne Sägebrecht , Martin Wuttke , Birgit Minichmayr , Alexander Fehling , Lars Rudolph , Volker Bruch , Paula Beer , Josef Osterndorf , Ronald Lippok , Jule Böwe and Robert Gwisdek .
In 2014 composer John Zorn released On Leaves of Grass , an album inspired by and dedicated to Whitman .
= = Works = =
Franklin Evans ( 1842 )
Leaves of Grass ( 1855 , the first of seven editions through 1891 )
Manly Health and Training ( 1858 )
Drum @-@ Taps ( 1865 )
Democratic Vistas ( 1871 )
Memoranda During the War ( 1876 )
Specimen Days ( 1882 )
= Dog Gone =
" Dog Gone " is the eighth episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 29 , 2009 . The episode features Brian , the family pet , attempting to prove that a dog 's life is just as important as that of a human 's , after he accidentally kills another dog with no consequences . Meanwhile , the Griffin family hires Consuela , a stereotypical Hispanic woman , as the household maid , which they each end up regretting once she takes advantage of the family 's home .
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by series showrunner Steve Callaghan and directed by Julius Wu . It received high praise from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving some criticism from PETA . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 48 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Chris Matthews , Nathan Gunn , Eddie Sotelo , Fred Tatasciore and Kel MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Dog Gone " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
After much anticipation , Brian receives an invitation to an award ceremony celebrating his novel , Faster Than the Speed of Love , by the Rhode Island Society for Special Literary Excellence . Convinced he is a great writer , Brian attempts to gain the family 's interest but fails to do so . Once he arrives at the " award ceremony " however , he discovers that he has misunderstood the meaning of the word " special " , prompting him to drown his sorrows at the local bar and realize that he 's not a writer at all , but a big fat joke . He drives home drunk that night and accidentally runs over and kills a dog . He secretly buries the dead dog 's body outside the Griffins ' home and tries to keep quiet about it . Stewie , having witnessed his deed , begins to toy with Brian 's guilt , eventually driving him to a state where he decides to confess to " murder " . However , when he confesses to Joe and the Griffin family , they all laugh , saying that no one cares if a dog or any other animal is killed , especially by another animal .
Outraged , Brian starts a support group , and decides to call it " The Quahog Animal Equal Rights League , " to convince the town that the lives of animals should be of equal value to humans ' . As the town citizens learn more about it , however , none of them are keen on changing their lifestyles if it means no processed meats and medical research on animals , and even become interested in how dogs taste after Brian mentions they are eaten in some cultures . Refusing to listen any further , they chase after Brian in an attempt to eat him .
Brian realizes that if no one cares about the lives of animals , then he is worthless to the Griffin family and everyone else . Stewie finds Brian crying in the bathtub , and , seeing how upset Brian is and feeling sorry for him , Stewie successfully fakes his death by putting his collar ( which Brian hadn 't been wearing ) on a stray and killing it in a liquor store fire . The Griffins are devastated upon learning about Brian 's supposed death , and realize how close a friend he was to them . Seeing this , Stewie rushes upstairs to show Brian how much the Griffins still care about him , regardless of his species . Brian then realizes his life does have a purpose and thanks Stewie for helping him , and decides to remain hidden to let the Griffins grieve a little longer .
Meanwhile , Quagmire accidentally knocks over a carton of Kool @-@ Aid mix on the kitchen floor of the Griffin 's house and leaves Peter to take the blame . Frustrated with having to clean Peter 's messes , Lois hires a Hispanic maid named Consuela to clean their house . But Consuela quickly proves to be very stubborn , refusing to leave after her work hours and sleeping at the Griffins ' house overnight , much to Peter and Lois ' annoyance . They try to fire her and even bribe her to leave , but she still refuses ( though she takes the money they offer her anyway ) . In a last @-@ ditch attempt , Peter finally gets rid of her by tricking her into inhaling chloroform on a handkerchief , and leaves her in a basket on Joe 's front porch .
At the end , Peter lets us know that everyone at Family Guy respects all living beings and assures the viewers that no animals were harmed in the making of the episode , but they did hurt the feelings of an Italian opera singer by prematurely dropping the curtain on his performance .
= = Production and development = =
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California on July 25 , 2009 , by future showrunner Steve Callaghan , the episode was directed by series regular , and former King of the Hill and The Oblongs director , Julius Wu , and written by Callaghan before the conclusion of the eighth production season . The episode saw the reintroduction of the recurring character Consuela , a Hispanic maid whose first appearance was in the sixth season episode " Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air " . The character is voiced by main cast member Mike Henry .
" Dog Gone " , along with seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and a mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke .
In addition to the regular cast , anchor and political commentator Chris Matthews , voice actor Fred Tatasciore , opera singer Nathan Gunn , radio personality Eddie Sotelo and Kel MacFarlane , webmaster of the Seth MacFarlane fan site , guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Ralph Garman , writer John Viener , writer Mark Hentemann , actress Alex Breckenridge , writer Alec Sulkin and writer Danny Smith also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Stewie is seen going through Brian 's internet history , which includes searches about himself on the internet search engine Google . Later , after going to the bar to drink , Brian talks to Bill , the father from The Family Circus syndicated comic strip . After Bill tells him he should have tried harder on writing his book , Brian responds by yelling that all Bill does is " judge " other people , and demands for him to go home and " fuck [ his ] wife in the face " , to which Bill agrees . This is also later recognized by Peter the next day , when he is seen reading the funnies , and murmurs to himself , " this is a very shocking Family Circus . "
News anchor and political commentator Chris Matthews ' show entitled Hardball with Chris Matthews is referenced by Stewie when he suggests Brian is getting a big head , with the guest , United States Senator Harry Reid , then appearing on Matthews ' forehead , suggesting Matthews is self @-@ centered . After Reid continues to interrupt him , however , Matthews cuts to actor Kurtwood Smith , in which Matthews appears on Smith 's forehead instead .
Once Consuela is hired as the family maid , she first begins to annoy Peter by listening to stereotypical Latin music played loudly on a portable radio , in which the singer repeats the Spanish phrase " ¡ Muchos horn @-@ os ! " which literally translates to " many ovens " but within the context of the show is actually meant to be Spanglish for " many horns . " In Consuela 's final appearance in the episode , she is seen watching a commercial , which parodies local commercials urging viewers to hire a lawyer if they are in a car accident .
In an attempt to try to prove that an animal has the same rights as humans , Brian starts an advocacy group , and is suggested by Lois to join PETA , but she is unable to enunciate the word differently from how she pronounces " Peter , " leading her husband to become confused . The end of the gag has Chris stating his belief that Betty White is a member of the organization , with his wording prompting Peter to yell , " That doesn 't even make sense ! " Brian goes on to create a public service announcement regarding animal rights , one of which involves a dog being " tortured " by having to listen to the radio show All Things Considered on National Public Radio , which the dog 's owner leaves on for him before leaving the house .
= = Reception = =
In an improvement over the previous four episodes , the episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 48 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Sunday Night Football , the television movie A Dog Named Christmas on CBS and Desperate Housewives on ABC . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! , but was ultimately edged out slightly by The Simpsons in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were highly positive , citing the Brian and Stewie storyline as a " solid attempt to tell a good story , " and the Consuela scenes as " terrific . " Ahsan Haque of IGN also noted that " the writers deserved some credit " for the episode , saying that , in comparison to past episodes the episode did not " come across as a haphazardly assembled string of [ random ] jokes . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad also found the Consuela scenes to be " hilarious , " but found the final scene to be " strangely [ ... ] uncomfortable , " expecting Meg to be pushed out of the family hug . Todd VanDerWerff of the The A.V. Club praised the handling of Brian 's character in the episode , and called the Peter and PETA gag " pretty cheap , but quite funny , " giving the episode a B rating overall .
In February 2010 , for " rais [ ing ] public awareness of animal issues " , " Dog Gone " won a Genesis Award for television comedy , winning over South Park episode ' Whale Whores " and Monk episode " Mr. Monk and the Dog " . In a post on PETA 's official blog , Amanda Schinke , however , was highly critical of the episode for its " myriad of violent deaths of cartoon dogs . " In addition , she called for the show to " hire [ writers ] who can generate material that doesn 't make us roll our eyes . "
= Dwain Chambers =
Dwain Anthony Chambers ( born 5 April 1978 ) is a British track sprinter . He has won international medals at World and European level and is one of the fastest European sprinters in the history of athletics . His primary event is the 100 metres , in which he has the fourth fastest time by a British sprinter . He is the European record holder for the 60 metres and 4 × 100 metres relay events with 6 @.@ 42 seconds and 37 @.@ 73 s respectively . He received a two @-@ year athletics ban in 2003 after testing positive for THG , a banned performance @-@ enhancing drug .
Chambers ran a 100 m world junior record of 10 @.@ 06 s in 1997 and became the youngest ever world medallist in the event at the 1999 World Championships , taking the bronze . On his Olympic debut at the 2000 Sydney Olympics he was the best European performer in fourth place . He broke the 10 @-@ second barrier twice at the 2001 World Championships . He began using performance @-@ enhancing drugs in 2002 and he was later stripped of the 100 m European title and record he achieved that year .
Chambers returned to competition in June 2006 , and won gold with his teammates in the 4 × 100 m at the 2006 European Championships . He tried other sports , including a spell with the Hamburg Sea Devils of the NFL Europa league and a rugby league trial with Castleford . Sprinting success came over 60 m when he won silver at the 2008 World Indoor Championships , gold at the 2009 European Indoors , and became world champion at the 2010 World Indoor Championships .
Due to his doping ban , he was barred from the Olympics , Commonwealth Games , and much of the European racing circuit , from 2006 to 2012 . The Court of Arbitration for Sport overturned his lifetime Olympic ban , deeming it non @-@ compliant with the World Anti @-@ Doping Code , and he competed in the 2012 London Olympics . He produced a ghost @-@ written autobiography with writer Ken Scott , Race Against Me , in 2009 . He is of Afro @-@ Caribbean- Jamaican descent and has two sons with his partner Leonie Daley .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Chambers was born in Islington and raised in Finsbury , London . Running was a part of his family life : his older sister Christine won the senior 100 metres finals at the English Schools Championships in 1986 and 1987 and competed in the European Athletics Junior Championships . As a schoolboy he was coached by Selwyn Philbert who devoted himself to the young sprinter . Chambers first athletic success came at the 1994 English Schools ' Athletic Association Championships , where he won the boys ' intermediate 100 m race with a time of 10 @.@ 64 seconds . International medals followed at the 1995 European Junior Championships , at which he won the 100 m and the 4 × 100 metres relay . He defended these titles at the 1997 European Junior Championships and set a then world junior record in the 100 m with a time of 10 @.@ 06 s .
Chambers transitioned into the senior ranks soon after , taking the 100 m silver medal behind his British team mate Darren Campbell at the 1998 European Championships . He achieved a new personal best in September at the 1998 IAAF World Cup with a run of 10 @.@ 03 s for third place and won a relay gold medal . At the 1998 Commonwealth Games he was a 100 m semi finalist and set a games record as part of the 4 × 100 m relay team . His ability attracted the attention of former sprinter and Commonwealth Games gold medallist Mike McFarlane , who became his coach . He came first in the 100 m in the 1999 European Cup , then at a meet in Nuremberg he became only the second European sprinter ( after Linford Christie ) to break the ten second barrier with a time of 9 @.@ 99 s . Fellow British sprinter Jason Gardener scored a time of 9 @.@ 98 s in Lausanne soon after , becoming the third Briton to break the barrier . In spite of this , Chambers remained some distance behind his North American counterparts .
= = = Seville World Championships to Sydney Olympics = = =
In his first major outing on the world stage , Chambers attained a new personal best at the 1999 World Championships in Seville , registering a time of 9 @.@ 97 s for third place in the 100 m final . This made the 21 @-@ year @-@ old the youngest ever World Championships 100 m medallist . North Americans dominated the event as Maurice Greene and Bruny Surin took first and second place respectively , with record runs of 9 @.@ 80 s and 9 @.@ 84 s , respectively . The British sprint team Chambers , Gardener , Campbell and Marlon Devonish performed well in the 4 × 100 metres relay event as runners @-@ up in a time of 37 @.@ 73 s behind the US team led by Greene . World record holder Maurice Greene was hitting his peak , winning three gold medals in Seville . However , at 21 years old , Chambers had achieved more than Greene had at that age : Greene 's best was 10 @.@ 08 s in 1996 and he had never reached a major final .
With the 2000 Sydney Olympics approaching , Chambers studied the technique of other sprinters . In an interview with BBC journalist Tom Fordyce , Chambers commented on the stamina Greene and Surin had gained from running in the 200 metres event and Jason Gardener 's improved acceleration through running the 60 metres event . He experimented with distances at the beginning of 2000 , sprinting over 50 , 60 and 200 m in various competitions . He set a personal best of 6 @.@ 55 s in the 60 m event in Ghent in February . A hamstring injury caused him to miss six weeks of training and when he returned his 100 m performances were lacklustre . He finished ninth at the Golden Gala in Rome with a slow time of 10 @.@ 41 s and was seventh in a tame 10 @.@ 30 s at the London Grand Prix , results that led him to consider quitting the season altogether . A late rejuvenation at the British Olympic trials guaranteed his selection as he snatched first place with 10 @.@ 11 s ( just one hundredth of a second ahead of Darren Campbell ) . Victory against in @-@ form world record holder Maurice Greene in Gateshead raised Chambers ' confidence and he stated his aim to take home a medal from the Games .
The 2000 Sydney Olympics saw Chambers come close to the podium . He easily qualified through the heat stages and achieved a season 's best of 10 @.@ 08 s in the 100 m final finishing fourth behind Greene , Ato Boldon and Obadele Thompson . Chambers was the best European 100 m performer , but after disqualification in the relay he left the games without a medal .
= = = Edmonton World championships = = =
He made his fastest opening to a season in 2001 by winning the 100 m for his club Belgrave Harriers at the European Clubs Cup with a meet record time of 10 @.@ 12 s . At the Amateur Athletics Association ( AAA ) trials in Birmingham his run of 10 @.@ 01 s was the fastest ever wind @-@ legal time recorded in Britain by a British sprinter . Chambers ran with consistency in the summer of 2001 : he won at the Seville Grand Prix in 10 @.@ 01 s and finished third in ten seconds flat at the Athletissima meet . In the run up to the 2001 IAAF Edmonton World Championships Chambers compared his own performances to the British record holder : " I am very consistent in the 10.00s this year , and that bodes well for the Worlds . If you are running as fast as Linford Christie in his prime , it gives you a lot of confidence . "
Chambers also competed over 200 m and a personal best run of 20 @.@ 31 s earned him selection in both sprints for the World Championships . In an interview with Tom Fordyce , Chambers stated that Maurice Greene 's strong presence and mind games undermined the competition both physically and mentally . " You have to get out in front of him and hold on for dear life " he said of the world record holder .
Chambers broke the ten second barrier twice in the 2001 World Championships with a personal best of 9 @.@ 97 s in the quarter finals and a run of 9 @.@ 99 s in the final . This was not enough for a medal in a strong race which featured five sprinters running under ten seconds and saw Greene defend his title . Chambers was later upgraded to fourth place after silver medallist Tim Montgomery tested positive for banned substances . A hamstring injury in the final ruled him out of the 200 m event . Chambers ended his season at the 2001 Goodwill Games in Brisbane and finished in first place in the absence of an injured Greene , who commentated on his European rival 's victory .
= = = 2002 European champion = = =
Chambers ' coach Mike McFarlane struggled with the workload of full @-@ time training . Frustrated by the distance between himself and the top sprinters , Chambers decided to relocate to California to work with Ukrainian coach Remi Korchemny and nutritionist Victor Conte . After parting ways with American sprinter Tim Montgomery , Conte looked to Chambers to fill the athlete 's berth . In the run up to the year 's major events , Chambers was in fine form and recorded a 200 m personal best of 20 @.@ 27 s in Athens on 10 June 2002 . Montgomery , impressed by Chambers ' training regime , tipped the Briton to win the gold at the forthcoming 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester , England .
He won the 100 m at the Commonwealth Games trials in a season 's best of 10 @.@ 03 s , then equalled Linford Christie 's record of 10 @.@ 04 s at European Cup , where he led the British team to victory as team captain . Victories over Maurice Greene followed at Oslo 's IAAF Golden League meeting and in Sheffield with a wind @-@ assisted 9 @.@ 95 s . He was the favourite for the 2002 Commonwealth Games , but Chambers faced stiff competition from British newcomer Mark Lewis @-@ Francis who was finishing fractions of a second behind him . Chambers won all his preliminary races and reached the final , along with Lewis @-@ Francis and Jason Gardener , but he suffered a cramp mid @-@ race and ended up in last place . He later revealed that he had feigned injury as the brief hamstring cramp was caused by drug abuse . The English sprinters had the three slowest times in the final , with Lewis @-@ Francis also beset by injury .
After Commonwealth disappointment on home turf , Chambers won gold medals in the 100 m and 4 × 100 m relay at the 2002 European Championships in Munich , setting a championship record of 9 @.@ 96 s . Chambers recorded a time of 9 @.@ 94 s at the Weltklasse Zürich meeting , again beating world record holder Greene . He finished the season by equalling Linford Christie 's European record at the 2002 IAAF Grand Prix Final . His run of 9 @.@ 87 s with a maximum allowable wind of + 2 @.@ 0 m / s left him second to Tim Montgomery , who set a world record of 9 @.@ 78 s . Chambers received the 2002 European Athlete of the Year Trophy for his achievements on the track that year .
= = = 2003 World championships = = =
Chambers began the 2003 season with a grandiose statement – namely that he would lower the 100 m record to 9 @.@ 65 s . After recovering from a minor injury he suffered in January , Despite claims he could also beat the 60 m indoor record , his form was poor and he failed to pass the heats at the 2003 British Grand Prix , finishing fourth in a time of 6 @.@ 68 s . He was beaten by Mark Lewis @-@ Francis by a hundredth of a second at the trials for the IAAF World Indoor Championships , narrowly missing out on selection with a time of 6 @.@ 59 s .
Chambers announced that he was to part with trainer Mike McFarlane in favour of a permanent relationship with Ukrainian coach Remi Korchemny . The sprinter started the 100 m season modestly , finishing third and fourth in Modesto and Eugene , respectively . Chambers beat Montgomery in Glasgow in June , running a stadium record of 10 @.@ 15 s into a headwind , and qualified for the World Championships by winning the AAA trials .
His season 's best came under unusual circumstances at the British Grand Prix – due to a system malfunction he was initially timed by hand at dead on ten seconds , which was amended to 9 @.@ 96 s after video evidence was consulted . He could not match that form at the World 100 m final : Kim Collins , Darrel Brown , Darren Campbell , and Chambers all finished within a split second of each other and Chambers was adjudged to have finished fourth . Chambers squandered his anchoring lead in the 4 × 100 m relay , allowing Joshua J. Johnson of the United States team to beat him to the finish line . In spite of his close fourth and a relay silver medal , there was a sense of disappointment in the press that Chambers ' record breaking claims and gold medals had not materialised .
= = = Drug ban = = =
A sample for an out @-@ of @-@ competition drugs test that Chambers had provided in Germany on 1 August 2003 was re @-@ examined in October and subsequently tested positive for banned substances . The United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) were investigating the Bay Area Laboratory Co @-@ operative ( BALCO ) ; the workplace of both Chambers ' coach Remi Korchemny and nutritionist Victor Conte . Both men faced charges of distributing illegal drugs to athletes in the United States . The BALCO Scandal uncovered drug use in a wide range of sportsmen and women , including sprinters Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery .
Chambers claimed that his new coach had introduced him to Conte as a way of providing him with specialised ' nutritional supplements ' - which he took by putting a few drops of liquid under his tongue . Conte had helped develop a type of anabolic steroid called THG , or tetrahydrogestrinone , at BALCO . After Chambers discovered that he had tested positive for drugs he sent his lawyer to meet Conte and make inquires about the supplement he had been ingesting . Conte assured him that all the substances were IAAF compliant .
After further investigation , it was revealed on 22 October 2003 that Chambers had tested positive for the banned steroid THG . Analysis of his backup sample also tested positive and the outcome was confirmed on 7 November 2003 , making Chambers the first person to test positive for the new drug . Chambers was suspended the same day with an independent UK Athletics tribunal pending . The disciplinary hearing on 24 February 2004 resulted in a two @-@ year ban from athletics , backdated to begin on 7 November 2003 . He was also banned for life from the Olympics and stripped of the medals he had won since mid @-@ 2002 , after admitting that he had taken THG from that date . Chambers ' 2002 relay gold medal performance was erased , costing team @-@ mates Darren Campbell , Marlon Devonish and Christian Malcolm their medals in the process . Chambers was also ordered by the IAAF to pay back his earnings from the period of his athletics career that was affected by his drug abuse .
Conte claimed that rival coach Trevor Graham had revealed the drug to US testers , acting " purely out of competitive jealousy " as Chambers was challenging Graham 's trainees ; Montgomery and Greene . Chambers denied that he had any knowledge that the substance he was taking was banned and claimed he was deceived by Conte over its true use . However , he contradicted his statement in a later interview , saying that he had major suspicions that he was using banned substances but was too naïve and lacking in self @-@ respect to act otherwise . By Chambers ' own admission in 2008 , in a letter by his supplier Conte to British anti @-@ doping chief John Scott , THG was not the only substance he had used during his career . In his confession he admitted to the use of epitestosterone cream , EPO , HGH , insulin lispro , modafinil and liothyronine .
Banned from competition , Chambers sought alternative commercial outlets for his athletic prowess . He had an unsuccessful American football try @-@ out with the San Francisco 49ers , hoping to emulate Renaldo Nehemiah . He drifted on to the celebrity circuit , appearing on British reality television series Hell 's Kitchen in May 2004 . However , Chambers had little interest in the show and soon chose to leave . He appeared in neither sporting events nor television programs for 18 months .
= = = Return to athletics = = =
Chambers began training in Jamaica in late 2005 in preparation for the athletics season . He faced new challengers in the 100 m as Maurice Greene was no longer a dominant force and Jamaican Asafa Powell was the new world record holder . Chambers began working with Glen Mills , coach of Caribbean sprinters Kim Collins and Usain Bolt . The drug suspension had expired in November but he needed to pass four mandatory drugs tests in order to gain clearance to compete with the IAAF . His comeback was further delayed as he gave an interview with the BBC revealing he began using drugs at the beginning of 2002 , not since August 2003 , as he had claimed to the IAAF . After further disclosure ( that took away his European 100 m gold medal and invalidated his European record of 9 @.@ 87 s ) ,
Chambers was cleared to compete on 10 June 2006 , although his return was dependent on an agreement to repay prize money he won while using banned substances . He returned to competition on 11 June 2006 at the British Grand Prix and took third in 10 @.@ 07 s , behind Asafa Powell who equalled his own world record . Chambers stated that his training regime with Bolt had helped him make a strong opening performance despite a long absence from competition . The result placed Chambers at the top of the British rankings and was the second fastest time by a European sprinter in 2006 .
Chambers lamented the effects of his drug use and noted the irony that the drugs did not do much to improve the consistency of his performances . On his return to international competition his times were significantly worse than he achieved prior to drug use : in the 100 m final at the 2006 European Championships , Chambers ran a sub @-@ par 10 @.@ 24 s and finished in fifth place . He was part of the gold medal @-@ winning British 4 × 100 m team , but Darren Campbell , who was angry about losing his 2002 and 2003 relay medals due to Chambers ' ban , refused to join the team in a celebratory lap . After the competition , Chambers again expressed an interest in switching to American football and completed a week @-@ long NFL Europa training camp in Cologne that November .
= = = NFL Europa = = =
After attending a series of NFL Europa training camps , he gained a professional contract with German NFL Europa side Hamburg Sea Devils in March 2007 . Following news that Chambers was receiving new , legal nutritional supplements from Victor Conte , the Hamburg Sea Devils confirmed that Chambers would undergo a vigorous drug testing regime .
Chambers reflected on drug use in athletics in an interview with Olympic gold medallist Sir Matthew Pinsent for the BBC 's Inside Sport programme . Chambers claimed there would always be athletes using performance @-@ enhancing drugs because drug testers did not keep pace with advances in science and that athletes who took drugs had an immense advantage over those who remained clean . Chambers was roundly condemned for his comments in the interview by both the press and his former colleagues in the athletics world , including Sir Steve Redgrave , Mo Farah , and Sebastian Coe , although former 100 m world record holder Asafa Powell supported Chambers ' claims .
Chambers ' American football career was brought to a standstill when a stress fracture injury on his right foot ruled him out for the season . The situation worsened further when the NFL closed the European league on 29 June 2007 leaving Chambers jobless . He returned as a TV personality on reality television show Cirque de Celebrité in October but was unpopular with the public and subsequently voted off .
= = = Athletics again and rugby league = = =
Following the collapse of the NFL Europa franchise , Chambers made a second return to athletics in early 2008 . Competing in the 60 m indoor final at the Birmingham Games in February 2008 , he finished with a time of 6 @.@ 60 s , setting a new meeting record . UK Athletics chief executive Niels de Vos initially banned Chambers from competing in the trials for the 2008 IAAF World Indoor Championships but , after the IAAF overruled the decision , Chambers won the event and selection . UK Athletics stated that committee was " unanimous in its desire not to select Dwain " but were forced to by the selection criteria , saying they would have preferred to send younger athletes eligible for the Olympics .
At the World Indoor Championships 60 metres final , Chambers won a silver medal and recorded a new personal best of 6 @.@ 54 s to take second behind Olusoji Fasuba . The performance did not sway opinion : Chambers continued to encounter extensive criticism within athletics . Promoters did not invite him to key athletics events , Eddie Kulukundis – who had supported Chambers earlier in his career – refused to sponsor the sprinter , and the British Olympic Association ( BOA ) , prevented him from competing in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . To return to the track Chambers had to rely on the money he received from his partner , Leonie Daley , a civil servant whom he met at the Miss Jamaica UK competition . The couple now had a child , a boy named Skye who was born in September 2005 , and Chambers desperately needed to earn a living to support his family and pay off debts incurred through the drug ban . He amassed a selection of cuttings about his fall from grace and the BALCO Scandal in order to show his son the risks of drug abuse .
Chambers tried to fashion himself as a living example of the dangers of drugs , sporting a T @-@ shirt in Valencia with an anti @-@ drugs slogan of " Just Say No ! " . He also expressed regret about previous comments suggesting that drug use was necessary to reach the upper echelons of athletics and set about presenting himself as a changed , clean athlete – devoid of the bravado that had marked his earlier career . Chambers ' reinvention was met with a mixed reaction and the acceptance of a proven drug user on the track was not palatable to some . Dame Kelly Holmes and parts of the British press called for Chambers to retire from the Great Britain athletics team .
Chambers ' return to athletics took an unusual turn when he confirmed in March 2008 that he had joined English rugby league team Castleford Tigers on trial ; a move which surprised and angered in equal measure given the fact he had never played the sport before . The Rugby Football League did not object to the move , in spite of his drug @-@ damaged reputation , but stated much improvement was needed prior to any appearance for Castleford in the Super League competition . At a rugby press conference , Chambers expressed a desire to compete in the Beijing Olympics , casting doubt on his dedication to his new career . Chambers officially registered as a player with the Rugby Football League , and Martin Offiah declared that he was prepared to mentor Chambers . He completed training with the Castleford Tigers first @-@ team squad and made his debut in a reserve game against York City Knights , but Castleford announced that they would not be offering him a contract .
= = = High Court challenge = = =
In May 2008 Chambers announced that he was challenging his Olympic ban at the High Court of Justice . Chambers returned to sprinting in June and , in his first 100 m race since August 2006 , he won the Papaflessia meet with a time of 10 @.@ 26 s . He achieved the " A " Standard for the 2008 Beijing Olympics in June and won the British Olympic trials in ten seconds flat in July . Public opinion on an Olympic appearance remained split .
His performance at the Olympic trials was in vain as Mr. Justice Mackay upheld the BOA ban in the High Court of Justice and stated that a right to work was not sufficient reason to remove it . The BOA chairman , Lord Moynihan , was satisfied with the outcome , stating that those abusing drugs did not deserve to represent Great Britain at the Olympics . However , he lamented that a sprinter of Chambers ' calibre had in effect excluded himself from the competition .
The effort of the High Court challenge and the Olympic
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megatooth species to extant whites .
Gottfried and Fordyce pointed out that some great white shark fossils are about 16 million years old and predate the transitional Pliocene fossils . In addition , the Oligocene C. megalodon records contradict the suggestion that C. chubutensis is the immediate ancestor of C. megalodon . These records also indicate that C. megalodon co @-@ existed with C. angustidens .
Some paleontologists argue that the genus Otodus should be used for sharks within the Carcharocles lineage and that the genus Carcharocles should be discarded .
Several Carcharocles proponents ( i.e. C. Pimiento , D. J. Ehret , B. J. MacFadden , and G. Hubbell ) claim that both species belong to the order Lamniformes , and in the absence of living members of the family Otodontidae , the great white shark is the species most ecologically analogous to C. megalodon .
= = Anatomy = =
Among extant species , the great white shark is regarded as the best analogue to C. megalodon . The lack of well @-@ preserved fossil C. megalodon skeletons led scientists to rely on the great white shark as the basis of its reconstruction and size estimation .
= = = Size estimation = = =
Due to fragmentary remains , estimating the size of C. megalodon has been challenging . However , the scientific community has concluded that C. megalodon was larger than the whale shark , Rhincodon typus . Scientists focused on two aspects of size : total length and body mass .
= = = = Length = = = =
The first attempt to reconstruct the jaw of C. megalodon was made by Bashford Dean in 1909 . From the dimensions of this jaw reconstruction , it was hypothesized that C. megalodon could have approached 30 metres ( 98 ft ) . Better knowledge of dentition and more accurate muscle structures , led to a rectified version of Dean 's jaw model about 70 percent of its original size and to a size consistent with modern findings . To resolve such errors , scientists , aided by new fossil discoveries of C. megalodon and improved knowledge of its closest living analogue 's anatomy , introduced more quantitative methods for estimating its size based on the statistical relationships between the tooth sizes and body lengths . Some methods are mentioned below .
= = = = = Enamel height = = = = =
In 1973 , Hawaiian ichthyologist John E. Randall used a plotted graph to demonstrate a relationship between the enamel height ( the vertical distance of the blade from the base of the enamel portion of the tooth to its tip ) of the largest tooth in the upper jaw of the great white shark and the shark 's total length . Randall extrapolated this method to estimate C. megalodon 's total length . Randall cited two C. megalodon teeth in his work , specimen number 10356 at the American Museum of Natural History and specimen number 25730 at the United States National Museum , which had enamel heights of 115 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) and 117 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 63 in ) , respectively . These teeth yielded a corresponding total length of about 13 metres ( 43 ft ) . In 1991 , Richard Ellis and John E. McCosker claimed that tooth enamel height does not necessarily increase in proportion to the animal 's total length .
= = = = = Largest anterior tooth height = = = = =
In 1996 , after scrutinizing 73 great white shark specimens , Michael D. Gottfried , Leonard Compagno and S. Curtis Bowman proposed a linear relationship between the shark 's total length and the height of the largest upper anterior tooth . The proposed relationship is : total length in metres = − ( 0 @.@ 096 ) × [ UA maximum height ( mm ) ] - ( 0 @.@ 22 ) . Gottfried and colleagues then extrapolated their technique to C. megalodon . The biggest C. megalodon tooth in the possession of this team , one discovered by Compagno in 1993 , was an upper second anterior specimen , the maximum height of which was 168 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) . It yielded an estimated total length for C. megalodon of 15 @.@ 9 metres ( 52 ft ) . Rumors of larger C. megalodon teeth persisted at the time . The maximum tooth height for this method is measured as a vertical line from the tip of the crown to the bottom of the lobes of the root , parallel to the long axis of the tooth . In layman 's terms , the maximum height of the tooth is its slant height .
= = = = = Root width = = = = =
In 2002 , shark researcher Clifford Jeremiah proposed that total length was proportional to the root width of an upper anterior tooth . He claimed that for every 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) of root width , there are approximately 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) of shark length . Jeremiah pointed out that the jaw perimeter of a shark is directly proportional to its total length , with the width of the roots of the largest teeth being a tool for estimating jaw perimeter . The largest tooth in Jeremiah 's possession had a root width of about 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , which yielded 16 @.@ 5 metres ( 54 ft ) in total length . Ward asserted that this method is based on a sound principle that works well with most large sharks .
= = = = = Crown height = = = = =
In 2002 , paleontologist Kenshu Shimada of DePaul University proposed a linear relationship between tooth crown height and total length in great white sharks after conducting anatomical analysis of several specimens . This relationship is expressed as : total length in centimetres = a + bx , where a is a constant , b is the slope of the line and x is the crown height of tooth in millimetres . This relationship allowed any tooth to be used for the estimate . The crown height was measured as maximum vertical enameloid height on the labial side . Shimada pointed out that previously proposed methods were based on weaker evaluation of dental homology , and that the growth rate between the crown and root is not isometric , which he considered in his model . Furthermore , this relationship could be used to predict the total length of sharks that are morphologically similar to the great white shark , such as C. megalodon . Using this model , the upper anterior tooth ( with maximum height of 168 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) ) possessed by Gottfried and colleagues corresponded to a total length of 15 @.@ 1 metres ( 50 ft ) . In 2010 , shark researchers Catalina Pimiento , Dana J. Ehret , Bruce J. MacFadden and Gordon Hubbell estimated the total length of C. megalodon on the basis of Shimada 's method . Among the specimens found in the Gatun Formation of Panama , specimen number 237956 yielded a total length of 16 @.@ 8 metres ( 55 ft ) . Later on , shark researchers ( including Pimiento , Ehret and MacFadden ) revisited the Gatun Formation and recovered additional specimens . Specimen number 257579 yielded a total length of 17 @.@ 9 metres ( 59 ft ) on the basis of Shimada 's method .
= = = = = Consensus = = = = =
In the 1990s , marine biologists such as Patrick J. Schembri and Staphon Papson opined that C. megalodon may have approached a maximum of around 24 to 25 metres ( 79 to 82 ft ) in total length ; however , Gottfried and colleagues asserted that C. megalodon could have reached a maximum of 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 67 ft ) in total length . However , a commonly acknowledged maximum total length of C. megalodon is 18 metres ( 59 ft ) .
= = = = = Largest known specimens = = = = =
Gordon Hubbell from Gainesville , Florida , possesses an upper anterior C. megalodon tooth whose maximum height is 184 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 25 in ) . In addition , a C. megalodon jaw reconstruction contains a tooth whose maximum height is reportedly 193 @.@ 67 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 625 in ) . This jaw reconstruction was developed by fossil hunter Vito Bertucci , who was known as " Megalodon Man " .
= = = = Body mass estimates = = = =
Gottfried and colleagues introduced a method to determine the mass of the great white after studying the length – mass relationship data of 175 specimens at various growth stages and extrapolated it to estimate C. megalodon 's mass . According to their model , a 15 @.@ 9 metres ( 52 ft ) long C. megalodon would have a mass of about 48 metric tons ( 53 short tons ) , a 17 metres ( 56 ft ) long C. megalodon would have a mass of about 59 metric tons ( 65 short tons ) , and a 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 67 ft ) long C. megalodon would have a mass of 103 metric tons ( 114 short tons ) .
= = = Dentition and jaw mechanics = = =
A team of Japanese scientists , T. Uyeno , O. Sakamoto , and H. Sekine , discovered and excavated partial remains of a C. megalodon , with its nearly complete associated set of teeth , from Saitama , Japan , in 1989 . Another nearly complete associated C. megalodon dentition was excavated from the Yorktown Formations of Lee Creek , Aurora , North Carolina , in the United States and served as the basis of a jaw reconstruction of C. megalodon at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . These associated tooth sets solved the mystery of how many teeth would be in each row of the jaws of C. megalodon . As a result , highly accurate jaw reconstructions became possible . More associated C. megalodon dentitions were found in later years . Based on these discoveries , scientists S. Applegate and L. Espinosa published an artificial dental formula ( representation of dentition of an animal with respect to types of teeth and their arrangement within the animal 's jaw ) for C. megalodon in 1996 . Most accurate modern C. megalodon jaw reconstructions are based on this dental formula .
The dental formula of C. megalodon is : 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 43 @.@ 0 @.@ 8 @.@ 4 .
As evident from the formula , C. megalodon had four kinds of teeth in its jaws .
Anterior - A
Intermediate - I ( C. megalodon 's tooth technically appears to be an upper anterior and is termed as " A3 " because it is fairly symmetrical and does not point mesially ( side of the tooth toward the midline of the jaws where the left and right jaws meet ) , but this tooth is still designated as an intermediate tooth . However , the great white shark 's intermediate tooth does point mesially . This point was raised in the Carcharodon vs. Carcharocles debate regarding the megalodon and favors the case of Carcharocles proponents . )
Lateral - L
Posterior - P
C. megalodon had a very robust dentition , and had a total of about 276 teeth in its jaws , spanning 5 rows . Paleontologists suggest that a very large C. megalodon had jaws over 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) across .
= = = = Bite force = = = =
In 2008 , a team of scientists led by S. Wroe conducted an experiment to determine the bite force of the great white shark , using a 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long specimen , and then isometrically scaling the results for its maximum confirmed size and the conservative minimum and maximum body mass of C. megalodon , placing the bite force of the latter between 108 @,@ 514 N ( 24 @,@ 400 lbf ) and 182 @,@ 201 N ( 41 @,@ 000 lbf ) in a posterior bite . Compared to 18 @,@ 216 N ( 4 @,@ 095 lbf ) for the largest confirmed great white shark , and 5 @,@ 300 N ( 1 @,@ 200 lbf ) for the placoderm fish Dunkleosteus .
In addition , Wroe and colleagues pointed out that sharks shake sideways while feeding , amplifying the post @-@ cranial generated forces . Therefore , the total force experienced by prey is probably higher than the estimate . The extraordinary bite forces in C. megalodon must be considered in the context of its great size and of paleontological evidence suggesting that C. megalodon was an active predator of large whales .
= = = = Functional parameters of teeth = = = =
The teeth of C. megalodon were exceptionally robust and serrated , which would have improved efficiency in slicing its prey 's flesh . Paleontologist B. K. Kent suggested that these teeth are comparatively thicker for their size with much lower slenderness and bending strength ratios . Their roots are substantially larger relative to total tooth heights , and so have a greater mechanical advantage . Teeth with these traits are good cutting tools and are well suited for grasping powerful prey and would seldom crack even when slicing through bones .
= = = Skeletal anatomy = = =
Gottfried and colleagues further estimated the schematics of C. megalodon 's entire skeleton . To support the beast 's dentition , its jaws would have been massive , stouter , and more strongly developed than those of the great white , which possesses a comparatively gracile dentition . The jaws would have given it a " pig @-@ eyed " profile . Its chondrocranium would have had a blockier and more robust appearance than that of the great white . Its fins were proportional to its larger size . Scrutiny of the partially preserved vertebral C. megalodon specimen from Belgium revealed that C. megalodon had a higher vertebral count than specimens of any known shark . Only the great white approached it .
Using the above characteristics , Gottfried and colleagues reconstructed the entire skeleton of C. megalodon , which was later put on display at the Calvert Marine Museum at Solomon 's Island , Maryland , in the United States . This reconstruction is 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 38 ft ) long and represents a young individual . The team stresses that relative and proportional changes in the skeletal features of C. megalodon are ontogenetic in nature in comparison to those of the great white , as they occur in great white sharks while growing . Fossil remains of C. megalodon confirm that it had a heavily calcified skeleton while alive .
= = Paleobiological and paleoecological considerations = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
Sharks , especially large species , are highly mobile and experience a complex life history amid wide distribution . Fossil records indicate that C. megalodon was cosmopolitan , and commonly occurred in subtropical to temperate latitudes . It has been found at latitudes up to 55 ° N ; its inferred tolerated temperature range goes down to an annual mean of 12 ° C ( an annual range of 1 – 24 ° C ) . It arguably had the capacity to endure such low temperatures by virtue of mesothermy , the physiological capability of large sharks to conserve metabolic heat by maintaining a higher body temperature than the surrounding water .
C. megalodon had enough adaptability to inhabit a wide range of marine environments ( i.e. , shallow coastal waters , areas of coastal upwelling , swampy coastal lagoons , sandy littorals , and offshore deep water environments ) , and exhibited a transient lifestyle . Adult C. megalodon were not abundant in shallow water environments , and mostly lurked offshore . C. megalodon may have moved between coastal and oceanic waters , particularly in different stages of its life cycle .
Fossil remains show a trend for specimens to be larger in the southern hemisphere than in the northern ( mean lengths of 11 @.@ 6 vs 9 @.@ 6 m , respectively ) and in the Pacific relative to the Atlantic ( 10 @.@ 9 vs. 9 @.@ 5 m ) . They do not , however , suggest any trend of changing body size with absolute latitude , or of change in size over time ( although the megatooth lineage in general is thought to display a trend of increasing size over time ) . The overall modal length has been estimated at 10 @.@ 5 m , with the length distribution skewed towards larger individuals , suggesting an ecological or competitive advantage for larger body size .
= = = Prey relationships = = =
Sharks generally are opportunistic predators , but scientists propose that C. megalodon was " arguably the most formidable carnivore ever to have existed " . Its great size , high @-@ speed swimming capability , and powerful jaws , coupled with a formidable killing apparatus , made it a super @-@ predator capable of consuming a broad spectrum of fauna . A study about calcium isotopes of extinct and extant elasmobranchs revealed that C. megalodon fed at a higher trophic level than the contemporaneous great white shark .
Fossil evidence indicates that C. megalodon preyed upon cetaceans ( i.e. , dolphins ) , small whales , ( including cetotheriids , squalodontids , and Odobenocetops ) , and large whales , ( including sperm whales , bowhead whales , and rorquals ) , pinnipeds , porpoises , sirenians , and giant sea turtles . Marine mammals were regular prey targets for C. megalodon . Many whale bones have been found with clear signs of large bite marks ( deep gashes ) made by teeth that match the teeth of C. megalodon . Various excavations have revealed C. megalodon teeth lying close to the chewed remains of whales , and sometimes in direct association with them . Fossil evidence of interactions between C. megalodon and pinnipeds also exist . In one interesting observation , a 127 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) C. megalodon tooth was found lying very close to a bitten earbone of a sea lion .
= = = Competition and impact on marine communities = = =
C. megalodon faced a highly competitive environment . However , its position at the top of the food chain probably had a profound impact on the structuring of marine communities . Fossil evidence indicates a correlation between C. megalodon emergence and extensive diversification of cetaceans . Juvenile C. megalodon preferred habitats where small cetaceans were abundant , and adult C. megalodon preferred habitats where large cetaceans were abundant . Such preferences may have developed shortly after they appeared in the Oligocene .
C. megalodon were contemporaneous with macro @-@ predatory odontocetes ( particularly raptorial sperm whales and squalodontids ) , which were also probably among the era 's apex predators , and provided competition . In response to competition from giant macro @-@ predatory sharks , macro @-@ predatory odontocetes may have evolved defensive adaptations ; some species became pack predators , and some attained gigantic sizes , such as Livyatan melvillei . By late Miocene , raptorial sperm whales experienced a significant decline in abundance and diversity . However , raptorial delphinids began to emerge during the Pliocene , to fill this ecological void .
Like other sharks , C. megalodon also would have been piscivorous . Fossil evidence indicates that other notable species of macro @-@ predatory sharks ( e.g. , great white sharks ) responded to competitive pressure from C. megalodon by avoiding regions it inhabited . C. megalodon probably also had a tendency for cannibalism .
= = = Feeding strategies = = =
Sharks often employ complex hunting strategies to engage large prey animals . Some paleontologists suggest that great white shark hunting strategies may offer clues as to how C. megalodon hunted its unusually large prey . However , fossil evidence suggests that C. megalodon employed even more effective hunting strategies against large prey than the great white shark .
Paleontologists surveyed fossils to determine attacking patterns . One particular specimen – the remains of a 9 metres ( 30 ft ) long prehistoric baleen whale ( of an unknown Miocene taxon ) – provided the first opportunity to quantitatively analyze its attack behavior . The predator primarily focused on the tough bony portions ( i.e. , shoulders , flippers , rib cage , and upper spine ) of the prey , which great white sharks generally avoid . Dr. B. Kent elaborated that C. megalodon attempted to crush the bones and damage delicate organs ( i.e. , heart and lungs ) harbored within the rib cage . Such an attack would have immobilized the prey , which would have died quickly from injuries to these vital organs . These findings also clarify why the ancient shark needed more robust dentition than that of the great white shark . Furthermore , attack patterns could differ for prey of different sizes . Fossil remains of some small cetaceans ( e.g. cetotheriids ) suggest that they were rammed with great force from below before being killed and eaten .
During the Pliocene , larger and more advanced cetaceans appeared . C. megalodon apparently further refined its hunting strategies to cope with these large whales . Numerous fossilized flipper bones ( i.e. , segments of the pectoral fins ) and caudal vertebrae of large whales from the Pliocene have been found with C. megalodon bite marks . This paleontological evidence suggests that C. megalodon would immobilize a large whale by ripping apart or biting off its locomotive structures before killing and feeding on it .
= = = Nursery areas = = =
Fossil evidence suggests that the preferred nursery sites of C. megalodon were warm water coastal environments , where threats were minor and food plentiful . Nursery sites were identified in the Gatun Formation of Panama , the Calvert Formation of Maryland , Banco de Concepción in the Canary Islands , and the Bone Valley Formation of Florida . As is the case with most sharks , C. megalodon gave birth to live young . The size of neonate C. megalodon teeth indicate that pups were around 2 to 4 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) in total length at birth . Their dietary preferences display an ontogenetic shift . Young C. megalodon commonly preyed on fish , giant sea turtles , dugongs and small cetaceans ; mature C. megalodon moved to off @-@ shore cetacean high @-@ use areas and consumed large cetaceans .
However , an exceptional case in the fossil record suggests that juvenile C. megalodon may occasionally have attacked much larger balaenopterid whales . Three tooth marks apparently from a 4 – 7 @-@ metre ( 13 @.@ 1 – 23 @.@ 0 ft ) long Pliocene macro @-@ predatory shark were found on a rib from an ancestral great blue or humpback whale that showed evidence of subsequent healing . Scientists suspect that this shark was a juvenile C. megalodon .
= = Extinction = =
The subject of C. megalodon ’ s extinction remains under investigation . Several possible causes for its decline and eventual disappearance have been proposed .
= = = Environmental factors = = =
= = = = Oceanic cooling and sea level drops = = = =
The Earth has been in a long term cooling trend since the Miocene Climactic Optimum , 15 – 17 Ma ago . This trend may have been accelerated by changes in global ocean circulation caused by the closure of the Central American Seaway and / or other factors ( see Pliocene climate ) , setting the stage for glaciation in the northern hemisphere . Consequently , during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene , there were ice ages , which cooled the oceans significantly . Expansion of glaciation during the Pliocene tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets , resulting in significant sea level drops . It has been argued that this cooling trend adversely impacted C. megalodon , as it preferred warmer waters , causing it to decline in abundance until its ultimate extinction at the end of the Pliocene . Fossil evidence confirms the absence of C. megalodon in regions around the world where water temperatures had significantly declined during the Pliocene . Furthermore , these oceanographic changes may have restricted many of the suitable warm water nursery sites for C. megalodon , hindering reproduction . Nursery areas are pivotal for the survival of many shark species , in part because they protect juveniles from predation .
= = = Biotic factors = = =
= = = = Decline in food supply = = = =
Baleen whales attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene , with over 20 recognized genera in comparison to only six extant genera . Such diversity presented an ideal setting to support a gigantic macropredator such as C. megalodon . However , by the end of the Miocene many species of mysticetes had gone extinct ; surviving species may have been faster swimmers and thus more elusive prey . Furthermore , after the closure of the Central American Seaway , additional extinctions occurred in the marine environment , and faunal redistribution took place ; tropical great whales decreased in diversity and abundance . Whale migratory patterns during the Pliocene have been reconstructed from the fossil record , suggesting that most surviving species of whales showed a trend towards polar regions . The cooling of the oceans during the Pliocene might have restricted the access of C. megalodon to polar regions , depriving it of its main food source of large whales . As a result of these developments , the food supply for C. megalodon in regions it inhabited during the Pliocene , primarily in low @-@ to @-@ mid latitudes , was no longer sufficient to sustain it worldwide . C. megalodon was adapted to a specialized lifestyle , and this lifestyle was disturbed by these developments . Paleontologist Albert Sanders suggests that C. megalodon was too large to sustain itself on the declining tropical food supply . The resulting shortage of food sources in the tropics during Plio @-@ Pleistocene times may have fueled cannibalism by C. megalodon . Juveniles were at increased risk from attacks by adults during times of starvation .
= = = = Competitive pressures = = = =
Large raptorial delphinids ( members of genus Orcinus ) evolved during the Pliocene , and probably filled the ecological void left by the disappearance of raptorial sperm whales at the end of the Miocene . A minority view is that competition from ancestral killer whales may have contributed to the shark 's decline ( another source suggests more generally that " competition with large odontocetes " may have been a factor ) . Fossil records indicate that these delphinids commonly occurred at high latitudes during the Pliocene , indicating that they could cope with the increasingly prevalent cold water temperatures . They also occurred in the tropics ( e.g. , Orcinus sp. in South Africa ) .
= = = Multiple causes = = =
Expert consensus has pointed to factors such as a cooling trend in the oceans and a shortage of food sources during Plio @-@ Pleistocene times having played a significant role in the demise of C. megalodon .
However , a recent analysis of the distribution , abundance and climatic range of C. megalodon over geologic time suggests that biotic factors , i.e. dwindling numbers of prey species combined with competition from new macro @-@ predators ( raptorial sperm whales , great white sharks and killer whales ) , were the primary drivers of its extinction . The distribution of C. megalodon during the Miocene and Pliocene did not correlate with warming and cooling trends ; while the abundance and distribution of C. megalodon declined during the Pliocene , C. megalodon did show a capacity to inhabit anti @-@ tropical latitudes . C. megalodon was found in locations with a mean temperature ranging from 12 to 27 ° C ( with a total range of from 1 to 33 ° C ) , indicating that the global extent of suitable habitat for C. megalodon should not have been greatly affected by the temperature changes that occurred .
The extinction of C. megalodon set the stage for further changes in marine communities . Average body size of baleen whales increased significantly after its disappearance . Other apex predators gained from the loss of this formidable species , in some cases spreading to regions where C. megalodon became absent .
= = In fiction = =
C. megalodon has been portrayed in several works of fiction , including films and novels , and continues to hold its place among the most popular subjects for fiction involving sea monsters . Many of these works posit that at least a relict population of C. megalodon survived extinction and lurk in the vast depths of the ocean , and that individuals may manage to surface , either by human intervention or by natural means . Jim Shepard 's story " Tedford and the Megalodon " is an example of this . Such beliefs are usually inspired by the discovery of a C. megalodon tooth by members of HMS Challenger in 1872 , which some believed to be only 10 @,@ 000 years old .
Some works of fiction ( such as Shark Attack 3 : Megalodon and Steve Alten 's Meg series ) incorrectly depict C. megalodon as being a species over 70 million years old , and to have lived during the time of the dinosaurs . The writers of the movie Shark Attack 3 : Megalodon depicted this assumption by including an altered copy of Great White Shark by shark researcher Richard Ellis . The copy shown in the film had several pages that do not exist in the book . The author sued the film 's distributor , Lions Gate Entertainment , asking for a halt to the film 's distribution along with $ 150 @,@ 000 in damages . Steve Alten 's Meg : A Novel of Deep Terror is probably best known for portraying this inaccuracy with its prologue and cover artwork depicting C. megalodon killing a tyrannosaur in the sea .
The Animal Planet fictional documentary , Mermaids : The Body Found , included an encounter 1 @.@ 6 million years ago between a pod of mermaids and a C. megalodon . Later , in August 2013 , the Discovery Channel opened its annual Shark Week series with another film for television Megalodon : The Monster Shark Lives , a controversial docufiction about the creature that presented alleged evidence in order to suggest that C. megalodon was still alive . This program received criticism for being completely fictional ; for example , all of the supposed " scientists " depicted were paid actors . In 2014 Discovery re @-@ aired " The Monster Shark Lives " , along with a new one @-@ hour program , " Megalodon : The New Evidence " , and an additional fictionalized program entitled " Shark of Darkness : Wrath of Submarine " , resulting in further backlash from media sources and the scientific community .
= = = Paleontological videos = = =
Note : Flash Player is required to view the content below .
Megalodon Giant Shark – National Geographic ( full documentary )
Video Gallery containing video clips featuring megalodon from Discovery Channel
Paleontologist Mark Renz shows a huge megalodon tooth ( one of the largest ever discovered ) on YouTube
A video clip on YouTube depicting aggressive interspecific interactions between megalodon and a pod of killer odontoceti ( Brygmophyseter shigensis ) from History Channel
Animated size comparison of megalodon with great white shark , human , and school bus from North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences on YouTube .
Prehistoric Washington DC : Mega Shark from Discovery Channel ( depicts megalodon 's prey attacking strategies )
Shark Week Special on megalodon with Pat McCarthy and John Babiarz on YouTube with comments on its extinction .
Megalodon fossil teeth show evidence of 10 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old shark nursery on YouTube
Expert view : information about megalodon on YouTube ( featuring expert Dana Ehret )
Lamniform sharks : 110 million years of ocean supremacy on YouTube ( featuring expert Mikael Siverson )
The Rise and Fall of the Neogene Giant Sharks on YouTube ( featuring expert Bretton Kent )
Clash of the Americas on YouTube ( Megalodon 's extinction discussed )
= 1979 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season =
The 1979 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season was the team 's fourth in the National Football League . After having won just seven games in the previous three seasons combined , the 1979 Buccaneers won ten games making this their first winning season . They finished as NFC Central division champions , and won the first playoff game in franchise history .
The Buccaneers added offensive threats to complement their solid defense ; a healthy Doug Williams played his first full season and Ricky Bell became the team 's first 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard back , rushing for a career @-@ high 1 @,@ 263 yards .
The 1979 team not only posted their first winning record , but earned a playoff spot by winning the NFC Central division title . The playoff spot was secured in the final week in a rain @-@ sodden game against the Kansas City Chiefs , with the only score being a 19 @-@ yard field goal by Neil O 'Donoghue . They then recorded their first @-@ ever playoff win by defeating the Philadelphia Eagles behind Bell 's 142 yards rushing . Tampa Bay hosted the 1979 NFC Championship Game the following week , but lost 9 – 0 to the Los Angeles Rams .
= = Offseason = =
= = = NFL Draft = = =
= = = = Draft @-@ Pick trades = = = =
The Buccaneers had no selection in the first round , that pick having been traded to the Chicago Bears for defensive end Wally Chambers ( the Bears used the pick to select Dan Hampton ) . The Buccaneers had extra picks in the second and third rounds in return for trading nose tackle Dave Pear to the Oakland Raiders . They also had extra third and fifth round picks from the Houston Oilers , as part of the 1978 trade for the Buccaneers ' first overall pick . They received a third @-@ round pick from the Baltimore Colts in return for running back Dan Hardeman . The Buccaneers ' own third @-@ round pick went to the Miami Dolphins as NFL @-@ ordered compensation for signing Randy Crowder . Defensive end Council Rudolph was traded to the Dolphins in return for an eighth @-@ round pick . Other picks were traded as follows : round 4 to the Detroit Lions for Rockne Freitas , round 5 to the Seattle Seahawks , round six to Oakland for Rik Bonness , round seven to the Washington Redskins for Frank Grant , round eight to the New York Jets for Darrell Austin , and round ten to the San Francisco 49ers for Jim Obradovich .
= = = = Draft selections = = = =
The Buccaneers doubled the size of their scouting staff from two to four , hoping to get more mileage out of the later rounds of the draft . Greg Roberts was the 1978 Outland Trophy winner , and blocked for 1978 Heisman Trophy winner Billy Sims . The Buccaneers had him rated as the best lineman in the draft , and expected him to have been selected long before the second round , where the Buccaneers had their highest selection . He is believed to have fallen to the second round due to an inability to pass @-@ block , having played at the run @-@ heavy University of Oklahoma . This resulted in a poor performance at the Senior Bowl . Gordon Jones , with a 4 @.@ 59 time in the 40 @-@ yard dash , drew pre @-@ draft comparisons to Lynn Swann , but dropped to the second round due to concerns over his speed . He was the third receiver selected overall . Roberts and Jones both left the Buccaneers after four seasons . Jerry Eckwood and Rick Berns were selected to address injury problems at running back . Eckwood had been second in the nation in rushing ( behind Ricky Bell ) before being injured in 1975 . Berns was at the time the leading rusher in Nebraska history . Eckwood and Berns impressed McKay enough in mini @-@ camp that he traded Louis Carter away . Gene Sanders played for several seasons , after successfully converting to offensive tackle . Twelfth @-@ round selection Dave Logan , the lowest @-@ round draft selection to stick with the team , went on to become one of the Buccaneers ' best and most popular players .
= = = Preseason = = =
= = = = Offseason personnel changes = = = =
Dave Pear , the Buccaneers ' first Pro Bowl selection and most popular player , was traded to the Oakland Raiders for two draft picks . This was partly to get extra help in what was expected to be a strong offensive draft , but also because Pear had requested that he be traded if his contract could not be renegotiated . Dave Green , the punter and kicker through the first three seasons , had to be replaced when he tore his achilles tendon stepping over a tackling dummy in training camp .
= = = = Cancellation of Dolphins scrimmage = = = =
Miami Dolphins owner Joe Robbie canceled the yearly preseason matchup in Tampa , claiming that the Buccaneers approached the matchup with excessive intensity , resulting in Dolphin injuries . A dispute with Buccaneers owner Hugh Culverhouse was also a factor , as Culverhouse was promoting a proposed rule to ban NFL owners and their families from holding controlling interest in other sports teams . Robbie 's wife Elizabeth was the owner of the NASL Ft . Lauderdale Strikers .
= = 1979 Roster = =
= = Coaching staff = =
= = Regular season = =
The Buccaneers surprised the NFL by reeling off wins in their first five games , an accomplishment that left them as the season 's last undefeated team and landed them on the cover of Sports Illustrated . It also put them in first place for good in the NFC Central . The team 's youth became an issue later on , as they went into a late @-@ season losing streak on the verge of earning their first playoff spot . It was felt that more veteran leadership would have helped the team during the stretch run . Linebacker Dave Lewis publicly stated that the team was " choking " , while Selmon compared the difficulty of getting the playoff @-@ clinching win to the difficulty of getting the expansion team 's first win . After dropping three games in a row , of which winning any of the three would have clinched the division , McKay launched into an obscenity @-@ laced tirade against reporters who called the team a " laughingstock " and " Chokeneers " . Even against a schedule that featured only two opponents with winning records it took until the final game of the season for the Buccaneers to win their tenth game . A better conference record gave the Buccaneers the division win over the also @-@ 10 @-@ 6 Chicago Bears . Of all NFC Central teams other than the Vikings , the Buccaneers became only the second to win the division since 1970 , and the only one to advance in the playoffs . The Buccaneers were considered by many to be an unworthy division champion , even called " cheesecake champions " by opponents , until they advanced to the NFC Championship with a 24 – 17 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles . There , with several key players injured , they held the Los Angeles Rams to nine points , but were held scoreless on offense to end their season one game short of the Super Bowl .
= = = Schedule = = =
Tan indicates game was on Saturday
= = = = Game 1 : vs. Detroit Lions = = = =
September 1 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Rookie running back Jerry Eckwood rushed for a team record 121 yards , and the overall total of 229 yards rushing also set a team record . Lions quarterback Joe Reed was knocked out of the game in the third quarter with a groin injury . When Wally Chambers forced the Lions ' Horace King to fumble in the first quarter , Lee Roy Selmon returned the ball 29 yards for a touchdown . A 62 @-@ yard drive led to a touchdown by Ricky Bell , followed by a 66 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Doug Williams to Jimmie Giles . The Buccaneers then ate up 8 ½ minutes of the third quarter , finishing off with a touchdown pass to Jim Obradovich .
= = = = Game 2 : at Baltimore Colts = = = =
September 9 , 1979 at Memorial Stadium , Baltimore , Maryland
The Buccaneers overcame a shaky start in which they were penalized for 80 yards in the first quarter . Then , later , they had to overcome a fourth @-@ quarter collapse in which they allowed the Colts to score 9 points that sent the Buccaneers into their first overtime game . Doug Williams ' first pass of the day was intercepted by Norman Thompson , but it took the Colts , hampered by the loss of quarterback Bert Jones and running back Joe Washington , 9 plays to get to the end zone from the Buccaneers ' 23 @-@ yard line . Lee Roy Selmon blocked an extra @-@ point attempt in the fourth quarter that preserved the tie and led to the overtime period . The Buccaneers ' ten sacks of Colts quarterback Greg Landry set a new team record . After Randy Crowder stripped the ball from Landry 1 : 31 into the overtime period , Neil O 'Donoghue was immediately sent in to kick the game @-@ winning 31 @-@ yard field goal . McKay pointed to the now @-@ stable lineup as a factor in the team 's improvement , saying that previously , you couldn 't call an audible because " one of the guys just got here Tuesday " .
= = = = Game 3 : at Green Bay = = = =
September 16 , 1979 at Lambeau Field , Green Bay , Wisconsin
After spending the first quarter making futile attempts at running through the middle of the Packer defense , the Buccaneers sent Jerry Eckwood around the left end for a 40 @-@ yard touchdown run . Eckwood ran for 99 yards , while Ricky Bell added another 97 on the way to a team @-@ record 235 rushing yards .
= = = = Game 4 : vs. Los Angeles Rams = = = =
September 23 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Jim Youngblood , who had been in on the sack that broke Doug Williams ' jaw the previous season , returned an early interception for a touchdown and a 6 – 0 lead . Shortly thereafter , Bill Kollar recovered a Lawrence McCutcheon fumble at the Rams 27 @-@ yard line , leading to a 15 @-@ yard touchdown reception by Larry Mucker . Neil O 'Donoghue 's extra point gave the Buccaneers the lead for good . The Buccaneers further added a 5 @-@ yard touchdown run by Ricky Bell and a 29 @-@ yard scoring pass to Jimmie Giles , all before the end of the second quarter . The Rams failed to cross midfield at all in the second half , and were held to only 97 yards passing on 35 attempts . McKay ,
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final minutes of the game that the Eagles were able to put together a long drive , ending in a touchdown pass to Harold Carmichael . The Buccaneers held the ball for over 36 minutes of the game . The Buccaneers ' defensive strategy revolved around stopping Carmichael and Montgomery . At one point , when Leroy Harris was gang @-@ tackled following a short reception , the entire Buccaneer defense was penalized for unnecessary roughing . The Buccaneers ' hard @-@ hitting play intimidated the Eagles ' receivers into dropping 10 passes . Going into the matchup , the Eagles were expected to have edges in playoff and quarterback experience . Jaworski was the third @-@ rated quarterback in the NFC , while Williams had the lowest rating of all NFC starting quarterbacks . The game represented a rematch of old coaching rivals , McKay of USC and Dick Vermeil of UCLA . The game was the Buccaneers ' first on national television . Word of the upset spread as far as Iran , where the hostages were surprised to learn of the Buccaneers ' contention for the Super Bowl .
= = = NFC Championship Game : vs. Los Angeles Rams = = =
Los Angeles Rams 9 , Tampa Bay Buccaneers 0
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
TV announcers ( CBS ) : Pat Summerall and Tom Brookshier
Referee : Pat Haggerty
The Los Angeles Rams , who had been hobbled by injuries much of the season , entered the playoffs with the worst record ( 9 – 7 ) of the six division winners . Rams defensive end Jack Youngblood played the game with a hairline fracture of his left leg , and Vince Ferragamo continued to start in place of the injured Pat Haden . On the other side of the ball , the Buccaneers lost Lee Roy Selmon and Cecil Johnson with ankle injuries , Doug Williams with a torn bicep , and Wally Chambers with a knee injury . Mike Washington and Dave Lewis also missed part of the game with injuries . The game was the Rams ' second consecutive playoff win against a team that had beaten them decisively during the regular season . Each team had a touchdown called back due to a penalty . The Rams also had a touchdown called back when it was ruled that receiver Preston Dennard did not maintain possession of the ball . The Rams offensive line was intact , unlike in the regular @-@ season matchup . This provided for 216 yards rushing and gave Ferragamo much time to complete passes . Another change from the earlier game was that Wendell Tyler had become the starting halfback for the Rams . With Tyler 's speed enabling the Rams to run outside , the Buccaneers were no longer able to clog the inside lanes with defenders and put the linebackers into coverage on passing downs . The Buc defense 's focus on Tyler freed Cullen Bryant to run for 106 yards on 18 carries . Meanwhile , Buc quarterbacks Williams and Mike Rae were 4 – 26 on pass attempts . It took until the third quarter for the Buccaneers to even pass midfield , on a halfback option pass from Jerry Eckwood to Larry Mucker .
= = Awards and honors = =
Lee Roy Selmon , National Football League Defensive Player of the Year Award
Lee Roy Selmon , NFL Defensive Lineman of the Year
Lee Roy Selmon , Pro Bowl selection
Lee Roy Selmon , Associated Press , Pro Football Weekly , Newspaper Enterprise Association , Pro Football Writers Association All @-@ Pro First Team selection
Lee Roy Selmon , Pro Football Weekly , The Sporting News , UPI First Team All @-@ NFC
Dave Lewis , UPI First Team All @-@ NFC , Second Team All @-@ NFL
Dewey Selmon , Associated Press Second Team All @-@ NFL
Greg Roberts , NFL All @-@ Rookie team
Ricky Bell , team MVP
John McKay , Football News Coach of the Year
The entire offensive line was honored by the National Football League Players Association as a symbol of unity in strength , for leading the NFL in fewest sacks allowed ( 12 )
= Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink =
" Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " is the seventh episode of the fifth season of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk , and the show 's 68th episode overall . The series follows Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Natalie Teeger ( Traylor Howard ) . In this episode , Dr. Charles Kroger ( Stanley Kamel ) , Monk 's psychiatrist , retires after blaming himself for the murder of his cleaning lady and Monk has to prove the culprit was not one of Kroger 's patients .
Written by Hy Conrad and directed by Andrei Belgrader , " Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " was created following a long @-@ time desire of the staff to center an episode on Kamel and make a vacuum bag pivotal in a mystery . When the episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on August 18 , 2006 , it was watched by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . The episode was generally well received by critics , with most of the praise regarding Kamel 's major role . It also led Shalhoub to be nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Charles Kroger ( Stanley Kamel ) arrives at his office and finds Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) and Harold Krenshaw ( Tim Bagley ) arguing over who should get the following session . They enter the office and find Teresa Mueller ( Lisa Dempsey ) , the building 's cleaning lady , dead , and some of the patient files scattered . Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Lieutenant Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) suspect that one of Dr. Kroger 's patients was responsible . Dr. Kroger says it can be Joseph Wheeler ( Kevin Fry ) , who threatened him in the past . Dr. Kroger blames himself for not predicting the murder , and decides to retire . Wheeler , however , is dismissed as a suspect as he has a confirmed alibi .
When Monk returns with Natalie ( Traylor Howard ) to Dr. Kroger 's office , they meet Francis Merrigan ( Gordon Clapp ) , who owns an importing and exporting business based in the same building . Merrigan is carrying a milk carton , which he says he is utilizing for a coffeemaker . That night , someone throws a rock through the window of Dr. Kroger 's house . Stottlemeyer and Disher keep the suspicion on one of Dr. Kroger 's patients . As they interview the Kroger family , they learn Kroger suspects his rebellious son Troy ( Cody McMains ) did it . Monk , however , believes that whoever killed Teresa might have thrown the rock to make everyone believe that one of Dr. Kroger 's patients is involved . Monk recognizes the rock , though he does not know where he saw it .
Dr. Kroger tells Monk he has found a therapist , Dr. Jonah Sorenson ( Rick Curry ) ; in session , he remembers where the rock came from . Monk goes to Dr. Kroger 's office and shows Dr. Kroger the rock came from the courtyard , to which only Dr. Kroger and Merrigan have access to . In Merrigan 's office , they find powdered milk but not a coffeemaker and , as powdered milk is made from lactose and drug dealers use it to cut heroin , Monk deduces Merrigan is trafficking drugs , and he probably also killed Teresa . Suddenly , Merrigan appears , ties them to chairs , and loads them into the back of his truck .
Inside the truck Monk sees a broken Turkish figurines and remembers the vacuum bag was empty . He deduces that Teresa , while cleaning Merrigan 's office , broke a figurine , which contained heroin . When Merrigan saw the broken figurine he realized that the vacuum bag was filled with heroin . When he found the drug on the vacuum bag , he killed Teresa . He spread the patient files and later he threw a rock at Dr. Kroger 's house to make it look like the killer was one of Dr. Kroger 's patients .
Unbeknownst to them , Harold is following Merrigan 's truck and calls the police . At a warehouse , Harold grabs a gun from a shelf and Dr. Kroger gestures for Harold to shoot Merrigan and his accomplice , who are emptying the vacuum bag to destroy the evidence . However , Harold makes some noise . As Merrigan prepares to shoot Harold , the police arrive to arrest Merrigan , but just then , he shoots at Dr. Kroger . Harold intercepts the bullet in his chest and Merrigan is taken away .
= = Production = =
" Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " was written by Hy Conrad and directed by Andrei Belgrader . The idea of hiding the crucial piece of evidence in a vacuum bag had been on the writing table for years at the time that this episode was written . The writers ' problem was that they could not get a realistic idea on how to use it . One idea had actually been to have a killer hack up his victim , place the dismembered limbs into a self @-@ cleaning oven , then vacuum out the remains and have the bag filled with the victim . The writers saw this possibility as too gruesome for the show . Other ideas had included hiding something valuable in the bag and having the killer stalk Monk while trying to recover it .
After some time , they decided that the best method of featuring a vacuum bag was to have a cleaning lady vacuuming up the evidence . Whereas cleaning ladies had already been the murder victims of several previous episodes , here it seemed absolutely necessary if they wanted an episode to have a realistic plot . However , the writers believed that having a maid as the victim required a main character to work with in order to give some personal involvement . Monk was not considered mostly because he does not have a cleaning lady , and if he did , she would never be good enough for him because of his germophobia and meticulousness . It was eventually decided that the maid would be Dr. Kroger 's employee . The idea of having her work for Dr. Kroger was successful , because the writers had been looking to have an episode where Kamel would be the focus .
This led to further complications in the writing process . For a few days , it was thought that Monk and Dr. Kroger would work to solve the case , but upon realizing that Monk would not be able to go back to a clinical detachment with Dr. Kroger , they eliminated this idea . So instead , Dr. Kroger does appear in more scenes than he normally does , but he stays out of the investigation scenes . As a result , Monk and Dr. Kroger do not break into Francis Merrigan 's office to snoop around , though that would have been the typical thing to do if someone else were there . Rather , they simply peer through the sliding glass door that opens from Merrigan 's office into the courtyard .
Another major challenge that came up in production was who Monk 's new psychiatrist would be . Several ideas included a woman , someone too strict or too nice , someone driven crazy by Monk 's compulsions , and even someone who would give Monk scream therapy . The eventual decision came from writer Jonathan Collier , who suggested a one @-@ armed psychiatrist . Shalhoub liked the idea , but required that they recruit an actual one @-@ armed actor to play Dr. Sorenson . The Screen Actors Guild actually had several actors waiting to audition , and the part was given to Rick Curry .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 9 pm EST on August 18 , 2006 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 5 @.@ 21 million viewers . It was the sixth most watched program on cable television that week with a 3 @.@ 4 percent household rating and a household audience of 3 @.@ 7 million .
The episode was well @-@ received ; Kamel elected it one of his three favorite episodes of the series , Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk dubbed it a " strong episode " , while Adam Finley from AOL TV said it was " great " . IGN 's Colin Moriarty said one can " have a hardy laugh at the high level of dysfunctionality " with the episode while highlighted the one @-@ armed therapist and mainly the interactions between Monk and Harold as the responsible for its humor . On his blog Cultural Leanings , critic Myles McNutt affirmed Shalhoub did a " tour de force comic performance " and that " It features most of Monk 's best qualities : his feud with fellow patient Harold , his insecurity about his mental health , his reaction to a new therapist with only one arm , and his broad comedy . " Although disliked the scene in which Harold tooks a shoot as it was made in a cliched way , Finley enjoyed seem Dr. Kroger getting more attention . Similarly , Raven Snook , a TV Guide contributor , appreciated the fact that the doctor 's home life was explored in the episode . Jon Weisman , writing for Variety , selected the scene in which Monk manifests the five stages of grief the best scene of the episode . The scene was also highlighted by Robert Licuria of the Los Angeles Times , who nevertheless said the episode felt " a bit ' same old same old . ' " Chris Beachum , writing for the same newspaper , stated it was " the weakest episode " of the series to ever being submitted for the Primetime Emmy Awards , and , unlike other reviewers , considered the grief scene " just too forced and ' showy . ' "
Shalhoub was nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for this episode . However , he lost at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards to Ricky Gervais for the Extras episode " Sir Ian McKellen " .
= Ipswich Road , Colchester =
Ipswich Road , formally the A1232 , is a road in Colchester , Essex , England . It was the historic coaching route and main road to Ipswich from the Middle Ages onwards , and was part of the A12 , a main road in East Anglia , until the A12 was rerouted in 1974 .
Rovers Tye Farm , a pub since 1983 , was established by 1353 , and a causeway at this location had been built by 1429 , by which point Ipswich Road ran on its current route . The road once contained the County Gaol and County Police Station . The Grade II listed St. John 's Church was built in 1864 by Arthur Blomfield in the High Victorian Early Gothic style . The toothpaste tube manufacturer Betts opened a factory at No. 505 Ipswich Road in 1953 . More recently there have been the development of housing and industrial estates along the road , particularly automobile dealers , at the northern end where it meets the A12 .
= = Route = =
The road runs northeast from East Street , crossing the Great Eastern Main Line , to Ardleigh Wick where it meets the A12 , a major road from London to Ipswich and the Port of Felixstowe and the A120 to Harwich ( and hence by ferry to Hook of Holland ) .
The majority of the road is within the Borough of Colchester aside from a small portion at the northern end , which is in the Borough of Tendring . The main bus routes from Colchester to Ipswich , 93 and 94 , run along the road . It also serves a portion of the Colchester half marathon route .
= = History = =
= = = Pre 20th century = = =
Colchester has been inhabited since pre @-@ Roman Britain , but the ancient route to Ipswich followed a different path , leaving Duncan 's Gate and heading east of Castle Park and crossing the River Colne , thereby heading northeast to meet the current road . An excavation in 1930 found evidence of road ditches on this alignment . In 991 Byrhtnoth , Ealdorman of the East @-@ Saxons , decided to check the Danes . They had plundered Ipswich and were sailing south to plunder Maldon . Brihtnoth entered the well @-@ defended town of Colchester by the Ipswich road on his way south , later dying at the Battle of Maldon . The London – Ipswich road passing through Colchester provided a vital economic connection to the capital , 51 miles ( 82 km ) away , during the Tudor period . The royalist defenders of Colchester during the English Civil War ( 1642 – 51 ) built Fort Suffolk to the north of Ipswich Road , one of eleven earthern fieldworks with timber palisades .
At the edge of the Greenstead Parish boundary is Rovers Tye Farm , which has been documented as being established by 1353 . A new causeway at this location had been built by 1429 , by which point Ipswich Road ran on its current route . This road was turnpiked in 1725 , when the road was predominantly rural in nature . In 1841 , a prison , known as the House of Correction or County Gaol , was built on the road to alleviate pressure on Colchester Castle , but it only held about 25 or 30 prisoners , both male and female , at any one time . When the War Office re @-@ authorized the militia in 1845 the 14th East Essex Regiment of Militia , which later became the Essex Rifles Militia , was given the old County Gaol as its headquarters . In 1875 the County Police Station was located on the Ipswich Road .
= = = 20th – 21st century = = =
The road was bisected by the first Colchester Bypass in 1933 , an unemployment relief project . The railway bridge was also built in the Great Depression of the 1930s , using government funding . 7 @-@ ton locomotives were used to bring sand via a light railway from a pit on the Harwich Road to form the embankment for the railway bridge . The sand was topped with clay . The bridge crossing the Great Eastern Main Line underwent major reconstruction in 1957 .
On 12 November 1940 Colchester was bombed by German air raids , causing damage in the vicinity of Ipswich Road . In the early hours of 30 April 1944 , a crew of seven on board a Lancaster UM @-@ K2 were returning from a bombing raid on Karlsruhe , Germany , when the engines caught fire , causing a fatal crash landing at what is now Space Makers Safestore on Ipswich Road . In 2015 , a memorial service was held at the site of the crash . In December 2014 , 24 World War II bombs weighing approximately 600 lbs in total were discovered at a recycling centre on the road . After the war , there were small private developments off Mersea Road , " west of Lexden Park , north of Colchester North railway station , between Ipswich Road and the railway , and north of East Hill " . St. John 's housing estate was built in the 1960s , and in 1979 , the Kier Group began developing the 730 acre High Woods site to the west of the road . Around 4000 houses and a shopping centre were subsequently built in the vicinity .
The toothpaste tube manufacturer Betts opened a factory at No. 505 Ipswich road in 1953 . In 2008 , the firm decided to close the factory and moved to smaller premises elsewhere in town . In 2014 , Bellway Homes announced they would convert the former Ipswich Road factory into a housing estate named Avellana Place . Locals protested against the name , which is Spanish for hazelnut , saying a more appropriate name would be after the 1944 Lancaster Bomber crash .
The road was part of the A12 when road numbers were first classified in 1922 , and remained the main route to Ipswich for motor traffic until the Northern Colchester Bypass opened in 1974 , which was extended towards Harwich in 1982 .
= = Landmarks = =
The Rose And Crown is at the southern end of Ipswich Road . It was established as a coaching inn in the 14th century and used as a stopping point for prisoners being transported from Europe and Suffolk to London . The building still contains two cells , retaining their original doors . The venue 's fireplace dates from the Tudor period . To the north is Colchester 's Magic Roundabout .
Beyond the railway bridge is the St Johns Post Office and Milton Lodge at No. 290 Ipswich Road , almost opposite it . Milton Lodge is a residential care home for elderly dementia sufferers and was converted into a care home in 2001 . Further north , at the roundabout with Highwoods Approach and St. John 's Road , is The Rovers Tye – Flaming Grill restaurant . The Rovers Tye is set in a Grade II listed farmhouse dated to the 17th century , with additional extensions in the mid @-@ 18th , although an earlier building dated to 1353 . In 1983 , the building became a pub . Timber framed , it is a two storey building with five windows and a panelled door . Just to the north is St. John 's Primary School , and St. John 's Church beyond this . The church was built in 1864 by Arthur Blomfield in the High Victorian Early Gothic style . It is built from " red and gault brick with stone dressings and peg tile gabled roofs " and features a " circular bell turret with conical roof " . It became a Grade II listed building in 1986 .
The northern part of the road is characterised by industrial estates . There is retail centre selling cars , including Porsche Centre Colchester and Underwoods Mazda and Autoway Colchester . Colchester Business Park is at the northern end of the road , next to the A12 and A120 . It contains 250 @,@ 000 square feet ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space . It contains the Premier Inn and further car retailers such as Cooper BMW and Glyn Hopkin Honda .
= Kirsten Dunst =
Kirsten Caroline Dunst ( / ˈkɪrstɛn / ; born April 30 , 1982 ) is an American actress , singer and model . She made her film debut in Woody Allen 's short film Oedipus Wrecks for the anthology film New York Stories ( 1989 ) . At the age of twelve , Dunst gained widespread recognition as vampire Claudia in Interview with the Vampire ( 1994 ) , a role for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress . She appeared in Little Women the same year and in Jumanji the following year . After a recurring role in the NBC medical drama ER ( 1996 – 97 ) as Charlie Chemingo and starring in films such as Wag the Dog ( 1997 ) , Small Soldiers ( 1998 ) , the English dub of Kiki 's Delivery Service ( 1998 ) and The Virgin Suicides ( 1999 ) , Dunst transitioned into romantic comedies and comedy @-@ dramas , starring in Drop Dead Gorgeous ( 1999 ) , Bring It On ( 2000 ) , Get Over It and Crazy / Beautiful ( both released in 2001 ) .
Dunst achieved international fame for her portrayal of Mary Jane Watson in Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy ( 2002 – 07 ) . Since then , her films have included the romantic comedy Wimbledon ( 2004 ) , the science fiction romantic comedy @-@ drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind ( 2004 ) and Cameron Crowe 's romantic tragicomedy Elizabethtown ( 2005 ) . She played the title role in Sofia Coppola 's biographical film Marie Antoinette ( 2006 ) and starred in the comedy film How to Lose Friends & Alienate People ( 2008 ) . She won the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance in Lars von Trier 's Melancholia ( 2011 ) .
In 2001 , Dunst made her singing debut in the film Get Over It , in which she performed two songs . She also sang the jazz song " After You 've Gone " for the end credits of the film The Cat 's Meow ( 2001 ) . She starred in the second season of the television series Fargo in 2015 , playing the role of Peggy Blomquist , a slightly delusional and neurotic hairdresser . Her performance garnered widespread critical acclaim , leading to her winning the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress and being nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress .
= = Early life = =
Dunst was born in Point Pleasant , New Jersey , to Inez and Klaus Dunst . She has a younger brother , Christian . Her father worked as a medical services executive , and her mother worked for Lufthansa as a flight attendant and was an artist and one @-@ time gallery owner . Dunst 's father is German , originally from Hamburg , and Dunst 's mother was born in New Jersey .
Until the age of eleven , Dunst lived in Brick Township , New Jersey , where she attended Ranney School . In 1993 , her parents separated , and she subsequently moved with her mother and brother to Los Angeles , California , where she attended Laurel Hall School in North Hollywood . In 1995 , her mother filed for divorce . The following year Dunst began attending Notre Dame High School , a private Roman Catholic high school in Los Angeles .
After graduating from Notre Dame High School in 2000 , Dunst continued the acting career that she had begun . As a teenager , she found it difficult to deal with her rising fame , and for a period she blamed her mother for pushing her into acting as a child . However , she later expressed that her mother " always had the best intentions " . When asked if she had any regrets about the way she spent her childhood , Dunst said : " Well , it 's not a natural way to grow up , but it 's the way I grew up and I wouldn 't change it . I have my stuff to work out ... I don 't think anybody can sit around and say , ' My life is more screwed up than yours . ' Everybody has their issues . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1988 – 1993 : Early work = = =
Dunst began her career when she was three years old as a child fashion model in television commercials . She was signed with Ford Models and Elite Model Management . At the age of six , she made her feature film debut in a minor role in Woody Allen 's short film Oedipus Wrecks that was released as one @-@ third of the anthology film New York Stories ( 1989 ) . Soon after , she co @-@ starred with Tom Hanks in the comedy @-@ drama The Bonfire of the Vanities ( 1990 ) , based on Tom Wolfe 's novel of the same name , where she played the daughter of Hanks ' character . In 1993 , Dunst guest @-@ starred on the science fiction drama Star Trek : The Next Generation in the season seven episode titled " Dark Page " as Hedril .
= = = 1994 – 2001 : Breakthrough and critical success = = =
The breakthrough role in Dunst 's career came in 1994 in the romantic horror film Interview with the Vampire with Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt , based on Anne Rice 's novel , in which she played Claudia , the child vampire who is a surrogate daughter to Cruise and Pitt 's characters . The film received ambivalent reviews , but many film critics complimented Dunst 's performance . Roger Ebert commented that Dunst 's creation of the child vampire Claudia was one of the " creepier " aspects of the film , and mentioned her ability to convey the impression of great age inside apparent youth . Todd McCarthy in Variety noted that Dunst was " just right " for the family . The film featured a scene in which Dunst shared her first on @-@ screen kiss with Pitt , who was nineteen years older than her . In an interview with Interview magazine , she revealed , while questioned about her kissing scene with Pitt , that kissing him had made her feel uncomfortable : " I thought it was gross , that Brad had cooties . I mean , I was 10 . " Her performance earned her the MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance , the Saturn Award for Best Young Actress , and her first Golden Globe Award nomination .
Later in 1994 , Dunst co @-@ starred in the drama film Little Women opposite Winona Ryder and Claire Danes . The film received favorable reviews . Critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film was the greatest adaptation of the novel and remarked on Dunst 's performance , " The perfect contrast to take @-@ charge Jo comes from Kirsten Dunst 's scene @-@ stealing Amy , whose vanity and twinkling mischief make so much more sense coming from an 11 @-@ year @-@ old vixen than they did from grown @-@ up Joan Bennett in 1933 . Ms. Dunst , also scarily effective as the baby bloodsucker of Interview With the Vampire , is a little vamp with a big future . "
In 1995 , Dunst co @-@ starred in the fantasy adventure film Jumanji , loosely based on Chris Van Allsburg 's 1981 book of the same name . The story is about a supernatural and ominous board game which makes animals and other jungle hazards appear upon each roll of the dice . She was part of an ensemble cast that included Robin Williams , Bonnie Hunt and David Alan Grier . The movie grossed $ 262 million worldwide . That year , and again in 2002 , she was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People . From 1996 to 1997 , Dunst had a recurring role in the third season of the NBC medical drama ER . She played Charlie Chiemingo , a child prostitute taken under the guidance of the pediatrician Dr. Doug Ross , played by George Clooney . In 1997 , she voiced Young Anastasia in the animated musical film Anastasia . Also in 1997 , Dunst co @-@ starred in the black comedy film Wag the Dog , opposite Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman . The following year she voiced the title character , Kiki , a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old apprentice witch who leaves her home village to spend a year on her own , in the anime movie Kiki 's Delivery Service ( 1998 ) .
Dunst was offered the role of Angela in the 1999 drama film American Beauty , but turned it down because she did not want to appear in the film 's suggestive sexual scenes or kiss the film 's star Kevin Spacey . She later explained : " When I read it , I was 15 and I don 't think I was mature enough to understand the script 's material . " That same year , she co @-@ starred in the comedy film Dick , opposite Michelle Williams . The film is a parody retelling the events of the Watergate scandal which led to the resignation of U.S. president Richard Nixon .
Dunst co @-@ starred in Sofia Coppola 's drama film The Virgin Suicides ( 1999 ) where she played Lux Lisbon , a troubled teenager . The film was screened as a special presentation at the 43rd San Francisco International Film Festival in 2000 . The movie received generally favorable reviews , and San Francisco Chronicle critic Peter Stack noted in his review that Dunst " beautifully balances innocence and wantonness . "
In 2000 , Dunst starred in the comedy Bring It On as Torrance Shipman , the captain of a cheerleading squad . The film generated mostly positive reviews , with many critics reserving praise for her performance . In his review , A. O. Scott called her " a terrific comic actress , largely because of her great expressive range , and the nimbleness with which she can shift from anxiety to aggression to genuine hurt . " Charles Taylor of Salon noted that " among contemporary teenage actresses , Dunst has become the sunniest imaginable parodist " , even though he thought the film had failed to provide her with as good a role as she had either in Dick or in The Virgin Suicides . Jessica Winter from The Village Voice complimented Dunst , stating that her performance was " as sprightly and knowingly daft as her turn in Dick " and commenting that " [ Dunst ] provides the only major element of Bring It On that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick , strident , body @-@ slam churlishness . " Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle , despite giving the film an unfavorable review , commended Dunst for her willingness " to be as silly and cloyingly agreeable as it takes to get through a slapdash film . "
The following year , Dunst starred in the comedy film Get Over It ( 2001 ) . She later explained that one of the reasons for accepting the role was that it gave her the opportunity to sing . Also in 2001 , she starred in the historical drama The Cat 's Meow , directed by Peter Bogdanovich , as the American actress Marion Davies . Derek Elley of Variety described the film as " playful and sporty , " saying that this was Dunst 's best performance to date : " Believable as both a spoiled ingenue and a lover to two very different men , Dunst endows a potentially lightweight character with considerable depth and sympathy . " In the Esquire review , Tom Carson called her performance " terrific . " For her work , she won the Best Actress Silver Ombú category award at the 2002 Mar del Plata Film Festival .
= = = 2002 – 2009 : Spider @-@ Man and mainstream success = = =
In 2002 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Tobey Maguire in the superhero film Spider @-@ Man , the most financially successful film of her career to date . She played Mary Jane Watson , the best friend and love interest of Peter Parker ( Maguire ) . The film was directed by Sam Raimi . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly remarked on Dunst 's ability to " lend even the smallest line a tickle of flirtatious music . " In the Los Angeles Times review , critic Kenneth Turan noted that Dunst and Maguire made a real connection on screen , concluding that their relationship " involved audiences to an extent rarely seen in films . " Spider @-@ Man was a commercial and critical success . The movie grossed $ 114 million during its opening weekend in North America and went on to earn $ 822 million worldwide .
Following the success of Spider @-@ Man , Dunst co @-@ starred in Ed Solomon 's drama film Levity ( 2003 ) . That same year she co @-@ starred opposite Julia Roberts , Maggie Gyllenhaal , and Julia Stiles in the drama film Mona Lisa Smile ( 2003 ) . The film generated mostly negative reviews , with Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times describing it as " smug and reductive . " She co @-@ starred opposite Jim Carrey , Kate Winslet , and Tom Wilkinson in Michel Gondry 's science fiction romantic drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind ( 2004 ) as Mary Svevo . The latter film received very positive reviews , with Entertainment Weekly describing Dunst 's subplot as " nifty and clever . " The movie grossed $ 72 million worldwide .
The success of the first Spider @-@ Man film led Dunst to reprise her role as Mary Jane Watson in 2004 in Spider @-@ Man 2 . The movie was well received by critics and a financial success , setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America . With revenue of $ 783 million worldwide , it was the second highest grossing film in 2004 . Also in 2004 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Paul Bettany in the romantic comedy Wimbledon where she portrayed a rising tennis player in the Wimbledon Championships , while Bettany portrayed a fading former tennis star . Reception for the film was mixed , but many critics enjoyed Dunst 's performance . Claudia Puig of USA Today reported that the chemistry between Dunst and Bettany was potent , with Dunst doing a fine job as a sassy and self @-@ assured player .
In 2005 , she co @-@ starred opposite Orlando Bloom in Cameron Crowe 's romantic tragicomedy Elizabethtown as Claire Colburn , a flight attendant . The film premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival . Dunst revealed that working with Crowe was enjoyable , but more demanding than she had expected . The movie garnered mixed reviews , with the Chicago Tribune rating it one out of four stars and describing Dunst 's portrayal of a flight attendant as " cloying . " It was a box office disappointment .
In 2006 , Dunst collaborated with Sofia Coppola again and starred as the title character in Coppola 's biographical film Marie Antoinette , adapted from Antonia Fraser 's book Marie Antoinette : The Journey . The movie was screened at a special presentation at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival , and was reviewed favourably . International revenues were $ 45 million out of $ 60 million overall .
In 2007 , Dunst reprised her role as Mary Jane Watson in Spider @-@ Man 3 . In contrast to the previous two films ' positive reviews , Spider @-@ Man 3 was met with a mixed reception by critics . Nonetheless , with a total worldwide gross of $ 891 million , it stands as the most commercially successful film in the series and Dunst 's highest grossing film to the end of 2008 . Having initially signed on for three Spider @-@ Man films , she revealed that she would do a fourth , but only if Raimi and Maguire also returned . In January 2010 , it was announced that the fourth film was cancelled and that the Spider @-@ Man film series would be restarted , and therefore dropping Dunst , Maguire , and Raimi from the franchise .
In 2008 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Simon Pegg in the comedy film How to Lose Friends & Alienate People , an adaptation of the memoir of the same name by former Vanity Fair contributing editor Toby Young .
= = = 2010 – present : Independent films , Fargo and directorial debut = = =
Dunst made her screenwriting and directorial debut with the short film Bastard which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2010 , and was later featured at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival . Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Ryan Gosling in the mystery drama All Good Things ( 2010 ) , based on a true story as the wife of Gosling 's character from a run @-@ down neighborhood who goes missing . The feature received reasonable reviews , and earned $ 640 @,@ 000 worldwide . Dunst co @-@ starred with Brian Geraghty in Carlos Cuarón 's short film The Second Bakery Attack , an adaptation of Haruki Murakami 's short story of the same name .
In 2011 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Charlotte Gainsbourg , Kiefer Sutherland and Charlotte Rampling in Lars von Trier 's drama film Melancholia as a depressed woman at the end of the world . The film premiered at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival and received positive reviews and Dunst was singled out for praise . Steven Loeb of Southampton Patch wrote , " This film has brought the best out of von Trier , as well as his star . Dunst is so good in this film , playing a character unlike any other she has ever attempted ... Even if the film itself were not the incredible work of art that it is , Dunst 's performance alone would be incentive enough to recommend it . " Sukhdev Sandhu wrote from Cannes in The Daily Telegraph that " Dunst is exceptional , so utterly convincing in the lead role – trouble , serene , a fierce savant – that it feels like a career breakthrough . Dunst won several awards for her performance , including the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Best Actress Award from the U.S. National Society of Film Critics
Dunst has signed to star in Sweet Relief as Marla Ruzicka , a peace activist and U.S. relief worker killed by a suicide bomb in Baghdad . She has expressed interest in playing the role of Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry in Michel Gondry 's upcoming biographical film about the band .
In 2012 , Dunst co @-@ starred in Juan Diego Solanas ' science fiction romantic drama Upside Down opposite Jim Sturgess . She starred in Leslye Headland 's comedy Bachelorette , produced by Will Ferrell and Adam McKay . In 2012 , she co @-@ starred in the drama film On the Road as Camille Moriarty , based on Jack Kerouac 's novel of the same name . She made a cameo appearance in the short feature Fight For Your Right Revisited . It premiered at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival . In 2016 , Dunst starred in Jeff Nichols ' science fiction drama Midnight Special , with Michael Shannon and Joel Edgerton . In May 2015 , it was announced that Dunst would star in the Rodarte label founders ' feature directorial debut , Woodshock . The film follows a woman who falls deeper into paranoia after taking a deadly drug .
In 2015 , Dunst played Peggy Blumquist in the second season of the critically acclaimed drama , Fargo , for which she received a Golden Globe nomination .
In October 2015 , Dunst said that she is co @-@ writing and set to direct a film adaptation of a novel .
In March 2016 , Dunst was cast alongside Nicole Kidman and Elle Fanning in the Sofia Coppola @-@ directed remake of Clint Eastwood 's The Beguiled . The original 1971 film tells the story of a wounded Union soldier who seeks shelter at an all @-@ girls school deep in Confederate country . In May 2016 , she was a member of the main competition jury of the 2016 Cannes Film Festival .
In July 2016 , it was announced that Dunst would be making her directorial debut with an adaptation of The Bell Jar with Dakota Fanning in the lead role .
= = Music = =
Dunst made her singing debut in the comedy film Get Over It , performing two songs written by Marc Shaiman . She recorded Henry Creamer and Turner Layton 's jazz standard " After You 've Gone " that was used in the end credits of The Cat 's Meow . In Spider @-@ Man 3 , she sang two songs as Mary Jane Watson , one during a Broadway performance , and one as a singing waitress in a jazz club . Dunst revealed that she recorded the songs earlier and later lip @-@ sync to it when filming began . She also appeared in the music videos for Savage Garden 's " I Knew I Loved You " , Beastie Boys ' " Make Some Noise " and R.E.M. ' s " We All Go Back to Where We Belong " and she sang two tracks which were " This Old Machine " and " Summer Day " on Jason Schwartzman 's 2007 solo album Nighttiming . In 2007 , Dunst stated that she had no plans to follow the steps of other actors who release albums , saying : " Definitely not . No way . It worked when Barbra Streisand was doing it , but now it 's a little cheesy , I think . It works better when singers are in movies . "
Dunst starred as the magical princess Majokko in the Takashi Murakami and McG directed short Akihabara Majokko Princess singing a cover of " Turning Japanese " . This was shown at the " Pop Life " exhibition in London 's Tate Modern museum from October 1 , 2009 , to January 17 , 2010 . It shows Dunst prancing around Akihabara , a crowded shopping district in Tokyo , Japan .
= = Personal life = =
Dunst was treated for depression in early 2008 at the Cirque Lodge treatment center in Utah .
She explained that she had been feeling low in the six months before her admission . In late March 2008 , she checked out of the treatment center and began filming All Good Things . In May 2008 , she went public with this information in order to highlight the struggle faced by so many other successful women and to dispel rumors that had been very painful for her family and friends .
Dunst dated actor Jake Gyllenhaal from 2002 to 2004 . She dated Razorlight frontman Johnny Borrell in 2007 . She dated her On the Road co @-@ star Garrett Hedlund from 2012 to 2016 . In 2016 , she began dating her Fargo co @-@ star Jesse Plemons .
= = = Citizenship = = =
She gained German citizenship in 2011 and now holds dual citizenship of Germany and the United States .
= = = Political activism = = =
Dunst supported Democratic candidate John Kerry for the 2004 U.S. presidential election . Four years later , she supported Democrat Barack Obama for the 2008 presidential election . Dunst revealed that she supported Obama " from the beginning " of the presidential campaign . In support of this , she directed and narrated a documentary entitled Why Tuesday , explaining the United States tradition of voting on Tuesdays . Dunst explained that Tuesday is " not a holiday , and the United States is one of the lowest democratic countries in voter turnout . " She felt it important to " influence people in a positive way " to vote on November 4 , 2008 .
= = = Charity work = = =
She works with the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation , for which she helped design and promote a necklace whose sales proceeds went to the Foundation . She worked in breast cancer awareness , participating in the Stand Up to Cancer telethon in September 2008 to raise funds for cancer research . On December 5 , 2009 , she participated in the Teletón in Mexico , to raise funds for cancer treatment and children 's rehabilitation .
= = = Nude photo scandal = = =
In August 2014 , a hacker claimed to have compromised the Apple iCloud accounts of Dunst and dozens of other female celebrities . Nude photographs purporting to be of Dunst were shared online . In response , Dunst posted an ironic message of " Thank you iCloud " to her Twitter page soon after .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
1994 : " For the Beauty of the Earth " featuring Trini Alvarado and Claire Danes – Little Women ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack )
1999 : " Spit It Out " featuring Allison Janney – Drop Dead Gorgeous : Motion Picture Soundtrack
2001 : " Dream Of Me " and " The Girl Inside " – Get Over It : Music From Miramax Motion Picture
2002 : " After You 've Gone " – The Cat 's Meow Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
2007 : " This Old Machine " and " Summer Day " – Nighttiming by Coconut Records
= Iron Maiden =
Iron Maiden are an English heavy metal band formed in Leyton , East London , in 1975 by bassist and primary songwriter Steve Harris . The band 's discography has grown to thirty @-@ eight albums , including sixteen studio albums , eleven live albums , four EPs , and seven compilations .
Pioneers of the new wave of British heavy metal , Iron Maiden achieved initial success during the early 1980s . After several line @-@ up changes , the band went on to release a series of UK and US platinum and gold albums , including 1982 's The Number of the Beast , 1983 's Piece of Mind , 1984 's Powerslave , 1985 's live release Live After Death , 1986 's Somewhere in Time and 1988 's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son . Since the return of lead vocalist Bruce Dickinson and guitarist Adrian Smith in 1999 , the band have undergone a resurgence in popularity , with their 2010 studio offering , The Final Frontier , peaking at No. 1 in 28 countries and receiving widespread critical acclaim . Their sixteenth studio album , The Book of Souls , was released on 4 September 2015 .
Despite little radio or television support , Iron Maiden are considered one of the most successful heavy metal bands in history , with The Observer reporting in 2015 that the band have sold over 90 million copies of their albums worldwide . The band won the Ivor Novello Award for international achievement in 2002 . As of October 2013 , the band have played over 2000 live shows throughout their career . For the past 35 years , the band have been supported by their famous mascot , " Eddie " , who has appeared on almost all of their album and single covers , as well as in their live shows .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1975 – 78 ) = = =
Iron Maiden were formed on Christmas Day 1975 by bassist Steve Harris shortly after he left his previous group , Smiler . Harris attributes the band 's name to a film adaptation of The Man in the Iron Mask from the novel by Alexandre Dumas , the title of which reminded him of the iron maiden torture device . After months of rehearsal , Iron Maiden made their debut at St. Nicks Hall in Poplar on 1 May 1976 , before taking up a semi @-@ residency at the Cart and Horses Pub in Maryland Point , Stratford .
The original line @-@ up did not last very long , however , with vocalist Paul Day being the first casualty as , according to Harris , he lacked " energy or charisma on stage " . He was replaced by Dennis Wilcock , a Kiss fan who used make @-@ up and fake blood during live performances . Wilcock 's friend Dave Murray was invited to join , to the dismay of the band 's guitarists Dave Sullivan and Terry Rance . Their frustration led Harris to temporarily disband Iron Maiden in 1976 , though the group reformed soon after with Murray as the sole guitarist . Steve Harris and Dave Murray remain the band 's longest @-@ standing members and have performed on all of their releases .
Iron Maiden recruited yet another guitarist in 1977 , Bob Sawyer , who was sacked for embarrassing the band on stage by pretending to play guitar with his teeth . Tension ensued again , causing a rift between Murray and Wilcock , who convinced Harris to fire Murray , as well as original drummer Ron Matthews . A new line @-@ up was put together , including future Cutting Crew member Tony Moore on keyboards , Terry Wapram on guitar , and drummer Barry Purkis . A bad performance at the Bridgehouse , a pub located in Canning Town , in November 1977 was the line @-@ up 's first and only concert and led to Purkis being replaced by Doug Sampson . At the same time , Moore was asked to leave as Harris decided that keyboards did not suit the band 's sound . A few months later , Dennis Wilcock decided that he had had enough with the group and left to form his own band , V1 , and Dave Murray was immediately reinstated . As he preferred to be the band 's sole guitarist , Wapram disapproved of Murray 's return and was also dismissed .
Steve Harris , Dave Murray and Doug Sampson spent the summer and autumn of 1978 rehearsing while they searched for a singer to complete the band 's new line @-@ up . A chance meeting at the Red Lion pub in Leytonstone in November 1978 evolved into a successful audition for vocalist Paul Di 'Anno . Steve Harris has stated , " There 's sort of a quality in Paul 's voice , a raspiness in his voice , or whatever you want to call it , that just gave it this great edge . " At this time , Murray would typically act as their sole guitarist , with Harris commenting , " Davey was so good he could do a lot of it on his own . The plan was always to get a second guitarist in , but finding one that could match Davey was really difficult . "
= = = Record contract and early releases ( 1978 – 81 ) = = =
On New Year 's Eve 1978 , Iron Maiden recorded a demo , consisting of four songs , at Spaceward Studios in Cambridge . Hoping the recording would help them secure more gigs , the band presented a copy to Neal Kay , then managing a heavy metal club called " Bandwagon Heavy Metal Soundhouse " , located in Kingsbury Circle , northwest London . Upon hearing the tape , Kay began playing the demo regularly at the Bandwagon , and one of the songs , " Prowler " , eventually went to No. 1 in the Soundhouse charts , which were published weekly in Sounds magazine . A copy was also acquired by Rod Smallwood , who soon became the band 's manager , and , as Iron Maiden 's popularity increased , they released the demo on their own record label as The Soundhouse Tapes , named after the club . Featuring only three tracks ( one song , " Strange World " , was excluded as the band were unsatisfied with its production ) all five thousand copies were sold out within weeks .
In December 1979 , the band secured a major record deal with EMI and asked Dave Murray 's childhood friend Adrian Smith to join the group as their second guitarist . Smith declined as he was busy with his own band , Urchin , so Iron Maiden hired guitarist Dennis Stratton instead . Shortly afterwards , Doug Sampson left due to health issues and was replaced by ex @-@ Samson drummer Clive Burr at Stratton 's suggestion on 26 December . Iron Maiden 's first appearance on an album was on the Metal for Muthas compilation ( released on 15 February 1980 ) with two early versions of " Sanctuary " and " Wrathchild " . The release led to an ensuing tour which featured several other bands linked with the new wave of British heavy metal .
Iron Maiden 's eponymous 1980 release , Iron Maiden , debuted at No. 4 in the UK Albums Chart . In addition to the title track ( a live version of which would be one of the first music videos aired on MTV ) , the album includes other early favourites such as " Running Free " , " Transylvania " , " Phantom of the Opera " , and " Sanctuary " – which was not on the original UK release but appeared on the US version and subsequent remasters . The band set out on a headline tour of the UK , before opening for Kiss on their 1980 Unmasked Tour 's European leg as well as supporting Judas Priest on select dates . After the Kiss tour , Dennis Stratton was dismissed from the band as a result of creative and personal differences , and was replaced by Adrian Smith in October 1980 .
In 1981 , Iron Maiden released their second album , entitled Killers . Containing many tracks that had been written prior to their debut release , only two new songs were written for the record : " Prodigal Son " and " Murders in the Rue Morgue " ( the latter 's title was taken from the short story by Edgar Allan Poe ) . Unsatisfied with the production on their debut album , the band hired veteran producer Martin Birch , who would go on to work for Iron Maiden until his retirement in 1992 . The record was followed by the band 's first world tour , which included their debut performance in the United States , opening for Judas Priest at The Aladdin Casino , Las Vegas .
= = = Success ( 1981 – 85 ) = = =
By 1981 , Paul Di 'Anno was demonstrating increasingly self @-@ destructive behaviour , particularly through his drug usage , about which Di 'Anno comments , " it wasn 't just that I was snorting a bit of coke , though ; I was just going for it non @-@ stop , 24 hours a day , every day ... the band had commitments piling up that went on for months , years , and I just couldn 't see my way to the end of it . I knew I 'd never last the whole tour . It was too much . " With his performances suffering , Di 'Anno was immediately dismissed following the Killer World Tour , at which point the band had already selected his replacement .
After a meeting with Rod Smallwood at the Reading Festival , Bruce Dickinson , previously of Samson , auditioned for Iron Maiden in September 1981 and was immediately hired . The following month , Dickinson went out on the road with the band on a small headlining tour in Italy , as well as a one @-@ off show at the Rainbow Theatre in the UK . For the last show , and in anticipation of their forthcoming album , the band played " Children of the Damned " and " 22 Acacia Avenue " , introducing fans to the sound towards which they were progressing .
In 1982 , Iron Maiden released The Number of the Beast , an album which gave the band their first ever UK Albums Chart No. 1 record and additionally became a Top Ten hit in many other countries . At the time , Dickinson was in the midst of legal difficulties with Samson 's management and was not permitted to add his name to any of the songwriting credits , although he still made what he described as a " moral contribution " to " Children of the Damned " , " The Prisoner " and " Run to the Hills " . For the second time the band embarked on a world tour , dubbed The Beast on the Road , during which they visited North America , Japan , Australia and Europe , including a headline appearance at the Reading Festival . A new and hugely successful chapter in Iron Maiden 's future was cemented ; in 2010 The New York Times reported that the album had sold over 14 million copies worldwide .
The Beast on the Road 's US leg proved controversial when an American conservative political lobbying group claimed Iron Maiden were Satanic because of the new album 's title track , to the point where a group of Christian activists destroyed Iron Maiden records as a protest against the band . In recent years , Dickinson has stated that the band treated this as " silliness " , and that the demonstrations in fact gave them " loads of publicity " .
In December 1982 , drummer Clive Burr was fired from the band and replaced by Nicko McBrain , previously of French band Trust . Although Harris states that his dismissal took place because his live performances were affected by offstage activities , Burr objected to this and claimed that he was unfairly ousted from the band . Soon afterwards , the band journeyed for the first time to The Bahamas to record the first of three consecutive albums at Compass Point Studios . In 1983 , they released Piece of Mind , which reached the No. 3 spot in the UK , and was the band 's debut in the North American charts , reaching No. 70 on the Billboard 200 . Piece of Mind includes the successful singles " The Trooper " and " Flight of Icarus " , the latter of which being particularly notable as one of the band 's few songs to gain substantial airplay in the US .
Soon after the success of Piece of Mind and its supporting tour , the band released Powerslave on 9 September 1984 . The album featured fan favourites " 2 Minutes to Midnight " , " Aces High " , and " Rime of The Ancient Mariner " , the latter based on Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's poem of the same name and running over 13 minutes long .
The tour following the album , dubbed the World Slavery Tour , was the band 's largest to date and consisted of 193 shows in 28 countries over 13 months , playing to an estimated 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 people . Many shows were played back @-@ to @-@ back in the same city , such as in Long Beach , California , where the band played four consecutive concerts . It was here where the majority of their subsequent live release , Live After Death , was recorded , which became a critical and commercial success , peaking at No. 4 in the UK . Iron Maiden also made their debut appearance in South America , where they co @-@ headlined ( with Queen ) the Rock in Rio festival to an estimated crowd of 300 @,@ 000 . The tour was physically gruelling for the band , who demanded six months off when it ended ( although this was later reduced to four months ) . This was the first substantial break in the group 's history , including the cancellation of a proposed supporting tour for the new live album , with Bruce Dickinson threatening to quit unless the tour ended .
= = = Experimentation ( 1986 – 89 ) = = =
Returning from their time off , the band adopted a different style for their 1986 studio album , entitled Somewhere in Time , featuring , for the first time in the band 's history , synthesised bass and guitars to add textures and layers to the sound . The release charted well across the world , particularly with the single " Wasted Years " , but notably included no writing credits from lead singer Bruce Dickinson , whose material was rejected by the rest of the band . While Dickinson was focused on his own music , guitarist Adrian Smith , who typically collaborated with the vocalist , was " left to [ his ] own devices " and began writing songs on his own , coming up with " Wasted Years " , " Sea of Madness " , and " Stranger in a Strange Land " , the last of which would be the album 's second single .
The experimentation evident on Somewhere in Time continued on their next album , entitled Seventh Son of a Seventh Son , which was released in 1988 . A concept album , based on the 1987 novel Seventh Son by Orson Scott Card , this would be the band 's first record to include keyboards , performed by Harris and Smith , as opposed to guitar synthesisers on the previous release . After his contributions were not used for Somewhere in Time , Dickinson 's enthusiasm was renewed as his ideas were accepted for this album . Another popular release , it became Iron Maiden 's second album to hit No. 1 in the UK charts , although it only achieved a Gold certification in the US , in contrast to its four predecessors .
During the following tour , the band headlined the Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park for the first time on 20 August 1988 , playing to the largest crowd in the festival 's history ( 107 @,@ 000 ) . Also included on the bill were Kiss , David Lee Roth , Megadeth , Guns N ' Roses and Helloween . The festival was marred , however , by the deaths of two fans in a crowd @-@ surge during the aforementioned Guns N ' Roses performance ; the following year 's festival was cancelled as a result . The tour concluded with several headline shows in the UK in November and December 1988 , with the concerts at the NEC Arena , Birmingham recorded for a live video , entitled Maiden England . Throughout the tour , Harris ' bass technician , Michael Kenney , provided live keyboards . Kenney has acted as the band 's live keyboard player ever since , also performing on the band 's four following albums before Harris took over as the group 's sole studio keyboardist from 2000 's Brave New World .
= = = Upheaval ( 1989 – 94 ) = = =
During another break in 1989 , guitarist Adrian Smith released a solo album with his band ASAP , entitled Silver and Gold , and vocalist Bruce Dickinson began work on a solo album with former Gillan guitarist Janick Gers , releasing Tattooed Millionaire in 1990 , followed by a tour . At the same time , to mark the band 's ten @-@ year recording anniversary , Iron Maiden released The First Ten Years , a series of ten CDs and double 12 @-@ inch singles . Between 24 February and 28 April 1990 , the individual parts were released one @-@ by @-@ one , each containing two of Iron Maiden 's singles , including the original B @-@ sides .
Soon afterwards , Iron Maiden regrouped to work on a new studio record . During the pre @-@ production stages , Adrian Smith left the band due to differences with Steve Harris regarding the direction the band should be taking , disagreeing with the " stripped down " style that they were leaning towards . Janick Gers , having worked on Dickinson 's solo project , was chosen to replace Smith and became the band 's first new member in seven years . The album , No Prayer for the Dying , was released in October 1990 and contained " Bring Your Daughter ... to the Slaughter " , the band 's first ( and to date , only ) UK Singles Chart No. 1 , originally recorded by Dickinson 's solo outfit for the soundtrack to A Nightmare on Elm Street 5 : The Dream Child .
After another tour and some more time off , the band recorded their next studio release , Fear of the Dark , which was released in 1992 and included the stand @-@ out title track , which is now a regular fixture in the band 's concert setlists . Achieving their third No. 1 in the UK albums chart , the disc also featured the No. 2 single " Be Quick or Be Dead " and the No. 21 single " From Here to Eternity " . The album featured the first songwriting by Gers , and no collaboration at all between Harris and Dickinson on songs . The extensive worldwide tour that followed included their first ever Latin American leg ( after a single concert during the World Slavery Tour ) , and headlining the Monsters of Rock festivals in seven European countries . Iron Maiden 's second performance at Donington Park , to an audience of 68 @,@ 500 ( the attendance was capped after the incident in 1988 ) , was filmed for the audio and video release , Live at Donington , and featured a guest appearance by Adrian Smith , who joined the band to perform " Running Free " .
In 1993 , Bruce Dickinson left the band to further pursue his solo career , but agreed to remain for a farewell tour and two live albums ( later re @-@ released in one package ) . The first , A Real Live One , featured songs from 1986 to 1992 , and was released in March 1993 . The second , A Real Dead One , featured songs from 1980 to 1984 , and was released after Dickinson had left the band . The tour did not go well , however , with Steve Harris claiming that Dickinson would only perform properly for high @-@ profile shows and that at several concerts he would only mumble into the microphone . Dickinson denies the charge that he was under @-@ performing , stating that it was impossible to " make like Mr Happy Face if the vibe wasn 't right " , saying that news of his exit from the band had prevented any chance of a good atmosphere during the tour . He played his farewell show with Iron Maiden on 28 August 1993 , which was filmed , broadcast by the BBC and released on video under the name Raising Hell .
= = = Blaze Bayley era , The X Factor and Virtual XI ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
In 1994 , the band listened to hundreds of tapes sent in by vocalists before convincing Blaze Bayley , formerly of the band Wolfsbane who had supported Iron Maiden in 1990 , to audition for them . Harris ' preferred choice from the outset , Bayley had a different vocal style from his predecessor , which ultimately received a mixed reception among fans .
After a two @-@ year hiatus ( as well as a three @-@ year hiatus from studio releases – a record for the band at the time ) Iron Maiden returned in 1995 . Releasing The X Factor , the band had their lowest chart position since 1981 for an album in the UK ( debuting at No. 8 ) , although it would go on to win Album of the Year awards in France and Germany . The record included the 11 @-@ minute epic " Sign of the Cross " , the band 's longest song since " Rime of the Ancient Mariner " , as well as the singles , " Man on the Edge " , based on the film Falling Down , and " Lord of the Flies " , based on the novel of the same name . The release is notable for its " dark " tone , inspired by Steve Harris ' divorce . The band toured for the rest of 1995 and 1996 , playing for the first time in Israel and South Africa , before stopping to release Best of the Beast . The band 's first compilation , it included a new single , " Virus " , whose lyrics attack the critics who had recently written off the band .
Iron Maiden returned to the studio to record Virtual XI , released in 1998 . The album 's chart scores were the band 's lowest to date , including the UK where it peaked at No. 16 failing to score one million worldwide sales for the first time in Iron Maiden 's history . At the same time , Steve Harris assisted in remastering the band 's entire discography , up to and including Live at Donington ( which was given a mainstream release for the first time ) .
Bayley 's tenure in Iron Maiden ended in January 1999 when he was asked to leave during a band meeting . The dismissal took place due to issues Bayley had experienced with his voice during the Virtual XI World Tour , although Janick Gers has since stated that this was partly the band 's fault for forcing him to perform songs which were beyond his natural register .
= = = Return of Dickinson and Smith , Brave New World ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
While the group were considering a replacement for Bayley , Rod Smallwood convinced Steve Harris to invite Bruce Dickinson back into the band . Although Harris admits that he " wasn 't really into it " at first , he then thought , " ' Well , if the change happens , who should we get ? ' The thing is , we know Bruce and we know what he 's capable of , and you think , ' Well , better the devil you know . ' I mean , we got on well professionally for , like , eleven years
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, and so ... after I thought about it , I didn 't really have a problem with it . "
The band entered into talks with Dickinson , who agreed to rejoin during a meeting in Brighton in January 1999 , along with guitarist Adrian Smith , who was telephoned a few hours later . With Gers , Smith 's replacement , remaining , Iron Maiden now had a three @-@ guitar line @-@ up and embarked on a hugely successful reunion tour . Dubbed The Ed Hunter Tour , it tied in with the band 's newly released greatest hits collection , Ed Hunter , whose track listing was decided by a poll on the group 's website , and also contained a computer game of the same name starring the band 's mascot .
One of Dickinson 's primary concerns on rejoining the group " was whether we would in fact be making a real state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art record and not just a comeback album , " which eventually took the form of 2000 's Brave New World . Having disliked the results from Harris ' personal studio , Barnyard Studios located on his property in Essex , which had been used for the last four Iron Maiden studio albums , the band recorded the new release at Guillaume Tell Studios , Paris in November 1999 with producer Kevin Shirley . Thematic influences continued with " The Wicker Man " – based on the 1973 British cult film of the same name – and " Brave New World " – title taken from the Aldous Huxley novel of the same name . The album furthered the more progressive and melodic sound present in some earlier recordings , with elaborate song structures and keyboard orchestration .
The world tour that followed consisted of well over 100 dates and culminated on 19 January 2001 in a show at the Rock in Rio festival in Brazil , where Iron Maiden played to an audience of around 250 @,@ 000 . While the performance was being produced for a CD and DVD release in March 2002 , under the name Rock in Rio , the band took a year out from touring , during which they played three consecutive shows at Brixton Academy in aid of former drummer Clive Burr , who had recently announced that he had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis . The band performed two further concerts for Burr 's MS Trust Fund charity in 2005 , and 2007 , before his death in 2013 .
= = = Dance of Death and A Matter of Life and Death ( 2003 – 07 ) = = =
Following their Give Me Ed ... ' Til I 'm Dead Tour in the summer of 2003 , Iron Maiden released Dance of Death , their thirteenth studio album , which was met by worldwide critical and commercial success . Produced by Kevin Shirley , now the band 's regular producer , many critics also felt that this release matched up to their earlier efforts , such as Killers , Piece of Mind and The Number of the Beast . As usual , historical and literary references were present , with " Montségur " in particular being about the Cathar stronghold conquered in 1244 , and " Paschendale " relating to the significant battle which took place during The First World War . During the following tour , the band 's performance at Westfalenhalle , in Dortmund , Germany , was recorded and released in August 2005 as a live album and DVD , entitled Death on the Road .
In 2005 , the band announced the Eddie Rips Up the World Tour which , tying in with their 2004 DVD entitled The History of Iron Maiden – Part 1 : The Early Days , only featured material from their first four albums . As part of this celebration of their earlier years , " The Number of the Beast " single was re @-@ released and went straight to No. 3 in the UK Chart . The tour included many headlining stadium and festival dates , including a performance at Ullevi Stadium in Sweden to an audience of almost 60 @,@ 000 . This concert was also broadcast live on satellite television all over Europe to approximately 60 million viewers . Following this run of European shows , the band co @-@ headlined the US festival tour , Ozzfest , with Black Sabbath , their final performance at which earned international press coverage after their show was sabotaged by singer Ozzy Osbourne 's family , who took offence to Dickinson 's remarks against reality @-@ TV . The band completed the tour by headlining the Reading and Leeds Festivals on the 26 – 28 August , and the RDS Stadium in Ireland on 31 August . For the second time , the band played a charity show for The Clive Burr MS Trust Fund , this time taking place at the Hammersmith Apollo . The same year , the band were inducted into the Hollywood RockWalk in Sunset Boulevard , Los Angeles .
At the end of 2005 , Iron Maiden began work on A Matter of Life and Death , their fourteenth studio effort , released in autumn 2006 . While not a concept album , war and religion are recurring themes in the lyrics , as well as in the cover artwork . The release was a critical and commercial success , earning the band their first top ten in the Billboard 200 and receiving the Album of the Year award at the 2006 Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards . A supporting tour followed , during which they played the album in its entirety ; response to this was mixed .
The second part of the " A Matter of Life and Death " tour , which took place in 2007 , was dubbed " A Matter of the Beast " to celebrate the 25th anniversary of The Number of the Beast album , and included appearances at several major festivals worldwide . The tour opened in the Middle East with the band 's first performance in Dubai at the Dubai Desert Rock Festival , after which they played to over 30 @,@ 000 people at the Bangalore Palace Grounds , marking the first concert by any major heavy metal band in the Indian sub @-@ continent . The band went on to play a string of European dates , including an appearance at Download Festival , their fourth headline performance at Donington Park , to approximately 80 @,@ 000 people . On 24 June they ended the tour with a performance at London 's Brixton Academy in aid of The Clive Burr MS Trust fund .
= = = Somewhere Back in Time World Tour and Flight 666 ( 2007 – 09 ) = = =
On 5 September 2007 , the band announced their Somewhere Back in Time World Tour , which tied in with the DVD release of their Live After Death album . The setlist for the tour consisted of successes from the 1980s , with a specific emphasis on the Powerslave era for set design . The first part of the tour , commencing in Mumbai , India on 1 February 2008 , consisted of 24 concerts in 21 cities , travelling nearly 50 @,@ 000 miles in the band 's own chartered aeroplane , named " Ed Force One " . They played their first ever concerts in Costa Rica and Colombia and their first shows in Australia and Puerto Rico since 1992 .
The tour led to the release of a new compilation album , entitled Somewhere Back in Time , which included a selection of tracks from their 1980 eponymous debut to 1988 's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son , as well as several live versions from Live After Death .
The Somewhere Back in Time World Tour continued with two further legs in the US and Europe in the summer of 2008 , during which the band used a more expansive stage @-@ set , including further elements of the original Live After Death show . With the sole UK concert taking place at Twickenham Stadium , this would be the first time the band would headline a stadium in their own country . The three 2008 legs of the tour were remarkably successful ; it was the second highest grossing tour of the year for a British artist .
The last part of the tour took place in February and March 2009 , with the band , once again , using " Ed Force One " . The final leg included the band 's first ever appearances in Peru and Ecuador , as well as their return to Venezuela and New Zealand after 17 years . The band also played another show in India ( their third in the country within a span of 2 years ) at the Rock in India festival to a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 . At their concert in São Paulo on 15 March , Dickinson announced on stage that it was the largest non @-@ festival show of their career , with an overall attendance of 63 @,@ 000 people . The final leg ended in Florida on 2 April after which the band took a break . Overall , the tour reportedly had an attendance of over two million people worldwide over both years .
At the 2009 BRIT Awards , Iron Maiden won the award for best British live act . Voted for by the public , the band reportedly won by a landslide .
On 20 January 2009 , the band announced that they were to release a full @-@ length documentary film in select cinemas on 21 April 2009 . Entitled Iron Maiden : Flight 666 , it was filmed during the first part of the Somewhere Back in Time World Tour between February and March 2008 . Flight 666 was co @-@ produced by Banger Productions and was distributed in cinemas by Arts Alliance Media and EMI , with D & E Entertainment sub @-@ distributing in the US . The film went on to have a Blu @-@ ray , DVD and CD release in May and June , topping the music DVD charts in 22 countries .
= = = The Final Frontier and Maiden England World Tour ( 2010 – 14 ) = = =
Following announcements that the band had begun composition of new material and booked studio time in early 2010 with Kevin Shirley producing , The Final Frontier was announced on 4 March . The album , the band 's fifteenth , was released on 16 August , garnering critical acclaim and the band 's greatest commercial success in their history , reaching No. 1 in twenty @-@ eight countries worldwide . Although Steve Harris had been quoted in the past as claiming that the band would only produce fifteen studio releases , band members have since confirmed that there will be at least one further record .
The album 's supporting tour saw the band perform 98 shows across the globe to an estimated audience of over 2 million , including their first visits to Singapore , Indonesia and South Korea , before concluding in London on 6 August 2011 . As the tour 's 2010 leg preceded The Final Frontier 's release , the band made " El Dorado " available as a free download on 8 June , which would go on to win the award for Best Metal Performance at the 2011 Grammy Awards on 13 February 2011 . It is the band 's first win following two previous Grammy nominations ( " Fear of the Dark " in 1994 and " The Wicker Man " in 2001 ) .
On 15 March , a new compilation to accompany 2009 's Somewhere Back in Time was announced . Entitled From Fear to Eternity , the original release date was set at 23 May but was later pushed back to 6 June . The double disc set covers the period 1990 – 2010 ( the band 's most recent eight studio albums ) , and , as on Somewhere Back in Time , live versions with Bruce Dickinson were included in place of original recordings which featured other vocalists , in this case Blaze Bayley .
In a press release regarding From Fear to Eternity , band manager Rod Smallwood revealed that Iron Maiden will release a new concert video to DVD in 2011 , filmed in Santiago , Chile and Buenos Aires , Argentina during The Final Frontier World Tour . On 17 January 2012 , the band announced that the new release , entitled En Vivo ! , based on footage from the Chile concert , will be made available worldwide on CD , LP , DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 26 March , except the United States and Canada ( where it was released on 27 March ) . In addition to the concert footage , the video release includes an 88 @-@ minute tour documentary , entitled Behind The Beast , containing interviews with the band and their crew . In December 2012 , one song from the release ( " Blood Brothers " ) was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance at the 2013 Grammy Awards .
On 15 February 2012 , the band announced the Maiden England World Tour 2012 – 14 , which was based around the video of the same name . The tour commenced in North America in the summer of 2012 and was followed by further dates in 2013 and 2014 , which included the band 's record @-@ breaking fifth headline performance at Donington Park , their first show at the newly built national stadium in Stockholm , a return to the Rock in Rio festival in Brazil , and their debut appearance in Paraguay . In August 2012 , Steve Harris stated that the Maiden England video would be re @-@ issued in 2013 , with a release date later set for 25 March 2013 in DVD , CD and LP formats under the title Maiden England ' 88 .
= = = The Book of Souls ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Following confirmation from the group that 2010 's The Final Frontier would not be their last album , Bruce Dickinson revealed plans for a sixteenth studio record in July 2013 , with a potential release date in 2015 . In February 2015 , drummer Nicko McBrain revealed that a new album had been completed , although the release has been put on hold while Dickinson recovers from treatment for a cancerous tumour found on his tongue . On 15 May , after Dickinson had been given the all @-@ clear , manager Rod Smallwood confirmed that the album would be released in 2015 , although the band will not tour until 2016 to allow Dickinson to recuperate . On 18 June 2015 , the band 's website announced its title , The Book of Souls , and confirmed a release date of 4 September 2015 . A critical and commercial success , it received positive reviews and became the band 's fifth UK No. 1 album .
The new record was recorded at Guillaume Tell Studios , Paris , which they had previously used for 2000 's Brave New World , with regular producer Kevin Shirley in late summer 2014 . With a total time of 92 minutes , it is the group 's first double studio album . In addition , the release 's closing song , " Empire of the Clouds " , penned by Dickinson , replaces " Rime of the Ancient Mariner " ( from 1984 's Powerslave ) as Iron Maiden 's longest song , at 18 minutes in length . A music video for the song " Speed of Light " was issued on 14 August .
In February 2016 , the band embarked on The Book of Souls World Tour , which will see them play concerts in 35 countries in North and South America , Asia , Australasia , Africa and Europe , including their first ever performances in China , El Salvador and Lithuania . As with 2008 @-@ 09 's Somewhere Back in Time World Tour and 2010 @-@ 11 's The Final Frontier World Tour , the group will be travelling in a customised aeroplane , flown by Dickinson and nicknamed " Ed Force One " , although this time they will be using a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 jumbo jet .
= = Image and legacy = =
Iron Maiden were ranked No. 24 in VH1 's " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " , No. 4 in MTV 's " Top 10 Greatest Heavy Metal Bands of All Time " and No. 3 in VH1 Classic 's " Top 20 Metal Bands " . The band also won the Ivor Novello Award for international achievement in 2002 and were inducted into the Hollywood RockWalk whilst touring in the US in 2005 .
Iron Maiden frequently use the slogan " Up the Irons " in their disc liner notes , and the phrase can also be seen on several T @-@ shirts officially licensed by the band . It is a paraphrase of " Up the Hammers " , the phrase which refers to the London football club , West Ham United , of which founder Steve Harris is a fan .
Iron Maiden 's mascot , Eddie , is a perennial fixture in the band 's science fiction and horror @-@ influenced album cover art , as well as in live shows . Originally a papier @-@ mâché mask incorporated in their backdrop which would squirt fake blood during their live shows , the name would be transferred to the character featured in the band 's debut album cover , created by Derek Riggs . Eddie was painted exclusively by Riggs until 1992 , at which point the band began using artwork from numerous other artists as well , including Melvyn Grant . Eddie is also featured in the band 's first @-@ person shooter video game , Ed Hunter , as well as their mobile role @-@ playing game , Iron Maiden : Legacy of the Beast , in addition to numerous T @-@ shirts , posters and other band @-@ related merchandise . In 2008 , he was awarded the " Icon Award " at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods , while Gibson.com describes him as " the most recognisable metal icon in the world and one of the most versatile too " .
Iron Maiden 's distinct logo has adorned all of the band 's releases since their debut , 1979 's The Soundhouse Tapes EP . The typeface originates with Vic Fair 's poster design for the 1976 science fiction film , The Man Who Fell to Earth , also used by Gordon Giltrap , although Steve Harris claims that he designed it himself , utilising his abilities as an architectural draughtsman .
= = = Influence on other artists = = =
According to Guitar World , Iron Maiden 's music has " influenced generations of newer metal acts , from legends like Metallica to current stars like Avenged Sevenfold , " with Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich commenting that he has " always had an incredible amount of respect and admiration for them . " Kerry King of Slayer has stated that " they meant so much to me in their early days " and Scott Ian of Anthrax said , " they had a major impact on my life . "
M. Shadows of Avenged Sevenfold states that Iron Maiden " are by far the best live band in the world and their music is timeless " , while Trivium singer Matt Heafy comments that " without Iron Maiden , Trivium surely wouldn 't exist " . Slipknot frontman Corey Taylor says that " Steve Harris does more with four fingers than I 've ever seen anybody do . And Bruce Dickinson ? Dude ! To me , he was the quintessential old @-@ school heavy metal singer . He could hit notes that were just sick , and he was a great showman . Everything made me a fan . And there wasn 't a dude that I hung out with that wasn 't trying to draw Eddie on their schoolbooks " , while their music also helped Jesper Strömblad of In Flames to pioneer the melodic death metal genre , stating that he had wanted to combine death metal with Iron Maiden 's melodic guitar sounds .
Other heavy metal artists who cite the band as an influence include Chris Jericho , lead singer of Fozzy , Cam Pipes , lead vocalist of 3 Inches of Blood , Vitaly Dubinin , bassist of Aria , and Mikael Åkerfeldt , guitarist and lead vocalist of Opeth . Both current and former Dream Theater members John Petrucci , John Myung and Mike Portnoy have stated that Iron Maiden were one of their biggest influences when their band first formed .
= = = Appearance in media = = =
The band 's name has been mentioned prominently in several songs , such as the singles " Teenage Dirtbag " by Wheatus , " Back to the 80 's " by Danish dance @-@ pop band Aqua. and " Fat Lip " by Sum 41 . Iron Maiden have also been referenced in Weezer 's " Heart Songs " ( from their 2008 self @-@ titled " Red " album ) , Blues Traveler 's " Psycho Joe " ( from 1997 's Straight on till Morning ) , and NOFX 's " Eddie , Bruce and Paul " ( from their 2009 album Coaster ) , which Sputnikmusic describes as " a humorous retelling of Paul DiAnno 's departure " . Also , Swedish power metal band Sabaton have made references to the band in their songs " Metal Machine " , " Metal Crue " , and " Metal Ripper " , with the former mentioning various Iron Maiden songs ( namely " Fear of the Dark " and " Afraid to Shoot Strangers " ) , and the latter including lyrics from " The Number of the Beast " .
In 2008 , Kerrang ! released an album , entitled Maiden Heaven : A Tribute to Iron Maiden , composed of Iron Maiden cover songs played by artists such as Metallica , Machine Head , Dream Theater , Trivium , Coheed and Cambria , Avenged Sevenfold , and others who were influenced by Iron Maiden throughout their careers . In 2010 , Maiden uniteD , an acoustic tribute band consisting of members of Ayreon , Threshold and Within Temptation , released Mind the Acoustic Pieces , a re @-@ interpretation of the entire Piece of Mind album . Many other Iron Maiden cover albums exist ( each featuring various artists ) , including piano , electro , string quartet and hip @-@ hop tributes .
Iron Maiden songs have been featured in the soundtracks of several video games , including Carmageddon 2 , Grand Theft Auto : Vice City , Grand Theft Auto : Episodes From Liberty City , Grand Theft Auto IV : The Lost and Damned , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 4 , SSX on Tour and Madden NFL 10 . Their music also appears in the Guitar Hero and Rock Band series of rhythmic video games . Iron Maiden songs have also appeared in films , such as Phenomena ( entitled Creepers in the US ) , and Murder by Numbers ; while MTV 's animated duo Beavis and Butt @-@ head have commented favourably on the band several times .
Transformers author Bill Forster is an avowed Iron Maiden fan and made several Iron Maiden references , including song lyrics and the phrase " Up the Irons " in his books , including The Ark series and The AllSpark Almanac series .
= = = Claims of Satanic references = = =
In 1982 , the band released one of their most popular , controversial and acclaimed albums , The Number of the Beast . The artwork and title track led to Christian groups in the United States branding the band as Satanists , encouraging people to destroy copies of the release . The band 's manager , Rod Smallwood , later commented that Christians initially burnt the records , but later decided to destroy them with hammers through fear of breathing in the melting vinyl 's fumes . The claims were not restricted to the US , however , with Christian organisations managing to prevent Iron Maiden from performing in Chile in 1992 .
Contrary to the accusations , the band have always denied the notion that they are Satanists , with lead vocalist , Bruce Dickinson , doing so on @-@ stage in the Live After Death concert video . Steve Harris has since commented that , " It was mad . They completely got the wrong end of the stick . They obviously hadn 't read the lyrics . They just wanted to believe all that rubbish about us being Satanists . " Harris has also stated that " The Number of the Beast " song was inspired by a nightmare he had after watching Damien : Omen II , and also influenced by Robert Burns ' Tam o ' Shanter . Furthermore , the band 's drummer , Nicko McBrain , has been a born again Christian since 1999 .
= = = Ed Force One = = =
For their Somewhere Back in Time World Tour in 2008 and 2009 , Iron Maiden commissioned an Astraeus Airlines Boeing 757 as transport . The aeroplane was converted into a combi configuration , which enabled it to carry the band , their crew and stage production , thereby allowing the group to perform in countries which were previously deemed unreachable logistically . It was also repainted with a special Iron Maiden livery , which the airline decided to retain after receiving positive feedback from customers .
The aircraft , named " Ed Force One " after a competition on the band 's website , was flown by Dickinson , as he was also a commercial airline pilot for Astraeus , and plays a major role in the award @-@ winning documentary , Iron Maiden : Flight 666 , which was released in cinemas in 42 countries in April 2009 . A different aeroplane ( registered G @-@ STRX ) was used for The Final Frontier World Tour in 2011 with altered livery , adopting the artwork of The Final Frontier album , and features heavily in the 2012 documentary " Behind the Beast " . For the The Book of Souls World Tour in 2016 , the band upgraded to an ex @-@ Air France Boeing 747 @-@ 400 jumbo jet , supplied by Air Atlanta Icelandic ( registered TF @-@ AAK ) and customised by Volga @-@ Dnepr Gulf , which allows for more space without the aircraft having to undergo a significant conversion to carry their equipment .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Steve Harris , Iron Maiden 's bassist and primary songwriter , has stated that his influences include Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Led Zeppelin , Uriah Heep , Pink Floyd , Genesis , Yes , Jethro Tull , Thin Lizzy , UFO and Wishbone Ash . In 2010 Harris stated , " I think if anyone wants to understand Maiden 's early thing , in particular the harmony guitars , all they have to do is listen to Wishbone Ash 's Argus album . Thin Lizzy too , but not as much . And then we wanted to have a bit of a prog thing thrown in as well , because I was really into bands like Genesis and Jethro Tull . So you combine all that with the heavy riffs and the speed , and you 've got it . " In 2004 , Harris explained that the band 's " heaviness " was inspired by " Black Sabbath and Deep Purple with a bit of Zeppelin thrown in . " On top of this , Harris developed his own playing style , which guitarist Janick Gers describes as " more like a rhythm guitar , " cited as responsible for the band 's galloping style , heard in such songs as " The Trooper " and " Run to the Hills . "
The band 's guitarists , Dave Murray , Adrian Smith and Janick Gers , each have their own individual influences and playing style . Dave Murray is known for his legato technique which , he claims , " evolved naturally . I 'd heard Jimi Hendrix using legato when I was growing up , and I liked that style of playing . " Stating that he " was inspired by blues rock rather than metal , " Adrian Smith was influenced by Johnny Winter and Pat Travers , leading to him becoming a " melodic player . " Janick Gers , on the other hand , prefers a more improvised style , largely inspired by Ritchie Blackmore , which he claims is in contrast to Smith 's " rhythmic " sound .
Singer Bruce Dickinson , who typically works in collaboration with guitarist Adrian Smith , has an operatic vocal style , inspired by Arthur Brown , Peter Hammill , Ian Anderson and Ian Gillan , and is often considered to be one of the best heavy metal vocalists of all time . Although Nicko McBrain has only received one writing credit , on the Dance of Death album , Harris often relies on him while developing songs . Adrian Smith commented , " Steve loves playing with him . [ They ] used to work for hours going over these bass and drum patterns . "
Throughout their career , the band 's style has remained largely unchanged , in spite of the addition of guitar synthesisers on 1986 's Somewhere in Time , keyboards on 1988 's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son , and an attempt to return to the " stripped down " production of their earlier material on 1990 's No Prayer for the Dying . In recent years , however , the band have begun using more progressive elements in their songs , which Steve Harris describes as not progressive " in the modern sense , but like Dream Theater , more in a 70s way " . According to Harris , Seventh Son of a Seventh Son was the band 's first album which was " more progressive " , while they would only return to this style from 1995 's The X Factor , which he states is " like an extension of Seventh Son ... , in the sense of the progressive element to it " . The development contrasts with the band 's raw sounding earlier material , which AllMusic states was " clearly drawing from elements of punk rock " , although Harris firmly denies this .
= = Awards = =
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Iron Maiden ( 1980 )
Killers ( 1981 )
The Number of the Beast ( 1982 )
Piece of Mind ( 1983 )
Powerslave ( 1984 )
Somewhere in Time ( 1986 )
Seventh Son of a Seventh Son ( 1988 )
No Prayer for the Dying ( 1990 )
Fear of the Dark ( 1992 )
The X Factor ( 1995 )
Virtual XI ( 1998 )
Brave New World ( 2000 )
Dance of Death ( 2003 )
A Matter of Life and Death ( 2006 )
The Final Frontier ( 2010 )
The Book of Souls ( 2015 )
= = Concert tours = =
= Battle of Gloucester ( 1775 ) =
The Battle of Gloucester was a skirmish fought early in the American Revolutionary War at Gloucester , Massachusetts on August 8 or 9 , 1775 . Royal Navy Captain John Linzee , commanding the sloop @-@ of @-@ war HMS Falcon , spotted two schooners that were returning from the West Indies . After capturing one schooner , Linzee chased the second one into Gloucester Harbor , where it was grounded . The townspeople called out their militia , captured British seamen sent to seize the grounded schooner , and recovered the captured ship as well .
The skirmish was one of a series of actions that prompted a retaliatory expedition by Royal Navy Captain Henry Mowat in October 1775 . The major event of his cruise , the Burning of Falmouth , was cited by the Second Continental Congress when it established the Continental Navy .
= = Background = =
In April 1775 , tensions between British colonists in the Province of Massachusetts Bay and the royal governor , General Thomas Gage , boiled over into war . When General Gage dispatched troops to Concord to search for military supplies the colonists had stored there , alarms were raised , and colonists and soldiers clashed in Lexington and Concord on April 19 . Militia companies continued to arrive in the days following , and the British troops were besieged in Boston .
The siege , which only blockaded land access to the city , made the army dependent on the ability of the navy to supply it with fresh provisions . In many communities near the city , livestock and hay were removed from islands in Boston Harbor and the immediate coastal areas , while General Gage and Vice Admiral Samuel Graves sent out expeditions to raid coastal communities for livestock and hay , and to interdict colonial shipping . When these expeditions landed troops or sailors to round up livestock , they were sometimes met with resistance . Not long after the siege began , colonists and army troops clashed on May 27 near Boston over supplies on a nearby island .
On August 5 , the HMS Falcon , commanded by John Linzee , appeared off Ipswich Bay . Captain Linzee sent a barge of men to the shore in search of livestock , hove to , and sent a barge containing about 50 men ashore to secure a supply of mutton from , the flock of sheep grazing on the Coffin farm at West Gloucester . Major Coffin observed their movements and anticipated their design . He hastily gathered some half dozen men , armed them with rifles and , concealed behind sand mounds , kept up such a brisk firing that the sailors in the barge , supposing that a large company were ready to receive them , thought it prudent to desist from their sheep foraging intentions and returned to the " Falcon " . When the barge returned to the Falcon , Linzee sent it to investigate a schooner in the harbor ; this ship turned out to only contain ballast . Linzee continued to cruise off Cape Ann for the next few days , and impressed some men from local ports and ships .
= = Battle = =
On August 8 or 9 ( sources disagree on the exact date ) , Captain Linzee spotted two American schooners making sail for Salem around 8 in the morning . Quickly capturing one of the schooners without incident , he put a crew aboard the prize before giving chase to the other . The captain of the second schooner , apparently familiar with the area , brought his ship deep into Gloucester Harbor and grounded it near Five Pound Island shortly after noon . Linzee forced a local fisherman to pilot the Falcon and the prize schooner to an anchorage in the harbor . He then sent 36 men on three small boats under the command of his lieutenant to take the ship . Among the crews sent were 10 impressed Americans , including four from Gloucester . The arrival of the British ship had caused the townspeople to raise the alarm , and militia companies began to muster , led by their captains , Joseph Foster and Bradbury Sanders . Armed with muskets and two aging swivel guns , they opened fire from the shore at the small boats as they neared the schooner . The British rowed faster , and boarded the grounded schooner , where they were effectively trapped by constant fire from the shore . Linzee , attempting to distract the townspeople , fired the Falcon 's guns on the town , and eventually sent a landing party to try to burn the town . However , this attempt was unsuccessful , and the party on the grounded schooner continued to be harassed by from the shore . The lieutenant was wounded in the action , and he and a few men managed to escape the action in a skiff around 4 pm , leaving the Falcon 's master in charge . The remaining men left on the grounded ship were eventually taken prisoner , including the impressed Americans . By 7 pm , the small boats had all been taken . Linzee then decided to send the prize schooner in to recover his men . Linzee reported his suspicion that the crew of the captured ship took the opportunity to overpower the prize crew , and recovered the vessel . According to Linzee , " After the master was landed I found I could not do him any good , or distress the rebels by firing , therefore I left off . "
= = Aftermath = =
Linzee 's attempt to burn the town as a punishment for resisting his actions was echoed in later naval actions . In October 1775 , Admiral Graves ordered Captain Henry Mowat on an expedition of reprisal against New England 's coastal communities , specifically including Gloucester as a target , and citing among other justifications Captain Linzee 's defeat at Gloucester . Mowat chose not to attack Gloucester , since he felt its buildings were too widely spaced for cannonades to have any significant effect . Reports of Mowat 's only major action , the Burning of Falmouth ( present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) , were instrumental in motivating the Second Continental Congress to establish the Continental Navy .
= Karen McDougal =
Karen McDougal ( born March 23 , 1971 ) is an American model and actress . She is known for her appearances in Playboy magazine as Playmate of the Month for December 1997 and Playmate of the Year of 1998 . In 2001 , the readers of Playboy voted McDougal " The second sexiest Playmate of the 1990s " .
McDougal taught pre @-@ kindergarten before winning a swimwear competition that launched her career as a glamour , promotional , and swimsuit model . Since her appearances in Playboy , she has extended her career into a wide variety of appearances in mainstream media , including other magazine modeling , television commercials , and minor acting , with mixed success . She has been a successful fitness model , with multiple magazine appearances including being the first woman to appear on the cover of Men 's Fitness magazine . She starred in The Arena , a direct @-@ to @-@ video film , and inspired the creation of a fantasy art statuette and a doll .
McDougal is a fitness enthusiast , since childhood ballet study and high school sports . She is an avid motorcycle and car collector . Since her Playmate days , she has maintained a largely private social life .
= = Early life = =
Although her Playmate datasheet stated she was born in Gary , Indiana , McDougal was actually born in Merrillville , Indiana , near Gary . She is of Cherokee Indian , Scottish and Irish descent . McDougal is the first daughter in the family with 3 older brothers , Bob , Dave and Jeff , and a younger sister , Tina . Her mother , Carol , remarried when McDougal was 9 years old and the family moved to Sawyer , Michigan where she remained until college .
McDougal studied tap dance and ballet as a child . Her childhood dream , prior to teaching and modeling , was to become a ballerina . She attended River Valley High School and became a cheerleader , band member , color guard , volleyball and softball player , as well as Michigan state champion clarinet player for 4 years in a row in high school . Her high school nickname was " Barbie " due to her wholesome sweetness . After graduating high school in 1989 , she attended Ferris State University at Big Rapids , Michigan , majoring in Elementary Education .
After 2 years of college , McDougal moved to a Detroit suburb where she taught pre @-@ kindergarten , before being persuaded to try out for a swimsuit competition . One of her professional goals has always been to open a learning center for children , but she has put those plans on hold to focus on pursuing roles in acting and modelling .
= = Modeling = =
= = = Playboy = = =
In 1997 , McDougal tried out and won her local Venus Swimwear swimsuit competition in Michigan , earning her place at the international final in Florida . Her victory caught the eye of Playboy photographer David Mecey . Soon after that she was approached by Playboy for a test shoot at Playboy Studio West which she accepted . Upon completing her test shoot , she was promptly selected to return for a complete photo and video shoot and chosen as Miss December 1997 . Her pictorial , which was shot by photographers Richard Fegley and Stephen Wayda , has a winter theme and its outdoor portion was shot in the snowy fields near Park City , Utah . Her video , the " Playmate Profile " , was featured on Playboy TV soon after her magazine debut .
In May 1998 , she was announced to have been chosen by Hugh Hefner and fans as Playmate of the Year ( PMOY ) of 1998 at a luncheon at the Playboy Mansion . As her reward , she was awarded $ 100 @,@ 000 and a special edition silver Shelby Series 1 convertible with a customized Michigan license plate " PMOY 98 " . McDougal 's PMOY pictorial was featured in the July 1998 issue of Playboy where she also appeared on its cover . In contrast to her Playmate pictorial , her PMOY pictorial has a tropical theme and its outdoor portion was shot at Saint Lucia . According to her interview in her Playmate of the Year " Video Centerfold " which was released soon after her PMOY issue debuted , she believes her physical imperfections are her " funny " smile , her crooked pinkies which she inherited from her grandfather and her " ugly feet " which she wishes others would not look at . Because of the popularity of the VH1 television series " Pop @-@ up Video " at the time , one of the segments in her PMOY video was done as a Pop @-@ up Video parody filled with factoids about her and Playboy . During her appearance on The Magic Hour to promote her PMOY issue , McDougal demonstrated her signature pose , straddle split on TV in front of a live studio audience .
Many regard her as a favorite Playmate because of her combination of beauty , " Girl next door " appeal and curvaceous figure , according to a November
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anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Jacob Jones or any of the other ships of the class .
= = United States Navy career = =
USS Jacob Jones was commissioned into the United States Navy on 10 February 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Commander William S. Pye . Following her commissioning , Jacob Jones conducted training exercises off the New England coast , and then entered the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs . Upon the United States ' entry into World War I on 6 April 1917 , Jacob Jones patrolled off the coast of Virginia . She sailed from Boston for Europe on 7 May with a group of destroyers that included Cassin , and arrived at Queenstown , Ireland , on 17 May .
Jacob Jones ' duties at Queenstown involved patrolling and escorting convoys in the Irish Sea and making occasional rescues of survivors of sunken ships . On 8 July , Valetta was torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 87 some 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ) west of Fastnet Rock ; Jacob Jones arrived on the scene and picked up 44 survivors of the British steamship . While escorting British steamship Dafila two weeks later , lookouts on Jacob Jones sighted a periscope , but before the destroyer could make an attack on the submarine , U @-@ 45 torpedoed and sank the steamship . Jacob Jones was able to take on 26 of Dafila 's 28 @-@ member crew after the ship went down .
On 19 October , the British Armed merchant cruiser Orama and ten destroyers , including Jacob Jones , were escorting an eastbound convoy of twenty steamers , when German submarine U @-@ 62 surfaced in the midst of the group . The submarine launched its only remaining torpedo at Orama , sinking that vessel . While sister ship Conyngham saw and depth charged U @-@ 62 ( to no avail ) , Jacob Jones turned her attentions to rescuing Orama 's survivors , gathering 309 .
= = Sinking = =
In early December , Jacob Jones helped escort a convoy to Brest , France , with five other Queenstown @-@ based destroyers . The last to depart from Brest on the return to Ireland , Jacob Jones was steaming alone in a zig @-@ zag pattern when she was spotted by Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose on the German submarine U @-@ 53 . At 16 : 20 on 6 December 1917 , near position 49 ° 23 ′ N 6 ° 13 ′ W , lookouts on Jacob Jones spotted a torpedo 800 yards ( 730 m ) distant headed for the ship 's starboard side . Despite having her rudder put hard left and emergency speed rung up , Jacob Jones was unable to move out of the way , and the torpedo struck her rudder . Even though the depth charges did not explode , Jacob Jones was adrift . The jolt had knocked out power , so the destroyer was unable to send a distress signal ; since she was steaming alone , no other ship was present to know of Jacob Jones ' predicament .
Commander David W. Bagley , the destroyer 's commander , ordered all life rafts and boats launched . He then ordered Jacob Jones to be scuttled , knowing that the ship 's cargo of depth charges , set on " ready " , the ship began to sink by the stern after the scuttling charges were activated , the ship would probably detonate at any moment . As the ship continued to sink , her bow raised in the air almost vertically before she began to slip beneath the waves . At this point the depth charges began exploding , killing a number of men who had been unable to escape the destroyer , and stunning many others in the water . The destroyer , the first United States destroyer ever lost to enemy action , sank eight minutes after the torpedo struck the rudder , taking with her two officers and 64 men .
In the water , several of the crew — most notably Lieutenant , junior grade , Stanton F. Kalk , the officer @-@ of @-@ the @-@ deck when the torpedo struck — began to get men out of the water and into the life rafts . Kalk worked in the cold Atlantic water to equalize the load among the various rafts , but died of exhaustion and exposure .
Bagley noted in his official account that about 30 minutes after Jacob Jones sank , the German submarine surfaced about two to three miles from the collection of rafts and took one of the American sailors on board . According to Uboat.net , what Rose of U @-@ 53 had done was surface and take aboard two badly injured American sailors . Rose had also radioed the American base at Queenstown with the approximate coordinates of the sinking before departing the area .
Bagley , unaware of Rose 's humanitarian gesture , left most of the food , water , and medical supplies with Lieutenant Commander John K. Richards , whom he left in charge of the assembled rafts . Bagley , Lieutenant Commander Norman Scott ( Jacob Jones ' executive officer ) and four crewmen ( brought along to row ) , set out for aid in the nearby Isles of Scilly . At 13 : 00 on 7 December , Bagley 's group was sighted by a British patrol vessel just six nautical miles ( 11 km ) from their destination . The group was relieved to find that the British sloop HMS Camellia had found and taken aboard most of the survivors earlier that morning ; a small group had been rescued on the night of the sinking by the American steamer Catalina .
Several men were recognized for their actions in the aftermath of the torpedo attack . Kalk ( posthumously ) and Bagley received the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . Others honored included Chief Boatswain 's Mate Harry Gibson ( posthumously ) and Chief Electrician 's Mate L. J. Kelly , who both received the Navy Cross ; and Richards , Scott , and Chief Boatswain 's Mate Charles Charlesworth all received letters of commendation .
= Supermarine Spitfire =
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single @-@ seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries before , during and after the Second World War . The Spitfire was built in many variants , using several wing configurations , and was produced in greater numbers than any other British aircraft . It was also the only British fighter to be in continuous production throughout the war . The Spitfire continues to be popular among enthusiasts , with approximately 54 Spitfires being airworthy , while many more are static exhibits in aviation museums throughout the world .
The Spitfire was designed as a short @-@ range , high @-@ performance interceptor aircraft by R. J. Mitchell , chief designer at Supermarine Aviation Works , which operated as a subsidiary of Vickers @-@ Armstrong from 1928 . In accordance with its role as an interceptor , Mitchell supported the development of the Spitfire 's distinctive elliptical wing ( designed by B. Shenstone ) to have the thinnest possible cross @-@ section ; this enabled the Spitfire to have a higher top speed than several contemporary fighters , including the Hawker Hurricane . Mitchell continued to refine the design until his death in 1937 , whereupon his colleague Joseph Smith took over as chief designer , overseeing the development of the Spitfire through its multitude of variants .
During the Battle of Britain , from July to October 1940 , the Spitfire was perceived by the public to be the RAF fighter , though the more numerous Hawker Hurricane shouldered a greater proportion of the burden against the Nazi German air force , the Luftwaffe . Spitfire units , however , had a lower attrition rate and a higher victory @-@ to @-@ loss ratio than those flying Hurricanes because of its higher performance . Spitfires in general were tasked with engaging the Luftwaffe fighters ( mainly Messerschmitt Bf 109E series aircraft which were a close match for the Spitfire ) during the Battle .
After the Battle of Britain , the Spitfire superseded the Hurricane to become the backbone of RAF Fighter Command , and saw action in the European , Mediterranean , Pacific and the South @-@ East Asian theatres . Much loved by its pilots , the Spitfire served in several roles , including interceptor , photo @-@ reconnaissance , fighter @-@ bomber and trainer , and it continued to serve in these roles until the 1950s . The Seafire was a carrier @-@ based adaptation of the Spitfire which served in the Fleet Air Arm from 1942 through to the mid @-@ 1950s . Although the original airframe was designed to be powered by a Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine producing 1 @,@ 030 hp ( 768 kW ) , it was strong enough and adaptable enough to use increasingly powerful Merlins and , in later marks , Rolls @-@ Royce Griffon engines producing up to 2 @,@ 340 hp ( 1 @,@ 745 kW ) ; as a consequence of this the Spitfire 's performance and capabilities improved over the course of its life .
= = Development and production = =
= = = Origins = = =
R. J. Mitchell 's 1931 design to meet Air Ministry specification F7 / 30 for a new and modern fighter capable of 250 mph ( 400 km / h ) , the Supermarine Type 224 , was an open @-@ cockpit monoplane with bulky gull @-@ wings and a large fixed , spatted undercarriage powered by the 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) evaporatively cooled Rolls @-@ Royce Goshawk engine . This made its first flight in February 1934 . Of the seven designs tendered to F7 / 30 , the Gloster Gladiator biplane was accepted for service .
The Type 224 was a big disappointment to Mitchell and his design team , who immediately embarked on a series of " cleaned @-@ up " designs , using their experience with the Schneider Trophy seaplanes as a starting point . This led to the Type 300 , with retractable undercarriage and the wingspan reduced by 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . This was submitted to the Air Ministry in July 1934 , but was not accepted . The design then went through a series of changes , including the incorporation of a faired , enclosed cockpit , oxygen @-@ breathing apparatus , smaller and thinner wings , and the newly developed , more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce PV @-@ XII V @-@ 12 engine , later named the " Merlin " . In November 1934 Mitchell , with the backing of Supermarine 's owner , Vickers @-@ Armstrong , started detailed design work on this refined version of the Type 300
On 1 December 1934 , the Air Ministry issued contract AM 361140 / 34 , providing £ 10 @,@ 000 for the construction of Mitchell 's improved F7 / 30 design . On 3 January 1935 , they formalised the contract with a new specification , F10 / 35 , written around the aircraft . In April 1935 , the armament was changed from two .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) Vickers machine guns in each wing to four .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) Brownings , following a recommendation by Squadron Leader Ralph Sorley of the Operational Requirements section at the Air Ministry .
On 5 March 1936 , the prototype ( K5054 ) took off on its first flight from Eastleigh Aerodrome ( later Southampton Airport ) . At the controls was Captain Joseph " Mutt " Summers , chief test pilot for Vickers , who is quoted as saying " Don 't touch anything " on landing . This eight @-@ minute flight came four months after the maiden flight of the contemporary Hurricane .
K5054 was fitted with a new propeller , and Summers flew the aircraft on 10 March 1936 ; during this flight the undercarriage was retracted for the first time . After the fourth flight , a new engine was fitted , and Summers left the test @-@ flying to his assistants , Jeffrey Quill and George Pickering . They soon discovered that the Spitfire was a very good aircraft , but not perfect . The rudder was over @-@ sensitive and the top speed was just 330 mph ( 528 km / h ) , little faster than Sydney Camm 's new Merlin @-@ powered Hurricane . A new and better @-@ shaped wooden propeller allowed the Spitfire to reach 348 mph ( 557 km / h ) in level flight in mid @-@ May , when Summers flew K5054 to RAF Martlesham Heath and handed the aircraft over to Squadron Leader Anderson of the Aeroplane & Armament Experimental Establishment ( A & AEE ) . Here , Flight Lieutenant Humphrey Edwardes @-@ Jones took over the prototype for the RAF . He had been given orders to fly the aircraft and then to make his report to the Air Ministry on landing . Edwardes @-@ Jones 's report was positive ; his only request was that the Spitfire be equipped with an undercarriage position indicator . A week later , on 3 June 1936 , the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 Spitfires , before any formal report had been issued by the A & AEE ; interim reports were later issued on a piecemeal basis .
= = = Initial production = = =
The British public first saw the Spitfire at the RAF Hendon air @-@ display on Saturday 27 June 1936 . Although full @-@ scale production was supposed to begin immediately , there were numerous problems that could not be overcome for some time and the first production Spitfire , K9787 , did not roll off the Woolston , Southampton assembly line until mid @-@ 1938 . The first and most immediate problem was that the main Supermarine factory at Woolston was already working at full capacity fulfilling orders for Walrus and Stranraer flying boats . Although outside contractors were supposed to be involved in manufacturing many important Spitfire components , especially the wings , Vickers @-@ Armstrong ( the parent company ) was reluctant to see the Spitfire being manufactured by outside concerns and was slow to release the necessary blueprints and subcomponents . As a result of the delays in getting the Spitfire into full production , the Air Ministry put forward a plan that production of the Spitfire be stopped after the initial order for 310 , after which Supermarine would build Bristol Beaufighters . The managements of Supermarine and Vickers were able to convince the Air Ministry that the problems could be overcome and further orders were placed for 200 Spitfires on 24 March 1938 , the two orders covering the K , L and N prefix serial numbers .
In February 1936 the director of Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Sir Robert MacLean , guaranteed production of five aircraft a week , beginning 15 months after an order was placed . On 3 June 1936 , the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 aircraft , for a price of £ 1 @,@ 395 @,@ 000 . Full @-@ scale production of the Spitfire began at Supermarine 's facility in Woolston , Southampton , but it quickly became clear that the order could not be completed in the 15 months promised . Supermarine was a small company , already busy building Walrus and Stranraer flying boats , and Vickers was busy building the Wellingtons . The initial solution was to subcontract the work . The first production Spitfire rolled off the assembly line in mid @-@ 1938 , and was flown by Jeffrey Quill on 15 May 1938 , almost 24 months after the initial order .
The final cost of the first 310 aircraft , after delays and increased programme costs , came to £ 1 @,@ 870 @,@ 242 or £ 1 @,@ 533 more per aircraft than originally estimated . Production aircraft cost about £ 9 @,@ 500 . The most expensive components were the hand @-@ fabricated and finished fuselage at approximately £ 2 @,@ 500 , then the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine at £ 2 @,@ 000 , followed by the wings at £ 1 @,@ 800 a pair , guns and undercarriage , both at £ 800 each , and the propeller at £ 350 .
= = = Manufacturing at Castle Bromwich , Birmingham = = =
In 1935 , the Air Ministry approached Morris Motors Limited to ask how quickly their Cowley plant could be turned to aircraft production . In 1936 this informal request for major manufacturing facilities was turned into a formal scheme to boost British aircraft production capacity under the leadership of Herbert Austin , known as the Shadow factory plan . Austin was given the task of building nine new factories , and to supplement the existing British car manufacturing industry by either adding to overall capacity or increasing the potential for reorganisation to produce aircraft and their engines .
Under the plan , on 12 July 1938 , the Air Ministry bought a site consisting of farm fields and a sewage works next to Castle Bromwich Aerodrome in Birmingham . This shadow factory would supplement Supermarine 's original factories in Southampton in building the Spitfire . The Castle Bromwich Aircraft Factory ordered the most modern machine tools then available , which were being installed two months after work started on the site . Although Morris Motors under Lord Nuffield ( an expert in mass motor @-@ vehicle construction ) at first managed and equipped the factory , it was funded by government money . When the project was first mooted it was estimated that the factory would be built for £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , however , by the beginning of 1939 this cost had doubled to over £ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The Spitfire 's stressed @-@ skin construction required precision engineering skills and techniques outside the experience of the local labour force , which took some time to train . However , even as the first Spitfires were being built in June 1940 the factory was still incomplete , and there were numerous problems with the factory management , which ignored tooling and drawings provided by Supermarine in favour of tools and drawings of its own designs , and with the workforce which , while not completely stopping production , continually threatened strikes or " slow downs " until their demands for higher than average pay rates were met .
By May 1940 , Castle Bromwich had not yet built its first Spitfire , in spite of promises that the factory would be producing 60 per week starting in April . On 17 May Lord Beaverbrook , Minister of Aircraft Production , telephoned Lord Nuffield and manoeuvred him into handing over control of the Castle Bromwich plant to Beaverbook 's Ministry . Beaverbrook immediately sent in experienced management staff and experienced workers from Supermarine and gave over control of the factory to Vickers @-@ Armstrong . Although it would take some time to resolve the problems , in June 1940 , 10 Mk IIs were built ; 23 rolled out in July , 37 in August , and 56 in September . By the time production ended at Castle Bromwich in June 1945 , a total of 12 @,@ 129 Spitfires ( 921 Mk IIs , 4 @,@ 489 Mk Vs , 5 @,@ 665 Mk IXs , and 1 @,@ 054 Mk XVIs ) had been built . CBAF went on to become the largest and most successful plant of its type during the 1939 – 45 conflict . As the largest Spitfire factory in the UK , by producing a maximum of 320 aircraft per month , it built over half of the approximately 20 @,@ 000 aircraft of this type .
= = = Production dispersal = = =
During the Battle of Britain , concerted efforts were made by the Luftwaffe to destroy the main manufacturing plants at Woolston and Itchen , near Southampton . The first bombing raid , which missed the factories , came on 23 August 1940 . Over the next month , other raids were mounted until , on 26 September 1940 , both factories were completely wrecked , with 92 people being killed and a large number injured ; most of the casualties were experienced aircraft production workers .
Fortunately for the future of the Spitfire , many of the production jigs and machine tools had already been relocated by 20 September , and steps were being taken to disperse production to small facilities throughout the Southampton area . To this end , the British government requisitioned the likes of Vincent 's Garage in Station Square Reading , which later specialised in manufacturing Spitfire fuselages , and Anna Valley Motors , Salisbury , which was to become the sole producer of the wing leading @-@ edge fuel tanks for photo @-@ reconnaissance Spitfires , as well as producing other components . A purpose @-@ built works , specialising in manufacturing fuselages and installing engines , was built at Star Road , Caversham in Reading . The drawing office in which all Spitfire designs were drafted was relocated to Hursley Park , near Southampton . This site also had an aircraft assembly hangar where many prototype and experimental Spitfires were assembled , but since it had no associated aerodrome no Spitfires ever flew from Hursley .
Four towns and their satellite airfields were chosen to be the focal points for these workshops :
Southampton and Eastleigh Airport
Salisbury with High Post and Chattis Hill aerodromes
Trowbridge with Keevil aerodrome
Reading with Henley and Aldermaston aerodromes .
An experimental factory at Newbury was the subject of a Luftwaffe daylight raid but all missed their target and bombed a nearby school .
Completed Spitfires were delivered to the airfields on large Commer " Queen Mary " low @-@ loader articulated trucks , there to be fully assembled , tested , then passed on to the RAF .
= = = Flight testing = = =
All production Spitfires were flight tested before delivery . During the Second World War , Jeffrey Quill was Vickers Supermarine 's chief test pilot , in charge of flight @-@ testing all aircraft types built by Vickers Supermarine ; he also oversaw a group of 10 to 12 pilots responsible for testing all developmental and production Spitfires built by the company in the Southampton area . Quill had also devised the standard testing procedures which , with variations for specific aircraft designs , operated from 1938 . Alex Henshaw , chief test pilot at Castle Bromwich from 1940 , was placed in charge of testing all Spitfires built at that factory , co @-@ ordinating a team of 25 pilots ; he also assessed all Spitfire developments . Between 1940 and 1946 , Henshaw flew a total of 2 @,@ 360 Spitfires and Seafires , more than 10 % of total production .
Henshaw wrote about flight testing Spitfires :
After a thorough pre @-@ flight check I would take off and , once at circuit height , I would trim the aircraft and try to get her to fly straight and level with hands off the stick ... Once the trim was satisfactory I would take the Spitfire up in a full @-@ throttle climb at 2 @,@ 850 rpm to the rated altitude of one or both supercharger blowers . Then I would make a careful check of the power output from the engine , calibrated for height and temperature ... If all appeared satisfactory I would then put her into a dive at full power and 3 @,@ 000 rpm , and trim her to fly hands and feet off at 460 mph ( 740 km / h ) IAS ( Indicated Air Speed ) . Personally , I never cleared a Spitfire unless I had carried out a few aerobatic tests to determine how good or bad she was .
The production test was usually quite a brisk affair : the initial circuit lasted less than ten minutes and the main flight took between twenty and thirty minutes . Then the aircraft received a final once @-@ over by our ground mechanics , any faults were rectified and the Spitfire was ready for collection .
I loved the Spitfire in all of her many versions . But I have to admit that the later marks , although they were faster than the earlier ones , were also much heavier and so did not handle so well . You did not have such positive control over them . One test of manoeuvrability was to throw her into a flick @-@ roll and see how many times she rolled . With the Mark II or the Mark V one got two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half flick @-@ rolls but the Mark IX was heavier and you got only one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . With the later and still heavier versions , one got even less . The essence of aircraft design is compromise , and an improvement at one end of the performance envelope is rarely achieved without a deterioration somewhere else .
When the last Spitfire rolled out in February 1948 , a total of 20 @,@ 351 examples of all variants had been built , including two @-@ seat trainers , with some Spitfires remaining in service well into the 1950s . The Spitfire was the only British fighter aircraft to be in continuous production before , during and after the Second World War .
= = Design = =
= = = Airframe = = =
In the mid @-@ 1930s , aviation design teams worldwide started developing a new generation of all @-@ metal , low @-@ wing fighter aircraft . The French Dewoitine D.520 and Germany 's Messerschmitt Bf 109 , for example , were designed to take advantage of new techniques of monocoque construction and the availability of new high @-@ powered , liquid @-@ cooled , in @-@ line aero engines . They also featured refinements such as retractable undercarriages , fully enclosed cockpits and low drag , all @-@ metal wings ( all introduced on civil airliners years before but slow to be adopted by the military , who favoured the biplane 's simplicity and manoeuvrability ) .
Mitchell 's design aims were to create a well @-@ balanced , high @-@ performance bomber interceptor and fighter aircraft capable of fully exploiting the power of the Merlin engine , while being relatively easy to fly . At the time , with France as an ally , and Germany thought to be the most likely future opponent , no enemy fighters were expected to appear over Great Britain , enemy bombers would be required to fly to the UK over the North Sea and no single engined fighter at the time had the range to accompany the bombers and successfully return to its own friendly airfields ; to carry out the mission of home defence , the design was intended to climb quickly to meet enemy bombers .
The Spitfire 's airframe was complex : the streamlined , semi @-@ monocoque duralumin fuselage featured a large number of compound curves built up from a skeleton of 19 formers , also known as frames , starting from frame number one , immediately behind the propeller unit , to the tail unit attachment frame . The first four frames supported the glycol header tank and engine cowlings . Frame 5 , to which the engine bearers were secured , supported the weight of the engine and accessories , and the loads imposed by the engine : this was a strengthened double frame which also incorporated the fireproof bulkhead and , in later versions of the Spitfire , the oil tank . This frame also tied the four main fuselage longerons to the rest of the airframe . Behind the bulkhead were five ' U ' shaped half @-@ frames which accommodated the fuel tanks and cockpit . The rear fuselage started at the eleventh frame , to which the pilot 's seat and ( later ) armour plating was attached , and ended at the nineteenth , which was mounted at a slight forward angle just forward of the fin . Each of these nine frames were oval , reducing in size towards the tail , and incorporated several lightening holes to reduce their weight as much as possible without weakening them . The U @-@ shaped frame 20 was the last frame of the fuselage proper and the frame to which the tail unit was attached . Frames 21 , 22 and 23 formed the fin ; frame 22 incorporated the tailwheel opening and frame 23 was the rudder post . Before being attached to the main fuselage , the tail unit frames were held in a jig and the eight horizontal tail formers were riveted to them .
A combination of 14 longitudinal stringers and four main longerons attached to the frames helped form a light but rigid structure to which sheets of alclad stressed skinning were attached . The fuselage plating was 24 , 20 and 18 gauge in order of thickness towards the tail , while the fin structure was completed using short longerons from frames 20 to 23 , before being covered in 22 gauge plating .
The skins of the fuselage , wings and tailplane were secured by rivets and in critical areas such as the wing forward of the main spar where an uninterrupted airflow was required , with flush rivets ; the fuselage used standard dome @-@ headed riveting . From February 1943 flush riveting was used on the fuselage , affecting all Spitfire variants . In some areas , such as at the rear of the wing , and the lower tailplane skins the top was riveted and the bottom fixed by brass screws which tapped into strips of spruce bolted to the lower ribs . The removable wing tips were made up of duralumin skinned spruce formers . At first the ailerons , elevators and rudder were fabric @-@ covered . When combat experience showed that fabric @-@ covered ailerons were impossible to use at high speeds , a light alloy replaced the fabric , enhancing control throughout the speed range .
= = = Elliptical wing design = = =
In 1934 , Mitchell and the design staff decided to use a semi @-@ elliptical wing shape to solve two conflicting requirements ; the wing needed to be thin , to avoid creating too much drag , while still able to house a retractable undercarriage , plus armament and ammunition . An elliptical planform is the most efficient aerodynamic shape for an untwisted wing , leading to the lowest amount of induced drag . The ellipse was skewed so that the centre of pressure , which occurs at the quarter @-@ chord position , aligned with the main spar , thus preventing the wings from twisting . Mitchell has sometimes been accused of copying the wing shape of the Heinkel He 70 , which first flew in 1932 ; but as Beverley Shenstone , the aerodynamicist on Mitchell 's team , explained " Our wing was much thinner and had quite a different section to that of the Heinkel . In any case it would have been simply asking for trouble to have copied a wing shape from an aircraft designed for an entirely different purpose . "
The wing section used was from the NACA 2200 series , which had been adapted to create a thickness @-@ to @-@ chord ratio of 13 % at the root , reducing to 9 @.@ 4 % at the tip . A dihedral of six degrees was adopted to give increased lateral stability .
A feature of the wing which contributed greatly to its success was an innovative spar boom design , made up of five square tubes that fitted into each other . As the wing thinned out along its span the tubes were progressively cut away in a similar fashion to a leaf spring ; two of these booms were linked together by an alloy web , creating a lightweight and very strong main spar . The undercarriage legs were attached to pivot points built into the inner , rear section of the main spar and retracted outwards and slightly backwards into wells in the non @-@ load @-@ carrying wing structure . The resultant narrow undercarriage track was considered to be an acceptable compromise as this reduced the bending loads on the main @-@ spar during landing .
Ahead of the spar , the thick @-@ skinned leading edge of the wing formed a strong and rigid D @-@ shaped box , which took most of the wing loads . At the time the wing was designed , this D @-@ shaped leading edge was intended to house steam condensers for the evaporative cooling system intended for the PV @-@ XII . Constant problems with the evaporative system in the Goshawk led to the adoption of a cooling system which used 100 % glycol . The radiators were housed in a new radiator @-@ duct designed by Fredrick Meredith of the RAE at Farnborough ; this used the cooling air to generate thrust , greatly reducing the net drag produced by the radiators . In turn , the leading @-@ edge structure lost its function as a condenser , but it was later adapted to house integral fuel tanks of various sizes , a feature patented by Vickers @-@ Supermarine in 1938 .
Another feature of the wing was its washout . The trailing edge of the wing twisted slightly upward along its span , the angle of incidence decreasing from + 2 ° at its root to - ½ ° at its tip . This caused the wing roots to stall before the tips , reducing tip @-@ stall that could otherwise have resulted in a wing drop , often leading to a spin . As the wing roots started to stall , the separating air stream started to buffet ( vibrate ) the aircraft , warning the pilot , and hence allowing even relatively inexperienced pilots to fly the aircraft to the limits of its performance . This washout was first featured in the wing of the Type 224 and became a consistent feature in subsequent designs leading to the Spitfire . The complexity of the wing design , especially the precision required to manufacture the vital spar and leading @-@ edge structures , at first caused some major hold @-@ ups in the production of the Spitfire . The problems increased when the work was put out to subcontractors , most of whom had never dealt with metal @-@ structured , high @-@ speed aircraft . By June 1939 , most of these problems had been resolved , and production was no longer held up by a lack of wings .
All of the main flight controls were originally metal structures with fabric covering.Designers and pilots felt that having ailerons which were too heavy to move ( in terms of effort , not mass ) at high speed would avoid possible aileron reversal , stopping pilots throwing the aircraft around and pulling the wings off . It was also felt that air combat would take place at relatively low speed and that high @-@ speed manoeuvring would be physically impossible . During the Battle of Britain , pilots found the ailerons of the Spitfire were far too heavy at high speeds , severely restricting lateral manoeuvres such as rolls and high @-@ speed turns , which were still a feature of air @-@ to @-@ air combat . Flight tests showed the fabric covering of the ailerons " ballooned " at high speeds , adversely affecting the aerodynamics . Replacing the fabric covering with light alloy dramatically improved the ailerons at high speed .
The Spitfire had detachable wing tips which were secured by two mounting points at the end of each main wing assembly : when the Spitfire took on a role as a high @-@ altitude fighter ( Marks VI and VII and some early Mk VIIIs ) the standard wing tips were replaced by extended , " pointed " tips which increased the wingspan from 36 ft 10 in ( 11 @.@ 23 m ) to 40 ft 2 in ( 12 @.@ 3 m ) . The other wing tip variation , used by several Spitfire variants , was the " clipped " wing ; the standard wing tips were replaced by wooden fairings which reduced the span to 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) The wing tips used spruce formers for most of the internal structure with a light alloy skin attached using brass screws .
The airflow through the main radiator was controlled by pneumatic exit flaps . In early marks of Spitfire ( Mk I to Mk VI ) the single flap was operated manually using a lever to the left of the pilot 's seat . When the two @-@ stage Merlin was introduced in the Spitfire Mk IX the radiators were split to make room for an intercooler radiator ; the radiator under the starboard wing was halved in size and the intercooler radiator housed alongside . Under the port wing a new radiator fairing housed a square oil cooler alongside of the other half @-@ radiator unit . The two radiator flaps were now operated automatically via a thermostat .
The light alloy split flaps at the trailing edge of the wing were also pneumatically operated via a finger lever on the instrument panel . Only two positions were available ; fully up or fully down ( 85 ° ) . The flaps were normally lowered only during the final approach and for landing , and the pilot was to retract them before taxiing .
The ellipse also served as the design basis for the Spitfire 's fin and tailplane assembly , once again exploiting the shape 's favourable aerodynamic characteristics . Both the elevators and rudder were shaped so that their centre of mass was shifted forward , thus reducing control @-@ surface flutter . The longer noses and greater propeller @-@ wash resulting from larger engines in later models necessitated increasingly larger vertical and , later , horizontal tail surfaces to compensate for the altered aerodynamics , culminating in those of the Mk 22 / 24 series which were 25 % larger in area than those of the Mk I.
= = = Improved late wing designs = = =
As the Spitfire gained more power and was able to manoeuvre at higher speeds , the possibility that pilots would encounter aileron reversal increased , and the Supermarine design team set about redesigning the wings to counter this . The original wing design had a theoretical aileron reversal speed of 580 mph ( 930 km / h ) , which was somewhat lower than that of some contemporary fighters . The Royal Aircraft Establishment noted that , at 400 mph ( 640 km / h ) IAS , roughly 65 % of aileron effectiveness was lost , due to wing twist .
The new wing of the Spitfire F Mk 21 and its successors was designed to help alleviate this problem ; the wing 's stiffness was increased by 47 % , and a new design of aileron using piano hinges and geared trim tabs meant that the theoretical aileron reversal speed was increased to 825 mph ( 1 @,@ 328 km / h ) . Alongside the redesigned wing Supermarine also experimented with the original wing , raising the leading edge by one inch ( 2 @.@ 54 cm ) , with the hope of improving pilot view and reducing drag . This wing was tested on a modified F Mk 21 , also called the F Mk 23 , ( sometimes referred to as " Valiant " rather than " Spitfire " ) . The increase in performance was minimal and this experiment was abandoned .
Supermarine developed a new laminar flow wing based on new aerofoil profiles developed by NACA in the United States , with the objective of reducing drag and improving performance . These laminar flow airfoils were the Supermarine 371 @-@ I used at the root and the 371 @-@ II used at the tip . Supermarine estimated that the new wing could give an increase in speed of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) over the Spitfire Mk 21 . The new wing was initially fitted to a Spitfire Mk XIV ; later a new fuselage was designed , with the new fighter becoming the Supermarine Spiteful . Somewhat surprisingly , the new trapezoid wing had lower critical Mach number than the old elliptic one , bringing one of the test pilots who flew the " jet Spiteful " ( the Supermarine Attacker ) to remark that the original wing should have been retained on the jet .
= = = Carburetion versus fuel injection = = =
Early in its development , the Merlin engine 's lack of fuel injection meant that Spitfires and Hurricanes , unlike the Bf 109E , were unable to simply nose down into a steep dive . This meant a Luftwaffe fighter could simply " bunt " into a high @-@ power dive to escape an attack , leaving the Spitfire behind , as its fuel was forced out of the carburettor by negative " g " . RAF fighter pilots soon learned to " half @-@ roll " their aircraft before diving to pursue their opponents . Carburettors were adopted because , as Sir Stanley Hooker explained , the carburettor " increased the performance of the supercharger and thereby increased the power of the engine . "
In March 1941 , a metal disc with a hole was fitted in the fuel line , restricting fuel flow to the maximum the engine could consume . While it did not cure the problem of the initial fuel starvation in a dive , it did reduce the more serious problem of the carburettor being flooded with fuel by the fuel pumps under negative " g " . It became known as " Miss Shilling 's orifice " as it was invented by Beatrice " Tilly " Shilling . Further improvements were introduced throughout the Merlin series , with Bendix @-@ manufactured pressure carburettors , which were designed to allow fuel to flow during all flight attitudes , introduced in 1942 .
= = = Armament = = =
Due to a shortage of Brownings , which had been selected as the new standard rifle calibre machine gun for the RAF in 1934 , early Spitfires were fitted with only four guns , with the other four fitted later . Early tests showed that while the guns worked perfectly on the ground and at low altitudes , they tended to freeze at high altitude , especially the outer wing guns . This was because the RAF 's Brownings had been modified to fire from an open bolt ; while this prevented overheating of the cordite used in British ammunition , it allowed cold air to flow through the barrel unhindered . Supermarine did not fix the problem until October 1938 , when they added hot air ducts from the rear of the wing mounted radiators to the guns , and bulkheads around the gunbays to trap the hot air in the wing . Red fabric patches were doped over the gun ports to protect the guns from cold , dirt and moisture until they were fired . Even if the eight Brownings worked perfectly , pilots soon discovered that they were not sufficient to destroy larger aircraft . Combat reports showed that an average of 4 @,@ 500 rounds were needed to shoot down an enemy aircraft . In November 1938 , tests against armoured and unarmoured targets had already indicated that the introduction of a weapon of at least 20 mm calibre was urgently needed . A variant on the Spitfire design with four 20 mm Oerlikon cannon had been tendered to specification F37 / 35 but the order for prototypes had gone to the Westland Whirlwind in January 1939 .
In June 1939 , a Spitfire was fitted with a drum @-@ fed Hispano in each wing , an installation that required large blisters on the wing to cover the 60 @-@ round drum . The cannon suffered frequent stoppages , mostly because the guns were mounted on their sides to fit as much of the magazine as possible within the wing . In January 1940 , P / O George Proudman flew this prototype in combat , but the starboard gun stopped after firing a single round , while the port gun fired 30 rounds before seizing . If one cannon seized , the recoil of the other threw the aircraft off aim . Nevertheless , 30 more cannon @-@ armed Spitfires were ordered for operational trials , and they were soon known as the Mk IB , to distinguish them from the Browning @-@ armed Mk IA , and were delivered to No. 19 Squadron beginning in June 1940 . The Hispanos were found to be so unreliable that the squadron requested an exchange of its aircraft with the older Browning @-@ armed aircraft of an operational training unit . By August , Supermarine had perfected a more reliable installation with an improved feed mechanism and four .303s in the outer wing panels . The modified fighters were then delivered to 19 Squadron .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Service operations = = =
The operational history of the Spitfire with the RAF started with the first Mk Is K9789 , which entered service with 19 Squadron at RAF Duxford on 4 August 1938 . The Spitfire achieved legendary status during the Battle of Britain , a reputation aided by the famous " Spitfire Fund " organised and run by Lord Beaverbrook , the Minister of Aircraft Production . In fact the Hurricane outnumbered the Spitfire throughout the battle , and shouldered the burden of the defence against the Luftwaffe ; however , because of its higher performance the overall attrition rate of the Spitfire squadrons was lower than that of the Hurricane units , and the Spitfire units had a higher victory @-@ to @-@ loss ratio . The key aim of Fighter Command was to stop the Luftwaffe 's bombers ; in practice the tactic , whenever possible , was to use Spitfires to counter German escort fighters , by then based in northern France , particularly the Bf 109s , while the Hurricane squadrons attacked the bombers .
Well @-@ known Spitfire pilots included " Johnnie " Johnson ( 34 enemy aircraft shot down ) , who flew the Spitfire right through his operational career from late 1940 to 1945 . Douglas Bader ( 20 e / a ) and " Bob " Tuck ( 27 e / a ) flew Spitfires and Hurricanes during the major air battles of 1940 , and both were shot down and became prisoners of war while flying Spitfires over France in 1941 and 1942 . Paddy Finucane ( 28 – 32 e / a ) scored all his successes in the fighter before disappearing over the English Channel in July 1942 . Some notable Commonwealth pilots were George Beurling ( 311 ⁄ 3 e / a ) from Canada , " Sailor " Malan ( 27 e / a ) from South Africa , New Zealanders Alan Deere ( 17 e / a ) and C F Gray ( 27 e / a ) and the Australian Hugo Armstrong ( 12 e / a ) .
The Spitfire continued to play increasingly diverse roles throughout the Second World War and beyond , often in air forces other than the RAF . The Spitfire , for example , became the first high @-@ speed photo @-@ reconnaissance aircraft to be operated by the RAF . Sometimes unarmed , they flew at high , medium and low altitudes , often ranging far into enemy territory to closely observe the Axis powers and provide an almost continual flow of valuable intelligence information throughout the war . In 1941 and 1942 , PRU Spitfires provided the first photographs of the Freya and Würzburg radar systems and , in 1943 , helped confirm that the Germans were building the V1 and V2 Vergeltungswaffe ( " vengeance weapons " ) by photographing Peenemünde , on the Baltic Sea coast of Germany .
In the Mediterranean the Spitfire blunted the heavy attacks on Malta by the Regia Aeronautica and Luftwaffe and , from early 1943 , helped pave the way for the Allied invasions of Sicily and Italy . On 7 March 1942 , 15 Mk Vs carrying 90 @-@ gallon fuel tanks under their bellies took off from HMS Eagle off the coast of Algeria on a 600 @-@ mile flight to Malta . Those Spitfires V were the first to see service outside Britain .
The Spitfire also served on the Eastern Front : approximately a thousand were supplied to the Soviet Air Force . Though some were used at the frontline in 1943 , most of them saw service with the Protivo @-@ Vozdushnaya Oborona ( English : " Anti @-@ air Defence Branch " ) .
The Spitfire also served in the Pacific Theater . During the Malaya campaign in defense of Singapore , the Spitfire met its match in the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero . " The RAF pilots were trained in methods that were excellent against German and Italian equipment but suicide against the acrobatic Japs . " as Lt.Gen. Claire Lee Chennault had to notice . Although not as fast as the Spitfire , the Zero could out @-@ turn the Spitfire with ease , could sustain a climb at a very steep angle , and could stay in the air for three times as long . To counter the Zero , Spitfire pilots had to adopt a " slash and run " policy and use their superior speed and diving superiority to fight while avoiding classic dogfights . It also did not help that Southeast Asia was a lower @-@ priority area which was allocated few Spitfires and other modern fighters compared to Europe , which allowed the Japanese to easily achieve air superiority by 1942 . Over the Northern Territory of Australia , RAAF and RAF Spitfires helped defend the port town of Darwin against air attack by the Japanese Naval Air Force . Spitfire MKVIII 's took part in the last battle of WWII involving the Western allies , in Burma as a ground attack role , helping to defeat a Japanese break @-@ out attempt .
During the Second World War , Spitfires were used by the USAAF in the 4th Fighter Group until replaced by Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts in March 1943 .
The Spitfire is listed in the appendix to the novel KG 200 as " known to have been regularly flown by " the German secret operations unit KG 200 , which tested , evaluated and sometimes clandestinely operated captured enemy aircraft during the Second World War .
= = = Speed and altitude records = = =
Beginning in late 1943 , high @-@ speed diving trials were undertaken at Farnborough to investigate the handling characteristics of aircraft travelling at speeds near the sound barrier ( i.e. , the onset of compressibility effects ) . Because it had the highest limiting Mach number of any aircraft at that time , a Spitfire XI was chosen to take part in these trials . Due to the high altitudes necessary for these dives , a fully feathering Rotol propeller was fitted to prevent overspeeding . It was during these trials that EN409 , flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin , reached 606 mph ( 975 km / h , Mach 0 @.@ 891 ) in a 45 ° dive . In April 1944 , the same aircraft suffered engine failure in another dive while being flown by Squadron Leader Anthony F. Martindale , RAFVR , when the propeller and reduction gear broke off . The dive put the aircraft to Mach 0 @.@ 92 , the fastest ever recorded in a piston @-@ engined aircraft , but when the propeller came off the Spitfire , now tail @-@ heavy , zoom @-@ climbed back to altitude . Martindale blacked out under the 11g loading , but when he resumed consciousness he found the aircraft at about 40 @,@ 000 feet with its ( originally straight ) wings now slightly swept back . Martindale successfully glided the Spitfire 20 mi ( 32 km ) back to the airfield and landed safely . Martindale was awarded the Air Force Cross for his exploits .
A Spitfire was modified by the RAE for high @-@ speed testing of the stabilator ( then known as the " flying tail " ) of the Miles M.52 supersonic research aircraft . RAE test pilot Eric Brown stated that he tested this successfully during October and November 1944 , attaining Mach 0 @.@ 86 in a dive .
On 5 February 1952 , a Spitfire 19 of 81 Squadron based at Kai Tak in Hong Kong reached probably the highest altitude ever achieved by a Spitfire . The pilot , Flight Lieutenant Ted Powles , was on a routine flight to survey outside @-@ air temperature and report on other meteorological conditions at various altitudes in preparation for a proposed new air service through the area . He climbed to 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 240 m ) indicated altitude , with a true altitude of 51 @,@ 550 ft ( 15 @,@ 712 m ) . The cabin pressure fell below a safe level and , in trying to reduce altitude , he entered an uncontrollable dive which shook the aircraft violently . He eventually regained control somewhere below 3 @,@ 000 ft ( 900 m ) and landed safely with no discernible damage to his aircraft . Evaluation of the recorded flight data suggested that , in the dive , he achieved a speed of 690 mph ( 1 @,@ 110 km / h , Mach 0 @.@ 96 ) , which would have been the highest speed ever reached by a propeller @-@ driven aircraft , but it has been speculated this figure resulted from inherent instrument errors .
The critical Mach number of the Spitfire 's original elliptical wing was higher than the subsequently used laminar @-@ flow @-@ section , straight @-@ tapering @-@ planform wing of the follow @-@ on Supermarine Spiteful , Seafang and Attacker , illustrating that Reginald Mitchell 's practical engineering approach to the problems of high @-@ speed flight had paid off .
= = Variants = =
= = = Overview = = =
Although R. J. Mitchell is justifiably known as the engineer who designed the Spitfire , his premature death in 1937 meant that all development after that date was undertaken by a team led by his chief draughtsman , Joe Smith , who became Supermarine 's chief designer on Mitchell 's death . As Jeffrey Quill noted : " If Mitchell was born to design the Spitfire , Joe Smith was born to defend and develop it . "
There were 24 marks of Spitfire and many sub @-@ variants . These covered the Spitfire in development from the Merlin to Griffon engines , the high @-@ speed photo @-@ reconnaissance variants and the different wing configurations . More Spitfire Mk Vs were built than any other type , with 6 @,@ 487 built , followed by the 5 @,@ 656 Mk IXs . Different wings , featuring a variety of weapons , were fitted to most marks ; the A wing used eight .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns , the B wing had four .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns and two 20 mm ( .79 in ) Hispano cannon , and the C , or universal , wing could mount either four 20 mm ( .79 in ) cannon or two 20 mm ( .79 in ) and four .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns . As the war progressed , the C wing became more common . Another armament variation was the E wing which housed two 20 mm ( .79 in ) cannon and two .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) Browning machine guns . Although the Spitfire continued to improve in speed and armament , because of its limited fuel capacity its range and endurance were also limited : it remained " short @-@ legged " throughout its life except in the dedicated photo @-@ reconnaissance role , when its guns were replaced by extra fuel tanks .
Supermarine developed a two @-@ seat variant known as the T Mk VIII to be used for training , but none were ordered , and only one example was ever constructed ( identified as N32 / G @-@ AIDN by Supermarine ) . In the absence of an official two @-@ seater variant , a number of airframes were crudely converted in the field . These included a 4 Squadron SAAF Mk VB in North Africa , where a second seat was fitted instead of the upper fuel tank in front of the cockpit , although it was not a dual @-@ control aircraft and is thought to have been used as the squadron " run @-@ about " . The only unofficial two @-@ seat conversions that were fitted with dual @-@ controls were a small number of Russian lend / lease Mk IX aircraft . These were referred to as Mk IX UTI and differed from the Supermarine proposals by using an inline " greenhouse " style double canopy rather than the raised " bubble " type of the T Mk VIII .
In the postwar era , the idea was revived by Supermarine and a number of two @-@ seat Spitfires were built by converting old Mk IX airframes with a second " raised " cockpit featuring a bubble canopy . Ten of these TR9 variants were then sold to the Indian Air Force along with six to the Irish Air Corps , three to the Royal Netherlands Air Force and one for the Royal Egyptian Air Force . Currently several of the trainers are known to exist , including both the T Mk VIII , a T Mk IX based in the
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m / s )
Wing loading : 27 @.@ 35 lb / ft2 ( 133 @.@ 5 kg / m2 )
Power / mass : 0 @.@ 22 hp / lb ( 0 @.@ 36 kW / kg )
Armament
Guns :
A wing
8 × .303 in Browning Mk II * machine guns ( 350 rounds per gun )
B wing
2 × 20mm Hispano Mk II ( 60 rounds per gun )
4 × .303 in Browning Mk II * machine guns ( 350 rounds per gun )
C wing
4 × 20mm Hispano Mk II cannon ( 120 rounds per gun )
C wing ( Alt . )
2 × 20mm Hispano Mk II ( 120 rounds per gun )
4 × .303 in Browning Mk II * machine guns ( 350 rounds per gun )
E wing
2 × 20mm Hispano Mk II cannon ( 120 rounds per gun )
2 × .50 in M2 Browning machine guns ( 250 rounds per gun )
= Second Partition of Poland =
The 1793 Second Partition of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second of three partitions ( or partial annexations ) that ended the existence of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795 . The second partition occurred in the aftermath of the War in Defense of the Constitution and the Targowica Confederation of 1792 , and was approved by its territorial beneficiaries , the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia . The division was ratified by the coerced Polish parliament ( Sejm ) in 1793 ( see the Grodno Sejm ) in a short @-@ lived attempt to prevent the inevitable complete annexation of Poland , the Third Partition .
= = Background = =
By 1790 , on the political front , the Commonwealth had deteriorated into such a helpless condition that it was successfully forced into an unnatural and ultimately deadly alliance with its enemy , Prussia . The Polish @-@ Prussian Pact of 1790 was signed , giving false hope that the Commonwealth might have at last found an ally that would shield it while it reformed itself . The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie , established the separation of the three branches of government , and eliminated the abuses of Repnin Sejm . Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours , wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth . Once again Poland dared to reform and improve itself without Russia 's permission , and once again the Empress Catherine II was angered ; arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France , Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792 .
In the War in Defense of the Constitution , the army of the Russian Empire , invited by the pro @-@ Russian , conservative , Polish magnates ' alliance , the Confederation of Targowica , fought against the Polish forces supporting the Constitution . The conservative nobility ( szlachta ) believed that the Russians would help them restore their Golden Liberty . Abandoned by their Prussian allies , the badly outnumbered Polish pro @-@ Constitution forces fought under Prince Józef Poniatowski a defensive war with some measure of success , but were ultimately ordered to abandon their efforts by their supreme commander , King Stanisław August Poniatowski . The King decided to join the Targowica Confederation , as demanded by the Russians .
Russia invaded Poland to ensure the defeat of the Polish reforms , with no overt goal of another partition ( it viewed Poland as its protectorate , and saw little need in giving up chunks of Poland to other countries ) . Frederick William II of Prussia , however , saw those events as an opportunity to strengthen his country . Frederick demanded from Catherine that for his country 's abandoning Poland as a close ally , and for Prussian participation in the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France ( a participation that Russia encouraged , and in which Prussia recently suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Valmy ) , Prussia should be compensated – preferably with parts of the Polish territory . Russia soon decided to accept the Prussian offer .
= = Partition = =
On 23 January 1793 Prussia signed a treaty with Russia , agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory . Russian and Prussian military took control of the territories they claimed soon afterward , with Russian troops already present , and Prussian troops meeting only nominal resistance . In 1793 , deputies to the Grodno Sejm , the last Sejm of the Commonwealth , in the presence of Russian forces , agreed to the Russian and Prussian territorial demands . The Grodno Sejm became infamous not only as the last sejm of the Commonwealth , but because its deputies had been bribed and coerced by the Russians ( Russia and Prussia wanted official , legal sanction from Poland for their demands ) .
Russia took 250 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 97 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , while Prussia took 58 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The Commonwealth lost about 307 000 km ² , being reduced to 215 000 km ² .
Russia received the Kiev Voivodeship , Bracław Voivodeship , Podole Voivodeship and Minsk Voivodeship , and parts of the Vilnius Voivodeship , Nowogródek Voivodeship , Brest Litovsk Voivodeship and the Volhynian Voivodeship . This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 22 July . Russia reorganized its newly acquired territories into Minsk Viceroyalty and Izyaslav Viceroyalty ( which in 1795 was split into Podolian and Volhynian Viceroyalties ) .
Prussia received the cities of Gdańsk ( Danzig ) and Toruń ( Thorn ) , and Gniezno Voivodeship , Poznań Voivodeship , Sieradz Voivodeship , Kalisz Voivodeship , Płock Voivodeship , Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship , Inowrocław Voivodeship , Dobrzyń Land , and parts of the Kraków Voivodeship , Rawa Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship . This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 23 September or 25 September ( sources vary ) . Prussia organized its newly acquired territories into South Prussia .
The Commonwealth lost about 5 million people ; only about 4 million people remained in the Polish – Lithuanian lands .
What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small buffer state with a puppet king , and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army .
= = Aftermath = =
Targowica confederates , who did not expect another partition , and the king , Stanisław August Poniatowski , who joined them near the end , both lost much prestige and support . The reformers , on the other hand , were attracting increasing support . In March 1794 the Kościuszko Uprising begun . The defeat of the Uprising in November that year resulted in the final Third Partition of Poland , ending the existence of the Commonwealth .
= Terry @-@ Thomas =
Terry @-@ Thomas ( born Thomas Terry Hoar Stevens ; 10 July 1911 – 8 January 1990 ) was an English comedian and character actor who became known to a worldwide audience through his many films during the 1950s and 1960s . He often portrayed disreputable members of the upper classes , especially cads , toffs and bounders , using his distinctive voice ; his costume and props tended to include a monocle , waistcoat and cigarette holder . His striking dress sense was set off by a 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ inch ( 8 @.@ 5 mm ) gap between his two upper front teeth .
Born in London , Terry @-@ Thomas made his film debut , uncredited , in The Private Life of Henry VIII ( 1933 ) . He spent several years appearing in smaller roles , before wartime service with Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) and Stars in Battledress . The experience helped sharpen his cabaret and revue act , increased his public profile and proved instrumental in the development of his successful comic stage routine . Upon his demobilisation , he starred in Piccadilly Hayride on the London stage and was the star of the first comedy series on British television , How Do You View ? ( 1949 ) . He appeared on various BBC radio shows , and made a successful transition into British films . His most creative period was the 1950s when he appeared in Private 's Progress ( 1956 ) , The Green Man ( 1956 ) , Blue Murder at St Trinian 's ( 1957 ) , I 'm All Right Jack ( 1959 ) and Carlton @-@ Browne of the F.O. ( 1959 ) .
From the early 1960s Terry @-@ Thomas began appearing in American films , coarsening his already unsubtle screen character in films such as Bachelor Flat , It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World and How to Murder Your Wife . From the mid @-@ 1960s he frequently starred in European films , in roles such as Sir Reginald in the successful French film La Grande Vadrouille . In 1971 Terry @-@ Thomas was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease , which slowly brought his career to a conclusion : his last film role was in 1980 . He spent much of his fortune on medical treatment and , shortly before his death , was living in poverty , existing on charity from the Actors ' Benevolent Fund . A charity gala was held in his honour , which raised sufficient funds for him to live his remaining time in a nursing home .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1911 – 33 = = =
Terry @-@ Thomas was born Thomas Terry Hoar Stevens at 53 Lichfield Grove , Finchley , North London . He was the third of four children born to Ernest Frederick Stevens , managing director of a butcher 's business at Smithfield Market and part @-@ time amateur actor , and his wife Ellen Elizabeth Stevens ( née Hoar ) . As a child , Terry @-@ Thomas was often referred to as Tom , the diminutive used by his family . He led a generally happy childhood , but believed that his parents secretly desired a daughter in his place . By the time he reached adolescence , his parents ' marriage had failed and both became alcoholics . In an attempt to bring them together , Terry @-@ Thomas often entertained them by performing impromptu slapstick routines , reciting jokes , and singing and dancing around the family home . The performances seldom worked , and his father became increasingly removed from his family . His parents had divorced by the 1920s .
In 1921 Terry @-@ Thomas began to nurture his distinctive , well @-@ spoken voice , reasoning that " using good speech automatically suggested that you were well @-@ educated and made people look up to you " . He used the speech of the actor Owen Nares as a basis for his own delivery . Terry @-@ Thomas became fascinated by the stage , and regularly attended the Golders Green Hippodrome to see the latest shows . It was there that he developed an interest in fashion , and adopted the debonair dress @-@ sense of his hero Douglas Fairbanks . Terry @-@ Thomas attended Fernbank School in Hendon Lane , Finchley , which was a welcome escape from the stresses of his parents ' break @-@ up . When he was 13 , he transferred to Ardingly College , a public school in West Sussex . He excelled in Latin and Geography and briefly took up drama . The latter subject later led to his expulsion from the school , after his frequent and inappropriate use of ad lib during lessons . He also took up a position in the school jazz band , first playing the ukulele and then percussion and additionally he often performed comedy dancing routines to the band 's music .
Terry @-@ Thomas enjoyed his time at Ardingly , and relished his association with upper middle class school friends . His academic abilities were modest , and he only came to the notice of staff through his frequent tomfoolery . Although he initially felt intimidated by his school surroundings , his confidence grew as he put on " a bold , undiluted and sustained show of chutzpah " , according to his biographer , Graham McCann . On his return home to Finchley to start a break in 1927 , his more mature manner impressed the family 's housekeeper Kate Dixon , who seduced the young student at the family home . He stayed at Ardingly for one more term and returned home to London , but made no plans to further his education or start long @-@ term work . Instead , he accepted a temporary position at Smithfield Market , where he earned 15 shillings a week as a junior transport clerk for the Union Cold Storage Company . By his own admission he never stopped " farting around " and often kept his colleagues entertained with impersonations of the Hunchback of Notre @-@ Dame and Erich von Stroheim . He also invented various characters including Colonel Featherstonehaugh @-@ Bumleigh and Cora Chessington @-@ Crabbe , and frequently recited comic stories involving them to his colleagues . His characterisations soon came to the notice of the company 's management who prompted him to enrol in the company 's amateur drama club . He made his début with the drama company in the role of Lord Trench in The Dover Road which was staged at the Fortune Theatre , London . The production was popular with audiences , and he subsequently became a regular performer in many amateur productions .
Terry @-@ Thomas made his professional stage début on 11 April 1930 at a social evening organised by the Union of Electric Railwayman 's Dining Club in South Kensington . He was billed as Thos Stevens , but only appeared as a minor turn . His performance brought heckles from the drunken audience , but earned him a commission of 30 shillings . After this he played a few minor roles in Gilbert and Sullivan productions by the Edgware Operatic Society at the Scala Theatre . In 1933 he left Smithfield Market to work briefly with a friend at an electrical shop before he became travelling salesman of electrical equipment . He enjoyed the job and relished being able to dress up in elaborate clothing in order to make his pitch . In his spare time he began playing the ukulele with a local jazz band called the Rhythm Maniacs . He took up dancing and formed a partnership with a sister of Jessie Matthews . The act starred in local exhibitions and at minor venues , and they earned well from it . News soon travelled of the couple 's talent , and they were engaged as ballroom dancers at a hall in Cricklewood . He found the dance @-@ style too restrictive and he left the act to try other aspects of entertainment .
= = = Early performances : 1933 – 39 = = =
By 1933 Terry @-@ Thomas had moved out of Finchley and into a friend 's flat ; the friend was a film extra who introduced him to the idea of working in the industry . Terry @-@ Thomas made his uncredited film debut in the 1933 film , The Private Life of Henry VIII , which starred Charles Laughton in the title role . Between 1933 and 1941 Terry @-@ Thomas appeared in 16 films , as an uncredited extra in all but one ; he later said that " this work suited me down to the ground . It wasn 't really like work to me . I got an enormous kick out of it " . His first speaking role came in the 1935 Buddy Rogers comedy Once in a Million where he shouted " A thousand ! " during an auction . During the 1936 musical comedy This 'll Make You Whistle , starring Jack Buchanan , he permanently damaged his hearing as a result of jumping into a water tank . In between his film work he developed his cabaret act and was employed as a dance teacher at the Aida Foster School of Dancing in Golders Green .
During this period he billed himself as Thomas ( or Thos ) Stevens , but reorganised the name to its backward spelling of Mot Snevets ; the name did not last long and he changed it to Thomas Terry . He soon realised that people were mistaking him as a relative of Dame Ellen Terry , so inverted the name to Terry Thomas . He did not add the hyphen until 1947 , and later explained that it was " not for snob reasons but to tie the two names together . They didn 't mean much apart ; together they made a trade name " : the hyphen was also " to match the gap in his front teeth " . By now he was developing a unique sense of style both on and off stage . In order to avoid staining his fingers with smoke , he used a cigarette holder and later purchased " the most irresistible holder in Dunhill 's . It was slightly outré because it was made of lacquered , black whangee ... with a gold band twisting neatly round it " . Adding to his look were a " monocle , raffish waistcoat and red carnation " . He later wrote that " sartorially I was an eccentric . But I knew that underneath the clothes I was very much a conservative Englishman who would have loved to have been a genuine eccentric " .
In 1937 , Terry @-@ Thomas met the South African dancer and choreographer Ida Florence Patlansky , who went by the stage @-@ name Pat Patlanski , while she was auditioning in London for a partner for her flamenco dancing act . Patlanski was keen to employ Terry @-@ Thomas as a comedian rather than a dancer , and they established a cabaret double @-@ act billed as " Terri and Patlanski " , which was immediately popular with audiences . The couple became romantically involved and married on 3 February 1938 at Marylebone register office , afterwards moving to 29 Bronwen Court in St John 's Wood . Despite the success of Terri and Patlanski , the act only lasted three months and they took on small engagements on the cabaret circuit . On 6 June 1938 Terry @-@ Thomas made his first radio broadcast on the BBC London Regional dance programme Friends to Tea . He later recounted that " I didn 't give a very good performance ... I was a dismal failure " . At the end of the summer of 1938 they were hired by the bandleader Don Rico , who incorporated them into his orchestra , with Patlanski playing the piano and Terry @-@ Thomas acting as the compère .
= = = Second World War = = =
The Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) was formed in 1938 in order to provide entertainment to the British Armed Forces ; Terry @-@ Thomas and Patlanski signed up in 1939 and during the Phoney War were posted to France , where they appeared in a variety show . From early in their marriage , Patlanski had started having affairs , a move which prompted Terry @-@ Thomas to reciprocate ; he made sure that he was sent on tour to France where a girlfriend was due to perform , although Patlanski accompanied him on the trip . During the tour , Terry @-@ Thomas ensured Patlanski was sent back to the UK to enable him to continue his affair . On his return to Britain , he continued with his solo variety act , while also acting as the head of the cabaret section of ENSA at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , where he clashed regularly with his counterparts running the drama sections , Sir Seymour Hicks and Lilian Braithwaite . Terry @-@ Thomas aimed to produce " good shows , sophisticated , impeccable and highly polished " , which included the violinist Eugene Pini playing light classical music , and the Gainsborough Girls chorus line .
In April 1942 Terry @-@ Thomas received his call @-@ up papers ; he later wrote that " it would have seemed rather rude and ungrateful to refuse " ; as a result , he left ENSA and reported to the Royal Corps of Signals training depot in Ossett , West Yorkshire . Within two weeks of his arrival he hired Ossett Town Hall and staged a concert , which included a freshly @-@ written sketch about his feet , which had been suffering in his army boots . After basic training he was promoted to the rank of corporal and he applied for a commission . He was turned down because training had caused a duodenal ulcer , and his hearing was still problematic ; as a result he was downgraded from A1 to B1 fitness at the start of 1943 .
Terry @-@ Thomas continued to appear in cabaret and variety shows while in the army , including at the Astoria cinema in York , where he was seen by George Black . Black established the entertainment troupe , Stars in Battledress , which was composed of entertainers who were serving in the forces , and he invited Terry @-@ Thomas to join . In February 1943 he appeared in his first Stars in Battledress show at London 's Olympia , where he introduced the sketch " Technical Hitch " . This involved him portraying a harassed BBC announcer introducing records that are missing . In order to cover up for the absent records he would use his vocal range of four and a half octaves to mimic the singers ; he included " impersonations of Britain 's clipped crooner Noël Coward , the African @-@ American bass @-@ baritone Paul Robeson , the Peruvian songbird Yma Sumac , the Austrian tenor Richard Tauber and ... the entire Luton Girls Choir " . The show went on a national tour , with the stand @-@ up comedian Charlie Chester as compere , during which Terry @-@ Thomas refined and polished his act and finished as " one of the most prominent and influential members of Stars in Battledress " .
Terry @-@ Thomas , along with his Stars in Battledress unit , travelled through Britain and Europe on a tour that lasted several months . After the tour , and with his demobilisation approaching , he took compassionate leave in order to have free time while still receiving army pay . During his absence he went on a tour of the UK organised by George Black , accompanied on the piano by a former colonel , Harry Sutcliffe . Terry @-@ Thomas finished the war as a sergeant , and was finally demobbed on 1 April 1946 .
= = = Early post @-@ war work : 1946 – 55 = = =
The ENSA and Stars in Battledress tours of Britain and Europe had raised Terry @-@ Thomas 's profile and , by October 1946 , he was appearing alongside Sid Field in Piccadilly Hayride at the Prince of Wales Theatre , London . The show was described by Graham McCann as " the West End 's biggest money @-@ spinner for years " . Terry @-@ Thomas compered the show as well as appearing in some of the sketches , including his own " Technical Hitch " routine . In 1959 he described the effect of Piccadilly Hayride on his career , saying " This show made me overnight . I 'd arrived " . Ivor Brown , writing in The Observer , remarked on the " glorious rag of BBC modes , moods and intonations by Mr. Terry Thomas , a grand discovery " . Within three weeks of starting his run , Terry @-@ Thomas was invited to appear at the Royal Variety Performance on 4 November 1946 at the London Palladium . Piccadilly Hayride ran for 778 performances and ended on 17 January 1948 . The show was seen by over a million people and earned £ 350 @,@ 000 at the box office . In conjunction with Piccadilly Hayride , Terry @-@ Thomas undertook a number of other additional one @-@ off appearances in cabaret and private functions . He also appeared in editions of Variety Bandbox and Workers ' Playtime on BBC radio . His ever @-@ evolving act consisted of imitations , including that of his friend , the musician Leslie Hutchinson ( known as " Hutch " ) ; sketches , including " Technical Hitch " ; urbane monologues , and " languid shaggy dog stories " .
At the end of his run with Piccadilly Hayride , Terry @-@ Thomas took a three @-@ week break to recover from nervous exhaustion and a recurrence of his peptic ulcer . He went back to cabaret and acted as a compere at the London Palladium before making his radio breakthrough on 12 October 1948 with his own series on the BBC Home Service . Consisting of a " mixture of sketches , solo routines , musical interludes and a range of popular and topical star guests " , To Town with Terry was broadcast weekly and ran for 24 episodes until 28 March 1949 . He was disappointed with the series , saying " I was never totally satisfied with [ it ] ... The perfectionist in me always made me aware of anything that was less than first class " . He also appeared in his first post @-@ war film , A Date with a Dream , in 1949 , alongside his wife .
On 26 October 1949 Terry @-@ Thomas wrote and starred in a new series on the BBC Television Service , How Do You View ? , noted for being the first comedy series on British television . The programme was based around an on @-@ screen persona of Terry @-@ Thomas as " a glamorous , mischievous and discreetly cash @-@ strapped man @-@ about @-@ town " , introducing a series of sketches in which he appeared alongside Peter Butterworth as his chauffeur ; Janet Brown ( Butterworth 's real @-@ life wife ) ; Avril Angers ; H.C. Walton as the family retainer , Moulting ; and Diana Dors . The programme was broadcast live and often included Terry @-@ Thomas walking through control rooms and corridors of the BBC 's Lime Grove and Alexandra Palace studios . The author and historian Mark Lewisohn described the series as being " inventive ... truly televisual and not just a radio programme in costume " . The series ran until 21 December 1949 ; a second series followed between April and May 1950 , with Sid Colin taking over the scripting duties and Terry @-@ Thomas providing additional material . By the third series , which was broadcast between November 1950 and February 1951 , the audience reached four million viewers . In total there were five series of How Do You View ? ; the final episode was broadcast on 11 June 1952 . Writing about Terry @-@ Thomas on television , Wilfred Greatorex observed that " he has ... physical attributes that make him a gift to visual entertainment : a large , rather gaunt face , pre @-@ fabricated for close @-@ ups ; the notorious space of one @-@ third of an inch between his two most prominent top teeth ; a mouth that is full of expression . Add to these pictoral [ sic ] advantages his eight @-@ inch cigarette holder and Eddie Cantor eyes " .
In between filming How Do You View ? , Terry @-@ Thomas continued performing on radio as well as in cabaret , in Britain and increasingly the US . In October and November 1949 he appeared at the Palmer House Night Club , Chicago ; in June 1951 he appeared at The Wedgwood Room , Waldorf Astoria Hotel , New York , and between 22 December 1951 and 29 February 1952 he returned to the London Palladium for 109 performances in Humpty Dumpty . In September 1952 he travelled to Malaysia to entertain British troops in a series of concert parties , before returning to the UK to appear in the Royal Variety Performance in November . He finished the year in South Africa , as Honourable Idle Jack in Dick Whittington , which finished in January 1953 ; he considered the pantomime to be " so tatty and unrehearsed it was pathetic " .
In June 1953 Terry @-@ Thomas broadcast the pilot episode of the radio show , Top of the Town ; the show was successful and the BBC commissioned a series of 16 episodes , which ran between November 1953 and February 1954 . In between recording sessions , he appeared at the London Palladium in the revue Fun and the Fair , with George Formby and the Billy Cotton band , from October 1953 . Fun and the Fair was unsuccessful at the box office and closed on 19 December 1953 , after 138 performances . Terry @-@ Thomas then reprised his role of Idle Jack for a run of performances in the Granada theatres of Sutton and Woolwich , and the Finsbury Park Empire , which ran to the end of January 1954 . That year , he separated from Patlanski following an increase in domestic tension and the plethora of affairs in which they had both indulged . Patlanski moved out of the shared home , and the couple lived separate lives ; the press did not report the separation until 1957 .
Terry @-@ Thomas spent the 1954 summer season performing at the Winter Gardens Pavilion , Blackpool before starring in a second series of Top of the Town , which ran from October 1954 to February 1955 . At the end of the series he appeared as Hubert Crone in the play Room for Two , which had a UK tour prior to a run at the Prince of Wales Theatre , London . The last stop on the UK tour was at the Brighton Hippodrome , where Terry @-@ Thomas broke his arm on stage ; he returned to the show five days later when the tour reached London . He later joked that " the audience roared with laughter when I fell and made horrible faces , so much so that I considered breaking the other arm for an encore " . The London run was not a success and the show closed after 48 performances .
= = = British film years : 1956 – 61 = = =
In February 1956 Terry @-@ Thomas appeared on Desert Island Discs , and chose two songs from his " Technical Hitch " routine as part of his selection . Later that year he appeared in his first major film roles : Charles Boughtflower in The Green Man , and Major Hitchcock , " a charlatan military officer on the take " , in Private 's Progress , directed by the Boulting brothers . Terry @-@ Thomas only appeared in the latter film briefly , with a total screen time of about ten minutes , but his biographer Graham McCann thought that the actor " came close to stealing the show from the central character " , Windrush played by Ian Carmichael . Terry @-@ Thomas 's depiction of the character was not how he wished to play it : his desired choice was that of a " silly @-@ ass " sergeant major , but the role was written as a strict , alcohol and prescription drug @-@ dependent Army officer . He was initially disappointed with the role , and turned it down but , after being persuaded to accept it by his agent , he embraced its possibilities . One of his lines , delivered in his clipped upper @-@ class voice , was " You 're an absolute shower " , which became a catchphrase for him . The Boulting brothers were so impressed with Terry @-@ Thomas 's performance that they signed him up to a five @-@ film deal .
The first of the five films was Brothers in Law , in which Terry @-@ Thomas played the spiv Alfred Green , a performance which was based on Sid Field 's characterisation in Piccadilly Hayride . Roy Boulting later recounted that one short scene with Terry @-@ Thomas , Richard Attenborough and Ian Carmichael took 107 takes because of Terry @-@ Thomas 's unfamiliarity with filming techniques ; he initially struggled to hit his marks , or give his line and move on , while still acting . Filming the scene took two days and Boulting described it as " an unique experience for him , and had a wonderful after @-@ effect " . Following Brothers in Law he was cast as Romney Carlton @-@ Ricketts in Blue Murder at St Trinian 's by producers Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat , before again appearing for the Boulting brothers in the cameo role of a local policeman in Happy Is the Bride . Terry @-@ Thomas starred in two further films in 1957 . The first was as Bertrand Welch in Lucky Jim , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Kingsley Amis . Although Amis thought that Terry @-@ Thomas has been " totally miscast as Bertrand , the posturing painter and leading shit " of the book , the critic for The Manchester Guardian considered Terry @-@ Thomas as being " the nearest to a complete success " in the film , in a portrayal that " suggests possibilities for more serious roles " . His final part of 1957 was Lord Henry Mayley in The Naked Truth ; this brought him together with Peter Sellers for the first time , and the two of them appeared frequently together over the next few years in scenes in which , Graham McCann considered that each actor 's performance " highlight [ ed ] what was special about the other " . During one scene Terry @-@ Thomas was dumped in a near @-@ freezing lake , and his health was affected for some time afterwards .
In 1958 Terry @-@ Thomas received the first of his two film award nominations , the BAFTA Award for the " Best British Actor in 1959 " for the part of Ivan in the Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer film tom thumb . He later described the film as his second favourite ; he appeared opposite Sellers for much of his screen time , and later said that " my part was perfect , but Peter 's was bloody awful . He wasn 't difficult about it , but he knew it " . Terry @-@ Thomas was still suffering with poor health following the filming of The Naked Truth when he suffered an attack of lumbago ; filming went on for 85 days during 1957 – 58 , and he took painkillers to enable him to continue . The role was physically demanding , and required him to ride a horse , run long distances and fight in a duel . He stated that he fought and ran " just as [ he ] had seen Douglas Fairbanks Snr do in The Mark of Zorro " . Towards the end of filming , Terry @-@ Thomas went to a Christmas party at the Trocadero , where he drank champagne , as well as taking codeine tablets , and was subsequently arrested on suspicion of being drunk and disorderly . He considered the arresting policemen to have been rude , and " their attitude made me extremely angry and when I get angry ... I just go completely off my nut " . The case came to court on 14 March 1958 and his legal team from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer provided a medical report which showed Terry @-@ Thomas had been on a course of prescription painkillers due to a gruelling filming schedule ; along with inconsistencies in the arresting policemen 's notes , the case proved inconclusive and was dismissed . For much of the rest of 1958 , Terry @-@ Thomas appeared on stage at the London Palladium in Large as Life , alongside Harry Secombe , Eric Sykes and Hattie Jacques . He played one of the Three Musketeers in one sketch and had another turn called " Filling the Gap " ; the show ran for a total of 380 performances between May and December 1958 . He also released his first record , Strictly T @-@ T , a collection of comic songs and sketches .
In 1959 Terry @-@ Thomas published his first autobiography , Filling the Gap , named after his spot in Large as Life ; he explained that " everything that has been printed about me is lies . I 'm not suggesting the writers were lying , I was " . During the year he also appeared in two further instalments of the Boultings brothers ' series of institutional satires , having appeared in the previous three . The first , in which he was joined again by Sellers , was Carlton @-@ Browne of the F.O. , in which he played Cadogan de Vere Carlton @-@ Browne , a character he described as being " rubble from the nostrils up " , " a certain type of Englishman , the Englishman who reads The Times and no other newspaper . A brolly carrier . A squash player . A bowler hat wearer . White collar , stiff , of course " . Film writer Andrew Spicer thought that Terry @-@ Thomas 's role " was the quintessential upper @-@ class ' silly @-@ ass ' , a sad relic of a vanished world " . The film was initially chosen as Britain 's entry for the 1959 Moscow International Film Festival until the Foreign Office petitioned the British Film Producers ' Association for it to be withdrawn on the basis that the Russians might consider the film to accurately portray British diplomatic behaviour .
Terry @-@ Thomas 's final film with the Boulting brothers was I 'm All Right Jack , a post @-@ war follow @-@ up to Private 's Progress with Terry @-@ Thomas reprising the role of Major Hitchcock to an industrial setting , as the " tetchily incompetent " personnel manager . Many of the other cast from Private 's Progress also returned , including Attenborough , Carmichael and Dennis Price ; they were joined by Peter Sellers , who took most of the plaudits from the critics , although Stanley Kauffman , writing in The New Republic also delighted in Terry @-@ Thomas 's " finesse " and " extraordinary skill " . The Los Angeles Times retrospectively considered I 'm All Right Jack and Carlton @-@ Browne of the F.O. to have been Terry @-@ Thomas 's best works . His final film of 1959 was as William Delany Gordon in Too Many Crooks . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times thought that Terry @-@ Thomas provided " some of the fieriest conniptions to be seen on the contemporary screen " , going on to say that the actor 's " skill is exercised in demonstrating how magnificently and completely a mad @-@ cap comedian can completely blow his top . His eyes flash , his lips curl , his sibilants whistle and he glares like a maniac " . Filming took place during the daytime ; in the evenings he appeared at the London Palladium , something he found trying on his nervous system .
In 1960 Terry @-@ Thomas appeared as Raymond Delauney in School for Scoundrels , a film his biographer , Robert Ross , called " the definitive screen presentation of his frightfully well @-@ mannered , well @-@ read and well @-@ educated lounge lizard : T @-@ T the man as T @-@ T the film star " . He again appeared opposite Ian Carmichael , and they were joined by Alastair Sim and Janette Scott . Michael Brooke , writing for the British Film Institute , thought Terry @-@ Thomas was " outstanding as a classic British bounder " . Later the same year he appeared in Make Mine Mink as Major Albert Rayne , a veteran of the Second World War who forms a gang of mink coat thieves with his female co @-@ lodgers . When he made an appearance at a screening of the film in Dalston , north @-@ east London , he was presented with a white mink waistcoat by a local furrier .
In 1961 Terry @-@ Thomas played Archibald Bannister in A Matter of WHO , which he described as " my first ( fairly ) serious role " . He was joined in the film by his second cousin Richard Briers , with Terry @-@ Thomas noting that he provided " no nepotic help " in getting Briers the part . The film was not well received by the critics ; an internal BBC memo described that in the UK the film was " murdered by the critics " , although it was " something of a success " in America . By this time Terry @-@ Thomas had decided to stop being a stand @-@ up comedian and compere and instead concentrate solely on making films . He stopped appearing on television and radio shows of his own , declaring " it was the cinema for me and me for the cinema ! " Having accumulated considerable experience by appearing in British films , he decided to try Hollywood , and moved to America .
= = = Breaking into Hollywood : 1961 – 65 = = =
Terry @-@ Thomas spent part of 1961 in America , filming the role of Professor Bruce Patterson in Bachelor Flat — his first Hollywood role — before flying to Gibraltar to film Operation Snatch , in which he teamed up with Lionel Jeffries . By the end of 1961 Terry @-@ Thomas was appearing on radio , in guest spots on American television shows , such as the December broadcast of The Bing Crosby Show , and was frequently the subject of US newspaper interviews . In 1962 Bachelor Flat and Operation Snatch were both released , and were followed by two more films : a large @-@ budget biopic from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer called The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm , in which Terry @-@ Thomas shared his scenes with the American comedian Buddy Hackett , and Kill or Cure , in which he appeared with Eric Sykes , a friend since they worked together in Large as Life .
On 1 February 1962 Terry @-@ Thomas and Pat Patlanski divorced , having spent the previous eight years estranged . He had by then split from his mistress of the previous few years , Lorrae Desmond , who returned to Australia shortly afterwards and married a surgeon ; Terry @-@ Thomas resumed his bachelor life @-@ style . The break @-@ up with Desmond caused him great upset , and he sought solace with Belinda Cunningham , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old whom he had met on holiday in Majorca two years previously . The couple began a romance , and married in August 1963 at Halstead Registry Office in Colchester , Essex . The following year she gave birth to their first son — Timothy Hoar — at the Princess Beatrice Hospital in London .
In 1963 Terry @-@ Thomas was offered the role of Lt @-@ Colonel J. Algernon Hawthorne in It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World , and turned down the opportunity before leaving for the UK . By the time his flight arrived in London he had changed his mind , so he telephoned producer Stanley Kramer from the airport to signal his acceptance , and " popped back on a plane to be fitted for the part " the same day . He was not comfortable with many of the other actors on set , later commenting that " I was the only non @-@ American , and I found it exhausting and embarrassing because they never relaxed . They were always ' on ' . " One of the American stars was Spencer Tracy , whom Terry @-@ Thomas considered " an extra @-@ special man " ; Tracy and Buster Keaton — who also appeared in the film — were described by Terry @-@ Thomas as " the only two people who ever produced in me this awe of greatness " .
Later in 1963 he picked up his second film nomination , the Golden Globe for Best Comedy Actor for his portrayal of Spender in The Mouse on the Moon . He also tried his hand at production , with three 15 @-@ minute travelogues : Terry @-@ Thomas in Tuscany , Terry @-@ Thomas in the South of France and Terry @-@ Thomas in Northern Ireland . He did not enjoy the producer 's role , complaining that " for some extraordinary reason that I could never understand , everybody was always out to do the producer of any film whoever he was . I had to be on the watch the whole time " . He worked consistently during 1963 , appearing in television programmes on both sides of the Atlantic ; these included Terry @-@ Thomas , a one @-@ off variety show on BBC television in July that included Donald Sutherland .
In 1964 Terry @-@ Thomas started filming the role of Charles Furbank in How to Murder Your Wife , a part which brought him £ 100 @,@ 000 , his largest fee up to that point . He said that it was his favourite to make , " because I felt that I did a very good job " . He enjoyed working with Jack Lemmon , the film 's star , partly because Lemmon would play jazz and sing while the scenes were being lit : the two became friends and Terry @-@ Thomas was invited to Lemmon 's wedding . Throughout the rest of the year Terry @-@ Thomas continued to appear on US television , again in Burke 's Law , but also on What 's My Line ? and An Hour with Robert Goulet , both on CBS ; he also released another record , Terry @-@ Thomas Discovers America , a collection of songs and sketches , described by Billboard as " a funny , funny comedy masterpiece " . His earlier record Strictly T @-@ T was also released in the US .
Alongside How to Murder Your Wife , there were two further releases for Terry @-@ Thomas in 1965 : Strange Bedfellows , in which he played the part of a mortician , and Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines . In the latter , he played Sir Percy Ware @-@ Armitage , a character the film historian Andrew Spicer calls " a cartoon version " of his usual persona in a " bloated mid @-@ Atlantic comed [ y ] " . In the film , Terry @-@ Thomas appeared again with Eric Sykes , an experience Sykes later described as magical . The roles of Ware @-@ Armitage and his sidekick were written especially for Terry @-@ Thomas and Sykes at the behest of the director Ken Annakin .
= = = European cinema : 1966 – 70 = = =
By the mid @-@ 1960s Terry @-@ Thomas was tiring of the Hollywood lifestyle , and , during the latter half of the 1960s , he worked with European filmmakers , returning occasionally to the US when he was filming there . In one of his French @-@ produced films , La Grande Vadrouille , he played Sir Reginald , a stranded Royal Air Force pilot travelling through occupied France with characters played by Bourvil and Louis de Funès . The film , released in 1966 , held the record for highest box @-@ office takings in France until 2004 , and it remains " one of the most popular films with television audiences in France " . Terry @-@ Thomas undertook a number of roles with the Italian cinema industry . For one of the Italian @-@ produced films , the 1967 farce Arabella , he played four parts and used " the help of wigs , moustaches and lashings of Max Factor " to help achieve the different characterisations , which were all with the Italian actress Virna Lisi .
Although the European films allowed him to travel and gave him a constant source of income , he received bigger fees from his less @-@ frequent engagements in US films , which he continued to appear in , joking that he " knew the fat cheques in the pipe @-@ line were endless " . One of the bigger fees came with Gene Kelly 's 1967 film A Guide for the Married Man ; he was disappointed by Kelly 's direction , later saying " I found him a very prudish director , not as imaginative or experimental as I would have liked " . Terry @-@ Thomas had more time for the actress with whom he shared his short scene , Jayne Mansfield , commenting that " I found her rather intelligent to talk to and felt quite shattered when I read about the gruesome car accident that killed her " . An actress he had difficulties in working with was Doris Day : in the 1968 film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out ? , which was produced by her husband Martin Melcher . Day would instruct Terry @-@ Thomas how he should act in a scene ( he would " listen ... politely , then do it my own way , as if the conversation had never taken place " ) . She would also launch into improvisations while filming ; director Hy Averback would mimic a scissor action behind her back to signal to Terry @-@ Thomas that the material would be duly cut from the final print . The result was a film that Geoff Mayer called " limp " , and Christopher Young described as " such an uneven movie that misses so many opportunities for real comedy " .
In 1967 Terry @-@ Thomas met his long @-@ time friend Denholm Elliott in Bel Air and the pair talked about Elliott 's new villa in Santa Eulària des Riu on the Spanish island of Ibiza . Terry @-@ Thomas was intrigued by the possibility of a Mediterranean retreat and visited the island on the way to film Monte Carlo : C 'est La Rose with Princess Grace of Monaco who was playing herself . Although he initially struggled to find the right plot of ground for the right price , he eventually settled on an appropriate location ; declaring he was "
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@-@ inch mortar for indirect fire support . After 1943 , the Projector , Infantry , Anti Tank , known as the PIAT , replaced the now obsolete Boys anti @-@ tank rifle . With the formation of the heavy weapons troops , Commandos were issued the 3 @-@ inch mortar and the Vickers machine gun . The issue of the medium Vickers machine gun to Commando units set them apart from typical British Army infantry divisions , who tended to only employ the weapon in specialist machine gun battalions .
Initially the Commandos were indistinguishable from the rest of the British Army and volunteers retained their own regimental head @-@ dress and insignia . No. 2 Commando adopted Scottish head @-@ dress for all ranks and No. 11 ( Scottish ) Commando wore the Tam O 'Shanter with a black hackle . The official head @-@ dress of the Middle East Commandos was a bush hat with their own knuckleduster cap badge . This badge was modelled on their issue fighting knife ( the Mark I trench knife ) which had a knuckleduster for a handle . In 1942 the green Commando beret and the Combined Operations tactical recognition flash were adopted .
As the men were equipped for raiding operations and only lightly armed , they did not carry anti @-@ gas protective equipment or large packs , and the standard British steel helmet was replaced by a woollen cap comforter . Instead of heavy ammunition boots they wore lightweight rubber soled gym shoes that allowed them to move silently . All ranks carried a toggle rope , several of which could be linked together to form longer ropes for scaling cliffs or other obstacles . During boat operations an inflatable lifebelt was worn for safety . The Commandos were the first unit to adopt the Bergen rucksack to carry heavy loads of ammunition , explosives , and other demolition equipment . A battle jerkin was produced to wear over battledress and the airborne forces ' camouflaged Denison smock became standard issue for Commando forces later in the war .
= = Operations = =
The very first Commando raid – Operation Collar on 23 June 1940 – was not actually carried out by a Commando unit , but by one of their predecessors : No.11 Independent Company . The mission , led by Major Ronnie Tod , was an offensive reconnaissance carried out on the French coast south of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and Le Touquet . The operation was a limited success ; at least two German soldiers were killed whilst the only British injury was a flesh wound suffered by Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke , who had accompanied the raiders as an observer . A second and similarly inconsequential raid , Operation Ambassador , was made on the German occupied island of Guernsey on the night of 14 July 1940 by men from H Troop of No. 3 Commando and No. 11 Independent Company . One unit landed on the wrong island and another group disembarked from its launch into water so deep that it came over their heads . Intelligence had indicated that there was a large German barracks on the island but the Commandos found only empty buildings . When they returned to the beach heavy seas had forced their launch offshore , and they were forced to swim out to sea to be picked up .
The size of the raiding force depended on the objective . The smallest raid was conducted by two men from No. 6 Commando in Operation J V. The largest was the 10 @,@ 500 man Operation Jubilee . Most of the raids were scheduled to only last overnight although some , like Operation Gauntlet , were conducted over a number of days . In north west Europe there were 57 raids made between 1940 and 1944 . Of these 36 were against targets in France . There were 12 raids against Norway , seven raids in the Channel Islands , and single raids were made in Belgium and the Netherlands . The success of the raids varied ; Operation Chariot , the raid against dock installations at St Nazaire , has been hailed as the greatest raid of all time , but others , like Operation Aquatint and Operation Musketoon , resulted in the capture or death of all involved . The smaller raids ended in mid @-@ 1944 on the orders of Major General Robert Laycock , who suggested that they were no longer as effective and only resulted in the Germans strengthening their beach defences , something that could be extremely detrimental to Allied plans .
= = = Norway = = =
The first Commando raid in Norway , Operation Claymore , was conducted in March 1941 by men of No.s 3 and 4 Commandos . This was the first large scale raid from the United Kingdom during the war . Their objective was the undefended Norwegian Lofoten Islands . They successfully destroyed the fish @-@ oil factories , petrol dumps , and 11 ships , while capturing 216 Germans , encryption equipment , and codebooks .
In December 1941 there were two raids . The first was Operation Anklet , a raid on the Lofoten Islands by No. 12 Commando on 26 December . The German garrison was in the midst of their Christmas celebrations and was easily overcome ; the Commandos re @-@ embarked after two days . Operation Archery was a larger raid at Vågsøy Island . This raid involved men from Nos. 2 , 3 , 4 and 6 Commandos , a Royal Navy flotilla , and limited air support . The raid caused significant damage to factories , warehouses , and the German garrison , and sank eight ships . After this the Germans increased the garrison in Norway by an extra 30 @,@ 000 troops , upgraded coastal and inland defences , and sent a number of capital ships to the area .
In September 1942 men from No. 2 Commando took part in Operation Musketoon , a raid against the Glomfjord hydroelectric power plant . The Commandos were landed by submarine and succeeded in blowing up some pipelines , turbines , and tunnels . This effectively destroyed the generating station and the aluminium plant was shut down permanently . One Commando was killed in the raid and another seven were captured while trying to escape . They spent a short time at Colditz Castle before being transferred to Sachsenhausen concentration camp . Shortly after their arrival at Sachenhausen they were executed . They were the first victims of the secret Commando Order , which mandated the execution of all captured Commandos . The three remaining Commandos managed to reach Sweden and were eventually returned to No. 2 Commando .
In 1943 , the Norwegian Troop of No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) , No. 12 , and No. 14 ( Arctic ) Commandos assisted the Royal Navy in carrying out anti – shipping raids in Norwegian coastal waters . The Commandos provided extra firepower for the navy Motor Torpedo Boats when they were at sea and acted as a guard force when they were at anchor in the Norwegian fjords . In April 1943 , seven men of No. 14 ( Arctic ) Commando took part in a raid on German shipping near Haugesund code named Operation Checkmate . They managed to sink several ships using limpet mines , but were captured and eventually taken to Sachsenhausen and Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camps , where they were executed .
The Germans responded to the numerous raids directed at Norway by increasing the number of troops stationed there . By 1944 the garrison had risen to 370 @,@ 000 men . In comparison , a British infantry division in 1944 had an establishment of 18 @,@ 347 men .
= = = Channel Islands = = =
There were seven Commando missions carried out on the Channel Islands . Operation Ambassador was the first and largest of these , employing 140 men from No. 3 Commando and No. 11 Independent Company in a night raid on 14 July 1940 . Later raids were much smaller ; only 12 men of No. 62 Commando took part in Operation Dryad in September 1942 , when they captured seven prisoners and located several German codebooks . Operation Branford , a reconnaissance mission that aimed to identify a suitable gun position to support future raids on Alderney , followed only days later . In October of that year 12 men from No.s 12 and 62 Commandos took part in Operation Basalt , a raid on Sark that saw four Germans killed and one taken prisoner .
All the other Channel Islands raids were less successful . In January 1943 , Operation Huckabuck , a raid on Herm , was a failure . After three attempts to scale the islands cliffs the Commandos finally reached the top , but there were no signs of any German occupation troops or of the island 's population . The next raids were Operations Hardtack 28 and Hardtack 7 in December 1943 . The Hardtack 28 raid on Jersey ended in failure when two men were killed and one wounded after they walked into a minefield . The exploding mines alerted the German garrison and the Commandos had to abandon the operation . In Hardtack 7 the Commandos had returned to Sark , but had to abandon the operation and return to England when they were unable to scale the island 's cliffs .
= = = Mediterranean = = =
During 1941 , the Middle East Commandos and Layforce were tasked to carry out a campaign of harassment and dislocation against enemy forces in the Mediterranean . At the time that Layforce was raised , the British had the ascendency in the theatre , as they had largely defeated the Italians . It was felt that the Commandos could be employed in the capture of the island of Rhodes . However , the arrival of the Afrika Korps in Cyrenaica and the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece greatly changed the strategic outlook . By the time Layforce arrived in Egypt in March the situation had become dire . The deployment of forces to Greece meant that the Commandos became the only troops in general reserve . As the strategic situation worsened , it became increasingly difficult to employ them in the manner intended , as they were called upon as reinforcements to the rest of the army .
In May 1941 the majority of Layforce were sent as reinforcements to the Battle of Crete . Almost as soon as they landed it was decided that they could not be employed in an offensive role and would instead be used to cover the withdrawal route towards the south . They were ill equipped for this type of operation , as they were lacking in indirect fire support weapons such as mortars or artillery ; they were armed mainly with rifles and a few Bren light machine guns . By 31 May the evacuation was drawing to a close and the commandos , running low on ammunition , rations , and water , fell back towards Sphakia . In the end , the vast majority of the commandos were left behind on the island , becoming prisoners of war . About 600 of the 800 commandos that had been sent to Crete were listed as killed , missing , or wounded ; only 179 commandos managed to get off the island . In April 1941 men from No. 7 Commando took part in the Bardia raid , but by late July 1941 Layforce had been severely reduced in strength . Reinforcements were unlikely given the circumstances . The operational difficulties that had been exposed during the Bardia raid , combined with the inability of the high command to fully embrace the Commando concept , had largely served to make the force ineffective . The decision was made to disband Layforce .
In November 1942 , No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos formed part of the spearhead for Allied landings in Algeria as part of Operation Torch . Tensions were high between the British and the Vichy French at this time because of a number of clashes like the Attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . As a result , the decision was made for the Commandos to be equipped with American weapons and uniforms in an effort to placate the defenders . The Tunisia Campaign followed the Torch landings . No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos were involved in the first battle of Sedjenane between February and March 1943 . Both Commando units remained in theatre until April , when the decision was made to withdraw them from the fighting in North Africa . Lacking the administrative support and reinforcements of regular infantry units , the strength of the two units had fallen and they were no longer considered effective .
In May 1943 a Special Service Brigade comprising No. 2 , No. 3 , No. 40 ( RM ) , and No. 41 ( RM ) Commandos was sent to the Mediterranean to take part in the Allied invasion of Sicily . The two Royal Marines Commandos were the first into action , landing ahead of the main force . The 2nd Special Service Brigade serving in the Italian campaign was joined in November 1943 by the Belgian and Polish Troops of No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando . The Polish troop captured a German occupied village on its own when the 2 / 6th Battalion Queen 's Regiment failed to reach a rendezvous on time . On 2 April 1945 the whole of the now named 2nd Commando Brigade were engaged in Operation Roast at Comacchio lagoon in north east Italy . This was the first major action of the big spring offensive to push the Germans back across the River Po and out of Italy . After a fierce three @-@ day battle the Commandos succeeded in clearing the spit separating the lagoon from the Adriatic and secured the flank of the 8th Army . This fostered the idea that the main offensive would be along the coast and not though the Argenta Gap . Major Anders Lassen ( Special Air Service ) and Corporal Thomas Peck Hunter No. 43 ( Royal Marine ) Commando were each awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for their actions during Operation Roast .
= = = France = = =
There were 36 Commando raids targeted against France between 1940 – 1944 , mostly small affairs involving between 10 and 25 men . Some of the larger raids involved one or more commando units . In March 1942 , No. 2 Commando plus demolition experts from seven other Commando units took part in Operation Chariot , also known as the St. Nazaire Raid . The destroyer HMS Campbeltown , accompanied by 18 smaller ships , sailed into St. Nazaire where Campbeltown was rammed directly into the Normandie dock gates . The Commandos engaged the German forces and destroyed the dock facilities . Eight hours later , delayed @-@ action fuses set off the explosives in the Campbeltown , which wrecked the dock gates and killed some 360 Germans and French . A total of 611 soldiers and sailors took part in Chariot ; 169 were killed and 200 ( most wounded ) taken prisoner . Only 242 men returned . Of the 241 Commandos who took part 64 were killed or missing and 109 captured . Lieutenant Colonel Augustus Charles Newman and Sergeant Thomas Durrant of the Commandos , plus three members of the Royal Navy , were awarded the Victoria Cross . Eighty others received decorations for gallantry .
On 19 August 1942 a major landing took place at the French coastal town of Dieppe . The main force was provided by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division , supported by No. 3 and No. 4 Commandos . The mission of No. 3 Commando was to neutralize a German coastal battery near Berneval that was in a position to fire upon the landing at Dieppe . The landing craft carrying No. 3 Commando ran into a German coastal convoy . Only a handful of commandos , under the second in command Major Peter Young , landed and scaled the barbed wire laced cliffs . Eventually 18 Commandos reached the perimeter of the battery via Berneval and engaged the target with small arms fire . Although unable to destroy the guns , they prevented the Germans from firing effectively on the main assault by harassing their gun crews with sniper fire . In a subsidiary operation No. 4 Commando landed in force along with the French Troop No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando and 50 United States Army Rangers and destroyed the artillery battery at Varengeville . Most of No. 4 Commando safely returned to England . Captain Patrick Porteous of No. 4 Commando was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the raid .
During the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944 two Special Service Brigades were deployed . The 1st Special Service Brigade landed behind the British 3rd Infantry Division on Sword Beach . Their main objective was to fight through to the 6th Airborne Division that had landed overnight and was holding the northern flank and the bridges over the Orne River . The Commandos cleared the town of Ouistreham and headed for the bridges , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) away . Arriving at the Pegasus Bridge , the Commandos fought on the left flank of the Orne bridgehead until they were ordered to withdraw . The brigade remained in Normandy for ten weeks , sustaining 1 @,@ 000 casualties , including the brigade commander , Brigadier Lord Lovat . The all Royal Marines 4th Special Service Brigade was also involved in the Normandy landings . No. 48 Commando landed on the left flank of Juno Beach and No. 41 Commando landed on the right flank of Sword Beach and then assaulted Lion @-@ sur @-@ Mer . No. 48 Commando landed in front of the St. Aubin @-@ sur @-@ Mer strong point and lost forty percent of its men . The last 4th Brigade unit ashore was No. 47 Commando , which landed on Gold Beach near the town of Asnells . Five of the Landing Craft Assault carrying them ashore were sunk by mines and beach obstacles , which resulted in the loss of 76 of their 420 men . These losses delayed their advance to their primary objective , the port of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , which they captured the following day .
= = = Netherlands = = =
The Battle of the Scheldt started 1 November 1944 , with 4th Special Service Brigade assigned to carry out a seaborne assault on the island of Walcheren . The plan was for the island to be attacked from two directions , with the Commandos coming by sea and the Canadian 2nd Division and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division attacking across the causeway . No. 4 Commando landed at Flushing and No. 41 and 48 at Westkapelle . No. 47 Commando was held in reserve and landed after No.s 41 and 48 . They were to advance past No. 48 Commando and attempt to link up with No. 4 Commando in the south . On the first day No. 41 captured an artillery observation tower at Westkapelle and cleared the rest of the town . They then moved along the coast and dealt with the coastal defence installations .
No. 48 Commando quickly captured a radar station and then advanced on a gun battery south of Westkapelle , which was captured before nightfall . On 2 November No. 47 Commando advanced through No. 48 Commando to attack a gun battery at Zouteland . The attack failed , with the unit suffering heavy casualties , including all the rifle troop commanders . The next day No. 47 , supported by No. 48 Commando , again attacked the Zouteland gun battery . This time they managed to continue the advance and link up with No. 4 Commando . The capture of these batteries allowed the navy to start sweeping the channel into Antwerp for mines . On 5 November , No. 41 Commando captured the gun battery north east of Domburg ; this left only one battery still under German control . The brigade regrouped and concentrated its assault on the last position . Just before the attack began on 9 November , the 4 @,@ 000 men in the battery surrendered . This was quickly followed by the surrender of the rest of the island 's garrison .
= = = Germany = = =
In January 1945 the 1st Commando Brigade were involved in Operation Blackcock , where Lance Corporal Henry Harden of the Royal Army Medical Corps , attached to No. 45 ( Royal Marine ) Commando was awarded the Victoria Cross .
The 1st Commando Brigade next took part in Operation Plunder , the crossing of the Rhine River in March 1945 . After a heavy artillery bombardment on the evening of 23 March 1945 , the brigade carried out the initial assault under cover of darkness with the 15th ( Scottish ) Division and the 51st ( Highland ) Division . The Germans had moved most of their reserve troops to the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen , which had just been captured by the U.S. 9th Armored Division . The Commandos crossed the Rhine at a point 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Wesel . Their crossing was unopposed and the brigade headed to the outskirts of Wesel . Here they waited until a raid of 200 bombers of the Royal Air Force finished their attack , during which over 1 @,@ 000 tons of bombs were dropped . Moving into the city just after midnight , the Commandos met resistance from defenders organised around an anti @-@ aircraft division . It was not until 25 March that all resistance ended and the brigade declared the city taken .
= = = Burma = = =
During the Burma Campaign in 1944 – 1945 , the 3rd Commando Brigade participated in several coastal landings of the Southern Front offensive . These landings culminated in the battle of Hill 170 at Kangaw . Here Lieutenant George Knowland of No. 1 Commando was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross . The Commandos ' victory in the 36 @-@ hour battle for Hill 170 cut off the escape of the 54th Japanese Division . Further amphibious landings by the 25th Indian Infantry Division and the overland advance of the 82nd ( West Africa ) Division made the Japanese position in the Arakan untenable . A general withdrawal was ordered to avoid the complete destruction of the Twenty @-@ Eighth Japanese Army . The Commando brigade was then withdrawn to India in preparation for Operation Zipper , the planned invasion of Malaya . The Zipper landings were not needed due to the Japanese surrender so the brigade was sent to Hong Kong for policing duties instead .
= = Legacy = =
At the end of the Second World War all the British Army , Royal Navy , Royal Air Force , and some Royal Marines Commandos were disbanded , leaving only three Royal Marines Commandos and one brigade ( with supporting Army elements ) . As of 2010 the British Commando force is 3 Commando Brigade , which consists of both Royal Marines and British Army components , as well as commando @-@ trained personnel from the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . Other units of the British armed forces that can trace their origins to the British Commandos of the Second World War are the Parachute Regiment , the Special Air Service , and the Special Boat Service .
Of the Western nations represented in No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando only Norway did not develop a Commando force . The French troops were the predecessors of the Naval commandos . The Dutch Troops were the predecessors of the Korps Commandotroepen and the Belgian Troops were the predecessors of the Paracommando Brigade . The 1st Battalion of the United States Army Rangers were also influenced by the British Commandos . Their first volunteers were from troops stationed in Northern Ireland , who were sent to train at the Commando depot at Achnacarry . However , subsequent Ranger battalions were formed and trained independent of British influence .
The men serving with the Commandos were awarded 479 decorations during the war . This includes eight Victoria Crosses awarded to all ranks . Officers were awarded 37 Distinguished Service Orders with nine bars for a second award and 162 Military Crosses with 13 bars . Other ranks were awarded 32 Distinguished Conduct Medals and 218 Military Medals . In 1952 the Commando Memorial was unveiled by the Queen Mother . It is now a Category A listed monument in Scotland , dedicated to the men of the original British Commando Forces raised during Second World War . Situated around a mile from Spean Bridge village , it overlooks the training areas of the Commando Training Depot established in 1942 at Achnacarry Castle .
= = Battle honours = =
In the British Army battle honours are awarded to regiments that have seen active service in a significant engagement or campaign , generally ( although not always ) one with a victorious outcome . The following battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos during the Second World War .
= USS Arizona ( BB @-@ 39 ) =
USS Arizona was a Pennsylvania @-@ class battleship built for and by the United States Navy in the mid @-@ 1910s . Named in honor of the 48th state 's recent admission into the union , the ship was the second and last of the Pennsylvania class of " super @-@ dreadnought " battleships . Although commissioned in 1916 , the ship remained stateside during World War I. Shortly after the end of the war , Arizona was one of a number of American ships that briefly escorted President Woodrow Wilson to the Paris Peace Conference . The ship was sent to Turkey in 1919 at the beginning of the Greco @-@ Turkish War to represent American interests for several months . Several years later , she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet and remained there for the rest of her career .
Aside from a comprehensive modernization in 1929 – 31 , Arizona was regularly used for training exercises between the wars , including the annual Fleet Problems ( training exercises ) . When an earthquake struck Long Beach , California , in 1933 , Arizona 's crew provided aid to the survivors . Two years later , the ship was featured in a Jimmy Cagney film , Here Comes the Navy , about the romantic troubles of a sailor . In April 1940 , she and the rest of the Pacific Fleet were transferred from California to Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , as a deterrent to Japanese imperialism .
During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , Arizona was bombed . She exploded and sank , killing 1 @,@ 177 officers and crewmen . Unlike many of the other ships sunk or damaged that day , Arizona could not be fully salvaged , though the Navy removed parts of the ship for reuse . The wreck still lies at the bottom of Pearl Harbor and the USS Arizona Memorial , dedicated on 30 May 1962 to all those who died during the attack , straddles the ship 's hull .
= = Description = =
The Pennsylvania @-@ class ships were significantly larger than their predecessors , the Nevada class . Arizona had an overall length of 608 feet ( 185 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 97 feet ( 29 @.@ 6 m ) ( at the waterline ) , and a draft of 29 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . This was 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) longer than the older ships . She displaced 29 @,@ 158 long tons ( 29 @,@ 626 t ) at standard and 31 @,@ 917 long tons ( 32 @,@ 429 t ) at deep load , over 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 060 t ) more than the older ships . The ship had a metacentric height of 7 @.@ 82 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) at deep load .
The ship had four direct @-@ drive Parsons steam turbine sets , each of which drove a propeller 12 feet 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in diameter . They were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) , but only achieved 33 @,@ 376 shp ( 24 @,@ 888 kW ) during Arizona 's sea trials , when she met her designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . However , she did manage to reach 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) during a full @-@ power trial in September 1924 . She was designed to normally carry 1 @,@ 548 long tons ( 1 @,@ 573 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 2 @,@ 305 long tons ( 2 @,@ 342 t ) . At full capacity , the ship could steam at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) for an estimated 7 @,@ 552 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 990 km ; 8 @,@ 690 mi ) with a clean bottom . She had four 300 @-@ kilowatt ( 402 hp ) turbo generators .
Arizona carried twelve 45 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ inch guns in triple gun turrets . The turrets were numbered from I to IV from front to rear . The guns could not elevate independently and were limited to a maximum elevation of + 15 ° which gave them a maximum range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . The ship carried 100 shells for each gun . Defense against torpedo boats was provided by twenty @-@ two 51 @-@ caliber five @-@ inch guns mounted in individual casemates in the sides of the ship 's hull . Positioned as they were they proved vulnerable to sea spray and could not be worked in heavy seas . At an elevation of 15 ° , they had a maximum range of 14 @,@ 050 yards ( 12 @,@ 850 m ) . Each gun was provided with 230 rounds of ammunition . The ship mounted four 50 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch guns for anti @-@ aircraft defense , although only two were fitted when completed . The other pair were added shortly afterward on top of Turret III . Arizona also mounted two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes and carried 24 torpedoes for them .
The Pennsylvania @-@ class design continued the all @-@ or @-@ nothing principle of armoring only the most important areas of the ship begun in the Nevada class . The waterline armor belt of Krupp armor measured 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 343 mm ) thick and only covered the ship 's machinery spaces and magazines . It had a total height of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) , of which 8 feet 9 @.@ 75 inches ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) was below the waterline ; beginning 2 feet 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline , the belt tapered to its minimum thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) . The transverse bulkheads at each end of the ship ranged from 13 to 8 inches in thickness . The faces of the gun turrets were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) thick while the sides were 9 – 10 inches ( 229 – 254 mm ) thick and the turret roofs were protected by 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of armor . The armor of the barbettes was 18 to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 457 to 114 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 16 inches ( 406 mm ) of armor and had a roof eight inches thick .
The main armor deck was three plates thick with a total thickness of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) ; over the steering gear the armor increased to 6 @.@ 25 inches ( 159 mm ) in two plates . Beneath it was the splinter deck that ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 inches ( 38 to 51 mm ) in thickness . The boiler uptakes were protected by a conical mantlet that ranged from 9 to 15 inches ( 230 to 380 mm ) in thickness . A three @-@ inch torpedo bulkhead was placed 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) inboard from the ship 's side and the ship was provided with a complete double bottom . Testing in mid @-@ 1914 revealed that this system could withstand 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) of TNT .
= = Construction and trials = =
The keel of battleship number 39 was laid on the morning of 16 March 1914 with Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Delano Roosevelt in attendance . The builders intended to set a world @-@ record ten months between the ship 's keel @-@ laying and launch , for what the New York Times declared would be " the world 's biggest and most powerful , both offensively and defensively , superdreadnought ever constructed , " but the ship was only a little over half complete a year later . She was launched on 19 June 1915 , making it about fifteen months from keel @-@ laying to launch . In the meantime , the ship was named after the newest state in the union by Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels .
The New York Times estimated that 75 @,@ 000 people attended the launch , including John Purroy Mitchel , the mayor of New York City , George W. P. Hunt , the governor of Arizona , and many high @-@ ranking military officials . Several warships were also nearby , including many of the new dreadnoughts which had already entered service ( Florida , Utah , Wyoming , Arkansas , New York , and Texas ) . Esther Ross , the daughter of an Arizona pioneer family , was given the honors of ship sponsor and christening . To acknowledge a ban on alcohol recently passed by the state legislature , the state 's governor decided that two bottles would be used : one full of sparkling wine from Ohio , and another filled with water from the Roosevelt Dam . After the launch , Arizona was towed to the Brooklyn Navy Yard for fitting @-@ out .
Arizona was commissioned into the Navy on 17 October 1916 with John D. McDonald as captain . She departed New York on 10 November 1916 after the crew had cleaned the ship and the propulsion system had been tested at the dock . After declinating the ship 's magnetic compasses , the ship sailed south for her shakedown cruise . Outside Guantanamo Bay , a stripped turbine on 7 December forced the navy to order Arizona back to New York for repairs , although she was able to enter Chesapeake Bay to test her main and secondary gun batteries on 19 – 20 December . The turbine could not be repaired inside the ship , so the yard workers had to cut holes in the upper decks to lift the damaged casing out . It was reinstalled after almost four months of repairs at the naval yard .
= = World War I = =
Arizona left the yard on 3 April 1917 , and three days later , the United States declared war on Germany . Assigned to Battleship Division 8 operating out of the York River , Arizona was only employed as a gunnery training ship for the crewmen on armed merchant vessels crossing the Atlantic in convoys . Shortly after the war began , eight of her 5 @-@ inch guns ( the four guns farthest forward and the sternmost four guns ) were removed to equip merchant ships . When the ship sailed near the wreck of the old San Marcos ( ex @-@ Texas ) , the wreck was sometimes used as a target for the 14 @-@ inch guns . Arizona rarely ventured into the ocean for fear of U @-@ boats , and when she did , it was only in the company of other battleships and escort ships . Four coal @-@ fired American dreadnoughts were eventually sent across the Atlantic in December 1917 as Battleship Division Nine , but Arizona was not among them , as it was easier to obtain coal than oil in the United Kingdom . Life for Arizona 's crew was not all training as the race @-@ boat team from Arizona was able to win the Battenberg Cup in July 1918 by beating the team from Nevada by three lengths over the three @-@ mile course .
The fighting ended on 11 November 1918 with an armistice . A week later , the ship left the United States for the United Kingdom , arriving on 30 November 1918 . After two weeks berthed at Portland Harbor , Arizona sailed for France . On 13 December 1918 , Arizona joined nine battleships and twenty @-@ eight destroyers escorting President Woodrow Wilson on the ocean liner George Washington into Brest for one day on Wilson 's journey to the Paris Peace Conference . The ten battleships departed France the next day , taking less than two weeks to cross the Atlantic , and arrived in New York on 26 December to parades , celebrations , and a full naval review by Secretary Daniels . Arizona was the first in line and rendered a nineteen @-@ gun salute to Daniels . Along with many of the other members of the recently returned fleet , she was anchored off New York City for the next several weeks and open to the public .
= = 1920s = =
Arizona sailed from New York for Hampton Roads , where she arrived on 22 January , and she continued south to Guantanamo Bay not long after , arriving on 8 February . The time in Caribbean waters was mostly used in training for battles and fleet maneuvering , although it included a liberty visit to Port of Spain . In April , Arizona 's crew won the Battenberg Cup rowing competition for the second straight year before the ship was deployed to France once again to escort President Wilson back to the United States . While the ship was awaiting Wilson 's departure , she was redeployed to Smyrna ( now Izmir ) in Turkey in response to tensions between Greece and Italy over the awarding of Smyrna to Greece in the Paris Peace Treaty . The Greek and Italian governments had each deployed a major warship to the area ( Georgios Averof and Caio Duilio , respectively ) to enforce their interests . Shortly after Arizona arrived , Greek ground forces arrived in transports and were off @-@ loaded in the port . The resultant chaos in the city caused many American citizens in the area to seek shelter on board Arizona .
When the crisis abated , Arizona was ordered to Constantinople ( now Istanbul ) before she sailed for home on 15 June . She put into the New York Navy Yard on 30 June for an overhaul , where six 5 @-@ inch guns were removed and the fire control system was modernized . Work was completed in January 1920 and the battleship sailed south to Guantanamo Bay for crew training . During this time , Arizona was fitted with a flying @-@ off platform similar to the one given to Texas in March 1919 . In April , Arizona lost the Battenberg Cup to Nevada , and in June she was present for the Naval Academy 's graduation ceremonies . In August she became the flagship of Battleship Division Seven , although it was only later in 1920 that the battleship was refitted to be an admiral 's flagship .
In company with six battleships and eighteen destroyers , Arizona was sent south again to transit the Panama Canal in January 1921 . After meeting up with the Pacific Fleet , Arizona continued on to Peru for a week before the two fleets combined to practice battle maneuvers . After a short return to the Atlantic , which included an overhaul in New York , Arizona returned to Peru in the summer before she began operating from her new home port of San Pedro , California , part of Los Angeles , where she was based until 1940 .
For the rest of the 1920s , Arizona 's service consisted of routine training exercises . Naval historian Paul Stillwell remarked that " the Pacific years included a great deal of sameness and repetition " , and his chronology of the ship 's movements is filled with phrases like " torpedo @-@ defense practice " , " battle @-@ practice rehearsal " , " gunnery practice " , " en route to … " , and " anchored at … " . A recurring theme in these years were the annual Fleet Problems , which began in 1923 and simulated large fleet actions by having most of the active fleet face off against each other . The first two simulated an attack on the Panama Canal from the west , while in 1925 they attempted to defend the Hawaiian Islands . Other 1920s Fleet Problems included the Caribbean , near Central America , the West Indies , and Hawaii . On 27 July 1923 the ship joined President Warren G. Harding 's naval review in Seattle . Harding died just one week later , and Arizona joined the Pacific Fleet to fire a salute in his honor on 3 August .
= = Modernization = =
Four months after Fleet Problem IX in January 1929 , Arizona was modernized at the Norfolk Navy Yard . New tripod masts , surmounted by three @-@ tiered fire @-@ control directors for the main and secondary armament , replaced the old hyperboloid cage masts ; the number of 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) guns was reduced to 12 and the guns re @-@ positioned one deck higher , and eight 25 @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns replaced the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns with which she had been originally equipped . The ship 's main gun turrets were modified to increase the maximum elevation of their guns to 30 ° . The compressed @-@ air catapult on the quarterdeck was replaced by one that used black powder . Her deck armor was increased by the addition of a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) thickness of Special Treatment Steel and the ship was bulged to protect her from torpedoes . An additional bulkhead was added to the sides of the boiler rooms for the same purpose . Arizona 's machinery was almost entirely replaced ; her high @-@ pressure turbines were replaced by more powerful geared turbines from the cancelled battleship Washington and six new boilers replaced her originals . Their additional power offset the ship 's increased displacement as demonstrated during her sea trials ; Arizona made 20 @.@ 7 knots ( 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 23 @.@ 8 mph ) with 35 @,@ 081 shp ( 26 @,@ 160 kW ) at a displacement of 37 @,@ 654 long tons ( 38 @,@ 258 t ) .
= = 1930s = =
On 19 March 1931 , even before Arizona was put through post @-@ modernization sea trials , she hosted President Herbert Hoover for a brief vacation in the Caribbean . The President visited Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands . Returning on 29 March , Arizona conducted her sea trials at Rockland , Maine , and had another catapult fitted on the top of Turret III , before she was transferred to the West Coast in August with her sister Pennsylvania . In February 1932 , the ship participated in Grand Joint Exercise No. 4 in which carrier aircraft successfully attacked Pearl Harbor on Sunday morning , 7 February . After returning to the West Coast from Fleet Problem XIV in 1933 , the ship was anchored in San Pedro when an earthquake struck nearby Long Beach , California , on 10 March . Sailors from the ship joined the relief efforts , providing food , treating the injured and providing security from looters .
In early 1934 , the ship and her crew were featured in a James Cagney film for Warner Brothers , Here Comes the Navy , which made extensive use of exterior footage as well as on @-@ board location shots . In the early morning of 26 July , Arizona collided with a fishing trawler , Umatilla , that was under tow by another trawler off Cape Flattery . Two men aboard the Umatilla were killed in the collision and the Navy convened a Court of Inquiry to investigate the incident . The court recommended that the ship 's captain , Captain MacGillivray Milne , be court @-@ martialed . This took place at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , Cuba , while the ship was participating in that year 's Fleet Problem off the East Coast . Milne was judged guilty and replaced several months later by Captain George Baum after the ship returned to the West Coast . In the meantime , Rear Admiral Samuel W. Bryant assumed command of Battleship Division Two on 4 September , with Arizona as his flagship .
Rear Admiral George Pettengill relieved Bryant on 4 March 1935 and the ship participated in Fleet Problem XVI two months later . Arizona made a port visit to Balboa , Panama , in May 1936 during Fleet Problem XVII . On 8 June , Captain George A. Alexander relieved Baum as captain , and , 15 days later , Rear Admiral Claude C. Bloch relieved Pettengill . During gunnery practice on 24 July , the combustion gases from one gun of Turret II entered the gun turret , burning one crewman . The turret 's sprinkling system was turned on to prevent any powder explosion , but the water leaked into the turret 's electrical switchboard and started a small fire that was easily put out . Due to the navy 's limited budget , the ship spent most of this period in port as a fuel @-@ saving measure . In Fiscal Year 1936 – 37 , the ship was anchored for 267 days ; the following year it was in port for 255 days . The ship spent the rest of her career based on the West Coast or in Hawaii .
On 2 January 1937 , Rear Admiral John Greenslade assumed command of Battleship Division Two from Bloch and transferred his flag to the battleship Maryland on 13 April . Rear Admiral Manley Simons , commander of Battleship Division One , transferred his flag to Arizona on 7 August . He was relieved by Rear Admiral Adolphus Wilson on 8 November . Captain Alfred Winsor Brown relieved Baum on 11 December . The ship participated in Fleet Problem XIX off Hawaii in April – May 1938 . Captain Brown died in his sleep on 7 September and Captain Isaac C. Kidd assumed command of the ship on 17 September 1938 . That same day , Rear Admiral Chester Nimitz assumed command of Battleship Division One . Nimitz was relieved on 27 May 1939 by Rear Admiral Russell Willson .
Arizona 's last fleet problem was off Hawaii in April – May 1940 . At its conclusion , the United States Pacific Fleet was retained in Hawaiian waters , based at Pearl Harbor , to deter the Japanese . She was overhauled at the Puget Sound Navy Yard , Bremerton , Washington , from October 1940 to January 1941 . During this refit , her anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased to twelve 5 @-@ inch guns , the foundation for a search radar was added atop her foremast , her anti @-@ aircraft directors were upgraded and a platform for four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) caliber M2 Browning machine guns was installed at the very top of the mainmast . Her last flag change @-@ of @-@ command occurred on 23 January 1941 , when Willson was relieved by Isaac Kidd , by that time a rear admiral . Captain Harold C. Train assumed command of the ship on 3 February .
Captain Franklin Van Valkenburgh relieved Train on 3 February 1941 . The battleship 's last training exercise was night @-@ firing in company with the battleships Nevada and Oklahoma , on the night of 4 December . All three ships moored at quays along Ford Island on the following day . On 6 December , the repair ship Vestal came alongside to assist the ship 's crew with minor repairs .
= = Attack on Pearl Harbor = =
Shortly before 08 : 00 local time on 7 December 1941 , Japanese aircraft from six aircraft carriers struck the Pacific Fleet as it lay in port at Pearl Harbor , and wrought devastation on the warships and the facilities defending Hawaii . On board Arizona , the ship 's air raid alarm went off at about 07 : 55 , and the ship went to general quarters soon after . Shortly after 08 : 00 , 10 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers , five each from the carriers Kaga and Hiryū , attacked Arizona . All of the aircraft were carrying 410 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) armor @-@ piercing shells modified into 797 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 757 lb ) bombs . Flying at an estimated altitude of 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , Kaga 's aircraft bombed Arizona from amidships to stern . Soon after , Hiryu 's bombers hit the bow area .
The aircraft scored four hits and three near misses on and around Arizona . The near miss off the port bow is believed to have caused observers to believe that the ship had been torpedoed , although no torpedo damage has been found . The sternmost bomb ricocheted off the face of Turret IV and penetrated the deck to detonate in the captain 's pantry , causing a small fire . The next forwardmost hit was near the port edge of the ship , abreast the mainmast , probably detonating in the area of the anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead . The next bomb struck near the port rear 5 @-@ inch AA gun .
= = = Magazine explosion = = =
The last bomb hit at 08 : 06 in the vicinity of Turret II , likely penetrating the armored deck near the ammunition magazines located in the forward section of the ship . While not enough of the ship is intact to judge the exact location , its effects are indisputable : about seven seconds after the hit , the forward magazines detonated in a cataclysmic explosion , mostly venting through the sides of the ship and destroying much of the interior structure of the forward part of the ship . This caused the forward turrets and conning tower to collapse downward some 25 – 30 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) and the foremast and funnel to collapse forward . The explosion killed 1 @,@ 177 of the 1 @,@ 512 crewmen on board at the time , over half of the lives lost during the attack . It touched off fierce fires that burned for two days ; debris showered down on Ford Island in the vicinity . The blast from this explosion also put out fires on the repair ship Vestal , which was moored alongside .
Two competing theories have arisen about the cause of the explosion . The first is that the bomb detonated in or near the black powder magazine used for the ship 's saluting guns and catapult charges . This would have detonated first and then ignited the smokeless powder magazines which was used for the ship 's main armament . A 1944 Navy Bureau of Ships report suggests that a hatch leading to the black powder magazine was left open , possibly with flammable materials stocked nearby . The Naval History and Heritage Command explained that black powder might have been stockpiled outside the armored magazine . The alternative explanation is that the bomb penetrated the armored decks and detonated directly inside one of the starboard magazines for the main armament , but smokeless powder is relatively difficult to detonate . Thus the 14 @-@ inch powder bags required a black powder pad to quickly ignite the powder . The time elapsed from the bomb hit to the magazine explosion was shorter than experience suggested burning smokeless powder required to explode . It seems unlikely that a definitive answer to this question will ever be found , as the surviving physical evidence is insufficient to determine the cause of the magazine explosion .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
After the attack , several sailors received medals for their conduct and actions under fire . Lieutenant Commander Samuel G. Fuqua , the ship 's damage control officer , earned the Medal of Honor for his cool @-@ headedness while quelling fires and getting survivors off the ship . Posthumous awards of the Medal of Honor also went to Rear Admiral Isaac C. Kidd , the first flag officer killed in the Pacific war , and to Captain Franklin Van Valkenburgh , who reached the bridge and was attempting to defend his ship when the bomb that hit the ammunition magazines destroyed her . The ship herself was awarded one battle star for her service in World War II .
= = Salvage and memorial = =
Arizona was placed " in ordinary " ( declared to be temporarily out of service ) at Pearl Harbor on 29 December , and was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 December 1942 . She was so badly damaged by the magazine explosion that she was not thought fit for service even if she could be salvaged , unlike many of the other sunken ships nearby . Her surviving superstructure was scrapped in 1942 , and her main armament was salvaged over the next year and a half . The aft main gun turrets were removed and reinstalled as United States Army Coast Artillery Corps Battery Arizona at Kahe Point on the west coast of Oahu and Battery Pennsylvania on the Mokapu Peninsula , covering Kaneohe Bay at what is now Marine Corps Base Hawaii . Battery Pennsylvania fired its guns for the first and last time on V @-@ J Day in August 1945 while training , while the nearby Battery Arizona was never completed . Both forward turrets were left in place , although the guns from Turret II were salvaged and later installed on the battleship Nevada in the fall of 1944 after having been straightened and relined . Nevada later fired these same guns against the Japanese islands of Okinawa and Iwo Jima .
= = = Arizona memorials = = =
It is commonly — albeit incorrectly — believed that Arizona remains perpetually in commission , like the USS Constitution . Arizona is under the control of the National Park Service , but the U.S. Navy still retains the title . Arizona retains the right , in perpetuity , to fly the United States flag as if she were an active , commissioned naval vessel .
The wreck of Arizona remains at Pearl Harbor to commemorate the men of her crew lost that December morning in 1941 . On 7 March 1950 , Admiral Arthur W. Radford , commander in chief of the Pacific Fleet at that time , instituted the raising of colors over her remains . Legislation during the administrations of presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy resulted in the designation of the wreck as a national shrine in 1962 . A memorial was built across the ship 's sunken remains , including a shrine room listing the names of the lost crew members on a marble wall . The national memorial was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 15 October 1966 . The ship herself was designated a National Historic Landmark on 5 May 1989 . Upon their death , survivors of the attack may have their ashes placed within the ship , among their fallen comrades . Veterans who served aboard the ship at other times may have their ashes scattered in the water above the ship .
While the superstructure and two of the four main gun turrets were removed , the barbette of one of the turrets remains visible above the water . Since her sinking , oil still leaks from the hull , with more than 2 @.@ 3 quarts ( 2 @.@ 18 l ) escaping into the harbor per day . The Navy , in conjunction with the National Park Service , has recently overseen a comprehensive computerized mapping of the hull , being careful to honor its role as a war grave . The Navy is considering non @-@ intrusive means of abating the continued leakage of oil to avoid the further environmental degradation of the harbor .
One of the original Arizona bells now hangs in the University of Arizona Student Union Memorial Center bell tower . The bell is rung after every home football victory . A gun , mast , and anchor from Arizona are in Wesley Bolin Memorial Plaza just east of the Arizona state capitol complex in downtown Phoenix , Arizona . The gun 's plaque states that it was not on the ship during the Pearl Harbor attack , but was being relined and was later mounted on USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) . It is paired with a gun from USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) to represent the start and end of the Pacific War for the United States . Other artifacts from the ship , such as items from the ship 's silver service , are on permanent exhibit in the Arizona State Capitol Museum .
Every two years the Navy awards " The USS Arizona Memorial Trophy " to the ship , determined by the Chief of Naval Operations , to have achieved the highest combat readiness in Strike warfare , Surface Fire Support and Anti @-@ Surface warfare . The 3 foot tall bronze trophy on a black marble base was provided to the Navy by the citizens of the state of Arizona on 7 December 1987 .
= History of saffron =
Human cultivation and use of saffron spans more than 3 @,@ 500 years and extends across cultures , continents , and civilizations . Saffron , a spice derived from the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus ( Crocus sativus ) , has through history remained among the world 's most costly substances . With its bitter taste , hay @-@ like fragrance , and slight metallic notes , the apocarotenoid @-@ rich saffron has been used as a seasoning , fragrance , dye , and medicine .
The saffron crocus is a genetically monomorphic clone native to Southwest Asia ; it was probably first cultivated in or near Greece . The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was likely Crocus cartwrightianus , which originated in Crete or Central Asia ; C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources . The saffron crocus is now a triploid that is " self @-@ incompatible " and male sterile ; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction — all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual " divide @-@ and @-@ set " of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation . If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus , then it may have emerged in late Bronze Age Crete .
Humans may have bred C. cartwrightianus specimens by screening for specimens with abnormally long stigmas . The resulting saffron crocus was documented in a 7th @-@ century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal , and it has since been traded and used over the course of four millennia and has been used as treatment for some ninety disorders . The C. sativus clone was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia , later reaching parts of North Africa , North America , and Oceania . Global production on a by @-@ mass basis is now dominated by Iran , which accounts for some nine @-@ tenths of the annual harvest .
= = Etymology = =
The ultimate origin of the English word saffron is , like that of the cultivated saffron clone itself , of somewhat uncertain origin . It immediately stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th @-@ century Old French term safran . Etymology beyond that point is conflicted . Safranum may derive via the Persian intercessor زعفران , or za 'ferân .
Others give an alternative derivation : that زَعْفَرَان ( za 'farān ) is the arabicised form of the Persian word زرپران zarparān ( zar + par + -ān — " having yellow leaves " ) . An even older form is the Akkadian azupiranu , " saffron " . The Latin form safranum is also the source of the Catalan safrà , Italian zafferano , but Portuguese açafrão , and Spanish azafrán come from the Arabic az @-@ zaferán . The Latin term crocus is certainly a Semitic loan word . It is adapted from the Aramaic form kurkema via the Arabic term kurkum and the Greek intermediate κρόκος krokos , which once again signifies " yellowish " . Its ultimate origin might be from the Sanskrit kunkumam unless this was itself borrowed from Semitic .
= = Minoan and Greco @-@ Roman = =
Saffron played a significant role in the Greco @-@ Roman pre @-@ classical period bracketed by the 8th century BC and the 3rd century AD . The first known image of saffron in pre @-@ Greek culture is much older and stems from the Bronze Age . A saffron harvest is shown in the Knossos palace frescoes of Minoan Crete , which depict the flowers being picked by young girls and monkeys . One of these fresco sites is located in the " Xeste 3 " building at Akrotiri , on the Aegean island of Santorini — the ancient Greeks knew it as " Thera . " These frescoes likely date from the 16th or 17th century BC` but may have been produced anywhere between 3000 – 1100 BC . They portray a Minoan goddess supervising the plucking
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of flowers and the gleaning of stigmas for use in the manufacture of what is possibly a therapeutic drug . A fresco from the same site also depicts a woman using saffron to treat her bleeding foot . These " Theran " frescoes are the first botanically accurate visual representations of saffron 's use as an herbal remedy . This saffron @-@ growing Minoan settlement was ultimately destroyed by a powerful earthquake and subsequent volcanic eruption sometime between 1645 and 1500 BC . The volcanic ash from the destruction entombed and helped preserve these key herbal frescoes .
Ancient Greek legends tell of brazen sailors embarking on long and perilous voyages to the remote land of Cilicia , where they traveled to procure what they believed was the world 's most valuable saffron . The best @-@ known Hellenic saffron legend is that of Crocus and Smilax : The handsome youth Crocus sets out in pursuit of the nymph Smilax in the woods near Athens ; in a brief dallying interlude of idyllic love , Smilax is flattered by his amorous advances , but all too soon tires of his attentions . He continues his pursuit ; she resists . She bewitches Crocus : he is transformed — into a saffron crocus . Its radiant orange stigmas were held as a relict glow of an undying and unrequited passion . The tragedy and the spice would be recalled later :
Crocus and Smilax may be turn 'd to flow 'rs ,
And the Curetes spring from bounteous show 'rs
I pass a hundred legends stale , as these ,
And with sweet novelty your taste to please .
For the ancient Mediterraneans , saffron gathered around the Cilician coastal town of Soli was of top value , particularly for use in perfumes and ointments . Herodotus and Pliny the Elder , however , rated rival Assyrian and Babylonian saffron from the Fertile Crescent as best — to treat gastrointestinal or renal upsets . Greek saffron from the Corycian Cave of Mount Parnassus was also of note : the color offered by the Corycian crocus is used as a benchmark in the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius and similarly with its fragrance in the epigrams of Martial .
Cleopatra of late Ptolemaic Egypt used a quarter @-@ cup of saffron in her warm baths , as she prized its colouring and cosmetic properties . She used it before encounters with men , trusting that saffron would render lovemaking yet more pleasurable . Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments : when stomach pains progressed to internal hemorrhaging , an Egyptian treatment consisted of saffron crocus seeds mixed and crushed together with aager @-@ tree remnants , ox fat , coriander , and myrrh . This ointment or poultice was applied to the body . The physicians expected it to " [ expel ] blood through the mouth or rectum which resembles hog 's blood when it is cooked " . Urinary tract conditions were also treated with an oil @-@ based emulsion of premature saffron flowers mixed with roasted beans ; this was used topically on men . Women ingested a more complex preparation .
In Greco @-@ Roman times saffron was widely traded across the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians . Their customers ranged from the perfumers of Rosetta , in Egypt , to physicians in Gaza to townsfolk in Rhodes , who wore pouches of saffron in order to mask the presence of malodorous fellow citizens during outings to the theatre . For the Greeks , saffron was widely associated with professional courtesans and retainers known as the hetaerae . Large dye works operating in Sidon and Tyre used saffron baths as a substitute ; there , royal robes were triple @-@ dipped in deep purple dyes ; for the robes of royal pretenders and commoners , the last two dips were replaced with a saffron dip , which gave a less intense purple hue .
The ancient Greeks and Romans prized saffron as a perfume or deodoriser and scattered it about their public spaces : royal halls , courts , and amphitheatres alike . When Nero entered Rome they spread saffron along the streets ; wealthy Romans partook of daily saffron baths . They used it as mascara , stirred saffron threads into their wines , cast it aloft in their halls and streets as a potpourri , and offered it to their deities . Roman colonists took saffron with them when they settled in southern Roman Gaul , where it was extensively cultivated until the AD 271 barbarian invasion of Italy . Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th @-@ century Moors or with the Avignon Papacy in the 14th century .
= = Middle Eastern and Persian = =
Saffron @-@ based pigments have been found in the prehistoric paints used to illustrate beasts in 50 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old cave art found in modern @-@ day Iraq , which was even then northwest of the Persian Empire . The Sumerians used saffron as an ingredient in their remedies and magical potions . Sumerians did not cultivate saffron . They gathered their stores from wild flowers , believing that divine intervention alone enables saffron 's medicinal properties . Such evidence suggests that saffron was an article of long @-@ distance trade before Crete 's Minoan palace culture reached a peak in the 2nd millennium BC . Saffron was also honoured as a sweet @-@ smelling spice over three millennia ago in the Hebrew Tanakh :
Your lips drop sweetness like honeycomb , my bride , syrup and milk are under your tongue , and your dress had the scent of Lebanon . Your cheeks are an orchard of pomegranates , an orchard full of rare fruits , spikenard and saffron , sweet cane and cinnamon .
In ancient Persia , saffron ( Crocus sativus ' Hausknechtii ' ) was cultivated at Derbena and Isfahan in the 10th century BC . There , Persian saffron threads have been found interwoven into ancient Persian royal carpets and funeral shrouds . Saffron was used by ancient Persian worshippers as a ritual offering to their deities , and as a brilliant yellow dye , perfume , and a medicine . Thus , saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy . Indeed , Persian saffron threads , used to spice foods and teas , were widely suspected by foreigners of being a drugging agent and an aphrodisiac . These fears grew to forewarn travelers to abstain from eating saffron @-@ laced Persian cuisine . In addition , Persian saffron was dissolved in water with sandalwood to use as a body wash after heavy work and perspiration under the hot Persian sun . Later , Persian saffron was heavily used by Alexander the Great and his forces during their Asian campaigns . They mixed saffron into teas and dined on saffron rice . Alexander personally used saffron sprinkled in warm bath water , taking after Cyrus the Great . Much like Cyrus , he believed it would heal his many wounds , and his faith in saffron grew with each treatment . He even recommended saffron baths for the ordinary men under him . The Greek soldiers , taken with saffron 's perceived curative properties , continued the practice after they returned to Macedonia .
= = East and South Asian = =
Various conflicting accounts exist that describe saffron 's first arrival in South and East Asia . The first of these rely on historical accounts gleaned from Persian records . These suggest to many experts that saffron , among other spices , was first spread to India via Persian rulers ' efforts to stock their newly built gardens and parks . They accomplished this by transplanting the desired cultivars across the Persian empire . Phoenicians then began in the 6th century BC to market the new Kashmiri saffron by utilising their extensive trade routes . Once sold , Kashmiri saffron was used in the treatment of melancholy and as a fabric dye .
On the other hand , traditional Kashmiri legend states that saffron first arrived in the 11th or 12th century AD , when two foreign and itinerant Sufi ascetics , Khwaja Masood Wali and Hazrat Sheikh Shariffudin , wandered into Kashmir . The foreigners , having fallen sick , beseeched a cure for illness from a local tribal chieftain . When the chieftain obliged , the two holy men reputedly gave them a saffron crocus bulb as payment and thanks . To this day , grateful prayers are offered to the two saints during the saffron harvesting season in late autumn . The saints , indeed , have a golden @-@ domed shrine and tomb dedicated to them in the saffron @-@ trading village of Pampore , India . However , the Kashmiri poet and scholar Mohammed Yusuf Teng disputes this . He states that Kashmiris had cultivated saffron for more than two millennia . Indeed , such ancient indigenous cultivation is alluded to in Kashmiri Tantric Hindu epics of that time .
Ancient Chinese Buddhist accounts from the mula @-@ sarvastivadin monastic order ( or vinaya ) present yet another account of saffron 's arrival in India . According to legend , an arhat Indian Buddhist missionary by the name of Madhyântika ( or Majjhantika ) was sent to Kashmir in the 5th century BC . Upon his arrival he seemingly sowed the first Kashmiri saffron crop . From there , saffron use spread throughout the Indian subcontinent . In addition to use in foods , saffron stigmas were also soaked in water to yield a golden @-@ yellow solution that was used as a fabric dye .
Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia . Saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts , including the vast Bencao Gangmu ( " Great Herbal " ) pharmacopoeia , a tome dating from around 1600 BC ( and attributed to Emperor Shen @-@ Ung ) which documents thousands of phytochemical @-@ based medical treatments for various disorders . Yet around the 3rd century AD , the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance . The Chinese medical expert Wan Zhen wrote that " [ t ] he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir , where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha " . Wan reflected on how saffron was used in his time : " The [ saffron crocus ] flower withers after a few days , and then the saffron is obtained . It is valued for its uniform yellow colour . It can be used to aromatise wine . "
In modern times saffron cultivation has spread to Afghanistan due to the efforts of the European Union and the United Kingdom . Together they promote saffron cultivation among impoverished and cash @-@ strapped Afghan farmers as an ideal alternative to lucrative — and illicit — opium production .
= = Post @-@ Classical European = =
Saffron cultivation in Europe declined steeply following the fall of the Roman Empire . For several centuries thereafter , saffron cultivation was rare or non @-@ existent throughout Europe . This was reversed when Moorish civilisation spread from North Africa to settle the Iberian peninsula as well as parts of France and southern Italy . One theory states that Moors reintroduced saffron corms to the region around Poitiers after they lost the Battle of Tours to Charles Martel in AD 732 . Two centuries after their conquest of Spain , Moors planted saffron throughout the southern provinces of Andalucia , Castile , La Mancha , and Valencia .
In France , saffron cultivation probably started during the 13th century . Crocus sativus was likely introduced from Spain and from the Middle @-@ East by pilgrims , merchants , and Knights . Its first uses are documented in the south @-@ west of the Kingdom around 1250 . It is indeed unlikely that Kings and Religious didn 't try growing Crocus sativus by that time : Saffron was rare , expensive , and demanded , and Crocus sativus could be farmed under France 's latitudes . By the 14th century , the wide use of saffron for spicing and coloring food is documented in recipe books such as the " Viandier de Taillevent " , written by the King 's cook . And by the 15th century , local saffron farming is attested with taxes levied by the religious power , which reveal how important saffron crops must have been . For instance , in 1478 , the saffron tax levied by the Bishop of Albi reached 1 / 12th of saffron production .
Saffron demand skyrocketed when the Black Death of 1347 – 1350 struck Europe . It was coveted by plague victims for medicinal purposes , and yet many of the farmers capable of growing it had died off . Large quantities of non @-@ European saffron thus was imported . The finest saffron threads from Muslim lands were unavailable to Europeans because of hostilities stoked by the Crusades , so Rhodes and other places were key suppliers to central and northern Europe . Saffron was one of the contested points of hostility that flared between the declining landed gentry and upstart and increasingly wealthy merchants . The fourteen @-@ week @-@ long " Saffron War " was ignited when one 800 lb ( 363 kg ) shipment of saffron was hijacked and stolen by nobles . The load , which was en route to the town of Basel , would at today 's market prices be valued at more than US $ 500 @,@ 000 . That shipment was eventually returned , but the wider 13th – century trade was subject to mass piracy . Thieves plying Mediterranean waters would often ignore gold stores and instead steal Venetian- and Genoan @-@ marketed saffron bound for Europe . Wary of such unpleasantness , Basel planted its own corms . Several years of large and lucrative saffron harvests made Basel extremely prosperous compared to other European towns . Citizens sought to protect their status by outlawing the transport of corms out of the town ; guards were posted to prevent thieves from picking flowers or digging up corms . Yet ten years later the saffron harvest had waned . Basel abandoned the crop .
The pivot of central European saffron trade moved to Nuremberg . The merchants of Venice continued their rule of the Mediterranean sea trade , trafficking varieties from Sicily , France and Spain , Austria , Crete and Greece , and the Ottoman Empire . Adulterated goods also made the rounds : those soaked in honey , mixed with marigold petals , or kept in damp cellars — all to add quick and cheap bulk . Irritated Nuremberg authorities passed the Safranschou code to de @-@ louse the saffron trade . Adulterators were thus fined , imprisoned , and executed — by immolation . England was next to have its turn as a major producer . One theory has it that the crop spread to the coastal regions of eastern England in the 14th century AD during the reign of Edward III . In subsequent years saffron was fleetingly cultivated throughout England . Norfolk , Suffolk , and south Cambridgeshire were especially affected with corms . Rowland Parker provides an account of its cultivation in the village of Foxton during the 16th and 17th centuries , " usually by people holding a small amount of land " ; an acre planted in saffron could yield a crop worth a kingly GB £ 6 , making it " a very profitable crop , provided that plenty of unpaid labor was available ; unpaid labor was one of the basic features of farming then and for another two centuries . "
In France , saffron production became very important in the 17th and 18th centuries , reaching a few tons . By then , saffron farming had spread throughout the entire Kingdom . Saffron was especially grown in Albigeois , Angoumois , Gascony , Gâtinais , Normandy , Périgord , Poitou , Provence , and Quercy . Its mysterious decline started during the 18th century , possibly due to pandemic fungal diseases destroying bulbs and crops , to particularly cold winters , and to competing market from the Mediterranean countries .
In England , cultivation persisted only in the light , well @-@ drained , and chalk @-@ based soils of the north Essex countryside . The Essex town of Saffron Walden got its name as a saffron growing and trading centre ; its name was originally Cheppinge Walden , and the culinary name change was effected to punctuate the importance of the crop to the townsfolk ; the town 's arms still feature blooms from the eponymous crocus . Yet as England emerged from the Middle Ages , rising puritanical sentiments and new conquests abroad endangered English saffron 's use and cultivation . Puritanical partisans favoured increasingly austere , unadorned , and unspiced foods . Saffron was also a labor @-@ intensive crop , which became an increasing disadvantage as wages and time opportunity costs rose . And finally , an influx of more exotic spices from the far East due to the resurgent spice trade meant that the English , as well as other Europeans , had many more — and cheaper — seasonings to dally over .
This trend was documented by the Dean of Manchester , a Reverend William Herbert . He collected samples and compiled information on many aspects of the saffron crocus . He was concerned about the steady decline in saffron cultivation over the course of the 17th century and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution ; the introduction in Europe of easily grown maize and potatoes , which steadily took over lands formerly flush with corms , did not help . In addition , the elite who traditionally comprised the bulk of the saffron market were now growing increasingly interested in such intriguing new arrivals as chocolate , coffee , tea , and vanilla . Only in the south of France or in Italy and Spain , where the saffron harvest was culturally primal , did significant cultivation prevail .
= = North American = =
Saffron made its way to the New World when thousands of Alsatian , German , and Swiss Anabaptists , Dunkards , and others fled religious persecution in Europe . They settled mainly in eastern Pennsylvania , in the Susquehanna River valley . These settlers , who became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch , were by 1730 widely cultivating saffron after corms were first brought to America — in a trunk . It was owned by German adherents of a Protestant church known as the Schwenkfelder Church . Schwenkfelders , as members were known , were great lovers of saffron , and had grown it back in Germany . Pennsylvania Dutch saffron was soon being successfully marketed to Spanish colonists in the Caribbean , while healthy demand elsewhere ensured that its listed price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold .
However the War of 1812 destroyed many of the merchantmen that ferried American saffron abroad . Pennsylvanian saffron growers were afterwards left with surplus inventory , and trade with the Caribbean markets never recovered . Nevertheless , Pennsylvania Dutch growers developed many uses for the now abundant saffron in their own home cooking — cakes , noodles , and chicken or trout dishes . Saffron cultivation survived into modern times principally in Lancaster County , Pennsylvania .
= Hello Sunshine =
" Hello Sunshine " is a song by the Welsh band Super Furry Animals from their album Phantom Power . It was the seventeenth single released by the group and reached number 31 on the UK Singles Chart in October 2003 .
Several versions of the track were released : the single version omits the short sample of the song " By the Sea " by Wendy and Bonnie which begins the album version , while two remixes , by Weevil and Freiband , appear on the album Phantom Phorce . An animated music video , featuring drawings by regular Super Furries sleeve designer Pete Fowler , was produced to accompany the release of " Hello Sunshine " as a single . The track received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The band turned down " a seven @-@ figure offer " from Coca @-@ Cola to allow the use of " Hello Sunshine " in an advertising campaign citing alleged malpractice on the part of the drinks firm . The group have stated that despite the financial incentives of licensing their songs , they are happy to simply be able to make a living from music .
= = Recording and themes = =
The track begins with a sample of the song " By the Sea " by the teenage sibling duo Wendy and Bonnie , from their 1969 album Genesis , which Super Furries singer Gruff Rhys has described as " amazing songs , amazing lyrics and amazing voices " . The decision to begin the track with a snippet of " By the Sea " came about due to laziness on the band 's part — the track had originally being conceived as a duet but the group " never got around to getting anyone to sing " with them so they " chopped up the Wendy & Bonnie song and stuck it on [ as ] it 's in the same key [ and ] seemed to make sense " . The edit version , issued as a single , does not contain the sample .
" Hello Sunshine " shares the same key , D major , the same guitar tuning , D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D , and was written around the same time as several other songs from Phantom Power including the " Father Father " instrumentals , " Golden Retriever " , " Cityscape Skybaby " and " Out of Control " . The track was recorded at the Super Furry Animals ' own studio in Cardiff along with the rest of Phantom Power . Rhys has stated that the song is " a courting ballad with a ' been so down looks like up to me ' mentality " .
= = Musical structure = =
The album version of " Hello Sunshine " is 3 minutes 35 seconds long and is in the key of D major . The track begins with 43 seconds of the track " By the Sea " from Wendy & Bonnie 's 1969 album Genesis featuring sparse fingerstyle guitar and female harmony vocals . The last syllable of the line " ... so hard to say goodbye " is held and pans from left to right until " Hello Sunshine " itself begins with Gruff Rhys singing the title phrase , joined by the band on the second word . The first verse follows with simple piano and bass guitar backing Rhys 's acoustic guitar to a basic 4 / 4 beat provided by drummer Dafydd Ieuan . The first chorus enters at 1 minute 13 seconds with Rhys being joined by falsetto harmony backing vocals on the lines " In honesty it 's been a while , since we had reason left to smile " . The song breaks down for the bridge with just arpeggio guitar , simple bass and occasional drum rolls playing as the lines " Hello sunshine , come into my life " are sung .
Another verse follows featuring the lyrics " I 'm a minger , you 're a minger too , so come on minger , I want to ming with you " ( quoted in many reviews of Phantom Power ) before the second chorus . This time the bridge leads , not into another verse , but the song 's middle 8 which again sees Rhys backed by multiple falsetto harmony backing vocals . The outro follows during which the title phrase is sung five times before a lead guitar line heralds the end of the song with Rhys singing " Come into my life " .
= = = Alternative versions = = =
A radio edit of " Hello Sunshine " was issued to radio stations and was also used in the music video . This version of the track is 2 minutes and 54 seconds long and omits the opening extract from " By the Sea " . The rest of song is identical to the album version .
Two remixes were included on the DVD version of Phantom Power and the album Phantom Phorce . The first , by Weevil , is 4 minutes 22 seconds in length and is largely based around samples of lead guitar from the track along with occasional snippets of Rhys 's vocal . Samples of Ieuan 's drums are also used in the second half of the song . The track ends with a brief clip of the band 's road manager , in the guise of ' Kurt Stern ' , giving a fictionalised account of Phantom Power 's production . The second remix , by Freiband , is 10 minutes 31 seconds long , is " utterly minimal " and barely resembles the original with no recognisable vocal or musical samples from the album or radio versions .
= = Critical response = =
" Hello Sunshine " received generally positive reviews with musicOMH calling it " one of the best tracks from … Phantom Power " , and Rolling Stone describing it as a " gorgeous opening track " . The ' summery ' nature of the track was commented on by several journalists with The Observer calling " Hello Sunshine " a " gloriously hazy opener " and Music Critic describing it as " passionately mellow summer doo @-@ wop " . However BBC Wales , although describing the track as " an excellent song and a near perfect album opener " , called the decision to release " Hello Sunshine " as a single " rather mystifying " stating that it is " a world away from the SFA we 've grown to love over the years " . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2006 film Snow Cake and also appeared in " The Heartbreak " , an episode of The O.C.
= = Coca @-@ Cola controversy = =
According to a Gruff Rhys interview with Red Pepper magazine , the band turned down " a seven @-@ figure offer by an advertising agency " for the use of " Hello Sunshine " in a Coca @-@ Cola commercial due to alleged malpractice :
The band ultimately allowed the track to be used in a short film about human rights abuses by anti @-@ poverty charity War on Want . The charity has frequently criticized the Coca @-@ Cola company 's impact on local communities . In late 2005 Rhys reiterated that , although licensing one of their tracks for use in advertising would make a big difference financially , the Super Furries are happy to simply be able to make a living from making music . Rhys went on to state that a " Red Stripe advert in Jamaica " is one of the few advertising opportunities the band could live with .
= = Music video = =
An animated music video was produced for " Hello Sunshine " , directed by Pete Fowler , Neil McFarland and Passion Pictures and featuring Fowler 's cartoon drawings . The video begins with the sun rising over a country landscape . A small , blue , ' Hello Sunshine ' winged horse flies across the sky and is watched by a man holding a 1 : 16 scale model kit for the same horse . The picture of the horse on the box flies away as he looks at it and lands on one of five hot air balloons flown by cartoon representations of the Super Furry Animals . The video cuts to a brief shot of a man staring through a shop window at an advertising display featuring models of the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse before we see Gruff Rhys coming across a huge statue of the same horse in his car .
The next shot shows the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse forming part of a stained glass window in a place of worship as a priest urges his followers ( all dressed in dark blue with a gold pendant of the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse around their necks ) to help him cause two rockets at either side of him to rise into the air and explode in the clouds . These rockets cause a thunder storm . The resultant lightning strikes an ' Hello Sunshine ' horse as it flies through the air and a duplicate horse is created . This happens repeatedly until the sky is full of small horses which fly out of the storm and towards the Super Furries ' hot air balloons . The last section shows the band playing " Hello Sunshine " and being confronted by the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse who Rhys strokes on the nose . The video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak CD ( 674360 2 )
" Hello Sunshine ( Radio Edit ) " – 2 : 54
" Cowbird " – 5 : 41
" Sanitizzzed " – 2 : 45
7 " ( 674360 7 )
" Hello Sunshine ( Radio Edit ) " – 2 : 54
" Cowbird " – 5 : 41
DVD ( 674360 9 )
" Hello Sunshine ( Video ) " * – 3 : 34
" Cowbird " – 5 : 41
" Sanitizzzed " – 2 : 45
* The " Hello Sunshine " video features the radio edit of the track . A brief preliminary video featuring animal noises means that the run time matches that of the album version .
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
Kris Jenkins – percussion
= = Charts = =
= Canadian Heraldic Authority =
The Canadian Heraldic Authority ( CHA ; French : L 'Autorité héraldique du Canada ) is part of the Canadian honours system under the Canadian monarch , whose authority is exercised by the Governor General of Canada . The authority is responsible for the creation and granting of new coats of arms ( armorial bearings ) , flags , and badges for Canadian citizens and corporate bodies . The authority also registers existing armorial bearings granted by other recognized heraldic authorities , approves military badges , flags , and other insignia of the Canadian Forces , and provides information on heraldic practices .
The CHA is the Canadian counterpart of the College of Arms in London , Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland , and the Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland in the Republic of Ireland and is well known for its innovative designs , many incorporating First Nations symbolism .
= = History = =
Prior to the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority , Canadians wishing to obtain a legally granted coat of arms had to apply to one of the two heraldic offices in the United Kingdom : either the College of Arms in London or the Court of the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh . This process was quite lengthy — and costly . In addition , the heralds of the College of Arms and the Court of the Lord Lyon could sometimes be unfamiliar with Canadian history and symbols . In time , many Canadians with an interest in heraldry began calling for an office which would offer armorial bearings designed by and for Canadians .
As early as 1967 , plans were reportedly in the works to transfer overview of heraldry from the College of Arms in the UK to Canada . The push for a wholly Canadian heraldic system came largely from the Heraldry Society of Canada ( now the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada ) almost from its inception , though it was not seen as a priority by successive national governments . In 1986 , Vicki Huntington , a politician from British Columbia , forwarded a brief written by the RHSC calling for the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority to a staff member in then @-@ Secretary of State David Crombie 's office . Mr. Crombie had his department organise a meeting in Ottawa the following year , to which many national and international heraldic experts were invited . The meeting concluded with " a strong recommendation to government that an Authority be created . "
Two years later , the Queen of Canada issued the 1988 letters patent authorising the governor general " to exercise or provide for the exercise of all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us as Queen of Canada in respect of the granting of armorial bearings in Canada " . These letters patent were presented by Prince Edward to the governor general on behalf of the Crown . Subsequently , the Governor General , Jeanne Sauvé , authorised the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority on 4 June 1988 . As a result , Canada became the first Commonwealth realm outside the United Kingdom to have its own heraldic authority . Canada also provides full equality to women in terms of inheriting and transmitting arms . Additionally , all armigers within Canada may file for trademark protection of their grant of arms under the Trade @-@ Marks Act .
= = Structure = =
The authority is located at Rideau Hall , the residence of the monarch and governor general . The governor general , as the personal representative of the Canadian sovereign , is the highest authority in Canadian heraldry . Below the governor general is the Herald Chancellor , a position held by the Secretary of the Governor General . The CHA is currently organized in an office called the Chancellery of Honours , the same office that issues Canadian orders and decorations , such as the Order of Canada . The deputy secretary that administers the Chancellery of Honours is also the Deputy Herald Chancellor .
The authority itself is headed by the Chief Herald of Canada , whose job is to oversee and direct all operations of the CHA , and bears the main responsibility of granting arms , though the governor general has the authority to grant arms directly . The position of chief herald was inaugurated by Robert Watt at the inception of the CHA in 1988 and held by him until his retirement in 2007 . Since 26 June 2007 , the office of chief herald has been held by Claire Boudreau , formerly Saint @-@ Laurent Herald .
= = = Heralds of Arms = = =
Below the chief herald are the Heralds of Arms , full @-@ time workers at the CHA and considered part of the Public Service of Canada . The names of the various offices were taken from significant Canadian rivers . Though the titles are territorial designations , as per heraldic tradition , each herald serves the entire country . Each is assigned a badge of office . The Heralds of Arms are :
= = = Honorary positions = = =
The authority also allows for two types of honorary positions : Heralds Emeritus and Heralds Extraordinary . The emeritus title is reserved for Canadian heralds who have retired ; the title of extraordinary is an honorary position for those who have made notable contributions to heraldry . Honorary heralds can be enlisted by the CHA to perform work for them . Each honorary position grants the individual a badge and a title also based on a Canadian river .
Current holders of honorary positions
= = Obtaining arms = =
= = = Eligibility = = =
Any Canadian citizen or corporate body can petition for a grant of new arms or registration of existing arms . In general , eligibility for a grant of arms is based on an individual 's contributions to the community , although the exact criteria for grants or registrations have not been published . A number of grants have been made to people who have already been recognized with state honours for their notable achievements , such as through admission to the Order of Canada , and who are accordingly entitled to a grant of arms . Those who are Companions of the order may also request the chief herald to grant them supporters .
= = = Grant process = = =
In order to request either a coat of arms , flag , and / or badges , a letter must be addressed to the Chief Herald of Canada . The letter must clearly ask " to receive armorial bearings from the Canadian Crown under the powers exercised by the Governor General " and include proof of Canadian citizenship or permanent residence as well as a biography or curriculum vitae of the petitioner . Corporate petitions must include a brief history of the company , proof of incorporation in Canada , financial reports , and a copy of the corporation 's governing body resolution seeking a grant of arms .
The Chief Herald of Canada can approve or reject the petition . If the petition is approved , the authority to make the grant is given through a warrant signed by the Herald Chancellor or the Deputy Herald Chancellor . The authorisation is then sent to one of the heralds , and the process begins . The granting of arms is regarded as an honour from the monarch , via the governor general , and thus are bestowed only on those whom the Chief Herald has deemed individuals worthy of receiving a grant of arms .
First , the assigned herald develops a written description based on consultation with the petitioner . The petitioner then signs a contract with an artist at the authority to create the design . The Fraser Herald , serving as the CHA 's principal artist , must review the design . At all stages the documents must be approved by both the petitioner and the Chief Herald . The final step is to prepare the letters patent , the official notice of an award of arms , which includes a drawing of the armorial bearings and the accompanying legal text and explanation of the symbolism of the bearings . Under Canadian bilingualism laws , letters patent are written in both English and French , though the petitioner may choose which language will be placed in the left column of the document .
Completed grant documents are recorded in the Public Register of Arms , Flags and Badges of Canada and the notice of the grant is published in the Canada Gazette , Part I , under the section " Government House " .
The Government of Canada requires that the above processes be financed by the petitioner ; that is the person requesting the grant or registration of arms , who pays the fees associated with the request and grant / registration . The processing fee for all petitioners is CAD $ 435 ( plus GST ) , with the cost of one preliminary design ranging from $ 200 to $ 1 @,@ 000 . The cost of the final design , as illustrated on the letters patent , ranges from $ 900 to $ 3 @,@ 500 . In Canada , the petitioner does not " buy " a coat of arms , the arms themselves are freely given to qualified individuals , but fees must be paid to the heralds and artists for the services rendered . The average time needed to complete a grant is about 12 to 14 months , though it can take longer for particularly detailed or intricate arms .
= = = Registration of existing arms = = =
Those individuals and institutions who already possess legitimate awards of arms may apply to the Canadian Heraldic Authority to have their arms registered . There is no cost associated with application for registration and it takes less time , approximately three months , than application for a new award of arms .
= = The Authority 's armorial bearings = =
= = = Blazon = = =
The blazon , or technical description in heraldic language , of the full armorial bearings is below , along with its plain English description :
Crest
Upon a helmet mantled Gules doubled Argent within a wreath of these colours a lion passant guardant Or Royally Crowned Proper its dexter forepaw resting on an escutcheon Argent charged with a maple leaf Gules .
On top of a helmet with red and white mantling ( stylised cloth streamers , here further stylised to look like maple leaves , as in the national coat of arms ) stands a golden lion wearing a crown , holding in his paw a white shield with a red maple leaf .
Shield
Argent on a maple leaf Gules an escutcheon Argent .
On a white shield is a red maple leaf , upon which is another white shield .
Supporters
On a representation of an outcrop of the Canadian Shield proper strewn with maple leaves Gules and maple seeds Or two raven @-@ bears Gules over Argent wings elevated Gules beaked and armed Or .
A portion of the Canadian Shield is shown covered with red maple leaves and gold maple seeds . Standing upon this on either side are two red @-@ and @-@ white raven @-@ bears with golden beaks and claws .
Motto
HONORENTUR PATRIAM HONORANTES .
Let us honour those who honour our country .
= = = Symbolism and use = = =
The current arms of the authority were confirmed in a warrant by the Governor General on 15 January 1994 , in honour of the authority 's fifth anniversary , which was celebrated the previous year . The full armorial bearings of the Canadian Heraldic Authority incorporate aboriginal symbolism , as seen in the mythical raven @-@ bears , as well as the national symbol of the maple leaf and the traditional Canadian colours of red and white , which were made official by King George V in 1921 .
The crest is a modification of the Royal Crest of Canada : a lion wearing a crown and bearing a maple leaf . The crest of the authority features the same lion , instead holding a white shield containing a red maple leaf , symbolising the governor general 's authority under the Crown to grant armorial bearings to Canadians .
The shield itself is white with a red maple leaf , similar to the middle portion of the Canadian flag . The white shield upon the leaf represents " a sign of heraldry to be created and recorded for Canadians . "
The raven @-@ bears , a new heraldic beast which combined several creatures that are important to aboriginal symbolism , were proposed by the heralds in honour of the United Nations ' International Year of the World 's Indigenous Peoples , also occurring in 1993 . The raven @-@ bears are standing on an outcrop of what is known as the Canadian Shield , a geological formation which the authority foundation is based on . The Canadian Shield is formed by rocks , which are covered in red coloured maple leaves and by golden maple seeds . The motto that was chosen is Latin for Let us honour those who honour our country .
The shield and crest alone comprise the Badge of the CHA , which is used on the seal of the Authority and on the letters patent that grant and register armorial bearings . A wreath behind the arms is composed of red maple leaves bound with gold straps .
= Holidays of Future Passed =
" Holidays of Future Passed " is the ninth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 11 , 2011 . Most of the episode is set thirty years into the future , when Bart and Lisa take their children with them to Homer and Marge 's house over Christmas , while a pregnant Maggie goes into labor . Bart has divorced his wife Jenda and is struggling to become a better father for his two boys , while Lisa has trouble connecting with her rebellious teenage daughter Zia . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening made a minor uncredited cameo appearance as a sports commentator shouting " goal ! " during a football ( soccer ) game .
Originally written as a potential series finale , the episode has received highly positive reception from television critics who often cited it as the best episode of the season . It has been particularly praised for its humor and for its emotional scenes , such as one where Bart and Lisa sit in their old treehouse and talk about how difficult parenting is . During the original broadcast , " Holidays of Future Passed " was watched by about 6 @.@ 43 million people . Since then , it has garnered attention in the media for a segment taking place thirty years in the future in which it is implied that the city of Dearborn , Michigan is " still under sharia law " . Commentators have had mixed opinions on what the segment is mocking , whether it is the increasing Islamic influence in the US , specifically in Dearborn , or rather those who are thinking that Dearborn is under sharia law in December 2011 , the time that the episode aired .
= = Plot = =
After stuffing themselves with turkey on Thanksgiving , it is time to take the annual Christmas card family photo , and when Bart and Lisa complain about it , Marge notes that they will grow to appreciate the photos when they become older and have children of their own . Lisa questions why Marge would assume they will even have children in the first place , and the episode jumps thirty years into the future via a series of Simpsons Christmas cards . The photos finally settle on a future where Bart is a jobless , divorced dad with two sons whom he does not see often ; Lisa is a successful businesswoman who is married to Milhouse and has a rebellious daughter named Zia ; and Maggie is the lead singer of a famous band and in the late stages of pregnancy . In his apartment , Bart is visited by his sons , who inform him that their mother Jenda teleported them to his place because she wants him to act like a proper father by having him spend time with them . However , he plans on dropping them off at his parents ' house instead . Meanwhile , Lisa fears that Zia is spending too much of her time going into the " Ultranet " , a digital world that people enter with their consciousness by plugging themselves into a laptop . Milhouse suggests to Lisa that she spend time with Zia in order for them to have a better connection , so Lisa decides to take Zia to her parents ' house . Meanwhile , Maggie flies home from London to Springfield to celebrate Christmas with her parents .
When Bart and Lisa arrive at their parents ' home , they stay there with their children . Unfortunately for Lisa , she only gets unhelpful advice from Marge on how to be a better parent , while Zia continues to go into the Ultranet . A furious Lisa ignores it and accuses Marge of being a bad parent . She tells her belief that it 's the parents right to butt in their children 's lives regardless . Marge gets mad at Lisa for her accusations and their conflicting styles of parenting causes a rift in their relationship . Meanwhile , Bart is heartbroken to find out that Jenda has remarried while he has not found anyone new . Feeling depressed , he tells Homer to take his grandsons out . The boys become angry with their father for not spending time with them , but the two have a great time with their grandfather . Bart and Lisa then encounter each other in their old treehouse , where they become slightly drunk and talk about how difficult parenting is . Lisa admitted she had an affair with Nelson a couple of times when Milhouse was away . After exchanging inspirational advice , they realize that they need to try harder to connect with their children . Lisa comes into Marge 's room to apologize for her earlier behavior that made both of them get angry with each other . Marge understands how stressed out Lisa 's been with a lack of communication she has with Zia and finally offers her some helpful advice . Meanwhile , upon arriving in Springfield , Maggie starts experiencing contractions and Kearney , now a taxi driver , drives her to the hospital .
Homer takes Bart 's sons to a cryonics facility where Grampa has been frozen alive to prevent a disease from killing him . Although a cure has now been discovered , he is kept frozen by Homer because it is cheaper than paying for a nursing home and because Grampa has constantly been rude to him . Homer says to the boys that they should give their father another chance , since he knows Bart loves them . At that point , Bart arrives and apologizes to his sons , admitting how much he treasures them . Touched , the two boys forgive him for not having included them in his life much , while an inspired Homer decides to unfreeze Grampa and forgive him as well . Meanwhile , Lisa goes into the Ultranet to find Zia and discovers a door leading into Zia 's private world . Entering it , Lisa is overjoyed to find that Zia has hung a poster of her next to a series of posters depicting historical women who have made a difference in the world . When Zia arrives , Lisa thanks her for looking up to her and the two reconcile at last , and secretly hides her life as a party poser . With the conflicts resolved , Bart and Lisa gather their children in preparation for a new Christmas family photo . Marge arrives with Maggie , who has given birth to a baby girl . The Simpsons gather into a group just as the family pets ( who have evolved greatly over the past thirty years ) take the new photo .
= = Production = =
The episode , titled " Holidays of Future Passed " , was written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Rob Oliver . It was first announced to the press at the Comic @-@ Con convention in San Diego , California on July 23 , 2011 , during a panel with the producers of The Simpsons . " Holidays of Future Passed " is the eleventh episode of the series with a Christmas theme , and the fourth episode set in the future ( the others being " Lisa 's Wedding " from 1995 , " Bart to the Future " from 2000 , and " Future @-@ Drama " from 2005 ) . Originally there was a joke in the episode about a meltdown occurring at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant in the future ; however , it was cut following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that resulted in several nuclear accidents in Japan .
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening made a minor cameo in the episode , though his appearance is not mentioned in the closing credits . In the episode , a robot examines the health of Maggie 's fetus . Maggie 's band is present , and one of the band members presses a button on the robot 's " face " , which is a screen showing its facial expressions , and a football ( soccer ) game comes on instead . A sports commentator , voiced by Groening , gives a long " goal ! " shout that is heard over the game . According to The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma , as the episode was being recorded , " there were only sounds of crowd cheering during that shot and Matt said we needed to spice it up somehow . " After going through some different ideas , the staff settled on a commentator shouting " goal ! " . The staff members wanted Groening to provide the voice and he finished the recording in two takes .
In a 2013 interview with former show writer Conan O 'Brien , Jean stated that this episode was intended to serve as a series finale in the case that cast negotiations earlier in the year forced the show to end .
= = Release = =
" Holidays of Future Passed " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 11 , 2011 . The episode was watched by approximately 6 @.@ 43 million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , it received a 3 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " , which received a 4 @.@ 0 rating . However , that episode was preceded by a popular National Football League game that helped increase its rating . " Holidays of Future Passed " became the most @-@ watched broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup for the night in terms of total viewers , finishing higher than new episodes of the three series Family Guy ( 6 @.@ 10 million ) , The Cleveland Show ( 5 @.@ 07 million ) , and American Dad ! ( 5 @.@ 00 million ) . It also became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , being exceeded only by the Family Guy episode which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating . For the week of December 5 – 11 , 2011 , the episode placed twentieth in the ratings among all prime @-@ time network broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Since airing , " Holidays of Future Passed " has received highly positive reviews from television critics , particularly for its humor and emotional scenes . In his list of " The 50 Best TV Episodes of 2011 " , BuddyTV 's John Kubicek placed the episode at number forty @-@ nine , writing that the " various glimpses of how all the other characters have changed during the time jump was a cavalcade of comedy moments . " Rex Huffman of The Times @-@ Reporter cited it as " an amusing episode " , and Ology 's Josh Harrison described it as " legitimately funny " . Harrison noted that " seeing so many futuristic versions of familiar characters put an interesting spin on the holiday season . " He also commented : " The whole episode hinges on a surprisingly heartfelt scene that sees Bart and Lisa — both a bit sloshed — meeting up in the treehouse to discuss the challenges of parenting . " Similarly , Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club wrote that " Holidays of Future Passed " found " a sweet spot that combined a barrage of non @-@ stop jokes with a tenderness often lacking in latter @-@ day Simpsons episodes . There is even a conversation between the adult Bart and Lisa that rings surprisingly true for adult siblings wrestling with their shared familial past . "
Writing for HitFix , Alan Sepinwall cited " Holidays of Future Passed " as the best future @-@ set episode of The Simpsons since the first one , " Lisa 's Wedding " . He noted that it was " the emotional side of things " that made the episode successful , such as the dissatisfaction Bart and Lisa feel because of their disconnection with the children , and also Homer 's transformation into a " very wise , sweet guy after somehow surviving into old age . " Sepinwall particularly praised the scene at the cryonics facility where Homer encourages the children to give Bart another chance as " really sweet " , and he described the idea of a frozen Grampa as " a clever variation on the very familiar joke of how Homer and the family neglect [ Grampa ] because he 's such a pain in the ass . " Sepinwall also commended the episode for its jokes about the future , highlighting the scenes revolving around air travel as well as the scenes showing Krusty as " the Andy Rooney of 2041 " and Ralph Wiggum as " an endless series of stupid clones who keep killing one another . " In February 2012 , " Holidays of Future Passed " was listed by Matt Zoller Seitz of New York magazine as one of " Nine Latter @-@ Day Simpsons Episodes That Match Up to the Early Classics " . He noted that the " reconciliations between Bart and Lisa and their kids are moving . "
At the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2012 , " Holidays of Future Passed " was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) .
= = = Response to Islamic references = = =
A segment of " Holidays of Future Passed " was inspired by a controversy over the growing Islamic influence in the city of Dearborn , Michigan , which , according to Bill Gallagher of WJBK , has " a significant Muslim community " . The biggest mosque in the United States is also located there . During the segment in question , set in Milhouse and Lisa 's future home , Milhouse tells Lisa that he has started to feel the symptoms of his seasonal allergies now that Christmas has arrived . He is apparently allergic to Christmas @-@ related things such as holly , mistletoe , and the red part of candy cane . Lisa advises Milhouse to go and stay in Michigan over the holidays , where Christmas is not celebrated because it is " still under sharia law . " Milhouse agrees to do this , but complains that they always make him wear a veil there , pointing to a photo on the wall in which he is standing outside of the University of Michigan – Dearborn dressed in a burqa .
In a news report about this segment that aired on WJBK , Gallagher noted that it " poked fun at the untrue and unfounded notion that somehow Muslim sharia law prevails in Dearborn . " Dawud Walid , head of the Michigan branch of the Council on American @-@ Islamic Relations , commented in the report that The Simpsons " is a very prolific show . Now [ it ] is addressing this anti @-@ sharia fear mongering issue , and perhaps it may gain some currency and ... more people will make fun of it . " The segment was met with mixed reception from students at University of Michigan – Dearborn . A number of them were interviewed by Gallagher in his report . One student said : " It 's pretty cool showing how ridiculous the hate is . I think it 's pretty funny , " while another noted : " I don 't think it 's a good thing [ to mock anti @-@ Islamic bigotry ] because we can change it by talking , not making fun . "
= Whitechapel murders =
The Whitechapel murders were committed in or near the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London between 3 April 1888 and 13 February 1891 . At various points some or all of these eleven unsolved murders of women have been ascribed to the notorious unidentified serial killer known as Jack the Ripper .
Most , if not all , of the victims — Emma Elizabeth Smith , Martha Tabram , Mary Ann Nichols , Annie Chapman , Elizabeth Stride , Catherine Eddowes , Mary Jane Kelly , Rose Mylett , Alice McKenzie , Frances Coles , and an unidentified woman — were prostitutes . Smith was sexually assaulted and robbed by a gang . Tabram was stabbed 39 times . Nichols , Chapman , Stride , Eddowes , Kelly , McKenzie and Coles had their throats cut . Eddowes and Stride were killed on the same night , minutes and less than a mile apart ; their murders were nicknamed the " double event " , after a phrase in a postcard sent to the press by someone claiming to be the Ripper . The bodies of Nichols , Chapman , Eddowes and Kelly had abdominal mutilations . Mylett was strangled . The body of the unidentified woman was dismembered , but the exact cause of her death is unclear .
The Metropolitan Police , City of London Police , and private organisations such as the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee were involved in the search for the killer or killers . Despite extensive inquiries and several arrests , the culprit or culprits evaded identification and capture . The murders drew attention to the poor living conditions in the East End slums , which were subsequently improved . The enduring mystery of who committed the crimes has captured public imagination to the present day .
= = Context = =
In the late Victorian era , Whitechapel was considered to be the most notorious criminal rookery in London . The area around Flower and Dean Street was described as " perhaps the foulest and most dangerous street in the whole metropolis " ; Dorset Street was called " the worst street in London " . Assistant Police Commissioner Robert Anderson recommended Whitechapel to " those who take an interest in the dangerous classes " as one of London 's prime criminal " show places " . Robbery and violence were commonplace . The district was characterised by extreme poverty , sub @-@ standard housing , homelessness , drunkenness and endemic prostitution . These factors were focused in the institution of the common lodging @-@ house , which provided cheap communal lodgings for the desperate and the destitute , among whom the Whitechapel murder victims were numbered . All the identified victims lived in the heart of the rookery in Spitalfields , including three in George Street ( later named Lolesworth Street ) , two in Dorset Street , two in Flower and Dean Street and one in Thrawl Street .
Police work and criminal prosecutions relied heavily on confessions , witness testimony , and apprehending perpetrators in the act of committing an offence or in the possession of obvious physical evidence that clearly linked them to a crime . Forensic techniques , such as fingerprint analysis , were not in use . Policing in London was — and still is — divided between two forces : the Metropolitan Police with jurisdiction over most of the urban area , and the City of London Police with jurisdiction over about a square mile ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) of the city centre . The Home Secretary , a senior minister of the United Kingdom government , controlled the Metropolitan Police , whereas the City Police were responsible to the Corporation of London . Beat constables walked regular , timed routes .
Eleven deaths in or near Whitechapel between 1888 and 1891 were gathered into a single file , referred to in the police docket as the Whitechapel murders . Much of the original material has been either stolen or destroyed .
= = Victims and investigation = =
= = = Emma Smith = = =
On Tuesday 3 April 1888 , following the Easter Monday bank holiday , prostitute Emma Elizabeth Smith was assaulted and robbed at the junction of Osborn Street and Brick Lane , Whitechapel , in the early hours of the morning . Although injured , she survived the attack and managed to walk back to her lodging house at 18 George Street , Spitalfields . She told the deputy keeper , Mary Russell , that she had been attacked by two or three men , one of them a youth . Mrs Russell took Smith to the London Hospital , where medical examination revealed that a blunt object had been inserted into her vagina , rupturing her peritoneum . She developed peritonitis and died at 9 am on 4 April 1888 . The inquest was conducted on 7 April by the coroner for East Middlesex , Wynne Edwin Baxter , who also conducted inquests on six of the later victims . The local inspector of the Metropolitan Police , Edmund Reid of H Division Whitechapel , investigated the attack but the culprits were never caught . Walter Dew , a detective constable stationed with H Division , later wrote that he thought Smith was the first victim of Jack the Ripper , but his colleagues suspected it was the work of a criminal gang . Smith claimed that she was attacked by a group of men , but either refused to or could not describe them . Prostitutes were often managed by gangs , and Smith could have been attacked by her pimps as a punishment for disobeying them , or as part of their intimidation . She may not have identified her attackers because she feared reprisal , and her murder is unlikely to be connected with the later killings .
= = = Martha Tabram = = =
On Tuesday 7 August , following a Monday bank holiday , prostitute Martha Tabram was murdered at about 2 : 30 am . Her body was found at George Yard Buildings , George Yard , Whitechapel . She had been stabbed 39 times with a short blade . On the basis of statements from a fellow prostitute , and PC Thomas Barrett who was patrolling nearby , Inspector Reid put soldiers at the Tower of London and Wellington Barracks on an identification parade , but without positive results . The police did not connect the murder with Smith 's , but they did connect it with the later murders . Most experts today do not connect it with the other killings , as Tabram was stabbed whereas the later victims were slashed , but a connection cannot be ruled out .
= = = Mary Ann Nichols = = =
On Friday 31 August , prostitute Mary Ann Nichols was murdered in Buck 's Row ( since renamed Durward Street ) , a back street in Whitechapel . Her body was discovered by cart driver Charles Cross at 3 : 45 am on the ground in front of a gated stable entrance . Her throat had been slit twice from left to right and her abdomen was mutilated by a deep jagged wound . Several shallower incisions across the abdomen , and three or four similar cuts on the right side were caused by the same knife used violently and downwards . As the murder occurred in the territory of the J or Bethnal Green Division of the Metropolitan Police , it was at first investigated by the local detectives . On the same day , James Monro resigned as the head of the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) over differences with Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Sir Charles Warren . Initial investigations into the murder had little success , although elements of the press linked it to the two previous murders and suggested the killing might have been perpetrated by a gang , as in the case of Smith . The Star newspaper suggested instead that a single killer was responsible and other newspapers took up their storyline . Suspicions of a serial killer at large in London led to the secondment of Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline , Henry Moore and Walter Andrews from the Central Office at Scotland Yard . On the available evidence , Coroner Baxter concluded that Nichols was murdered at just after 3 am where she was found . In his summing up , he dismissed the possibility that her murder was connected with those of Smith and Tabram , as the lethal weapons were different in those cases , and neither of the earlier cases involved a slash to the throat . However , by the time the inquest into Nichols ' death had concluded , a fourth woman had been murdered , and Baxter noted " The similarity of the injuries in the two cases is considerable . "
= = = Annie Chapman = = =
The mutilated body of the fourth woman , prostitute Annie Chapman , was discovered at about 6 : 00 am on Saturday 8 September on the ground near a doorway in the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street , Spitalfields . Chapman had left her lodgings at 2 am on the day she was murdered , with the intention of getting money from a client to pay her rent . Her throat was cut from left to right . She had been disembowelled , and her intestines had been thrown out of her abdomen over each of her shoulders . The morgue examination revealed that part of her uterus was missing . The pathologist , George Bagster Phillips , was of the opinion that the murderer must have possessed anatomical knowledge to have sliced out the reproductive organs in a single movement with a blade about 6 – 8 inches ( 15 – 20 cm ) long . However , the idea that the murderer possessed surgical skill was dismissed by other experts . As the bodies were not examined extensively at the scene , it has also been suggested that the organs were actually removed by mortuary staff , who took advantage of bodies that had already been opened to extract organs that they could sell as surgical specimens .
On 10 September , the police arrested a notorious local called John Pizer , dubbed " Leather Apron " , who had a reputation for terrorising local prostitutes . His alibis for the two most recent murders were corroborated , and he was released without charge . At the inquest one of the witnesses , Mrs Elizabeth Long , testified that she had seen Chapman talking to a man at about 5 : 30 am just beyond the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street , where Chapman was later found . Baxter inferred that the man Mrs Long had seen was the murderer . Mrs Long described him as over forty , a little taller than Chapman , of dark complexion , and of foreign , " shabby @-@ genteel " appearance . He was wearing a brown deer @-@ stalker hat and a dark overcoat . Another witness , carpenter Albert Cadosch , had entered the neighbouring yard at 27 Hanbury Street at about the same time , and heard voices in the yard followed by the sound of something falling against the fence .
In his memoirs , Walter Dew recorded that the killings caused widespread panic in London . A mob attacked the Commercial Road police station , suspecting that the murderer was being held there . Samuel Montagu , the Member of Parliament for Whitechapel , offered a reward of £ 100 ( roughly £ 10 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) after rumours that the attacks were Jewish ritual killings led to anti @-@ Semitic demonstrations . Local residents founded the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee under the chairmanship of George Lusk and offered a reward for the apprehension of the killer — something the Metropolitan Police ( under instruction from the Home Office ) refused to do because it could lead to false or misleading information . The Committee employed two private detectives to investigate the case .
Robert Anderson was appointed head of the CID on 1 September , but he went on sick leave to Switzerland on the 7th . Superintendent Thomas Arnold , who was in charge of H ( Whitechapel ) Division , went on leave on 2 September . Anderson 's absence left overall direction of the enquiries confused , and led Chief Commissioner Sir Charles Warren to appoint Chief Inspector Donald Swanson to co @-@ ordinate the investigation from Scotland Yard . A German hairdresser named Charles Ludwig was taken into custody on 18 September on suspicion of the murders , but he was released less than two weeks later when a double murder demonstrated that the real culprit was still at large .
= = = Double event : Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes = = =
On Sunday 30 September , the body of prostitute Elizabeth Stride was discovered at about 1 am in Dutfield 's Yard , inside the gateway of 40 Berner Street ( since renamed Henriques Street ) , Whitechapel . She was lying in a pool of blood with her throat cut from left to right . She had been killed just minutes before , and her body was otherwise unmutilated . It is possible that the murderer was disturbed before he could commit any mutilation of the body by someone entering the yard , perhaps Louis Diemschutz , who discovered the body . However , some commentators on the case conclude that Stride 's murder was unconnected to the others on the basis that the body was unmutilated , that it was the only murder to occur south of Whitechapel Road , and that the blade used might have been shorter and of a different design . Most experts , however , consider the similarities in the
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reinforcements from their higher commander , General Douglas MacArthur . However , the request was denied as MacArthur 's intelligence staff believed that there were only 350 Japanese in the vicinity . Actually , there were already 5 @,@ 000 Japanese around Sattelberg and Finschhafen while throughout early October this number grew to 12 @,@ 000 as they began to prepare for their planned counterattack . The Australians received some reinforcements in the shape of the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion . The arrival of this unit meant that the 2 / 17th , deadlocked around Jivevaneng , could be freed for the advance on Finschhafen , thus enabling the entire 20th Brigade to concentrate on that objective .
After an attack across the Ilebbe Creek by the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion , which cost the Australians 80 casualties on 1 October , the Japanese naval troops which were holding Finschhafen began to withdraw . On 2 October , the town fell to the Australians and the Japanese abandoned the Kakakog Ridge amidst heavy Australian air and artillery attacks . Once the 20th Brigade was established in Finschhafen , it linked up with the 22nd Infantry Battalion , a Militia infantry battalion . This unit had cleared the coastal area in the south of the peninsula , advancing from Lae over the mountains . Meanwhile , the Japanese that had been around Finschhafen withdrew back into the mountains around Sattelberg . Allied air operations from the airfield at Finschhafen commenced on 4 October . The following day , the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion was sent to Kumawa to follow up the retreating Japanese forces , and for the next couple of days minor clashes resulted before it established itself at Jivevaneng again on 7 October .
= = = Japanese counterattack = = =
The Japanese had begun planning a counterattack during the Australian advance on Finschhafen . The main part of the 20th Division was moved down from Madang as the Japanese began concentrating their forces around Sattelberg , with the main force arriving there on 11 October . The Japanese plans became known to the Australians through captured documents and by mid @-@ October 1943 the Australian 24th Infantry Brigade had been brought up to reinforce the 20th . When the Japanese counterattack came , the first wave fell upon the 24th Brigade around Jivevaneng on 16 October but the attack , having been put in a piecemeal fashion , was pushed back . The next day Japanese aircraft attacked Allied forces around Scarlet Beach and this was followed shortly an amphibious landing which was all but destroyed at sea by fire from American and Australian anti @-@ aircraft and machine @-@ guns . It was during this assault that an American soldier , Private Nathan Van Noy , from the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment , performed the actions for which he was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . Only a small number of Japanese managed to make it ashore amidst the devastating fire and , by the following day , these all had been killed or wounded by Australian infantry conducting mopping up operations .
The main elements of the Japanese counterattack had penetrated the forward and thinly stretched Australian lines throughout the previous night . The Japanese exploited the gaps in the line between the 2 / 28th Infantry and the 2 / 3rd Pioneer Battalions , and launched an attack towards the coast with the objective of capturing the high ground 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) west of Scarlet Beach , and splitting the Australian forces at Katika .
The 24th Brigade withdrew from Katika and the high ground to the north of Scarlet Beach to strengthen the defences around the beachhead in response to the Japanese penetration , while the 20th Brigade was moved into position along the Siki Creek to block the Japanese advancing towards Finschhafen . Australian resistance was strong despite giving up the advantage of the high ground , with field and anti @-@ aircraft artillery engaging at ranges as short as 220 yards ( 200 m ) " over open sights " . As result , the Japanese attack was turned away from Scarlet Beach and channelled down Siki Creek . Nevertheless , they succeeded in breaking through to Siki Cove by 18 October and effectively drove a wedge between the 24th Brigade in the north and the 20th Brigade in the south . In doing so , they captured a considerable amount of Allied supplies , including ammunition , weapons and rations , helping to replenish their own dwindling supplies .
During the night of 18 / 19 October , the Japanese cut the route that the Australians were using to supply the 2 / 17th defending Jivevaneng and established a road block astride the Jivevaneng – Sattelberg road . The 2 / 17th and a number of other Australian units , such as most of the 2 / 3rd Pioneer Battalion , as well as part of the 2 / 28th , became isolated behind Japanese lines . In order to keep them supplied , emergency air drops of ammunition were flown in by pilots of No. 4 Squadron RAAF .
At this point , the Japanese attack began to slow . The strength of the Australian resistance had resulted in heavy casualties and as a result the Japanese were unable to take advantage of the gains they had made . This allowed the Australians to begin their own counter @-@ thrust on 19 October . Following a heavy artillery preparation , the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion retook Katika . The Australians received reinforcements the next day with a squadron of Matilda tanks from the 1st Tank Battalion arriving by landing craft at Langemak Bay amidst tight security that was aimed at keeping their arrival secret from the Japanese . Accompanying the tanks was the 26th Brigade ; its arrival meant that the 9th Division had now been committed in its entirety . Although on 21 October the Japanese withdrew from Siki Cove , the fighting around Katika continued for four more days as the Japanese attempted to retake it against fierce resistance from the 2 / 28th . Katagiri gave the order for his forces to withdraw back to Sattelberg by 25 October , when it became apparent that the counterattack had been defeated . The Japanese had suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties , including 679 killed . In comparison , the Australians had lost 49 killed and 179 wounded .
= = = Sattelberg = = =
An old German mission , Sattelberg lay roughly 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) inland and due to its size and height – 3 @,@ 150 feet ( 960 m ) – its possession by a large force of Japanese posed a significant threat in the minds of the Australian commanders . It offered good observation of the coastal area and could serve as a base for the Japanese to disrupt Australian lines of communication . As a result , Wootten decided to capture it . The main approach to the mission lay along the road that ran through Jivevaneng . Although the main thrust of the Japanese counterattack had been turned back by 25 October , Jivevaneng was still in doubt and the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion was still fending off Japanese attacks . Consequently , the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion was brought up , and together with the 2 / 17th they began clearing operations . These were completed by the night of 2 / 3 November when the Japanese ceased their assault and withdrew from around the village . Follow up actions on 6 November resulted in the destruction of the road @-@ block that the Japanese had established on the Sattelberg road east of Jivevaneng in October .
With Jivevaneng decided , the Australians turned advancing west towards Sattelberg . The force that was chosen for this was the recently arrived 26th Brigade , which would be supported by nine Matildas of the 1st Tank Battalion . At the same time , the 4th Brigade , a Militia formation detached from the 5th Division , was brought up to relieve the 26th Brigade of garrison duties around Finschhafen . The tanks moved up to Jivevaneng under the cover of an artillery barrage to drown out their noise in an effort to keep their presence secret until the start of the advance . On 16 November , the 2 / 48th Infantry Battalion , supported by the artillery of the 2 / 12th Field Regiment and the machine guns of the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , captured Green Ridge overlooking the track , which was the designated forming @-@ up point for the advance on Sattelberg , which began the following day .
The advance got off to a bad start initially as it was hampered in the inland area by the prevalent rugged terrain which consisted largely of thick jungle and steep " razor @-@ back " ridges . The ability of forces to manoeuvre in this environment was limited and Whitehead , the Australian brigade commander , determined to utilise infiltration tactics as a result . He sent columns of infantry , no more than company @-@ size , to advance along " narrow fronts " ahead of one or two tanks , with engineers in support to improve the track or deal with " booby traps " or mines as they were found . The brigade 's scheme of manoeuvre saw the 2 / 48th advance up the main track as the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 24th Infantry Battalions protected its flanks to the south and north respectively . None of the Australians ' first day objectives were met . The 2 / 48th was held up in front of Coconut Ridge by stubborn resistance after one of the tanks was disabled and two others were damaged . On the flanks , both the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 24th also came up against strong defences in the shape of pillboxes and machine @-@ gun nests , suffering many casualties and Coconut Ridge did not fall until the following day .
The advance then continued , and by 20 November Steeple Tree Hill had been secured by the 2 / 48th , with the 2 / 23rd advancing towards its southern portion from Kumawa , while the 2 / 24th continued to strike north towards the " 2200 " feature . Initially , this had just been conceived as a holding action to protect the 2 / 48th 's flank , but due to the slow progress on the main track , at this point , the Whitehead decided to change his strategy , determining to use a " double @-@ pronged " attack , with the 2 / 24th also attempting to break through to Sattelberg from the north .
Elsewhere , in the north @-@ east , closer to the coast , the establishment of observation posts on key terrain overlooking Japanese main supply routes by Australian forces began affecting the supply situation of the Japanese forces around Sattelberg , as supply parties were ambushed as they attempted to bring up food and ammunition . The Australians were also short of supplies and , as a result , they paused on 21 November while supplies were brought up to them , before the advance resumed the following day . The main thrust aimed for a jink where the track turned north . Here the 2 / 48th turned to the north @-@ east , while the 2 / 23rd left the track and began advancing north @-@ west towards the " 3200 " feature , which lay west of Sattelberg ; the 2 / 24th , coming up against increasingly steep terrain and very strong Japanese defences around the 2200 feature , unsuccessfully attempted to bypass the position and strike towards Sattelberg . The same day , in the north , the Japanese attempted another counterattack on 22 November , aiming to relieve the supply situation around Sattelberg and to recapture Finschhafen . The counterattack failed , as it was blunted by the Australian depth position around Pabu and , lacking the tempo of the earlier counterattack in October , it was ultimately beaten back , with little affect on Australian operations around Sattelberg .
The fortress around Sattelberg was methodically reduced by intensive Allied bombing which lasted five days , coming to an end on 23 November . The same day , Japanese aircraft also undertook ground support operations with a force of 44 Japanese aircraft attacking Australian positions round Jivevaneng . This did not change the situation around Sattelberg as by then the Australians had reached its southern slopes and the following day they began probing forward towards its summit . Throughout the day they launched a number of attacks , but heavy defensive fire pushed these back until a platoon under the command of Sergeant Tom Derrick fought its way almost to the top , with Derrick leading the way , destroying 10 Japanese positions with grenades as he went . With the Australians having secured a toehold just below the summit for the night , the Japanese withdrew under the cover of darkness and the following morning the advance to the mission was completed . For his feat , Derrick later received the Victoria Cross , his nation 's highest military decoration .
= = = Pabu = = =
Although the main effort of the Australian forces shortly after the landing at Scarlet Beach in late September was upon the drive towards Finschhafen , some effort was made by troops from the Papuan Infantry Battalion to carry out reconnaissance north of the main engagement area towards Bonga and Gusika and throughout early October the 2 / 43rd Battalion conducted a number of patrols in the area . Intelligence gathered from these patrols and through aerial reconnaissance evidence revealed that the Japanese were using tracks in the area to supply the forces in the west atop Sattelberg . In response , the Australians established observation posts and after further reconnaissance it became apparent to the Australians that one hill , which they named " Pabu " and which was part of a larger feature dubbed " Horace the Horse " , was the key to holding the area . Its location placed it directly astride the main Japanese supply route , and its proximity to the Australian forward positions at North Hill meant that it was in range of Australian artillery and could therefore be occupied by a small force that could be defended by indirect fire . In mid @-@ October , however , amidst the Japanese counterattack , Brigadier Bernard Evans , commander of the 24th Brigade , had ordered the withdrawal of Australian forces on Pabu as he had sought to reduce Australian lines in order to defend the beachhead .
After the October counterattack was turned back , the Australians sought to regain the initiative . Evans was replaced by Brigadier Selwyn Porter and Wootten decided to establish a position in depth behind the Japanese forward line , deciding to once again establish a force at Pabu . On 19 / 20 November , three companies from the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion , under the command of Major Bill Mollard , occupied the position , and began to attack the Japanese resupply parties that were moving through the area , inflicting heavy casualties .
Meanwhile , the commander of the Japanese XVIII Army , Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , ordered Katagiri to launch another counterattack . The supply situation was acute by this stage , with ammunition running low and troops being limited to one @-@ third of their daily rations , nevertheless the counterattack was scheduled for 23 / 24 November . However , the Australian occupation of Pabu and the threat it posed to the Japanese supply route , forced the Japanese commander to bring his schedule forward , and to divert some of the effort away from the recapture of Finschhafen and upon the Australian forces advancing towards Sattelberg in the south .
In an effort to retake Pabu and the ground north of the Song River , a force consisting of two Japanese battalions , from the 79th and 238th Infantry Regiments , advanced south along the coastal track from Bonga . From 22 November , the Japanese attacked the Australians around North Hill , which was defended by the 2 / 43 . This effectively cut off the Australian forces on Pabu , which now only consisted of two companies from the 2 / 32nd and over the course over the next three days they were subjected to almost continual attack . On 25 November , the Japanese assaults had been blunted that the Australians began to push reinforcements forward . The two remaining companies of the 2 / 32nd were sent forward on 26 November , supported by four Matilda tanks and artillery , struck forward towards Pabu to reinforce its garrison which was under its heaviest attack since it had been occupied . They arrived on Pabu and in the process secured " Pino Hill " to the south .
The following day , the Japanese called a halt to their attack on the Australian right , and subsequently troops from the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion were then sent to the east to secure the position 's flanks . On 29 November , the 2 / 32nd was relieved by the 2 / 43rd . In doing so , it was struck by a heavy Japanese artillery bombardment which killed or wounded 25 . Over the 10 days that the 2 / 32nd had held Pabu , Mollard 's force had endured repeated mortar and artillery fire , and repeated attacks , but with the assistance of strong artillery support , it had held its ground and in doing so had helped blunt the force of the Japanese counterattack at a time when Australian forces were making heavy progress towards the Japanese fortress at Sattelberg . Later , the Japanese commanding general , Adachi , pinpointed the Australian capture of Pabu as one of the main reasons for the defeat of his force during the Huon Peninsula campaign . Losses during the fighting around Pabu were 195 Japanese and 25 Australians killed , and 51 Australians wounded .
= = = Wareo – Gusika = = =
With a second counter @-@ thrust having been beaten back again and the loss of Sattelberg , Katagiri decided to fall back to the north , to form a defensive line around Wareo to wait for the Australians to follow up their victories with a further advance . By this time , Katagiri 's forces were suffering from a manpower shortage due to a lack of reinforcements and the supply situation had still not been rectified . The Australian commander , Wootten , was keen to regain the initiative and he decided to resume the advance in the north with a view to securing the remainder of the Huon Peninsula . The first stage of Wootten 's plan involved advancing north and securing a line along a ridge that ran between Gusika , on the coast , and Wareo , which was 4 @.@ 35 miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km ) inland . It was to take place in two main drives : the 26th Brigade , having secured Sattelberg , would advance to Wareo on the left , and the 24th Brigade would advance on the right , up the coast to secure Gusika and two large water features about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) inland near the head of the Kalueng River , known collectively to the Australians as " the Lakes " . A third , minor advance would take place in the centre to Nongora and the Christmas Hills , responsibility for which was given to the 20th Brigade .
The advance on the right saw the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion advance towards Bonga and with armoured support , captured Gusika on 29 November . Later they crossed the Kalueng River and advanced towards the Lagoon further north along the coast . The 2 / 43rd Battalion then advanced from Pabu towards " Horace 's Ears " , where the Japanese made a stand which held the Australians up briefly . They then continued east towards the Lakes , where they were to take over responsibility for the central drive from the battalions of the 20th Brigade , who were then to be rested for the next stage of the campaign .
In the centre , the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion set out from Katika to capture Nongora on 30 November . They advanced over broken countryside and after the lead company had crossed the Song River , they were engaged by machine @-@ gun fire from a strong defensive position . This held them up briefly , until the other companies came up . Skirting the position , they continued on towards Nongora where they stopped short of the high ground and established a defensive position for the night . The following morning , the Australians launched a costly and unsuccessful company @-@ level attack against the ridge , but after darkness the Japanese abandoned the position , allowing the 2 / 15th to occupy it and then clear Nongora on 2 December . Following this , they began sending fighting patrols out towards the Christmas Hills area in the west , and to the east towards the Lakes to make contact with the 24th Brigade .
The link up occurred on 3 December and the following day a composite force from the 2 / 32nd and 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalions took over the advance to the Christmas Hills , which were secured on 7 December after the Japanese abandoned the position in the wake of a series of flanking moves by the Australians , an intense artillery and mortar bombardment and a frontal assault .
Meanwhile , on the left , the advance began on 28 November . On the map , Wareo was roughly 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) away from Sattelberg , however , due to the nature of the terrain , the actual distance to be travelled was estimated at being four times that . For the advancing Australian infantrymen , the burden was made even greater by heavy rain which turned the tracks over which they were advancing into a muddy morass that could not be traversed by motor transport . This , coupled with the unavailability of New Guineans to serve as bearers , meant that the Australians had to carry almost all of their own supplies on their backs . In an effort to keep the advance moving , the entire 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion was tasked with carrying supplies for the 2 / 23rd , which led the advance from Sattelberg .
On 30 November , the 2 / 23rd reached the Song , fighting its way across and the next day , after sharp fighting amidst a renewed local counterattack by Japanese forces , Kuanko was taken . To the north of the abandoned village , the Japanese were positioned in strength and they launched a strong counterattack , which retook the vital high ground for them but was checked from progressing further by a heavy Australian artillery bombardment . At this stage , the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion was released from its portage task and it was sent west to conduct a flanking movement around the Japanese position , cutting the Kuanko – Wareo track and capturing Kwatingkoo and Peak Hill early on 7 December , following a Japanese withdrawal . From there , it was a short march on to Wareo , which the Australians secured early the next day .
The main Japanese force then began to withdraw north towards Sio , however , sporadic fighting continued around Wareo over the following week as isolated pockets of Japanese resistance conducted rearguard operations to allow their comrades to get away . The most significant action during this time took place on 11 December when the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion attacked the 2200 feature north @-@ east of Wareo , near the Christmas Hills , which resulted in 27 Japanese killed .
= = = Sio = = =
The next phase of the campaign involved the advance of Australian forces along the coast towards Sio , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Finschhafen . Following the capture of Gusika , the responsibility for the first part of the advance to Sio was taken over by the infantry of the 4th Brigade , under the command of Brigadier Cedric Edgar . They were brought forward from Finschhafen early in December where they had been undertaking garrison duties and on 5 December , the 22nd Infantry Battalion began the advance , crossing the Kalueng River . Lacking the experience that the 2nd AIF units had , the Militia battalions advanced more cautiously than they might otherwise have done so . They were supported by American landing craft equipped with rockets , which bombarded Japanese positions along the coast , while the expansion of the airfield around Finschhafen and the establishment of a naval facility there enabled the Allies to use Consolidated PBY Catalina aircraft and PT boats to further attack Japanese resupply efforts .
As they advanced , the Australians came up against stiff resistance , as Japanese forces in the area fought hard to buy time for the forces falling back from Wareo by delaying the Australian advance . Initially , the 22nd 's attack was turned back ; however , fire support from artillery and armour helped overcome this opposition , and the advance continued with the 22nd and 29th / 46th Infantry Battalions advancing in turns up the coast with the 37th / 52nd moving on their left further inland . Lakona was reached on 14 December and , after finding the Japanese forces there to be positioned in strength , the 22nd Battalion worked its way around the town , enveloping the Japanese defenders and pushing them back to the cliffs , where on 16 December tanks were used to launch the final attack . After this , the 29th / 46th took over the coastal advance to Fortification Point , which it reached alongside the 37th / 52nd on 20 December , crossing the Masaweng River and gaining the high ground to its north .
The 4th Brigade suffered 65 killed and 136 wounded on top of rising casualties from disease and was replaced by the 20th Brigade at this point . The 26th Brigade took over flank protection duties inland . The advance then rolled quickly as Japanese morale broke and organised resistance diminished . Large gains were made against only limited resistance , which often amounted to minor skirmishes against small groups of Japanese . Hubika fell on 22 December with no opposition , and Wandokai two days later . Blucher Point was reached on 28 December , where the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion regained contact with the retreating Japanese and fought a sharp contact . Elsewhere , that same day , US forces landed further west at Saidor .
This sealed the Japanese decision to quit the Sio area , and over the course of two weeks the Australians advanced swiftly up the coast , overcoming only " sporadic opposition " as the Japanese continued to withdraw to the west towards Madang , seeking to avoid being cut off by the forces at Saidor . The 2 / 15th took over the advance on 31 December , reaching Nunzen on New Years Day . The Sanga River was crossed on 2 January 1944 and the following day the 2 / 17th reached Cape King William . Further river crossings followed at the Sazomu and Mangu Rivers as Kelanoa fell on 6 January ; next , the Dallman and Buri Rivers were forded as Scharnhorst Point was rounded on 9 January . After a final action was fought at Nambariwa , the 2 / 17th finally reached Sio on 15 January .
= = Aftermath = =
The operations undertaken by the 9th Division during the Huon Peninsula campaign were the largest by the Australian Army to that point of the war . Backed up by significant industrial resources which provided them with a significant technological edge over the Japanese , the Australian campaign destroyed what offensive capabilities the Japanese had in the region , and enabled them to gain control of vital sea lanes of communication and airfields that furthered their ability to conduct offensive operations in north @-@ western New Guinea and New Britain . After the capture of Sio , on 21 January 1944 the 9th Division handed over to the 5th Division . The 5th Division was a Militia formation and its take over was part of the wider Australian plan to re @-@ allocate the veteran divisions of the 2nd AIF to more intense operations elsewhere , namely the Philippines , while using the less experienced Militia formations to undertake the lower intensity work required to mop @-@ up isolated pockets of Japanese resistance . In the event , the 9th Division was precluded from taking part in the fighting in the Philippines due to inter @-@ Allied politics , and it was subsequently employed in Borneo in 1945 . Meanwhile , one of the 5th Division 's component formations , the 8th Brigade , conducted mopping up operations around Sio throughout January into February and March 1944 . They also effected a link up with US forces around Saidor .
The 9th Division suffered 1 @,@ 082 battle casualties during its involvement in the fighting on the Huon Peninsula . This included 283 men who were killed in action and one who was listed as " missing " . In addition , the 4th Brigade also suffered several hundred casualties , bringing the Australian total to 1 @,@ 387 . These casualties were relatively light in the wider context of the division 's involvement in the war as they had suffered more than twice that number during the fighting around El Alamein earlier in the war . Regardless , a number of factors combined to make the fighting on the Huon Peninsula , in the words of one participant , " harder and more nerve @-@ racking " than that which the 9th had taken part in before . These included the harsh terrain , the closeness of the combat , and the lack of hot food , water and motor transport . Disease also proved significant and during the campaign up to 85 per cent of the division 's personnel were ineffective due to illness at some stage .
Nevertheless , the most significant factor was the fighting qualities of the Japanese soldier . One Australian veteran , Sergeant Charles Lemaire , who had previously fought against the Germans at El Alamein with the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion , described the Japanese as " tenacious , brave , self @-@ sacrificing " . In the minds of the Australian soldiers , the Japanese had a reputation for being tough opponents and for not taking prisoners . Despite this perception amongst the Australians , there was a sense of confidence in their technological superiority . For the Japanese soldiers , the technological edge that the Australians possessed and their relatively abundant supply of ammunition and artillery and air support was the main psychological factor that governed their perceptions of the Australians as enemy . In order to counter this , Japanese commanders exhorted their troops to draw upon " spiritual strength " to achieve victory . In the end , although many of the significant actions of the campaign were infantry engagements which occurred a long way from the Australian base areas where their technological superiority was limited , the Australians ' use of combined arms tactics ultimately proved decisive . Although preliminary aerial bombardment , particularly that which was employed around Sattelberg , proved largely ineffective in terms of its physical effects , it did serve to reduce Japanese morale . Used in combination with artillery preparation , which caused significant casualties , considerable disruption was caused to Japanese lines of communications that were already stretched . Suffering from ammunition shortages that limited their fire support , the Japanese defenders were overwhelmed by Australian infantry that had a level of artillery support that was unprecedented for an Australian division in the Pacific , and who advanced in concert with tanks that they employed in a manner that exploited the element of surprise .
Japanese losses during the campaign amounted to a significantly higher total than those of the Allies , although exact numbers have not been established . About 12 @,@ 500 Japanese soldiers participated in the campaign and about 5 @,@ 500 are believed to have been killed . Some sources indicate a possibly higher toll . With only 4 @,@ 300 Japanese reaching Sio at the end of the campaign , it is possible that the figure is closer to 7 @,@ 000 or 8 @,@ 000 . A significant amount of war materiel was also lost during the campaign . Of the 26 field artillery pieces that the Japanese possessed in the region , 18 were captured by the Australians during the campaign , while 28 out of their 36 heavy machine @-@ guns were also lost .
At the start of the campaign , the Australian Army had been the only ground force engaging in combat with the Japanese in the region . By the end , though , the involvement of US forces in the region had increased as the US Army took over responsibility for the main Allied effort from the Australians . Elsewhere , the 7th Division 's advance towards the Finisterre Range saw the capture of Shaggy Ridge and a subsequent advance towards Bogadjim and then Madang , which fell in April . In July and August , US forces subsequently clashed with Japanese forces , including some of those that had escaped from the Huon Peninsula , around the Driniumor River . Meanwhile , the Australian Army 's efforts in the Pacific were scaled back , and it was not until late 1944 and early 1945 , when several campaigns were launched in Bougainville , New Britain , Aitape – Wewak and Borneo , that it undertook major campaigns against the Japanese again .
= Destiny ( wordless novel ) =
Destiny ( German : Schicksal ) is the only wordless novel by German artist Otto Nückel . It first appeared in 1926 from the Munich @-@ based publisher Delphin @-@ Verlag . In 211 wordless images the story follows an unnamed woman in a German city in the early 20th century whose life of poverty and misfortune drives her to infanticide , prostitution , and murder .
The book was the first whose images were made with leadcuts instead of the more common woodcuts , and showed a greater depth of character and cinematic sense than previous wordless novels . The book inspired American artist Lynd Ward to tackle the medium , beginning with Gods ' Man in 1929 . Ward 's success brought about an American publication of Destiny in 1930 which sold well . The book has impressed critics and has become one of the best @-@ known wordless novels .
= = Synopsis = =
The book follows an unnamed woman in a German city in the early 20th century who lives a life of poverty and misfortune . She is the constant victim of her society — especially the men , such as her drunken , abusive father , and the traveling salesman who gets her pregnant . She is imprisoned for the murder of her unwanted child , and upon release turns to life as a prostitute . The police hunt her down after she murders a man with an axe , and as she jumps from an upper @-@ floor window they shoot her dead .
= = Background = =
Otto Nückel ( 1888 – 1955 ) was born in Cologne in the German Empire . He studied medicine in Freiburg before switching to art , which he studied in Munich in 1910 – 12 . His paintings were less successful than the illustrations he made for magazines such as the satirical Simplicissimus and for books by Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann .
In 1918 , the Belgian Frans Masereel created the first wordless novel , 25 Images of a Man 's Passion , and followed it up the next year with his longest and most successful work , Passionate Journey . Such books achieved particular popularity in Germany , where they sold in the hundreds of thousands in the 1920s . Masereel 's woodcut artwork drew inspiration from the German Expressionists and displayed socialist themes of struggle against social injustice , themes that were to be common in the wordless novel genre .
= = Production and publication = =
Nückel 's medium was the leadcut — engraved plates of lead — a medium Nückel turned to when he found wood in short supply in Germany . Lead plates are also more economical than wood in that they can be melted down and reused if errors are made during engraving . Destiny was the first wordless novel to employ lead engraving . Nückel made 211 prints in black and white for the book . The images range in size from 2 3 ⁄ 4 × 2 3 ⁄ 4 inches ( 7 × 7 cm ) to 4 3 ⁄ 4 × 4 inches ( 12 × 10 cm ) , and were originally printed on thin Japanese handmade paper when the book was published in Germany in 1926 .
= = = Editions = = =
Das Schicksal : eine Geschichte in Bildern ( 1926 ) . Munich : Delphin @-@ Verlag
Destiny : A Novel in Pictures ( 1930 ) . New York : Farrar & Rinehart
Schicksal eine Geschichte in Bildern ( 1984 ) . Zürich : Limmat Verlag Genossenschaft
Destin ( 2005 ) . Paris : Éditions IMHO
Destiny : A Novel in Pictures ( 2007 ) . New York : Dover Publications
= = Style and analysis = =
Nückel engraved his plates with a multiple tool ( also called a lining tool ) , a sort of chisel that cuts multiple parallel lines at once , which gives a mechanical hatching texture to the print . The images vary not only in dimensions but in focus , from close @-@ ups of faces to panaromas of crowds .
In contrast to the earlier works of Masereel , Destiny focuses on an individualized woman instead of the plight of a man as cipher for humankind . Lynd Ward found Nückel 's book had greater psychological depth in its characters and plot development , and more skilled technical achievement in the artwork . Canadian artist George Walker believed that Masereel 's plots were more original .
= = Reception and legacy = =
American artist Lynd Ward discovered a copy of Nückel 's book in New York in 1929 and was inspired by it to create wordless novels of his own , beginning with Gods ' Man the same year . The success of both Gods ' Man and the subsequent Madman 's Drum ( 1930 ) led to a number of American publishers bringing other wordless novels into print , including Destiny in 1930 , which sold well in the US .
Literary scholar Martin S. Cohen called Destiny " perhaps the most pathetic ... and one of the most memorable " examples of the wordless novel genre . Wordless novel scholar David Beronä judged the book " a pioneering work in the development of the contemporary graphic novel " for the complexity of its plot , its social consciousness , and its focus on an individual character . Reviewer Christian Gasser commended the book 's " narrative pull " , which he credited as creating a " haunting , edgy narrative rhythm " of a story of persecution , satire , and Expressionist art . The story , he suggests , may be allegory of the Weimar Republic in which it arose .
= Alfred V. Verville =
Alfred Victor Verville ( November 16 , 1890 – March 10 , 1970 ) was an aviation pioneer and aircraft designer who contributed to civilian and military aviation . During his forty @-@ seven years in the aviation industry , he was responsible for the design and development of nearly twenty commercial and military airplanes . Verville is known for designing flying boats , military racing airplanes ( such as the record breaking Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer ) , and a series of commercial cabin airplanes . His planes were awarded with the Pulitzer Speed Classic Trophy in 1920 and 1924 .
Verville was a founder of three aeronautical companies , the General Aeroplane Company , Verville Aircraft Company , and the Buhl Aircraft Company . He worked for General Billy Mitchell during his service at the United States Army Air Service from 1918 to 1925 . From 1937 to 1945 , he worked as a consultant for companies such as Douglas Aircraft , Curtiss @-@ Wright , Snead Aircraft , and Drexel Aviation . Verville spent the next sixteen years in the U.S. Federal government , primarily in the Bureau of Aeronautics , before retiring in 1961 .
Verville received many honors and awards , including a selection as a fellow of the Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in 1962 . An airmail stamp was issued in 1985 by the US Postal Service in Verville 's honor . In 1991 , he was posthumously inducted into the Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame .
= = Early life and career = =
Verville was born in Atlantic Mine , a small town in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , on November 16 , 1890 , as the son of Victor Verville and Fabianna Miron . As a child , his mother bought him a Conyne @-@ style box kite from Sears Roebuck , which captured his imagination and started his interest in flight and aviation . Verville also began reading stories about the Wright Brothers in newspapers and magazines with great interest . Later he even wrote to the Wrights and Glenn Curtiss and received responses .
After graduating from Adams Township High School , Verville took a correspondence course in electrical engineering . He moved to Detroit , Michigan at the age of twenty , and from 1910 to 1913 he worked in the electrical departments of the Detroit Edison Company , Ford Motor Company , and Hudson Motor Car Company . By 1913 , Verville had made his mind up that he wanted to learn to fly . William Edmund Scripps , the editor and owner of The Detroit News , introduced Verville to Glenn Curtiss in July 1913 . Curtiss encouraged Verville to apply for his Spring 1914 flight school . Instead , Verville went to Hammondsport , New York in February 1914 , where Curtiss Aeroplane Company was located , and told Curtiss he wanted to work as an apprentice in his drafting and engineering shop . Curtiss agreed and this began Verville 's aviation career .
Verville excelled as a draftsman and designer , but still wanted to attend flight school and to become an exhibition pilot . After applying and being passed over three times for the Curtiss Flying School , Verville went to Curtiss , who responded : " No , Mr. Verville you don 't want to be a pilot . We can get all the pilots we want . What we want are designers . You 're [ really ] a designer and you don 't know it . " While at Curtiss Aeroplane , Verville took an active part in the development of the transatlantic flying boat America ( which was a Curtiss H @-@ 2 ) and the Curtiss Jenny of World War I fame . In the Fall of 1914 , Verville left the company and joined the Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company in New Jersey ; shortly thereafter , he joined the Thomas @-@ Morse Airplane Company . In March 1915 , he returned to Detroit and joined the General Aeroplane Company , where he led his first full design and build to his specifications , the Verville Flying Boat .
On July 9 , 1917 , Verville married Bertha M. Kamrath in Escanaba , Michigan . He had three children with her , daughters Betty and Janet , and son Myron . Also in 1917 , Verville left the General Aeroplane Company to become executive engineer of Fisher Body Corporation , where he supervised the construction of de Havilland DH @-@ 4 airplanes .
= = U.S. Army service = =
In June 1918 , Verville joined the Engineering Division of the U.S. Army Air Service ( USAAS ) as a civilian , and was based out of the USAAS Engineering Division at McCook Field in Dayton , Ohio . In 1920 , the young engineer gained national prominence when his Verville @-@ Packard R @-@ 1 Racer won the Pulitzer Speed Classic Trophy at the first held National Air Races ( at Roosevelt Field , New York ) by finishing first out of twenty four other planes , achieving a top speed of 156 @.@ 54 mph .
In 1919 Brigadier General William Mitchell requested the Engineering Division to design a light @-@ weight " motorcycle of the air " that could operate as a liaison between Army field units . Verville completed the Messenger design in early 1920 . The Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Company of Farmingdale was contracted to build five Messengers in April 1920 . The first Messenger flight was on November 1 . Later designated the Verville @-@ Sperry M @-@ 1 Messenger , the plane is notable for its small size , simple construction , and inexpensive cost , which made it ideal for testing and experimentation . The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics used one in its pioneering aerodynamic research programs from 1923 to 1929 . Sperry modified twelve into the radio @-@ controlled Messenger Aerial Torpedo and developed the apparatus for a Messenger to make the first successful airship hook on and release in December 1924 .
Following World War I , in the capacity as an engineering advisor , Verville joined General Billy Mitchell and his aide , Lieutenant Clayton Bissell , on their sailing trip to Europe in December 1921 . The three men toured France , Italy , Germany , Holland , and England in order to check on the European progress of aviation . From their research they produced a 206 @-@ page report , which was published as an U.S. Army Air Service Information Circular . General Mitchell asked Verville to incorporate some of the European developments they had observed and to produce a plane for the U.S. Army Air Service 's participation in the upcoming 1922 National Air Races .
The resulting plane , the Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer , was the second plane to utilize retractable landing gear and incorporated many features advanced for its time . The completion of the R @-@ 3 encountered challenges because the planned Curtiss D @-@ 12 engine was not available . So , instead Verville had to use the problematic Wright H @-@ 3 ( Hispano ) engine , which had major vibration issues . Three R @-@ 3 's competed in the 1922 National Air Races , but only one finished in 5th place with a top speed of 181 mph . After the 1922 race , Verville was able to finally obtain a Curtiss D @-@ 12 engine . It was installed on an R @-@ 3 and based on trials , it was determined that it could break a world record . On March 31 , 1923 , with Orville Wright officially observing from the ground , pilot Lieutenant Alexander Pearson , Jr. set a 500 km World Speed Record of 167 @.@ 73 mph ( 269 @.@ 94 km / h ) over a 10 @-@ lap course at Wilbur Wright Field . For the 1924 National Air Races , his R @-@ 3 won the 1924 Pulitzer Speed Trophy at 216 mph .
While at the Air Service , Verville was awarded eight aeronautical patents for technologies such as airplane truss design , radiator mounting , and an automatic gun mechanism .
= = Buhl and Verville Aircraft Companies = =
In 1925 , Verville left the government service to co @-@ found the Buhl @-@ Verville Aircraft Company with the Buhl family in Detroit . On March 29 , 1927 , Buhl was awarded the first Approved Type Certificate for its Buhl @-@ Verville CA @-@ 3 Airster ( i.e. A.T.C. No. 1 ) issued by the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce on March 29 , 1927 . There were a total of 20 of this aircraft manufactured and it broke a number of speed and endurance records , placing at the top of the Ford National Reliability Air Tour and the National Air Races . Verville was the chief designer from the company 's founding in 1925 until 1927 .
In 1928 , Verville left Buhl @-@ Verville to establish the Verville Aircraft Company , also in Detroit . The company sought to market planes to the wealthy private owner . Verville Aircraft produced the Verville Air Coach , a four passenger , high @-@ wing monoplane , which made its debut at the 1929 Detroit Air Show and the Verville Sport Trainer , a two @-@ seat tandem biplane . The United States Army Air Corps purchased 4 Sport Trainers under the designation YPT @-@ 10 . The USAAC tested with 5 different engine versions resulting in YPT @-@ 10 thru YPT @-@ 10D designations .
= = Bureau of Air Commerce and consulting = =
Verville joined the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce in 1933 . The Aeronautics Branch became the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 . During his time there , Verville served in the following roles : aeronautical engineer ; chief of the Manufacturing , Engineering , and Inspections Service ; and finally assistant chief of the Aeronautic Development Section . In his role as chief of the Manufacturing , Engineering , and Inspections Service , he was in charge of the reviews for issuing type certificates for all manufactured airplanes .
Verville left government service to be a consultant for companies including Douglas Aircraft ( 1937 – 38 ) , Curtiss @-@ Wright ( 1941 – 42 ) , Snead Aircraft ( 1942 ) , and the Drexel Aviation Company ( 1942 – 45 ) . Verville briefly returned to the Bureau of Air Commerce from 1939 @-@ 1941 .
= = U.S. Navy service and retirement = =
In 1945 , once again returning to government service , he joined as a member of the Naval Technical Mission to Europe , and later , the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( 1946 – 61 ) . At the Bureau of Aeronautics , from 1950 until his retirement in 1961 , Verville was a technical advisor and consultant to the director of the Technical Data Division . Verville retired in 1961 and moved to La Jolla , California . He died on March 10 , 1970 from a heart attack at age 79 .
= = Honors = =
In 1962 , Verville was selected as a fellow of the Smithsonian 's National Air Museum . He was honored with ten Certificates or Letters of Commendation from the U.S. Armed Forces . He was an Honorary Fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and was named an Elder Statesman of Aviation by the National Aeronautic Association in 1956 . In 1961 , he was elected as a fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics . In 1991 , he was posthumously inducted into the Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame .
The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum established the Verville Fellowship in his name , which is a competitive nine @-@ to @-@ twelve month in @-@ residence fellowship for researching the history of aviation . Over 20 boxes of material from Verville 's estate are housed at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum 's Garber Facility . A 33 cent United States Postal Service airmail stamp was issued on February 13 , 1985 , bearing Verville 's name , picture , the text " Aviation Pioneer " , and an image of his Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer low @-@ wing monoplane .
= = Planes designed by Verville = =
Over the course of his forty @-@ seven years in designing and building planes , Verville contributed to the design and development of nearly twenty different aircraft . A plane he designed , the Verville @-@ Sperry M @-@ 1 Messenger is on permanent exhibition at the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center . Another plane he designed , the Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer won first place at the 1924 Pulitzer Trophy Races . In June 1961 , it was honored as one of the twelve most significant aircraft of all time by Popular Mechanics and it was featured on a USPS airmail stamp issued in 1985 .
= = = Curtiss Aircraft Company = = =
Curtiss Jenny ( 1914 )
famous WWI plane
Verville contributed to design
America ( 1914 )
first plane of Curtiss H @-@ 2 line
planned to be first transatlantic flight , but interrupted by WWI
transatlantic flying boat
= = = General Aeroplane Company = = =
Verville Flying Boat ( 1916 )
2 passenger , open cockpit , biplane , flying boat
100 hp Curtiss OX @-@ 5 or Maximotor pusher
Mahogany hull and wing floats constructed by Mayea Boat Company ( Detroit )
Gamma S ( 1917 )
A two @-@ seater , open cockpit , floatplane , biplane with an 80 hp Le Rhône pusher engine .
Gamma L ( 1917 )
Similar to Gamma S , with wheels .
Twin floats were replaced with wheels for winter operations off the ice of Lake St. Clair .
= = = U.S. Military = = =
Verville @-@ Clark @-@ Pursuit 1 & 2 ( 1920 )
Function : fighter ( also known as VCP @-@ 1 / 2 )
Two VCP @-@ 1 and two VCP @-@ 2 built
VCP @-@ 1 re @-@ designated VCP @-@ 1A & R @-@ 1 Racer , VCP @-@ 2 redesignated PW @-@ 1 & PW @-@ 1A
While at the Engineering Division and Aeronautical Systems Center of the Signal Corps - post @-@ World War I : November 11 , 1918 @-@ September 1919
Verville @-@ Packard R @-@ 1 Racer ( 1920 )
Function : racing ; crew : 1 ; engines : 1x 6
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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38 hp Packard 1A @-@ 2025 V @-@ 12
On November 27 , 1920 , Captain C. C. Moseley , flying a Verville @-@ Packard VCP @-@ R , won the Pulitzer Trophy Race at Mitchel Air Force Base. with a maximum speed of 177 miles per hour ( 285 km / h ) .
While in the Air Service
Verville @-@ Sperry M @-@ 1 Messenger ( 1921 )
Function : messenger , manufactured by Sperry Aircraft Company
This plane is exhibited in the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center .
Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer ( 1922 )
Participated in the 1922 and 1924 Pulitzer Trophy Races ; won first place in 1924 . In June 1961 , it was honored as one of the twelve most significant aircraft of all time by Popular Mechanics .
Engineering Division TP @-@ 1 ( 1923 )
Was a two @-@ seat biplane fighter designed by Alfred V. Verville and Virginius E. Clark at the United States Army Air Corps Engineering Division .
Prototype TP @-@ 1 was built as the XTP @-@ 1 and tested at McCook Field in 1923 .
YPT @-@ 10 ( 1925 ) , Primary Trainer
Similar design to Verville Sport Trainer AT
While at the Air Corps
= = = Buhl @-@ Verville = = =
Buhl @-@ Verville CA @-@ 3 / CW @-@ 3 Airster ( 1925 – 1926 )
CA @-@ 3 Airster , 200 hp Wright J @-@ 4 engine
CA @-@ 3A Airster , 225 hp Wright J @-@ 5 engine
CW @-@ 3 OX5 Airster , 90 hp Curtiss OX @-@ 5 engine
CW @-@ 3 Wright Trainer , 220 hp Wright J @-@ 5 engine ( short military trial )
Also known as : J4 / J5 Airster or B @-@ V Airster
= = = Verville Aircraft Company = = =
Verville Air Coach ( 1929 )
four passenger , high @-@ wing cabin monoplane designed in 1927 by Verville
Model 102 ( 104 @-@ W , Warner Engine )
Model 104 @-@ C
Model 104 @-@ P ( Packard Diesel Coach )
Verville Sport Trainer ( 1930 )
This plane is in storage in the Smithsonian Institution system ; its engine was a Packard DR @-@ 980 .
= Røa Line =
The Røa Line ( Norwegian : Røabanen ) is a rapid transit line of the Oslo Metro , Norway , which runs from Majorstuen in Oslo to Østerås in Bærum . It serves neighborhoods such as Smestad , Hovseter , Huseby and Røa in northwestern Oslo , and Grini , Øvrevoll and Østerås in northeastern Bærum . The line is served by Line 2 of the metro , which connects to the city center via the Common Tunnel and onwards along the Furuset Line . The lowest part of the Røa Line , consisting of two stations , is shared with the Kolsås Line , and thus also served by Line 2 of the metro . The Røa Line is owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon , and operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with the public transport agency Ruter .
The first part of the line , originally a light rail , was from Majorstuen to Smestad , and opened in 1912 . It was built as a cooperation between the Municipality of Aker and the company Holmenkolbanen , and connected to the Holmenkoll Line 's terminus . In 1928 , the line received a connection to the city center when the first part of the Common Tunnel was completed . In 1935 , the first extension of the Røa Line proper was made , when the line was extended to Røa . In 1942 , the Kolsås Line became a branch . Additional extensions to the Røa Line were made in 1948 to Grini , in 1951 to Lijordet and in 1972 to Østerås . By then , the line had become an integrated part of the municipal Oslo Sporveier . The line was upgraded to rapid transit in 1995 , became part of the metro and started running through the city center .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Construction of housing in the Smestad area started after Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei ( KES ) established a tramway from the city center to Majorstuen in 1894 . Four years later , fund @-@ raising started to build the Aker Avenue towards Smestad , but the recession made fund @-@ raising difficult . The plans were launched again in 1904 , and subsequently revised in 1908 , by which time they including a tramway along the avenue . In 1910 , A. S. Guldberg , Iver Lycke , W. Munthes @-@ Kaas and H. A. Mørk applied for a concession to build a tramway along the route . This was granted by the municipal council in Aker on 26 May . The four individuals then transferred their rights to the municipality , who started negotiating rights with KES , and Holmenkolbanen — the latter who had a suburban tramway running from Majorstuen , the Holmenkollen Line .
An arrangement was made with Holmenkolbanen , where the municipality would expropriate the necessary land and build the bed , while Holmenkolbanen would lay the tracks , the wires and operate the trams . The line would remain owned by the company A / S Smedstadbanen , which was again owned by Aker Municipality . The agreement had a duration of 50 years , but the municipality retained the right to purchase the line if work to extend the line from Majorstuen through the Common Tunnel to the city center had not started by 1917 , or had not been completed by 1922 . Government approval was granted on 7 July 1911 , and the construction was completed on 7 November 1912 . The 1 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) long line was single tracked , with passing loops at Borgen and Smestad , which were the only stations in addition to Majorstuen . Holmenkolbanen used a single tram , with departures every 20 minutes . There were extra departures from Borgen to Majorstuen during the afternoon rush @-@ hour .
= = = Nationaltheatret expansion = = =
The process of extending the Holmenkollen Line from Majorstuen to the city center had started in 1901 . The process had been delayed several times because of disagreements between the city and the company , in part because the two could not agree if it should be classified as a railway or a tramway . Construction started in 1912 , but stopped again in 1914 because the municipality and the company could not agree on the location of the terminus . The municipality wanted it at Ruseløkkveien , but this would make it difficult for the company to build the tunnel through the city center to connect to the suburban tramways east of the city center . Construction was stopped in October 1914 .
The following year , the municipality launched a contest to make the best suggestion for the tram networks . It took five years to select a winner , and this allowed the municipality and company to make a compromise by locating the terminus at Nationaltheatret . But not until 1926 was permission granted for the station . Construction commenced that year and the station and tunnel opened in 1928 . When the tunnel had not been completed by 1922 , Aker Municipality decided to purchase the line . At the time , the municipality was planning to start its own tram company , Akersbanerne , and the Smestad Line was considered as part of the network , along with the planned Sognsvann Line . But delays caused the Sognsvann Line not to open until 1934 . The take @-@ over caused a disagreement between the two companies about payment for the common section , which would still be owned by Holmenkolbanen . Not until 1932 was the issue resolved .
The investments had drained Holmenkolbanen , particularly after it had received a massive lawsuit for damage to adjacent properties during the tunneling . After the issue had been resolved by the Supreme Court in 1931 , the company needed more capital to start operations . Aker Municipality offered to transfer its ownership of the Smestad Line and the Sognsvann Line to Holmenkolbanen , in exchange for the majority of shares in the company .
= = = Røa extension = = =
In the 1920s , the area towards Røa experienced a growth in housing . Akersbanerne proposed in 1931 to the municipal council that the Smestad Line be extended towards Makrellbekken . Government permission was granted on 26 May 1933 , and construction started the same year . The extension was built with single track . When the line was taken over by Holmenkolbanen , the new owner suggested extending the line to Røa . Government permission was granted in on 29 June 1934 , and construction started immediately . The 2 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 8 mi ) extension opened on 24 January 1935 .
The new line was initially not profitable , because Schøyens Bilcentraler had kept its concession to operate buses in the area . Not until World War II was the bus route terminated . The Røa Line and the Sognsvann Line were both upgraded in 1939 . On 6 July , the section from Makrellbekken to Røa was upgraded to double track , and later Volvat was moved and placed inside a tunnel . A level crossing was built at the intersection with Sørkedalsveien , and was completed on 15 December .
= = = Branch to Kolsås = = =
The Lilleaker Line , which connected to the street tramway at Skøyen , had been extended to Kolsås in 1930 . The owner Bærumsbanen instead wanted the line to go the faster route via the Common Tunnel to Nationaltheatret . Concession was granted in 1938 for a link from Jar on the Lilleaker Line to Sørbyhaugen on the Røa Line . The construction was delayed because a bridge needed to be built across Mærradalen , and the company ran out of money , and construction stopped for nine months in 1940 . The line was opened on 15 June 1942 , and the section from Sørbyhaugen to Kolsås was renamed the Kolsås Line . This resulted in two companies operating from Sørbyhaugen to Nationaltheatret , but an agreement was made where only Holmenkolbanen 's tickets were sold on the section , so all revenue went to that company , regardless of the train 's operator . The Kolsås Line operated every fifteen minutes along the Røa Line part .
= = = Bærum extensions = = =
Proposals to extend the line into the neighboring municipality of Bærum had first been launched in 1919 . In 1941 , construction of an extension to Grini started . The main problem was getting building materials for a bridge to cross Grinidammen , and a local disagreement about where the station at Røa was to be located . The 0 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometer ( 1 mi ) extension was opened on 22 December 1948 , after Røa Station had been moved , and the line put in a short tunnel under the center of Røa .
The 1 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) extension via Eiksmarka to Lijordet opened on 3 December 1951 . Lijordet was intended to be named Sørbråten , but there was already a station with that name on the Norwegian State Railways ' network , and two stations with the same name were not permitted . In 1959 , a block signaling system was installed between Røa and Makrellbekken .
During the early 1970s , Bærum Municipality wanted to extend the line onwards to Hosle , and were willing to pay the construction costs . Holmenkolbanen also wanted the municipality to pay for new trams , but the municipality was not willing to do this . The line was therefore only extended to Østerås , which could be reached using the existing fleet . The 0 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) extension was opened in 1972 . Since 1978 , Holmenkolbanen has had sufficient trams to operate an extension , but since then the municipality has not been interested in extending the line further .
= = = Metro standard = = =
The ownership of the line was gradually taken over by the municipality through Oslo Sporveier . In 1975 , most of the shares were bought , along with those that Oslo Sporveier had received as part of the municipal merger with Aker in 1948 . Gradually during the 1970s and 1980s , Holmenkolbanen became more integrated into Oslo Sporveier , including the two using the same rolling stock , tickets and uniforms . Oslo Sporveier upgraded the line in the last half of the 1970s , laying new ties , upgrading the tracks to higher weight and purchasing new trams .
Plans to have trams run through the city center have existed since 1919 . In the late 1940s , Holmenkolbanen revised the plan , and proposed extending the Common Tunnel eastwards . From 1951 , the municipality started working on plans for the Oslo Metro in the eastern part of the city . The large difference in traffic between the eastern and western lines caused the plans to be changed during the 1960s , and the eastern network was equipped with third rail power supply . The eastern lines at first terminated at Jernbanetorget , and the plans were to continue the lines onwards towards Bislett . But by the 1970s , these plans changed , largely because of the increase of traffic in the west and decrease in the east . On 7 March 1987 , the services from the west , including the Røa Line , were extended from Nationaltheatret to Stortinget , a station that allowed transfer to the metro .
The Sognsvann Line was upgraded to metro standard and reopened on 3 April 1993 . The Røa Line was closed on 5 February 1995 to be upgraded to metro standard . The upgrades meant that all platforms needed to be extended to 110 meters ( 360 ft ) to allow six @-@ car metro trains . The only exception was Østerås , that was made only long enough for five cars , although this could easily be extended later . The upgrade involved a complete renovation of the tracks , with the old ones being replaced with new , and increasing the weight to 49 kilograms per meter ( 33 lb / ft ) . The overhead wire was replaced with a third rail ; this required all four level crossings , at Makrellbekken , Hovseter , Eiksmarka and Ekraveien , to be replaced . In the former three , the track was sunk under the level of the road , requiring several hundred meters of the line to be rebuilt . Pedestrian underpasses were built at Ekreveien , Borgen , Holmen , Huseby skole and Lijordet .
Three stations were closed : Grini , Huseby skole and Heggeli . Volvat kept the two @-@ car length , and was no longer served by the Røa Line , only the Kolsås Line . To compensate for the closing of Huseby skole , Røa was moved back to it original position , causing a heated local debate . The signaling system was replaced with the automatic train protection used on the metro . But the installation was delayed , and a temporary system was used . This caused an accident at Husebybakken , where twelve people were injured . During the upgrade , the area along the line was served by buses . Bus stops could only be established at places where cars could pass , making it difficult to place stops at Røa and Sørbyhaugen . Passengers transferring to the Kolsås Line would normally have 15 minutes longer travel time , and congestion caused delays of up to 30 minutes . This caused more people to use cars , which increased the congestion further . Ridership on the buses was significantly lower than on the rail . The Kolsås Line opened on 20 August and the Røa Line on 19 November . After the opening , the line connected with the Furuset Line as Line 2 , and started being served by T1000 trains . The Røa Line , including the common section in the city center , has been extended eight times , more than any other line of the Oslo Metro .
= = Route = =
The Røa Line starts at Majorstuen , a major public transport hub located 2 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) from Stortinget . Majorstuen was the site of the company 's head offices , depots , workshops and employee residences . Majorstuen serves several educational institutions , such as Chateau Neuf , MF Norwegian School of Theology , the Norwegian Academy of Music , the Norwegian Police University College , several larger office complexes and the Oslo Tramway Museum . From Majorstuen , the Røa Line and the Kolsås Line follow the same tracks . The line immediately enters a short tunnel , in which the now closed Volvat Station is located , 0 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 43 mi ) from Majorstuen . Borgen follows next , located 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from Majorstuen , and serves a primarily housing area and a larger cemetery .
Next is the now closed Heggeli , and Smestad , located 1 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from Majorstuen . The areas are mostly single dwellings built in the 1910s , following the arrival of the line . After Smestad , the Kolsås Line branches off and the Røa Line continues past the closed Sørbyhaugen to Makrellbekken , located 2 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) from Majorstuen . The next station is Holmen , located 3 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) from Majorstuen , and Hovseter , located 4 @.@ 0 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Majorstuen . Hovseter is a residential area with dominated by apartment blocks from the 1970s , and also serves Persbråten Upper Secondary School . The station has previously been used as a terminus for extra rush @-@ hour trains . The line then runs past the closed Huseby skole , located 4 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) from Majorstuen , which served Huseby Leir , the base of the Royal Guard . The next station is Røa , located 4 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) from Majorstuen , which has also been a terminus for extra rush @-@ hour trains . Røa has substantial commercial properties and is located close to Bogstadvannet and a golf course . The line then passes Ekraveien , located 5 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) from Majorstuen , which is the last station located in Oslo .
The line then runs over Lysakerelva , which is also the border to Bærum , and past the closed Grini . The next station is Eiksmarka , located 6 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) from Majorstuen , which until the late 1970s had the line 's only spur , to allow ballast stone to be loaded from Franzefoss . The area has single dwellings from the 1950s . Next is Lijordet , located 6 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from Majorstuen , which serves Øvrevoll Galoppbane , the country 's only gallop race course . The line 's terminus is Østerås , located 7 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) from Majorstuen . There are some commercial and office buildings in the vicinity of the station , although the area is dominated by housing .
= = Service = =
The Røa Line is served by Line 2 of the Oslo Metro , which continues from Majorstuen via the Common Tunnel and connects to the Furuset Line . The line runs every 15 minutes , with enhanced service weekdays between 7 and 19 giving eight departures an hour . During late evenings and Saturday and Sunday mornings , it runs every 30 minutes . The lower part of the line , from Majorstuen to Borgen , is also served by Line 2 , which continues along the Kolsås Line . Along this section , there is twice the frequency . Travel time from Østerås to Majorstuen is 16 minutes , to Stortinget is 20 minutes , and to Vestli on the Grorud Line is 50 minutes . The metro and the line are owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon and operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
The line crosses into Bærum , but the entire metro system is within a single fare zone . Ticket machines are available at all stations , and the system is operated with a proof @-@ of @-@ payment system . Smestad is a transfer station to the Kolsås Line ( Line 2 ) , while Majorstuen is a transfer station for other west @-@ bound lines . Transfer to Ruter buses can be made at Majorstuen , Smestad , Hovseter , Røa and Eiksmarka . Transfer to the Oslo Tramway can be made at Majorstuen to lines 11 , 12 and 19 , serving the Briskeby Line , the Homansbyen Line , and the Frogner Line . In the Common Tunnel , Jernbanetorget is the transfer station for Oslo Central Station , which serves all mainline trains in Eastern Norway . Most west @-@ bound mainline trains can also be reached at Nationaltheatret .
= = Future = =
Proposals for the line have been made since the extension to Østerås . The current municipal master plan calls for the line to be extended to Bekkestua Station , where it would again intersect with the Kolsås Line . One possibility is also that the service be continued along the Kolsås Line and a new branch be built to Sandvika , the municipal center of Bærum . However , an extension has not been a priority for the municipal politicians , although the right @-@ of @-@ way has been secured , which will simplify construction .
= = = Biography = = =
Aspenberg , Nils Carl ( 1995 ) . Neste stopp Makrellbekken : historien om Røabanen . Oslo : Baneforlaget . ISBN 82 @-@ 91448 @-@ 18 @-@ 3 .
= Just Like Heaven ( song ) =
" Just Like Heaven " is a song by British alternative rock band The Cure . The group wrote most of the song during recording sessions in southern France in 1987 . The lyrics were written by their frontman Robert Smith , who drew inspiration from a past trip to the sea shore with his future wife . Before Smith had completed the lyrics , an instrumental version of the song was used as the theme for the French television show Les Enfants du Rock .
" Just Like Heaven " was the third single released from their 1987 album Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me , while Smith 's memories of the trip formed the basis for the song 's accompanying music video . The song became the Cure 's first American hit and reached number 40 on the Billboard charts in 1988 . It has been praised by critics and covered by artists such as Dinosaur Jr . , Alvin and the Chipmunks , and Katie Melua . Smith has said he considers " Just Like Heaven " to be one of the band 's strongest songs .
= = Background and recording = =
In order to develop material for Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Smith forced himself to write music for 15 days of each month . During this regimen , he developed the chords and melody which form the basis of " Just Like Heaven " . Structurally , Smith found what he had written was similar to The Only Ones 's 1979 hit " Another Girl , Another Planet " . When he brought an instrumental demo of the song to the album recording sessions in Southern France , Cure drummer Boris Williams increased the tempo and added an opening drum fill which inspired Smith to introduce each instrument singularly and in sequence .
When the French TV show Les Enfants du Rock asked The Cure to provide a theme song , Smith offered the instrumental version . As he explained , " It meant the music would be familiar to millions of Europeans even before it was released " . He completed the lyrics when the group moved the sessions to Studio Miraval , located in Le Val , Provence @-@ Alpes @-@ Côte d 'Azur . The band completed the song quickly , and at the time Smith considered it to be the most obvious potential single from the songs the band had recorded during their two @-@ week stay at Miraval .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Just Like Heaven " is written in the key of A major and consists of an A – E – Bm – D chord progression which repeats throughout the song , except during the chorus when the band plays an F ♯ m – G – D progression . The song 's central hook is formed from a descending guitar riff which appears between song verses and in parts of the bridge and the last verse . This guitar line contrasts with the " fuzzier mix " of the rhythm guitars .
According to Smith , " The song is about hyperventilating — kissing and fainting to the floor . " The lyrics were inspired by a trip with his then @-@ girlfriend ( and later wife ) Mary Poole to Beachy Head in southern England . Smith said the opening line of the song ( " Show me , show me , show me how you do that trick " ) refers to his childhood memories of mastering magic tricks , but added " on another [ level ] , it 's about a seduction trick , from much later in my life " .
= = Reception = =
" Just Like Heaven " was the third single released from the band 's Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me album . Melody Maker 's review of the single was undecided ; writer David Stubbs described it as " a colourful , fluttery , fussy thing " and " unimpeachable " , but added , " [ it ] turns my face green , as if having consumed too many truffles . " The song was The Cure 's eleventh top 40 hit in the UK , and stayed on the charts there for five weeks during October and November 1987 , peaking at number 29 . In the United States , " Just Like Heaven " became The Cure 's first top 40 hit when in January 1988 it reached number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said " the stately ' Just Like Heaven ' [ ... ] is remarkable and helps make the album [ Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me ] one of the group 's very best " . Ned Raggett , also of Allmusic , wrote that the song was " instantly memorable , [ and ] sparkling with rough energy [ ... ] it 's a perfect showcase for Robert Smith 's ear for wistful , romantic numbers . His main guitar line , a descending , gently chiming melody , contrasts perfectly against the fuzzier mix of the rhythm guitars , while Simon Gallup 's bass and Boris Williams ' strong , immediate drums make for a great introduction to the track . " Barry Walsh of Slant magazine said The Cure " ... is at the top of its game [ ... ] on the simply stellar ' Just Like Heaven ' . Glistening descending guitar lines , Gallup 's throbbing bass line , and Williams ' authoritative thumping frame a typically lovelorn Smith lyric , with the end result being one of The Cure 's finest singles , and perhaps one of the best pop singles of the late ' 80s . "
Although the later singles " Lovesong " and " Friday I 'm in Love " reached higher chart positions , " Just Like Heaven " was the band 's American breakthrough , and has been described as " in American terms , at least , the one Cure song everyone seems to know . " The song inspired the name of , and was used in the 2005 film Just Like Heaven . In 2004 Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 483 on their list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2005 Entertainment Weekly ranked " Just Like Heaven " 25th on its list of " The 50 Greatest Love Songs " , saying , " Turns out guys who wear black eyeliner can be happy . " The following year the song placed at number 22 on VH1 's poll " 100 Greatest Songs of the 80s " .
Robert Smith said he considers " Just Like Heaven " to be one of the band 's strongest works , and called it " the best pop song The Cure have ever done " . Several high @-@ profile fans have expressed their appreciation of the song . Musician Ben Folds told Blender " everything about it — the songwriting , the music — is state of the art . It ’ s as good as it gets . Anytime I hear it on the radio or a mix tape , I jump around like a freak . " J Mascis said his band Dinosaur Jr . ' s affection for the song inspired them to record a cover version that was released in 1989 . On 16 July 2006 , " Just Like Heaven " was played as a wake @-@ up call for the crew of Space Shuttle Discovery on their flight STS @-@ 121 at the request of astronaut Piers Sellers ' family ; Sellers told mission control center that the song reminded him of " the wild , happy , beer @-@ drinking years of my youth . " Just like Heaven was used extensively as the playout track on episode ten of the current series of the BBC TV drama New Tricks " The Queen 's Speech " which was broadcast on Monday 20 October 2014 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Just Like Heaven " was directed by Tim Pope , who had directed all of the band 's previous videos since 1982 's " Let 's Go to Bed " . The video was filmed in England 's Pinewood Studios in October 1987 . Set on a cliff overlooking a sea , the video recreates many of the memories detailed in the song 's lyrics . When a fanzine asked Smith what the song was about , he said it was inspired by " something that happened to me a long time ago — see the video ! " While Smith had claimed for years that the video was shot at the same place that inspired the song , he later admitted that the bulk of it was filmed in a studio , utilising footage of the water and cliffs of Beachy Head taken for the band 's 1985 video for " Close to Me " .
During the song 's piano solo the sky turns to nighttime and the band is shown clad in white shirts . Mary Poole appears in this sequence as a woman dressed in white dancing with Smith . As Smith explained , " Mary dances with me in the video because she was the girl [ in the song ] , so it had to be her . " Pope later commented , " [ Poole ] can honestly lay claim to being the only featured female in any Cure video , ever . "
= = Cover versions = =
A number of cover versions of " Just Like Heaven " have been released , including recordings in Spanish , French , and German .
Katie Melua recorded a cover for the 2005 film Just Like Heaven , which also appeared on her 2005 album Piece by Piece . In the UK the cover was released as a double A @-@ side single with " I Cried for You " in late 2005 , and in the U.S. it became a minor adult contemporary radio hit in 2006 . In 2007 , Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their video game Alvin and the Chipmunks , which also appeared in the 2011 video game Alvin and the Chipmunks : Chipwrecked .
AFI has covered " Just Like Heaven " as well on MTV Icon on The Cure in 2004 and have since incorporated it into their tour rotation for their upcoming album Burials .
Goldfinger covered the song on their 1999 album Darrin 's Coconut Ass : Live from Omaha Punk band 30footFALL also covered the song in 1999 on their album Ever Revolving , Never Evolving . Indie rock band Gatsbys American Dream covered the song on the 2005 compilation album Punk Goes 80 's . Jazz singer Kat Edmonson covered the song in 2009 .
Deadsy recorded a version of the song on their 1995 demo . This version was much slower than the original .
Robert Smith 's personal favourite is the cover recorded by American alternative rock band Dinosaur Jr . , which was released as a single in the UK in 1989 ( and 1990 in the US ) . Dinosaur Jr . ' s version has a faster tempo and showcases the band 's loud and distortion @-@ heavy sound . The band 's frontman J Mascis explained , " We recorded it for a compilation album , but when we finished it we liked it so much we didn 't want to give it to them . " Smith said , " J Mascis sent me a cassette , and it was so passionate . It was fantastic . I 've never had such a visceral reaction to a cover version before or since " , and even said the cover has " influenced how we play it live " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= Meta Knight =
Meta Knight ( Japanese : メタナイト , Hepburn : Meta Naito ) is a fictional character in Nintendo 's Kirby video game series created by Masahiro Sakurai and developed by HAL Laboratory . He first appeared in the 1993 video game Kirby 's Adventure as a nameless character remaining there until the game Kirby 's Avalanche . The character also appears in several Kirby comic books , in the 2001 anime series , and in the Super Smash Bros. series .
Meta Knight is a mysterious but honorable knight ; due to this attitude he has played a " friend or foe " role in the Kirby series , which led video game critics to debate his nature and allegiances . He has received mainly positive critical reception since his introduction ; his development within the series , from a nameless character to one of Kirby 's main enemies , was praised , and he has been described as a " cool " character by reviewers .
= = Characteristics = =
Meta Knight is an enigmatic , yet honorable swordsman who follows a chivalric code ; this is exemplified when he gives Kirby a sword with which to fight . In keeping with his penchant of offering Kirby a sword with which to duel , Meta Knight himself wields a sacred , golden sword called Galaxia ( ギャラクシア , Gyarakushia ) . He is always seen wearing a silver mask ; beneath it he looks identical to Kirby , with a dark blue body ( black in his debut ) and white eyes , which appear yellow with his mask on ( and with his mask off in Kirby : Planet Robobot ) . He also sports a navy blue mantle ( red in his debut ) called the Dimensional Cape ( ディメンションマント , Dimenshon Manto ) , which can change into a pair of wings and allows him to teleport . However , these wings appear directly attached to his body in Kirby 's Return to Dream Land and Kirby : Planet Robobot . Much like a knight , Meta Knight 's design has become more armored since his debut ; he has sported a pair of pauldrons since Kirby 's Avalanche , gauntlets on his mitten @-@ like gloves since Kirby : Squeak Squad , and sabatons since Super Smash Bros. Brawl . He is usually described as Kirby 's rival and occasional mentor , as well as an anti @-@ hero . Despite occasionally being portrayed as a villain , he has benign intentions , will often fight alongside or assist Kirby when necessary for his survival or for the sake of the world . This attitude has led to debate about his allegiances .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the Kirby video game series = = =
Meta Knight first appeared in the NES game Kirby 's Adventure as boss of the Orange Ocean level , where he fights Kirby to stop him from taking a piece of the Star Rod and keep it out of Nightmare 's hands . He is the main antagonist of the Revenge of Meta Knight mode in Kirby Super Star , in which he tries to take over Dream Land to end the inhabitants ' lazy lifestyle . Meta Knight is a playable character in special mode Meta Knightmare of Kirby : Nightmare in Dream Land . In Kirby & the Amazing Mirror , Dark Meta Knight — an evil , Mirror World counterpart of Meta Knight — splits Kirby into four , differently colored copies of himself by shattering a mirror after trapping Meta Knight in the Mirror World . After Kirby defeats Dark Meta Knight , Meta Knight himself helps Kirby defeat Dark Mind , the true main antagonist . In Kirby : Squeak Squad , he appears as a boss who tries to keep the chest containing Dark Nebula out of Kirby 's hands . In Kirby Super Star Ultra , he appears as a playable character in the Meta Knightmare Ultra mode . Meta Knight also appears in Kirby 's Return to Dream Land as one of the four playable protagonists , alongside Kirby , King Dedede and Bandana Waddle Dee , and as a playable character in multi @-@ player mode . After only making cameos in Kirby : Triple Deluxe , Meta Knight made an active return to the series in Kirby : Planet Robobot . In addition to partaking in the game 's story mode , he is the playable character of the Meta Knightmare Returns mode .
Meta Knight also appears in several spin @-@ off games in the series . He makes brief appearances in Kirby 's Pinball Land and Kirby 's Avalanche . In the latter , his name was revealed for the first time , where he is the penultimate challenger . He is an unlockable character in Kirby Air Ride and Kirby : Canvas Curse . Meta Knight is a boss in Kirby 's Epic Yarn and appears as a boss in two sub @-@ games in Kirby Mass Attack . Though he is absent from Kirby and the Rainbow Curse 's story mode , Meta Knight appears as a collectible figurine . The game is also compatible with the Meta Knight Amiibo , which Kirby can use for a temporary increase in attack power .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Meta Knight has made several appearances outside of the Kirby video game series , including the 1994 – 2006 manga Hoshi no Kirby : Dedede de Pupupu na Monogatari written by Hirokazu Hikawa and published by Shogakukan in CoroCoro Comic . He also appears in the ongoing Enterbrain 's Hoshi no Kirby : Kirby to Dedede no Pupupu Nikki manga written by Noboru Matsuyama and published in Famitsu DS + Wii ( originally called Famitsu DS + Cube + Advance ) , and in the Asami Taniguchi manga Hoshi no Kirby : Moretsu Pupupuawā ! published in Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic , where he is a main character . He is also featured in the 2012 Yuki Kawakami manga by Shogakukan , Hoshi no Kirby : Pack to Daibaku Show . In the 2001 – 2003 anime Kirby : Right Back at Ya ! he is a main character . In the series he is the last surviving member of the Galaxy Soldier Army , made up of " Star Warriors " , and acts as a mentor to Kirby .
He also appears in three Super Smash Bros. series games ; in Melee , he is a trophy , and in Super Smash Bros. Brawl , he is a playable character . However , Meta Knight was removed from professional gaming competitions in the United States and Canada due to being considered too powerful . On August 13 , 2014 , Nintendo confirmed that Meta Knight would be returning as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ; the game 's director , Masahiro Sakurai , assured some changes to re @-@ add Meta Knight .
= = Reception = =
IGN described Meta Knight as " one of the most enigmatic characters " in the series , naming him one of their ten favorite sword @-@ wielding characters in the video games and adding that although he was once " a mere villain " in the series , " his devilishly cool appearance set him apart from the rest " . GamesRadar ranked Meta Knight twelfth on its list of " Most Misunderstood Videogame Villains " , saying that he is " the standard good @-@ guy folderol [ ... ] , except that Meta Knight is invariably the bad guy " ; it said of the Meta Knight @-@ versus @-@ Kirby battles that " [ i ] t 's like if Batman picked a fight with a morbidly obese shut @-@ in , and you were supposed to root for the shut @-@ in . " It listed him on " The Top 7 Unlikeliest Badasses in Gaming " list , saying " Thanks to his brooding , serious attitude and his lavish taste in imposing capes , Meta Knight has created a beautiful illusion of something incredibly threatening , despite being a spherical bundle of delight . " He is the 18th @-@ best Nintendo character of all time , according to GameDaily ; that also placed him third on their list of Nintendo characters which deserve their own game . Complex stated that he developed from " a nameless villain " in Kirby 's Adventure into " Kirby 's rival " and stating that his popularity has surpassed that of King Dedede , ranking Meta Knight eighth on its list of " 25 Video Game Characters That Deserve a Spinoff " . Similarly , he was placed sixth on WhatCulture 's list of " 10 Video Game Characters That Deserve Their Own Spin @-@ Off Game " .
His inclusion in Super Smash Bros. Brawl was praised ; he was listed in the top five characters of Bozon ( ranked second ) , Peer ( ranked fourth ) , and Richard George ( ranked first ) from IGN , with all three highlighting his speed and Bozon saying he is " the best single @-@ player Brawler " . Jesse Schedeen from the same site said that " Meta Knight is a true powerhouse of the SSBB cast " , and UGO Networks called Meta Knight " [ t ] he most dangerous sword @-@ wielding , helmet @-@ wearing , sentient balloon you 're ever likely to meet " . Also , WhatCulture ranked him as the 6th greatest character in beat 'em up games , saying " he 's a brilliant character skills @-@ wise , even if he may be totally unfair in the grand scheme of things . " However , the balance among the Brawl characters was impaired , with Meta Knight " standing tall above the rest " .
= Hurricane Erin ( 2001 ) =
Hurricane Erin was the longest @-@ lived hurricane in the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth tropical depression , fifth tropical storm , and first hurricane , Erin developed from a tropical wave on September 1 . After strengthening to a 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) tropical storm as it moved to the west @-@ northwest , wind shear weakened Erin and caused it to dissipate on September 5 . The remnants re @-@ organized into a tropical depression the next day , and Erin strengthened into a hurricane on September 9 while moving northwestward . This was the latest date for the first hurricane of the season since Hurricane Diana on September 10 , 1984 . Erin quickly intensified and reached peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) later on September 9 . At its closest approach , Erin passed 105 miles ( 170 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda near peak intensity , and subsequently weakened as it turned to the east . A trough turned Erin to the northeast , and after passing just east of Cape Race , Newfoundland it became extratropical on September 15 . The extratropical remnant continued northeastward and lost its identity near Greenland on September 17 .
Though it passed 105 miles ( 170 km ) east of Bermuda , Hurricane Erin caused little damage or effects on the island . Large swells from the hurricane produced rough surf and rip currents along the East Coast of the United States . In Newfoundland , Erin dropped moderate amounts of rain and gusty winds , though no damage was reported . Throughout its path , Erin caused no casualties , no injuries , and minor damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 30 . It almost immediately displayed signs of tropical cyclone formation with the development of deep convection and curved rainbands . Organization continued , and late on August 30 Dvorak classifications began on the system . On August 31 , after passing well south of the Cape Verde islands , the system stopped its organization trend . Convection became sporadic , and the system became poorly organized as it moved westward at 20 mph ( 32 km ) . However , environmental conditions remained favorable . On September 1 , the cloud pattern became better organized , and a low @-@ level circulation quickly developed . Following an increase in convection and conformation of a low @-@ level circulation by a buoy , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Six late on September 1 while located 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 590 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles .
Located to the south of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression moved to the west @-@ northwest . With weak to moderate upper @-@ level wind shear over the system , the depression gradually organized , and intensified into Tropical Storm Erin on September 2 . Though Erin had favorable upper @-@ level outflow and developing convection , the inner core of the storm remained disorganized . The storm slowly strengthened , and attained an initial peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) while located about 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 855 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Favorable conditions were expected to allow Erin to continue to strengthen to reach winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . However , an upper @-@ level low to the northwest of Erin produced strong vertical shear over the storm , and Erin quickly weakened as the low @-@ level circulation became exposed to the southwest of the deep convection . The shear slightly abated on September 4 , allowing Erin to briefly re @-@ strengthen . However , the storm remained disorganized , and following an increase in southwesterly wind shear Erin began a weakening trend . On September 5 , Erin weakened to a tropical depression , and hours later the low @-@ level circulation dissipated .
The remnant low pressure area continued to the west @-@ northwest , and on September 6 the system gradually produced deep convection . A surface circulation redeveloped in the northern portion of the remnants of Erin , and the system developed into a tropical depression again late on September 6 while located 365 miles ( 585 km ) north @-@ northwest of where it previously dissipated . The depression moved to the north @-@ northeast , then turned to the north @-@ northwest , and regained tropical storm status on September 7 . Erin steadily intensified , and its convection and cloud pattern became much better organized on September 8 . On September 9 Erin intensified into a hurricane while located 275 miles ( 440 km ) , and a 40 mile ( 65 km ) wide eye developed . Erin quickly strengthened on September 9 to reach a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . , however some sources claim that Erin may have been a little stronger .
Shortly after reaching its peak intensity , Erin passed 105 miles ( 170 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda , its closest approach to the island . The hurricane maintained peak strength for 18 hours before slowly weakening . Its weakening trend was slower than usual due to warmer than usual water temperatures , and by late on September 10 Erin weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . Multiple short @-@ wave troughs weakened the western portion of the subt
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filled with water . At the Fort Montague Hotel , the windows , doors , and furniture were badly damaged . Similar impact was reported at the Royal Victoria Hotel , while the British Colonial Hotel was largely spared . However , the gardens of the three hotels were " damaged almost beyond recognition " .
On Bimini , sustained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) were observed , causing major damage to buildings . Ninety @-@ five houses and some other buildings , including a few churches and government buildings , were damaged or destroyed on Eleuthera . Minor damage was reported on Rum Cay . Most of the food crops were destroyed . On San Salvador Island , four buildings were demolished , including two churches , while several other structures suffered minor damage . Food crops were nearly wiped out .
= = = Florida = = =
While the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas , the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Miami to Titusville , later upgrading to a hurricane warning from Miami to Daytona Beach . The agency advised residents to take precautions for the hurricane , citing the potential for strong winds and waves . Hurricane warnings were also posted for the west coast from Punta Rassa to Apalachicola , and after the storm recurved , hurricane warnings were extended along the east coast to Jacksonville . Because of well @-@ issued hurricane warnings , residents were prepared for the storm , and the number of lives lost in the coastal Palm Beach area was only 26 .
Strong winds struck southern Florida as the hurricane moved ashore , with three unofficial reports of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . In Miami to the south of the center , winds reached 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , and farther south , Key West reported winds of only 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) . The eye at landfall was 25 miles ( 40 km ) wide , and after moving inland crossed Lake Okeechobee , where a calm was reported for 30 minutes . Winds at Canal Point , adjacent to the lake , were estimated as high as 160 mph ( 255 km / h ) ; the anemometer blew away after reporting sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The pressure at Canal Point dropped to 942 mbar ( 27 @.@ 82 inHg ) . The lowest pressure north of Lake Okeechobee was 966 mbar ( 28 @.@ 54 inHg ) in Bartow , and along the west coast , winds reached 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) in Tampa .
The hurricane left thousands of people homeless in Florida ; property damage was estimated at $ 25 million ( $ 345 million ) . It is estimated if a similar storm were to strike as of the year 2003 , it would cause $ 18 @.@ 7 billion in damages . The cyclone remains one of three Atlantic hurricanes to strike the southern mainland of Florida with a central pressure below 940 mbar ( 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) , the others being the 1926 Miami hurricane and Hurricane Andrew of 1992 .
In addition to the human fatalities , 1 @,@ 278 livestock and 47 @,@ 389 poultry were killed , respectively . Agriculture was impacted significantly , with the storm destroying what may have been the largest " citrus crop in the history of the industry " . Approximately 6 % of oranges and 18 % of grapefruit were ruined , respectively . Harvesting the remaining crops was delayed until mid @-@ October due to inundated groves . Communications also suffered severely . Throughout the state , 32 @,@ 000 households were left without telephone service and 400 poles were broken and about 2 @,@ 500 others leaning . Then @-@ Governor of Florida John W. Martin estimated that 35 @,@ 000 families were left homeless in Palm Beach County alone . Additionally , about 11 @,@ 500 families would need to be " re @-@ established " .
= = = = Coastal South Florida = = = =
In Miami , damage was minimal , limited to broken windows and awnings . In Hollywood and Fort Lauderdale , windows and roofs were damaged , although damage was still fairly minor . Numerous power lines and telephone wires were downed in the latter . Northward , from Pompano Beach to Jupiter , buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and 10 ft ( 3 m ) storm surge . Nearly all small frame houses were destroyed in Deerfield Beach , while several citizens estimated that at least 50 % of homes were demolished . The town 's post office , depot , and an entire business block were also destroyed . An eight @-@ year @-@ old boy drowned in a ditch near where his family sought refuge . In Boca Raton , two garages and several houses were destroyed . At the Cloister Inn , windows were shattered and the roof was damaged ; across the street , 32 freight cars belonging to a train along the Florida East Coast Railway were tossed by the wind into a nearby ditch . A short distance to the north , a warehouse was flattened . A building occupied by a restaurant and a store was flattened . In Delray Beach , four churches suffered severe damage and the Alta Repp and Seacrest hotels both lost a portion of their roof . The police reported three deaths within the city . In Delray Beach and Lantana , all houses and the railroad station were badly damaged . In Boynton Beach , about 75 % of businesses suffered complete destruction . Fifteen people were injured by a roof collapse while taking refuge in the auditorium of a high school .
In Lake Worth , approximately 50 % of homes were damaged or destroyed , while 75 % of buildings in the business district suffered damage . Impact along the coast was most severe in Palm Beach . Total coastal damages were estimated as " several million " dollars . In West Palm Beach , the storm destroyed 1 @,@ 711 homes and damaged 6 @,@ 369 others , and demolished 268 businesses and impacted 490 other businesses ; the city suffered the worst damage , totaling just under $ 13 @.@ 8 million . Likewise , there was also severe wind damage in Palm Beach . A few buildings constructed by Henry Flagler , such as The Breakers , the Royal Poinciana Hotel , and Whitehall , were damaged . Mar @-@ a @-@ Lago suffered little impact other than uprooted trees and the destruction of a large Roman @-@ style window , according to Marjorie Merriweather Post . Rodman Wanamaker 's house , known as " La Guerida " and later the " Winter White House " during the presidency of John F. Kennedy , suffered heavy damage during the storm . The Alba , Billows , New Palm Beach , and Royal Daneli hotels all suffered water damage , while the Alba Hotel was also deroofed . Nearby , the Rainbow Pier only received structural damage to its railings , though the pier office was blown away . Approximately 600 structures , including 10 hotels , were damaged in Palm Beach . Damage totaled over $ 2 million .
The strongest winds in the eyewall affected northern Palm Beach County , particularly the vicinity of Jupiter , as the eye made landfall farther south . At the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse , the mortar was reportedly " squeezed ... like toothpaste " between the bricks during the storm , swaying the tower 17 in ( 430 mm ) off the base . The lighthouse keeper , Captain Seabrook , and his son , Franklin , worked to keep the light on during the storm after the electricity went out . After the generator failed to work , they hand @-@ cranked the light 's mantle . The building formerly used as a Weather Bureau Office was destroyed . Nearby , six people died after a house was demolished . Six other fatalities occurred west of Jupiter after a school where people sought shelter collapsed .
= = = = Lake Okeechobee and Everglades = = = =
Inland , the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of Lake Okeechobee . Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day , but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule , many thought it had missed and returned to their homes . In the weeks prior to storm , heavy rainfall caused the lake to rise 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) between August 10 and September 10 and filled nearby canals and ditches . Precipitation from the hurricane itself caused Lake Okeechobee to rise further . When the worst of the storm crossed the lake , the south @-@ blowing wind caused a storm surge to overflow the small dike that had been built at the south end of the lake . The resulting flood covered an area of hundreds of square miles with water that in some places was over 20 ft ( 6 m ) deep . Houses were floated off of their foundations and dashed to pieces against any obstacle they encountered . Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the Everglades where many of the bodies were never found . Agricultural losses in the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee were also significant , with virtually all crops destroyed and over 150 tractors suffering damage .
As the rear eyewall passed over the area , the flood reversed itself , breaking the dikes along the northern coast of the lake and causing similar but smaller flooding . Route 98 , then known as Conner 's Highway , was closed until January , when the bridge across the Onosohatchee River at Taylor Creek was replaced after the original bridge was carried about 150 ft ( 46 m ) upstream during the storm . In Okeechobee County , homes along the lake were destroyed by the storm surge , while dwellings within the city of Okeechobee were severely impacted or demolished by winds of at least 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . However , brick and concrete @-@ structured dwellings received little damage . A number of three @-@ story business buildings collapsed during the storm . Almost all roads were left impassable , while communications were nearly wiped out . Overall , 27 deaths occurred in Okeechobee County . Along the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee , the towns of Clewiston and Moore Haven were both flooded , but much of the damage to houses was due to strong winds .
On Kreamer Island , many residents received information about the storm when it was too late to evacuate . In some homes , 20 – 30 people sought shelter inside and later stood on tables and chairs to remain above the water . Most of the homes were swept away into rows of pine trees and others more than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) away . Despite this , only one person drowned on the island . Residents of Torry Island also did not have ample time to prepare for the storm . They attempted to evacuate , but the causeway was already inundated , forcing twenty @-@ three people to seek refuge in a packinghouse . Floodwaters entered the building , forcing the occupants into the rafters . However , the building was eventually pushed into a nearby canal . Ten people drowned , but thirteen others survived by clinging to a barge or tree tops , while one woman tied herself to a telegraph pole . Others that survived were swept far away from where the building once stood or the barge . A teenage boy was carried from the packinghouse to the Everglades Experiment Station in Belle Glade – a distance of about 8 mi ( 13 km ) . On Ritta Island , a number who successfully climbed to the roof of their houses were struck by trees or received fatal bites from water moccasin .
In South Bay , nearly all houses were destroyed and several buildings were unroofed . At least 160 fatalities occurred in the city . Throughout the 1920s , Okeelanta suffered several floods and muck fires . Finally , the town was flooded severely during the storm and was subsequently abandoned . Bean City was also destroyed during the hurricane , but it was eventually rebuilt by Arthur Wells . Sebring Farms was reduced to piles of rubber , with only four tall royal palm trees left standing . Only the hotel at Miami Locks survived the storm . Ninety @-@ nine people died in that town . In Chosen , only two people managed to escape a house that sheltered nineteen people . Twenty other residents took refuge in a building which lost its roof during the storm , forcing the occupants to move into the restroom . A house that was full of people floated about half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from its original location . The refugees were unaware that the house was moving until it collided with a railroad embankment .
Floodwaters persisted for several weeks , greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation . Burial services were quickly overwhelmed , and many of the bodies were placed into mass graves . Around 75 % of the fatalities were migrant farm workers , making identification of both dead and missing bodies very difficult ; as a result of this , the count of the dead is not very accurate . The Red Cross estimated the number of fatalities as 1 @,@ 836 , which was taken as the official count by the National Weather Service for many years ( and exactly equal to the official count for Hurricane Katrina ) . Older sources usually list 3 @,@ 411 as the hurricane 's total count of fatalities , including the Caribbean . However , in 2003 the U.S. death count was revised to " at least " 2 @,@ 500 , making the Okeechobee hurricane the second @-@ deadliest natural disaster in United States history behind the 1900 Galveston hurricane . A mass grave at the Port Mayaca Cemetery east of Port Mayaca contains the bodies of 1 @,@ 600 victims of the hurricane .
= = = = Central and North Florida = = = =
In Fort Myers , property damage was slight , limited mostly to scores of small boats and fishing shacks along the waterfront . Nearly all cigar factories in Tampa were closed after wind and rain drove too much moisture into the buildings . Offshore , the fishing smack Wallace A. McDonnell was beached near Piney Point , though all of the crew survived . Additionally , the Cuban schooner Isabel Alvado sank offshore Boca Grande . The crew , who were immigrants , were rescued by the Coast Guard and later deported . In Martin County , a bridge connecting Stuart and Palm City was severely damaged and closed to traffic as a result . A temporary ferry service across the St. Lucie River was established and operated until repairs to the bridge were complete in the summer of 1929 . In Fort Pierce , most of the impact was confined to the waterfront areas . A warehouse , fish houses , docks , and a bridge across the Indian River were destroyed , while several other buildings were unroofed . Damage in the city totaled about $ 150 @,@ 000 .
In the interior areas of Central and North Florida , impact was mainly confined to agricultural losses , particularly citrus , though wind damage occurred to structures . Between Sebring and Lake Wales , 200 telephone poles were toppled . In Bartow , business building windows were shattered and signs were knocked down , while several roofs and chimneys also suffered damage . Winds gusting up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) lashed Lakeland . Many trees were uprooted and several buildings were impacted , including the hospital and a number of businesses . At Florida Southern College ( FSC ) , the north side of the gymnasium collapsed while other buildings on campus were damaged to a less degree . The trees in the citrus grove surrounding FSC lost much of their fruit . Overall , Lakeland suffered about $ 50 @,@ 000 in damage . In Orlando , impact to properties was described as slight . Winds up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) impacted the Jacksonville area , resulting in minor damage at Jacksonville Beach .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Outside of Florida , damage in the United States was minor from the hurricane . In Georgia , low @-@ lying streets were flooded or washed out in the Savannah area . Additionally , winds downed trees and power lines . Heavy rainfall occurred from eastern Florida through coastal Georgia , the Carolinas , and southeast Virginia . The highest rainfall total was 12 @.@ 53 inches ( 318 mm ) at Darlington , South Carolina . The storm caused flooding in North Carolina and brought near @-@ hurricane @-@ force winds and a 7 foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) storm surge to the Norfolk area . After the hurricane became extratropical , its wind field became very large . Atlantic City , New Jersey recorded winds of 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) despite being far from the center .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the storm , relief arrived from nearby areas such as Miami . Early on September 18 , a train leaving Miami carried 20 doctors and 20 nurses to West Palm Beach . The Miami Red Cross Citizens Relief Committee , which was established to provide aid for victims of the storm , transported " hundreds of loaves of bread , gallons of milk , pounds of coffee and sugar , blankets , cots , and medical supplies . " The first relief train was ridden by U.S. Senator Joseph T. Robinson , the Democratic vice presidential nominee during the election that year . At least 100 people were brought to Miami for medical treatment . In Lake Worth , 25 people were treated for various injuries at the Gulf Stream Hotel and the local fire station . Dr. W. A. Claxton , chief of the Miami Department of Public Welfare , requested antitoxin , typhoid serum , and at least 200 tetanus serums . There was also a request for 1 @,@ 000 more cots in West Palm Beach and Kelsey City .
= = = Racial issues = = =
In Florida , although the hurricane destroyed everything in its path with impartiality , the death toll was by far highest in the economically poor areas in the low @-@ lying ground right around Lake Okeechobee , such as Belle Glade , Chosen , Pahokee , South Bay , and Bean City . Around 75 % of the fatalities were among migrant farm workers , most of whom were black . The black workers did most of the cleanup work , and the few caskets available for burials were mostly used for the bodies of whites . Additionally , the white victims received a proper burial at Woodlawn Cemetery in downtown West Palm Beach , which was the only mass gravesite to receive a memorial .
In contrast , the bodies of black victims were burned in funeral pyres or thrown into mass burial sites such as the ones in West Palm Beach and Port Mayaca . Robert Hazard , a resident of West Palm Beach , established the Storm of ' 28 Memorial Park Coalition Inc. to fight for recognition of the black victims of the storm . In 2000 , the West Palm Beach burial site was reacquired by the city of West Palm Beach and plans for construction of a memorial began . The site was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2002 and a state historical marker was added in 2003 during the 75th anniversary of the hurricane . The inequity has caused ongoing racial friction . The effects of the hurricane on black migrant workers was dramatized in Zora Neale Hurston 's novel Their Eyes Were Watching God .
= = = Improved building codes = = =
In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida , it became apparent that well @-@ constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings . Buildings with well @-@ constructed frames , and those made of steel , concrete , brick , or stone were largely immune to winds , and the use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings . Coming on the heels of the 1926 Miami hurricane where a similar pattern had been noticed , one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved building codes .
= = = Flood control = = =
To prevent a recurrence of disasters like this one and the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 , the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District , which was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in flood control undertakings . After a personal inspection of the area by President Herbert Hoover , the Corps drafted a new plan which provided for the construction of floodway channels , control gates , and major levees along Lake Okeechobee 's shores . A long term system was designed for the purpose of flood control , water conservation , prevention of saltwater intrusion , and preservation of fish and wildlife populations . One of the solutions was the construction of the Herbert Hoover Dike . Today , concerns related to the dike 's stability have grown in response to studies indicating long term problems with " piping " and erosion . Leaks have been reported after several heavy rain events . Proposed solutions to the dike 's problems have included the construction of a seepage berm on the landward side of the dike , with the first stage costing approximately $ 67 million ( US $ ) .
= Double Allergic =
Double Allergic is the second studio album by the Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger . Released in Australia on 2 September 1996 Polydor , the album was produced by Tim Whitten and widely considered Powderfinger 's mainstream breakthrough .
Four singles were released from the album : " Pick You Up " , " D.A.F. " , " Living Type " and " Take Me In " . " Pick You Up " was the most successful single from the album , and Powderfinger 's first moderate success , reaching # 23 on the ARIA charts . " D.A.F. " also charted as a moderate success ; it reached # 39 on the Australian music charts . Both " Living Type " and " Take Me In " did not chart officially , but " Living Type " was voted into the Triple J Hottest 100 in 1996 .
Critics were generally favorable in their reviews of Double Allergic . It was praised by Allmusic reviewer Jonathan Lewis as " a cohesive and mature effort " . It has also been certified platinum three times , with over 200 @,@ 000 copies sold . Double Allergic was also nominated for five ARIA awards , with singles from the album nominated for an additional four , however , it won none of the awards it was nominated for .
= = Recording and production = =
Double Allergic contained material that had been written by Powderfinger in 1995 and 1996 . Prior to its release , guitarist Darren Middleton described it as " by far the best thing we 've done " , an analogy that would be often made when comparing the album to its predecessor , Parables for Wooden Ears . Middleton praised the album because the band knew how they wanted the record to sound before they began to record ; he also described it as " the most concise continuation of who we are down on record " .
Lead singer Bernard Fanning noted that another important element of the album was that there " was more space in the songs , it wasn 't overcrowded " . However , Fanning commented that Powderfinger had not intended to greatly change their sound in creating Double Allergic , instead , the change in sound came as a natural progression. the guitarist Ian Haug agreed , stating the music was " more melodic and sort of simpler " , without " so many different time signatures and things " . Rolling Stone author Tracey Grimson also commented on this , stating that " Powderfinger have become practical advocates of space " and lauding their acknowledgment that the " absence of sound can be lush , evocative " . She noted that even in the " rockers " on the album songs — like " Pick You Up " and " Skinny Jean " — the band were still able to pull back and give the songs additional space .
Powderfinger spent less money producing Double Allergic than on their previous works . Previously , the band had worked with Tony Cohen , whom Fanning stated was expensive due to his success in the industry . For Double Allergic the band chose Tim Whitten , a less well known producer , and because the band knew what they intended to do as they entered the studio they managed to spend less despite the improved sound . Middleton commented on Whitten 's capabilities in the recording studio , saying " He 's what a band looks for in a producer / engineer , because he 's got his own ideas " , but stating that Whitten would also listen to and appreciate the band 's ideas .
= = Album and single releases = =
Double Allergic was released on 2 September 1996 in Australia on the Polydor record label . It entered the ARIA chart at # 7 , and spent ten weeks in the top ten . Over 200 @,@ 000 copies were sold , and the album is currently certified 3x platinum , asserting at least 210 @,@ 000 sales . The album finished 1996 at # 44 on the ARIA end of year albums chart , and finished 1997 at # 53 .
" Pick You Up " , the first single , was released on 13 April 1996 , and entered the ARIA singles chart at # 34 . By its fifth week , on 30 June , it had reached its peak at # 23 - it spent a further seven weeks on the chart before dropping out . " Pick You Up " was described as having a " very professional sound " . The song appeared at # 6 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 1996 . " D.A.F. " , the second single , was released on 5 August 1996 . It spent four weeks on the ARIA chart , peaking at # 39 . The title of the song was taken from its chord progression , in the words of the bass guitarist John Collins " because we were stupid " . The song appeared at # 18 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 1996 .
" Living Type " was the third single , released on 11 November 1996 . The song peaked at # 42 on the ARIA charts and stayed in the top 50 for three weeks . " Living Type " was written by Fanning about the Manson Family cult , and came with an X @-@ Files style music video . The song appeared at # 32 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 1996 . The fourth single , " Take Me In " , was released on 12 May 1997 . It failed to chart , and was the least noted single from the album . Fanning wrote " Take Me In " as a response to hypocrisy by police , which he had read about in newspapers .
The album contains three secret tracks placed onto the twelfth track after silence that follows the track 's primary song " ( The Return of ) The Electric Horseman " . The first of these is called " Vladimir " which , according to Fanning is about a transvestite . The second song is called " SS " which refers to Australian cricket bat manufacturer Stuart Surridge , which is often known by those initials . The song refers in part to the bat itself , though mostly to cricket in general , with lyrics " Then we 'll race like jets for the fading moon ; Then we all fall down " , which refers to running for the opposite crease following striking the ball , and then diving to the ground to secure the run . The third and final secret track is called " Come Away " which also appeared as a B @-@ side for the single of " Pick You Up " . In a first for the group , it had the guitarist Darren Middleton as lead vocalist , while a spoken sound sample at the end of the song is the bass guitarist John Collins ' voice .
= = Critical response = =
Double Allergic was well received by Allmusic , with reviewer Jonathan Lewis claiming that Powderfinger " managed to successfully create an album of melodic pop songs coupled with noisy guitars " . The album was summarised as " a cohesive and mature effort " .
Sputnikmusic reviewer blueyxd , had mixed feelings about the album . The level of experimentation in the album was praised , with the reviewer stating that " the instrument playing and some of the unusual styles used " were beneficial . However , the main concern was that there wasn 't enough experimentation , and that the album was rather " solid " , thus earning it its score of 3 @.@ 5 .
Juice magazine reviewed Double Allergic positively , calling it a much more mature album than its predecessor , Parables for Wooden Ears . The " band 's mellowing tone " , compared to the " aggression " in past works , was also commended , with the review stating that " the result is an album filled with potential and character " . The experimentation on " JC " , " Glimpse " and " Oipic " was again praised , with comparisons to Motown drawn . The review summarised the album as " proof of a band maturing , streets ahead of anything they 've previously recorded " .
= = Track listing = =
All music written and arranged by Powderfinger . All lyrics by Fanning , except " Boing Boing " lyrics by Fanning / Haug , " JC " & " Come Away " lyrics by Middleton , " Take Me In " & " ( Return Of ) The Electric Horseman " lyrics by Fanning / Middleton .
" Skinny Jean " – 3 : 57
" Turtle 's Head " – 3 : 23
" Pick You Up " – 4 : 19
" D.A.F. " – 3 : 30
" Boing Boing " – 3 : 37
" Give " – 2 : 28
" Oipic " – 4 : 09
" Living Type " – 3 : 25
" JC " – 2 : 50
" Glimpse " – 1 : 43
" Take Me In " – 2 : 51
" ( Return of ) The Electric Horseman " – 18 : 57 ( actual track time 3 : 47 )
Hidden tracks ( included in 18 : 57 track time ) :
" Vladimir " - 4 : 47
" SS " - 3 : 26
" Come Away " - 3 : 55
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Farm to Market Road 1938 =
Farm to Market Road 1938 ( FM 1938 ) is a Farm to Market Road in the US state of Texas . The highway runs from State Highway 26 ( SH 26 ) to FM 1709 , in Tarrant County . While located in Westlake , FM 1938 is named Precinct Line Road . While located in Southlake , from the northern border of Southlake to its junction with FM 1709 , FM 1938 is named Randol Mill Avenue , and from the FM 1709 intersection to its southern terminus , the highway is named Davis Boulevard . FM 1938 was designated in 1952 , in Hockley County , but was cancelled and redesignated in 1955 , at its modern location in Tarrant County . In 1995 , the entire route of FM 1938 was redesignated as Urban Road 1938 ( UR 1938 ) by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) . FM 1938 passes through central North Richland Hills and Southlake , providing access to several businesses . As of 2012 , FM 1938 is in the process of being extended from an intersection with FM 1709 to the north frontage road of SH 114 .
= = Route description = =
FM 1938 ( Davis Boulevard ) begins at its southern terminus with SH 26 , directly besides the raised Interstate 820 ( I @-@ 820 ) freeway . FM 1938 continues on for about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) before two exit ramps coming from I @-@ 820 merge with it , giving incomplete access to the freeway . The highway proceeds as a paved , asphalt , six @-@ lane highway , with a center left @-@ turn lane dividing it . The road continues through " downtown North Richland Hills " , passing several small businesses and large residential neighborhoods . Along this stretch , FM 1938 is traveling due north . After an intersection with Smithfield Road , the highway turns in a northeastern direction and heads that way . It continues through North Richland Hills , intersecting with several large roads and passing a set of railroad tracks . The highway heads north for about 5 @.@ 5 miles before intersecting with FM 3029 and entering the city of Keller . The highway proceeds through Keller , passing several small businesses and large neighborhoods . FM 1938 passes through Keller for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before passing over a small creek and entering the city of Southlake . Just after entering Southlake , the highway passes a large landscaping and stone supplies facility . FM 1938 continues through Southlake for approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , passing several small businesses , before reaching its northern terminus , as of 2012 , FM 1709 .
= = = Continuation = = =
On August 23 , 2007 , TxDOT authorized an extension of FM 1938 from the intersection with FM 1709 to the northern frontage road of SH 114 . This will include the designation of approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of Randol Mill Road , and the creation of approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of road , which will be named Precinct Line Road . This is in order to connect the current length of Randol Mill Road to SH 114 . With the extension , FM 1938 is estimated to total 11 @.@ 1 miles ( 17 @.@ 9 km ) long .
= = History = =
On January 18 , 1952 , FM 1938 was designated in Hockley County , traveling from an intersection with FM 1490 to an intersection with Hockley County Road 237 . On November 1 , 1954 , FM 1938 was cancelled and combined with the newly designated FM 597 . On August 24 , 1955 , FM 1938 was redesignated for a route in Tarrant County , traveling from FM 1709 to the SH 121 freeway , which was 7 @.@ 514 miles ( 12 @.@ 093 km ) long . On June 27 , 1995 , the entire route was redesignated as Urban Road 1938 , although , like other routes like this , the signage did not change . On August 23 , 2007 , an extension of FM 1938 was authorized from FM 1709 to SH 114 , adding approximately 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) to the road . The extension to SH 114 opened in August 2012 but construction on the Randol Mill Avenue section of the extension in addition to landscaping and sidewalk work on the whole extension is ongoing .
= = Major junctions = =
The entire route is in Tarrant County .
= Rang De Basanti =
Rang De Basanti ( IPA : [ ˈrəŋɡ d ̪ eː bəˈsənt ̪ i ] ; English : Colour it Saffron ) is a 2006 Indian drama film co written , co produced and directed by Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra . The literal meaning of the title can be translated as " Paint me with the colours of spring . " It features an ensemble cast comprising Aamir Khan , Siddharth Narayan , Soha Ali Khan , Kunal Kapoor , R. Madhavan , Sharman Joshi , Atul Kulkarni and British actress Alice Patten in the lead roles . Made on a budget of ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) , it was shot in and around New Delhi . Upon release , the film broke all opening box office records in India . It was the highest @-@ grossing film in its opening weekend in India and had the highest opening day collections for a Bollywood film . The film was well received and praised for strong screenplay and dialogues .
The story is about a British documentary filmmaker who is determined to make a film on Indian freedom fighters based on diary entries by her grandfather , a former officer of the British Indian Army . Upon arriving in India , she asks a group of five young men to act in her film .
Rang De Basanti 's release faced stiff resistance from the Indian Defence Ministry and the Animal Welfare Board due to parts that depicted the use of MiG @-@ 21 fighter aircraft and a banned Indian horse race .
The film was released globally on 26 January 2006 , the Republic Day of India , it received critical acclaim winning National award for most popular film and it is also rated as 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 on IMDB which is one of the highest among Bollywood films . It was subsequently nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the 2006 BAFTA Awards . Rang De Basanti was chosen as India 's official entry for the Golden Globe Awards and the Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category , though it did not ultimately yield a nomination for either award . A. R. Rahman 's soundtrack , which earned positive reviews , had two of its tracks considered for the Academy Award nomination . The film was well received by critics and audiences for its production values and had a noticeable influence on Indian society . In India , Rang De Basanti did well at many of the Bollywood awards ceremonies , including a win for Best Movie at the Filmfare Awards . The film was declared " Blockbuster " by Box Office India .
= = Plot = =
A young , struggling British filmmaker Sue McKinley ( Alice Patten ) comes across the diary of her grandfather , Mr. McKinley ( Steven Mackintosh ) , who served as a jailer in the Imperial Police during the Indian independence movement . Through the diary , she learns about the story of five freedom fighters who were active in the movement : Chandrasekhar Azad , Bhagat Singh , Shivaram Rajguru , Ashfaqulla Khan , and Ram Prasad Bismil . McKinley , in his diary , states that he had met two type of people in his life , those who died without uttering a sound and those who died with lots of anguish , crying over their deaths . McKinley reveals that it was then that he met with the third kind - those who die with a smile on their lips .
Having decided to make a self @-@ financed documentary film about these revolutionaries , Sue travels to India , with the help of her friend , Sonia ( Soha Ali Khan ) , from the Institute for International Studies at the University of Delhi . After a few unsuccessful auditions in search of the actors , Sue finally casts Sonia 's friends , four young men – Daljit " DJ " Singh ( Aamir Khan ) , Karan Singhania ( Siddharth Narayan ) , Aslam Khan ( Kunal Kapoor ) and Sukhi Ram ( Sharman Joshi ) — to portray the revolutionaries .
Though they aren 't very enthusiastic at the idea of acting in a film about the independence movement , Sue eventually manages to convince them . Laxman Pandey ( Atul Kulkarni ) , a right @-@ wing political party activist , joins the cast later , despite initially being unpopular due to his anti @-@ Western ideology , due to which he is often at odds with the other four , and anti @-@ Muslim beliefs and contempt for Aslam Khan . In the process of filming , the idealism of India 's revolutionary heroes seeps into the protagonists . They gradually begin to realize that their own lives are quite similar to the characters they portray in Sue 's film and that the state of affairs that once plagued the revolutionaries continues to torment their generation .
Meanwhile , Ajay Singh Rathod ( R. Madhavan ) , a flight lieutenant in the Indian Air Force who is Sonia 's fiancé , is killed when his jet , a MiG @-@ 21 , crashes . The government proclaims that the crash was caused by pilot error and closes the investigation . Knowing that Rathod was an ace pilot , Sonia and her friends do not accept the official explanation . Instead , they claim that he sacrificed his life to save hundreds of other lives that would have been lost had he ejected from the aircraft and left it to crash into a populous city . They investigate and learn that the crash was due to a corrupt defence minister Shastri ( Mohan Agashe ) , who had signed a contract exchanging cheap and illegal MiG @-@ 21 aircraft spare parts for a personal favour . To their surprise , they learn that the key person who was responsible for organizing the deal was Karan 's father , Rajnath Singhania ( Anupam Kher ) .
Angered by the situation , the group and their supporters decide to protest peacefully at India Gate , a war memorial in New Delhi . Police forcefully break up their protest using batons ; in the process , Rathod 's mother ( Waheeda Rehman ) is severely injured and slips into a coma . DJ , Karan , Aslam , Sukhi , and Laxman decide that they must emulate the early freedom fighters and resort to violence to achieve justice . As a result , they kill the defence minister to avenge Rathod 's death , while Karan murders his father for his corrupt actions . The minister is reported to have been killed by terrorists and is hailed as a martyr by the media . To bring forth their intentions behind the killings , the five of them attempt to reach the public through a radio station . They forcibly take over the All India Radio station premises after having evacuated its employees . Karan goes on air and reveals the truth about the defence minister and his wrongdoings . While still on the air , the police proclaim that they are dangerous terrorists who have forcefully taken over the AIR , and therefore they are to be shot on sight . The first to be shot is Daljit , who tries to get out of cover and establish that they are not terrorists . Sukhi , unable to control his anger , shows himself and is instantly shot . As they are trying to lock the terrace doors , Aslam and Pandey are then killed by a grenade and the once archenemies die holding hands and smiling , as they have visions of Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan .
Daljit manages to crawl to the recording room , where Karan is still on air . When Karan understands that he has been shot , they speak amongst themselves for the last time , regarding the others , about Sue and about Daljit 's love for her . They are then killed by police commandos while laughing . It is then revealed that McKinley described the third kind of people he came across as being the ones who embraced death as a friend and an equal , with a heartfelt laughter . After their death , the public reacts with outrage and expresses urge to bring Indian politics to justice , following the motives of all the boys .
The film comes to an end with Sue describing the impact of the boys on her life . As she and Sonia watch from the rooftop that Ajay proposed to her on , they have a vision of the boys running in the fields , singing happily and victoriously throwing their shirts in the air , acting as if they are celebrating life itself , as if the ebb of their once @-@ there vitality still reverberates in the places where they once used to go , and a wave of melancholy comes over the two surviving women .
In an afterlife @-@ like state , the boys watch as a father tells his son ( a young Bhagat Singh ) about gardening . They watch over him with smiling faces , then depart as friends for eternity .
= = Cast = =
Aamir Khan as Daljit ' DJ ' Singh / Chandrashekhar Azad
Siddharth Narayan as Karan R. Singhania / Bhagat Singh
Atul Kulkarni as Laxman Pandey / Ramprasad Bismil
Kunal Kapoor as Aslam Khan / Ashfaqullah Khan
Sharman Joshi as Sukhi Ram / Rajguru
Alice Patten as Sue McKinley
Soha Ali Khan as Sonia / Durgawati Devi
Steven Mackintosh as James McKinley , Sue 's grandfather
R. Madhavan as Flight Lt. Ajay Rathod
Waheeda Rehman as Mrs. Rathod , Ajay 's mother
Anupam Kher as Rajnath Singhania , Karan 's father
Kiron Kher as Mitro , DJ 's mother
Om Puri as Amanullah Khan , Aslam 's father
Lekh Tandon as DJ 's grandfather
Cyrus Sahukar as Rahul ( Radio Jockey )
Mohan Agashe as Defence Minister Shastri
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Rakeysh Mehra took seven years to research and develop the story , including three to write the script . While some raised doubts about his morale following the failure of his last film , Aks , at the box office , he retorted by saying that it would not affect him at all . He added that not only did his storytelling technique improve , but past mistakes had helped him improve his filmmaking abilities .
Development of Rang De Basanti originated with several ideas Mehra came up with early on but later dropped or greatly evolved into new directions . One of these involved a group of youngsters who worked in an automobile repair shop , while another was about the life of Bhagat Singh , an Indian freedom revolutionary . During this time , he personally conducted a survey with a group of youths in New Delhi and Mumbai about the Indian revolutionaries he was planning on depicting , which indicated that many of youngsters did not recognize the names of some of the most prominent revolutionaries . This led Mehra to believe that the sense of " patriotism had blurred " in the young generation . Because of this , he dropped his original plans in favor of a new idea in which a British documentary filmmaker on a visit to India realizes that the local " kids are more Western than her " . This new story , which eventually formed the basis for Rang De Basanti 's script , was influenced by Mehra 's upbringing , youth and experiences over the years , including his desire to join the Indian Air Force while in school , as well as his recollections of listening to Independence Day speeches and watching patriotic films such as Mother India . Although Mehra denies that the film is autobiographical , he confessed that the character sketches were loosely inspired by himself and his friends .
Mehra approached Angad Paul after having been impressed with his production work on British films Lock , Stock and Two Smoking Barrels and Snatch . Paul , who was keen to work in India , liked Mehra 's story and agreed to produce the film , bringing with him David Reid and Adam Bohling as executive producers . Despite having no prior knowledge of Hindi cinema , Reid and Bohling 's belief in the script was strong enough that they each were willing to work at half their normal rate . While it was originally suggested that language versions of the film would be made concurrently , in English ( as Paint it Yellow ) and Hindi , the plans for an English version were dropped during development . Mehra believed that English @-@ language version felt alien and that " one can tell a film in just one language " . After the English version was dropped , the writer Kamlesh Pandey was brought on board to pen the first draft of Rang De Basanti in Hindi , marking the start of his screenwriting career . Thereafter Mehra and co @-@ writer Rensil D 'Silva took over the script , working on it for about two years . Prasoon Joshi , the film 's lyricist , worked on the dialogue , marking his foray into screenwriting .
Rang De Basanti suffered a significant setback when one of the initial producers ultimately failed to contribute any funds towards it ; the shortfall left production looking uncertain just two months away from the beginning of principal photography . However , after Aamir Khan agreed to act in the film , Mehra approached Ronnie Screwvala of UTV Motion Pictures with the script . Screwvala , who supported Mehra from the beginning of the production , had faith in the film , reasoning that in historical films , " the treatment and execution is very different from regular masala fare " , and that such films " find favour with the audience owing to their elaborate sets and period costumes " . The budget was reported as Rs . 250 million ( approximately US $ 5 @.@ 5 million ) , and , despite going a little over the initially planned budget , Mehra did not have any serious disagreements with UTV .
= = = Casting = = =
Aamir Khan agreed to act in Rang De Basanti immediately after reading Mehra 's script . Mehra described his character as a simple man with a strong sense of integrity and dignity . Khan , who would turn 40 during the shoot , lost about 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) with a strict diet and exercise regime to more convincingly depict a man in his late twenties . Atul Kulkarni and Kunal Kapoor were publicly attached to the film by the time it was officially announced ; Kapoor had been the assistant director to Mehra during the filming of Aks and was already familiar with the material Mehra had been developing . Mehra gave Kulkarni biographies of Ram Prasad Bismil as preparation , including Bismil 's autobiography . Early rumors indicated that actors Arjun Rampal and Arjan Bajwa would be amongst the male leads , but these roles ultimately were filled by Sharman Joshi , Siddharth Narayan and R. Madhavan .
Rang De Basanti marked Siddharth 's Bollywood debut , following on the success of his Telugu film Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana . Having previously worked as an assistant director , Siddharth praised Mehra as being " by far the most ambitious technical filmmaker in Indian cinema " . Madhavan , despite being a well @-@ known Tamil cinema actor , took the smaller role of a fighter aircraft pilot because he was convinced of the film 's potential and wanted to be a part of it . Om Puri appears in a two @-@ scene cameo as Aslam 's staunch Muslim father .
Soha Ali Khan and Alice Patten immediately became Mehra 's clear favorites for each of their roles during casting , which led to Patten flying to Mumbai for a screen test with the entire cast . She was informed that she had won the documentary filmmaker role after she returned home to the United Kingdom . Soha , portraying the pilot 's fiancée , was filming Rituparna Ghosh 's Antarmahal and David Dhawan 's comedy Shaadi No. 1 concurrently with her work in Rang De Basanti . In particular , the demands of her emotional scenes in Antarmahal often left her exhausted , thus requiring " a lot of personal overhauling " to ensure that her performance in Rang De Basanti was unaffected . During filming , reports indicated that co @-@ stars Siddharth and Soha had become romantically involved with each other . Alongside the two lead actresses , Lakh Tandon played the role of Aamir 's Grand Father and Kirron Kher played the mother of Khan 's character .
= = = Filming = = =
The film , which was shot in New Delhi , Mumbai , Rajasthan and Punjab , was officially launched at a hotel on 1 February 2005 . When shooting began , Mehra made an announcement to his crew saying that they would enjoy their holiday only in July .
Instead of filming at the actual locations from the script , other locations were selected for picturisation . One such scene is where Soha Ali Khan is filmed at the India Habitat Center that masquerades as the University of Delhi . On similar lines , New Delhi 's Modern School at Barakhamba Road served as the location for all the scenes pertinent to All India Radio station , which is shown to be stormed by the youngsters in the film . The Delhi Tourism department was happy to encourage filming in the city if it helped promote tourism , though any filming near India Gate was prohibited due to the ensuing bureaucratic paperwork . Similar issues with bureaucracy were faced by Mehra while filming at the Jaipur Fort . To use a historical location for filming , they had to seek permissions of seven officials ranging from the local police to the Archaeological Survey of India office . Nahargarh Fort , which oversees the city of Jaipur , was another such historical location where one of the songs was filmed . Besides these locations , the filming was also done at Amritsar 's Harmandir Sahib Gurudwara . For Aamir Khan , a Muslim , it was for the first time that he was playing a North Indian Punjabi character and it took him some time to get the right dialect and diction . While speaking about his experience of visiting the Gurudwara for the first time , he said :
It 's one of the most peaceful places I 've been to . As you enter the place there 's a certain serenity that surrounds you . I really enjoyed being there . The first shot we took was of our feet entering the water just as you pass the doorway of the temple . The water was cold but it was great !
Once the locations were finalized , the team of Lovleen Bains and Arjun Bhasin was chosen for designing the look of Rang De Basanti . Bhasin had previously worked on Kama Sutra : A Tale of Love ( 1996 ) and Dil Chahta Hai ( 2001 ) , the latter of which featured Aamir Khan , and he was referred to Mehra by Khan due to their previous association . Since the film 's plot focused on men in their late twenties , Bhasin designed their look accordingly . Although he was responsible for Khan 's rebellious look , Sharman Joshi 's ( who played Sukhi ) lovable persona or Madhavan 's dignified appearance , Bhasin credited Bains for her major contributions to the film . Khan 's hair was styled by Avan Contractor , who came up with soft curls falling over Khan 's forehead . This new look , which took Contractor one hour to come up with , surprised the audience at the film 's launch .
In post @-@ production , the visual effects were handled by Tata Elxsi 's Visual Computing Labs . The military aircraft they created was so realistic that the Indian Air Force called to check the producer 's permission of using an actual MiG @-@ 21 .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack of Rang De Basanti , which was released by Sony BMG , featured music composed by A. R. Rahman and lyrics penned by Prasoon Joshi and Blaaze , an India @-@ based rapper . From the film 's announcement in April 2005 , Rahman was slated to compose the music . In a press conference with pop singer Nelly Furtado , he said that she was to originally have featured on the soundtrack , although this was ultimately prevented from happening due to a change in producers and other factors . Aamir Khan , with his knowledge of Hindi and Urdu , worked with Rahman and Joshi for the soundtrack . In addition , Mehra and Rahman chose him to sing for one of the songs .
Joshi , one of the lyricists , was impressed with the director , Rakeysh Mehra , who was ready to adjust to his style of writing as well as his creativity . Confessing that the film 's soundtrack was his favorite out of all his previous works , Joshi felt that it " was a wonderful experience getting to know the mindset of today 's youth and to pen down their feelings " . Speaking about one of his songs , " Luka Chuppi " , in which veteran Lata Mangeshkar sang with Rahman , Joshi said that it was developed while discussing with Rahman the scene about a mother losing her son . Joshi wrote the lyrics about the mother and son playing hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the sad reality of the son being hidden forever . He confessed to have been in tears while Mangeshkar was singing the song . The soundtrack won the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director , and had two of its tracks , Khalbali and Luka Chuppi , considered for an Academy Award for Best Original Song nomination .
While discussing typical Bollywood soundtracks , Nilanjana Bhattacharjya , a professor of music at Colorado College , noted that Rahman integrated traditional Punjabi cultural elements within his music for this soundtrack . Regionally defined elements such as a woman 's prayer at the Sikh Gurdwara ( Golden Temple ) and the bhangra harvest dance are incorporated alongside more contemporary , global styles such as hard rock and hip hop to depict the cosmopolitan lifestyle of the youngsters in the film .
= = Release = =
Rang De Basanti received its world premiere on 26 January 2006 , with high expectations that it would be a success with western audiences , though it also faced ire from several organizations because of certain controversial scenes . The film contained scenes of a MiG @-@ 21 , a controversial aircraft in the Indian Air Force , which has a long history of fatal accidents in India . Promptly
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) Duce , wife of the vice @-@ president of the Arabian American Oil Co . He then traveled to Meher Mount at Ojai , California before continuing on to Australia . His final visits to the United States and Australia were made in 1958 .
= = = 1960s – Later years and message on drugs = = =
In 1962 , Baba gave one of his last public functions , a series of meetings he called The East @-@ West Gathering . At these meetings , in which his western followers were invited to meet his Indian disciples , Baba gave darshan to many thousands of people despite the physical strain this caused him .
In the mid @-@ 1960s Baba became concerned with the increasingly prevalent drug culture in the West and began a correspondence with several Western academics , including Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert , in which he strongly discouraged the use of all hallucinogenic drugs for spiritual purposes . In 1966 Baba 's responses to questions on drugs were published in a pamphlet titled God in a Pill ? Meher Baba stated that drug use was spiritually damaging and that if enlightenment were possible through drugs then " God is not worthy of being God " . Meher Baba instructed some of his young Western disciples to spread this message ; in doing so , they increased awareness of Meher Baba 's teachings among the young during this period . In an interview with Frederick Chapman , a Harvard graduate and Fulbright scholar who met Baba during a year of study in India , Baba stated that LSD is " harmful physically , mentally and spiritually " , and warned that " the continued use of LSD leads to madness or death " .
On this basis , an anti @-@ drug campaign was initiated by Baba lovers in the United States , Europe and Australia . Although the campaign was largely unsuccessful , it created a wave of new followers , and some of Baba 's views found their way into academic debate on the merits and dangers of hallucinogens .
From the East @-@ West Gathering of 1962 onward , Baba 's health steadily deteriorated . Despite the physical toll it took on his body , he continued to undergo long periods of seclusion and fasting . In late July 1968 , Baba completed a particularly taxing period of seclusion and stated that by then his work was " completed 100 % to my satisfaction " . At this point he was using a wheelchair . Within a few months his condition had worsened and he was by then bedridden . His body was wracked by intense muscular spasms that had no clear medical origin . Despite the care of several doctors the spasms grew progressively worse .
On 31 January 1969 , Meher Baba died at his home in Meherazad , conveying by his last gestures , " Do not forget that I am God . " In time his devotees called the anniversary of his death Amartithi ( deathless day ) . Meher Baba 's body lay in state at his samadhi at Meherabad . Covered with roses , and cooled by ice , his body was kept available to the public for one week before its final burial . Before his death , Meher Baba had made extensive preparations for a public darshan program to be held in Poona . His mandali decided to proceed with the arrangements despite the physical absence of the host . Several thousand attended this " Last Darshan " , including many hundreds of people from the United States , Europe , and Australia .
= = Silence = =
From 10 July 1925 , until his death in 1969 , Meher Baba was silent . He communicated first by using an alphabet board and later by unique hand gestures which were interpreted and spoken out by one of his mandali , usually by his disciple Eruch Jessawala . Meher Baba said that his silence was not undertaken as a spiritual exercise but solely in connection with his universal work .
Man 's inability to live God 's words makes the Avatar 's teaching a mockery . Instead of practicing the compassion he taught , man has waged wars in his name . Instead of living the humility , purity , and truth of his words , man has given way to hatred , greed , and violence . Because man has been deaf to the principles and precepts laid down by God in the past , in this present Avataric form , I observe silence .
Meher Baba often signaled the moment " that he would ' break ' his silence by speaking the ' Word ' in every heart , thereby giving a spiritual push forward to all living things " .
When I break My Silence , the impact of My Love will be universal and all life in creation will know , feel and receive of it . It will help every individual to break himself free from his own bondage in his own way . I am the Divine Beloved who loves you more than you can ever love yourself . The breaking of My Silence will help you to help yourself in knowing your real Self .
Meher Baba said that the breaking of his silence would be a defining event in the spiritual evolution of the world .
When I speak that Word , I shall lay the foundation for that which is to take place during the next seven hundred years .
On many occasions Meher Baba promised to break his silence with an audible word before he died , often stating a specific time and place when this would occur , but according to all contemporary accounts , Meher Baba remained silent until his death . His failure to break his silence disappointed some of his followers , while others regarded these broken promises as a test of their faith . Some followers speculate that " the Word " will yet be " spoken " , or that Meher Baba did break his silence but in a spiritual rather than a physical way .
For many years , Baba asked his followers to undertake austerities on 10 July , the anniversary of the day his silence began , such as keeping silence , fasting and praying . In his final Silence Day request to his followers in 1968 , he asked only that they keep silent . Many of Baba 's followers continue to celebrate Silence Day by keeping silence in his honor .
= = Teachings = =
Meher Baba 's teachings can roughly be divided into two main categories : his metaphysics on the nature of the soul and the Universe , and practical advice for the spiritual aspirant . The two are interrelated . His metaphysics is mostly found in his principal book on the subject , God Speaks . It contains detailed statements on his cosmology and the purpose of life as well as the progression of the soul , while his elucidations on the practical spiritual life are mostly contained in Discourses , although it also covers many metaphysical areas mirroring or amplifying God Speaks .
= = = God Speaks = = =
In God Speaks , Meher Baba describes the journey of the soul from its original state of unconscious divinity to the ultimate attainment of conscious divinity . The whole journey is a journey of imagination , where the original indivisible state of God imagines becoming countless individualized souls which he likens to bubbles within an infinite ocean . Each soul , powered by the desire to become conscious , starts its journey in the most rudimentary form of consciousness . This limitation brings the need of a more developed form to advance it towards an increasingly conscious state . Consciousness grows in relation to the impressions each form is capable of gathering .
According to Baba , each soul pursues conscious divinity by evolving : that is , experiencing itself in a succession of imagined forms through seven " kingdoms " : stone / metal , vegetable , worm , fish , bird , animal , and human . The soul identifies itself with each successive form , becoming thus tied to illusion . During this evolution of forms thinking also increases , until in human form thinking becomes infinite . Although in human form the soul is capable of conscious divinity , all the impressions that it has gathered during evolution are illusory ones , creating a barrier for the soul to know itself . For this barrier to be overcome , further births in human form are needed in a process named reincarnation .
Eventually the soul reaches a stage where its previously gathered impressions grow thin or weak enough that it enters a final stage called involution . This stage also requires a series of human births , during which the soul begins an inner journey , by which it realizes its true identity as God . Baba breaks this inner journey of Realization into seven stages he calls " planes . " The whole process culminates at the seventh plane with God @-@ realization , where the goal of life for the individual soul is reached .
= = = Discourses = = =
The Discourses are a collection of explanations and elucidations that Meher Baba has given on many topics that concern the advancement of the spiritual aspirant . Some of the most important topics treated are : sanskaras ( mental impressions ) , Maya ( the principle of illusion ) , the nature of the ego , reincarnation , karma , violence and non @-@ violence , meditation , love , discipleship , and God @-@ realization . His explanations often include stories from the lore of India and the Sufi culture . One such story , the wise man and the ghost , shows the power that superstitious beliefs can have on a person , while another , Majnun and Layla , show how selfless love , even in human relations , can lead one to discipleship .
Thus Meher Baba offers many suggestions that keep one moving towards God @-@ realization . These suggestions include putting theory into practice , the internal renunciation of desires , offering selfless service to humanity or the master , spontaneity , while avoiding actions that bind one to illusion . But rather than lay out moral rules , Baba offers an understanding as to why some actions bind the individual whereas some others help towards his emancipation . Many chapters offer a better understanding of the mechanisms by which consciousness gets caught up between the opposites of experience , such as pleasure and pain , good and evil , and point to a way of transcending them .
= = = Perfect Masters and the Avatar = = =
Baba said that at all times on Earth there are fifty @-@ six incarnate God @-@ realized souls and that of these souls there are always five who constitute the " five Perfect Masters " of their era . When one of the five Perfect Masters dies , Baba said that another God @-@ realized soul among the fifty @-@ six immediately replaces him or her by taking up that office .
The Avatar , according to Baba , is a special Perfect Master , the first soul to achieve God @-@ realization . This soul , the original Perfect Master , or the " Ancient One " , never ceases to incarnate . Baba indicated that this particular soul personifies the state of God which in Hinduism is named Vishnu and in Sufism is named Parvardigar , i.e. the sustainer or preserver state of God . According to Meher Baba the Avatar appears on Earth every 700 – 1400 years and is ' brought down ' into human form by the five Perfect Masters of the time to aid in the process of moving creation in its never @-@ ending journey toward Godhood . Baba asserted that in other ages this role was fulfilled by Zoroaster , Rama , Krishna , Buddha , Jesus , and Muhammad .
Baba described the Avatar as " a gauge against which man can measure what he is and what he may become . He trues the standard of human values by interpreting them in terms of divinely human life . "
Most of Meher Baba 's followers accept his claim of avatarhood and he is said to be " revered by millions around the world as the Avatar of the age and a God @-@ realized being " .
= = Legacy = =
Baba 's travels and teachings left a legacy of followers and devotees worldwide .
The Avatar Meher Baba Charitable Trust , established by Meher Baba in 1959 , maintains his tomb and pilgrimage facilities , as well as a free school and dispensary , a cataract clinic , and a veterinary clinic . The Trust follows the charter left for it by Meher Baba in his lifetime , but does not act as spiritual authority over groups . Likewise , the Trust does not engage in propaganda , promote creeds or dogmas , or seek converts . Baba discouraged evangelizing , stating , " I need no propaganda or publicity . " Rather , he encouraged his followers to " let your life itself be my message of love and truth to others " and to " spread my message of Love and Truth as far and wide as possible " . Followers of Meher Baba have no established rituals . Many do , however , perform practices of choice such as pujas , aartis , prayers , music , plays , viewing films of Baba and so forth , but the choice is personal . The primary focus for followers is living a life Meher Baba would approve of , for example , refraining from the use of psychedelic drugs , including marijuana , and trying to remember God with love .
Gatherings of Baba followers are generally informal . Special effort is made to gather together on Amartithi , the anniversary of Baba 's death , and on his birthday . Many Baba followers keep silent on 10 July ( Silence Day ) , observing the request Baba frequently made of his followers during his lifetime . Aarti is performed morning and evening at Baba 's samadhi in India . Also at Meherabad , his followers maintain Baba 's practice of lighting a dhuni fire on the 12th of each month .
Although Baba had initially begun gaining public attention in the West as early as 1932 as the result of contacts with some celebrities of the time and from the rather disillusioned account of Paul Brunton ( A Search in Secret India , 1934 ) , he received further attention after his death through various mentions in western pop @-@ culture .
Pete Townshend of The Who , who became a follower of Baba , dedicated his 1969 rock @-@ opera Tommy to Meher Baba in the record 's gatefold . The Who 's 1971 song " Baba O 'Riley " was named in part after Meher Baba , and Townshend recorded several Meher Baba tribute albums including Happy Birthday , I Am , Who Came First , and With Love . In 1970 Melanie Safka mentioned Baba in her song " Lay Down ( Candles in the Rain ) " with the lyrics " Meher Baba lives again " . Bobby McFerrin 's 1988 Grammy Award @-@ winning song " Don 't Worry , Be Happy " was inspired by a popular quote of Baba seen in numerous Baba posters and inspirational cards . Concepts of Meher Baba 's philosophy , as well as a character based on Baba but unnamed , have also frequently appeared in works of comic book writer J. M. DeMatteis , including Doctor Fate and Seekers Into The Mystery .
In 2012 , the feature film Nema Aviona za Zagreb premiered in the Netherlands with an exclusive interview with Meher Baba filmed in 1967 . In the interview Baba explains the difference between God @-@ realization and drug @-@ induced hallucinations and the scene plays a pivotal role in the documentary 's narrative .
= Mycena lanuginosa =
Mycena lanuginosa is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . First collected in 2000 and reported as a new species in 2007 , it is known only from lowland oak @-@ dominated forests in central Honshu in Japan . The small mushroom is characterized by its grooved , grayish @-@ brown to violet @-@ brown cap up to 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter , and the slender grayish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown stem covered with minute , fine , soft hairs . The mushroom produces amyloid spores ( spores that stain when treated with Melzer 's reagent ) . Microscopic distinguishing features include the smooth , spindle @-@ shaped cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge and face , respectively ) and the diverticulate elements in the outer layer of the cap and the stem .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
Mycena lanuginosa was first collected by Haruki Takahashi in 2000 , and published as a new species in 2007 , along with seven other Japanese Mycena species . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word lanuginosa , meaning " lanugineous " , referring to the hairy stem . The Japanese name for the mushroom is Keashi @-@ haiirotake ( ケアシハイイロタケ ) .
The fungus is classified in the section Fragilipedes ( Fr . ) Quél . , as defined by Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus . This section is the largest in the genus Mycena .
= = Description = =
The cap is 7 to 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 to 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter , conical to convex to bell @-@ shaped , and has distinct radial grooves that extend almost to the center . It is dry , and somewhat hygrophanous ( changing color as it loses or absorbs water ) . The surface is initially pruinose ( covered with what appears to be a fine white powder ) , but soon becomes smooth . The cap is dark brown at the center , and gradually changes to reddish @-@ brown and finally to nearly white at the margin . The white flesh is up to 0 @.@ 5 mm thick , and does not have any distinctive taste or odor . The slender stem is 30 to 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 031 to 0 @.@ 051 in ) thick , cylindrical , attached to the center of the cap , hollow , and dry . The top portion of the stem is pruinose , while near the base the surface is covered with soft , fine hairs . The stem color is grayish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown near the top , changing to reddish @-@ brown near the bottom . The stem base is covered with long , fairly coarse , whitish fibrils . The gills are narrowly attached to the stem , distantly spaced ( 12 – 18 gills reach the stem ) , up to 1 @.@ 5 mm broad , thin , and whitish , with the gill edges the same color as the gill faces .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are roughly ellipsoid , smooth , thin @-@ walled , colorless , and measure 10 – 12 by 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm . They are amyloid , meaning they will stain blue to black when treated with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 35 – 42 by 7 – 9 µm , club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and have clamps at their bases . The abundant cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are thin @-@ walled , and measure 40 – 80 by 5 – 15 µm . The smooth , colorless , and thin @-@ walled spindle @-@ shaped cells sometimes come to an abruptly tapering point ; they form a sterile gill edge . Like the cheilocystidia , the pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are also spindle @-@ shaped , abundant , smooth and thin @-@ walled ; they measure 63 – 102 by 8 – 15 µm . The hymenophoral tissue ( tissue of the hymenium @-@ bearing structure ) is made of smooth , thin @-@ walled element hyphae that are 3 – 25 µm wide , roughly cylindrical ( often inflated ) , hyaline ( translucent ) , and dextrinoid ( turning reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 6 µm wide , and cylindrical . They can be either smooth , or covered with scattered , warty or finger @-@ like thin @-@ walled brownish diverticulae . The underlying hyphae have a parallel arrangement , and are hyaline or brownish , dextrinoid , with short and inflated cells that are up to 35 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae measuring 3 – 6 µm wide . These hyphae , as well as the terminal cells ( caulocystidia ) , have characteristics similar to the hyphae of the cap cuticle . The flesh of the stem is composed of longitudinally arranged , cylindrical hyphae that are 6 – 20 µm wide , smooth , hyaline , and dextrinoid . Clamp connections are present in the cortical layer of cap and stem , and at the basal septa of the basidia .
= = = Similar species = = =
M. lanuginosa closely resembles M. pilosella , a species originally described from Netherlands by Maas Geesteranus , and the European species M. zephirus ; both are in the section Fragilipedes . Mycena pilosella differs in several microscopic characteristics : it has densely diverticulate elements of the cap cuticle ; long , cylindrical caulocystidia that diverge at a right angle ; and it does not have pleurocystidia . Mycena zephirus is distinct in forming a whitish cap , a stem that is initially minutely hairly but later becomes smooth , radish @-@ like odor , ellipsoid to cylindrical spores , and cheilocystidia with branches near the tip .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena lanuginosa is known only from Kanagawa , in Honshu , Japan . Fruit bodies are found solitary or scattered , on dead leaves and twigs in lowland forests dominated by the oak species Quercus myrsinifolia and Q. serrata . Fruiting occurs from March to November .
= Voices of a Distant Star =
Voices of a Distant Star ( Japanese : ほしのこえ , Hepburn : Hoshi no Koe , lit . " Voices of a Star " ) is a Japanese original video animation ( OVA ) directed , written and co @-@ produced by Makoto Shinkai . The OVA premièred in Japan in February 2002 in an advanced screening . It was followed by two DVD releases on April 19 and October 6 , 2002 . It chronicles a long @-@ distance relationship between two close friends , one a soldier , who attempt to communicate with one @-@ another over the course of an interstellar war by utilizing text messages that take years to reach their recipient . ADV Films licensed the OVA for release in North American and the United Kingdom , Madman Entertainment licensed it for Australasia and Anime Limited , for the United Kingdom .
The OVA was adapted into a drama CD by Pioneer LDC and a novel was written by Waku Ōba , illustrated by Makoto Shinkai and Kou Yaginuma , and published by Media Factory 's imprint MF Bunko J. Makoto Shinkai adapted a manga from the OVA , illustrated by Mizu Sahara ; Kodansha serialized it in its manga magazine , Afternoon , from April 2004 , and released the manga as a one @-@ shot on February 23 , 2005 . The manga was licensed for a North American release by Tokyopop , which published it on August 1 , 2006 .
In 2002 , the OVA won the Animation Kobe award for packaged work . It also won the 2003 Seiun Award for best media . Reviews of the series have been generally positive , with reviewers praising the series and applauding the art , plot and music ; however there was criticism of the English dubbing .
= = Plot = =
A schoolgirl named Mikako Nagamine ( Mika Shinohara ( original Japanese ) , Sumi Mutoh ( Japanese ) Cynthia Martinez ( English ) ) is recruited into the UN Space Army to fight in a war against a group of aliens called the Tarsians — named after the Tharsis region of Mars where they were first encountered . As a Special Agent , Mikako pilots a giant robotic mecha called a Tracer as part of a fighting squadron attached to the spacecraft carrier Lysithea . When the Lysithea leaves Earth to search for the Tarsians , Mikako 's friend Noboru Terao ( Makoto Shinkai ( original Japanese ) , Chihiro Suzuki ( Japanese ) Adam Colon ( English ) ) remains on Earth . The two continue to communicate across space using the e @-@ mail facilities on their mobile telephones . As the Lysithea travels deeper into space , messages take increasingly longer to reach Noboru on Earth , and the time @-@ lag of their correspondence eventually spans years .
The narrative begins in 2047 . Mikako is apparently alone in a hauntingly empty city , trying to contact people through her mobile telephone . She wakes up in her Tracer orbiting an extrasolar planet . She then goes to Agartha , the fictional fourth planet of the Sirius System . Mikako sends an e @-@ mail to Noboru ( which shows the date 2047 @-@ 09 @-@ 16 ) , with the subject " I am here " , which would reach him eight years later . Some flashes of imagery , perhaps indicative of memory , a hallucination , or even a mystical encounter , are then shown . The room shown at the beginning of the animation is presented again ; Mikako is squatting in the corner , sobbing and pleading with her doppelganger to let her see Noboru again so she can tell him she loves him .
The ship 's alarm warns Mikako that the Tarsians are surrounding her , but she does not understand . A climactic battle ensues . On Earth , Noboru receives the message almost nine years later . At Agartha , three of the four carriers equipped with the warp engines which brought the expeditionary force to Sirius have been destroyed . The Lysithea is still intact after Mikako joins the fight and stops its destruction . After winning the battle , Mikako lets her damaged Tracer drift in space .
In the manga , at 16 years old , Mikako sends a message to 25 years old Noboru , telling him that she loves him . By this time , Noboru has joined the UN , which has launched a rescue mission for the Lysithea . When Mikako hears that the UN is sending help for their rescue , she consults a list of people on the mission , and finds that Noboru is among them . The manga ends with Mikako saying that they will definitely meet again .
= = Production = =
Voices of a Distant Star was written , directed and produced by Makoto Shinkai on his Power Mac G4 using LightWave , Adobe Photoshop 5 @.@ 0 , Adobe After Effects 4 @.@ 1 and Commotion 3 @.@ 1 DV software . Around June 2000 , Shinkai drew the first picture for Voices — of a girl holding a mobile telephone in a cockpit .
Shinkai said the OVA was inspired by Dracula and Laputa . He stated that production took seven months to complete . He said another inspiration was his frequent sending of text messaging to his wife when he was working . Shinkai cited the availability of digital hardware and software tools for image production at his workplace , Falcom , and friends ' view that individual film production could occur because of the introduction of PlayStation 2 and DVDs .
Makoto and his then girlfriend , Mika Shinohara , provided the voice acting for the working dub . A second Japanese dub was later created for the DVD release with professional voice actors . Makoto 's friend Tenmon , who had worked with Makoto 's video game company , provided the soundtrack . The song and film were created together in sync during storyboarding . Sometimes , the timing of the animation had to be changed to match the music .
I think it 's because of the theme of the story - communication between people . I used cell phones in the story because that is what is commonly used in Japan to communicate , but there are many countries where people don 't use cell phones . Communication from the heart is ever @-@ lastingly important wherever you are , so I assume that is why it appealed to so many people . The other thing that is appealing is that I created this animation by myself . The mass media reported on the man who created anime by himself . I 'm looking forward to more people doing things this way and seeing an emergence of independent animators , whether it 's individuals or small groups .
The ending theme to the OVA , " Through the Years and Far Away " ( Hello , Little Star ) , was composed by Tenmon , with lyrics written by K. Juno and sung by Low .
= = Media = =
= = = OVA = = =
The Voices of a Distant Star OVA was directed , written and produced by Makoto Shinkai . Shinkai and his fiance , Mika Shinohara , provided the voices of the characters for the original video . The OVA was released for an advanced screening in February 2002 . Yoshihiro Hagiwara produced the DVD release , and the voice actors were Chihiro Suzuki and Sumi Mutoh . CoMix Wave Inc. released it on DVD on April 19 , 2002 . A DVD Book version of the story was released by Tokuma Shoten on October 6 , 2002 .
In July 2002 , ADV Films announced it had licensed Voices of a Distant Star for a North American release . Steven Foster , director of ADV Films , directed the dubbing of the film into English , with voices provided by Adam Colon and Cynthia Martinez . ADV Films released the North American DVD on June 10 , 2003 . On June 30 , 2003 , ADV recalled the North American DVDs because they failed to include the original Japanese tracks made by Shinkai and Shinohara . ADV Films UK released the DVD in the United Kingdom on November 17 , 2003 . ADV Films UK also released a Shinkai Collection DVD set , containing Voices of a Distant Star and The Place Promised in Our Early Days , on September 3 , 2007 . Anime Limited has since taken over ADV Film 's license for the film and has announced DVD and Blu @-@ ray twin @-@ pack releases of Voices of a Distant Star and The Place Promised in Our Early Days in the UK . The film was licensed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment , which released the DVD on October 15 , 2003 .
The film was licensed in France by Kazé , in Italy by D / visual , in Russia by XLM Media , in Taiwan by Proware Multimedia International . Crunchyroll streamed Voices for free for 48 hours beginning on March 5 , 2010 to celebrate Shinkai as director .
= = = Other = = =
A drama CD was released by Pioneer LDC on June 25 , 2002 . A novel was adapted from the OVA by Waku Ōba and illustrated by Makoto Shinkai and Kou Yaginuma . The novel was published by Media Factory 's imprint MF Bunko J on July 25 , 2002 .
The OVA was adapted into a manga by Makoto Shinkai and illustrated by Mizu Sahara . It was serialized in Kodansha 's manga magazine , Afternoon from April 2004 . Kodansha released the manga as a one @-@ shot on February 23 , 2005 . The manga was licensed for a North American release by Tokyopop , which published the manga on August 1 , 2006 . The manga was also licensed in Italy by D / visual , in Germany by Egmont Manga & Anime and in Portugal by Panini Comics .
= = Reception = =
Voices of A Distant Star film was listed 100th on DVD Verdict 's Top 100 DVD Films list . It has also won the Animation Kobe for packaged work in 2002 and the 2003 Seiun Award for best media .
Anime News Network 's Jonathan Mays criticized Steven Foster 's dubbing of the film . He said , " Foster carelessly omits critical details , completely rewrites some scenes , misinterprets emotions , and even adds new dialogue where the original track had silence " . In an Anime News Network interview , Foster said he " made some changes to make the jokes more accessible " . Mays also said , " The animation is breathtaking . Shinkai 's backgrounds have very few equals . The character designs look uninspired , but paired with the animator 's beautifully realized worlds , the generic appearance fades into the magnificence of the scene . " He said Shinkai 's use of lighting is " masterful " , " incredibly realistic " and conveys the characters ' moods well . He called the characters " unoriginal " . DVD Verdict 's Rob Lineberger commended the music , saying " the simple score infuses the animation with meaning . Solitary piano notes are sluggish , as though the pianist lacked the enthusiasm needed to pick up his fingers . When the action kicks in , it arrives with a sonic punch from 5 @.@ 1 speakers . Rockets scream around you , birds move overhead , engines thrum quietly in your wake . The soundtrack does what it is supposed to do : transport you to another world " .
THEM Anime Review 's Carlos Ross said , " The voice @-@ acting is remarkable , the directing is solid , and music is quite competent . But the real kicker here is the animation quality , which actually equals ( and sometimes exceeds ) that of excellent television series like Vandread and Full Metal Panic ... there is a remarkable amount of storyline ; the plot is well @-@ written and executed , and never gets a chance to be too drawn out . And Shinkai gives equal time to the slick action sequences and the well @-@ handled , genuinely touching romance " . IGN 's A.E. Sparrow said , " While [ the film ] was visually one of the best pieces of eye @-@ candy I have seen in a year or so , it 's ultimately a voice track over a sequence of pretty pictures . Don 't get me wrong , it was absolutely beautiful , but it left me wanting more " . Mania 's Chris Beveridge commended ADV Films for obtaining the original computer files that were used to create it . He said , " the transfer here is simply gorgeous . Colors are amazingly lush and deep , saturated without bleeding . Cross coloration is non @-@ existent and only a few very minor areas of aliasing occur . The only real ' flaw ' that I could see with this transfer is during some of the panning sequences up and down , there ’ s a slight stutter that ’ s simply inherent in the materials " . DVDs Worth Watching 's Johanna Draper Carlson said , " the character designs are familiar and uninspired , and the cross @-@ cutting choppy " .
IGN 's A.E. Sparrow said that compared with the film , the manga has " a healthy amount of additional storylines , characters and dialogue ... " He also said , " Mizu Sahara 's artwork brings a bit of clarity to scenes that might have come off as muddled in the anime " . Anime News Network 's Theron Martin said the manga has " strong storytelling which carries good emotional appeal , fleshes out the original anime " but said it " unnecessarily adds on to the ending " , and that " character designs were not Shinkai 's strong point , and Sahara 's are only a slight improvement " .
Manga Worth Reading 's Johanna Draper Carlson said , " the art is denser than in many manga , with toned backgrounds anchoring the drawn world . Faces are often in shadow , suggesting separation and loss . " Pop Culture Shock 's Melinda Beasi wrote , " the manga is absolutely beautiful . The art is nicely detailed and very expressive , and the panel layouts , including the placement and style of dialogue and narrative text , make the story visually interesting and easy to follow " . She also said , " Sahara also spends more time exploring both Mikako ’ s and Noboru ’ s feelings about Mikako ’ s appointment to the Lysithea , which is very revealing for both characters " . Mania.com 's Sakura Eries said , stating " there 's not a lot of detail in the backgrounds , the mecha designs are dull , and the warp scenes , which were so spectacular in the anime , don 't make much of an impact " .
= The Possum =
" The Possum " is the 18th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 24th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 11 , 2010 . In the episode , Leslie forms a task force to capture an possum that bit the mayor 's dog , but she begins to fear she has caught the wrong animal .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Tristram Shapeero . " The Possum " featured a guest appearance by Alison Becker , who reprised her previous guest role as reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep . Supporting character Ron Swanson is revealed to have a large woodshop in " The Possum " , which was inspired by actor Nick Offerman 's real @-@ life carpentry skills .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Possum " was seen by 4 @.@ 6 million viewers . Its rating among viewers between ages 18 and 49 constituted a nine percent drop from the previous week 's episode , " Woman of the Year " . " The Possum " received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
After the infamous possum " Fairway Frank " bites Mayor Gunderson 's dog at a golf course , mayoral representative Evelyn ( Judith Moreland ) asks Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) to form a task force to capture it . Leslie , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) and two incompetent animal control workers , Harris ( Harris Wittels ) and Brett ( Colton Dunn ) go to the golf course and quickly find the animal . The animal control workers are useless and Tom immediately runs away , but Andy dives toward the animal and captures it . Evelyn is impressed with Leslie and promises her a special favor from the mayor 's office . However , Leslie sees a second opossum and fears they have captured the wrong animal . She later finds out that the mayor doesn 't care about catching Fairway Frank , but rather about securing a trophy animal for his bathroom .
Back at the department office , reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep ( Alison Becker ) interviews Andy for a newspaper article . After he brags about the capture , the reporter suggests his heroics might win him back the affections of Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , his ex @-@ girlfriend , much to Andy 's excitement . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , who has romantic feelings for Andy , overhears this and leaves jealously . Evelyn demands delivery of Fairway Frank . Leslie responds that there is uncertainty about the identity of Fairway Frank . She refuses to hand over the captured opossum and creates a ketchup @-@ blood diversion so that April can escape with the caged animal .
Leslie and April take the opossum to Ann 's home , where April has been paid $ 50 to housesit . April lets the opossum out of its cage , and it causes havoc and minor damage . While hiding from the animal , April reveals her feelings about Andy to Leslie for the first time . When Leslie refuses to hand over the opossum , Evelyn angrily takes back her promise of a favor from the mayor 's office . Andy , still oblivious to the reasons behind April 's jealousy , delivers coffee to April , as well as the day 's newspaper , containing a story which credits April for providing moral support to Andy . It is later revealed that Leslie has donated the opossum to the Pawnee zoo .
Meanwhile , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) plans a woodshop expansion in his home and seeks the approval of city planner Mark ( Paul Schneider ) . Mark informs Ron that an inspection is needed to ensure that the facility meets all current zoning code standards , and an obviously lying Ron claims it does , clearly underscoring his vexation with governmental regulations . During the inspection , Mark finds numerous code violations , including oily rags placed above a wood @-@ burning fireplace and a long @-@ outdated fire extinguisher . Later , Mark takes a half @-@ day off so that he can help his friend 's woodshop meet city code . Ron thanks Mark by building a wooden canoe and leaving it in his office .
= = Production = =
" The Possum " was written by Mike Scully and directed by Tristram Shapeero . Despite the title , the animal featured in the episode is an opossum , a marsupial species native to the Americas which is commonly called a possum , though that name refers to animals native to the Eastern Hemisphere . Some commentators said the main plotline involving the opossum served as an allegory for capital punishment . The episode featured actress and comedian Alison Becker in a guest appearance as Pawnee Journal reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep . The actress and character first appeared in the first season episode " The Reporter " , in which she had sex with Mark , which Andy bluntly recollects upon first seeing Shauna in " The Possum " . Rashida Jones appears only in the opening and closing scenes of " The Possum " because she was filming scenes for David Fincher 's film The Social Network .
In " The Possum " , Ron is revealed to have a very large woodshop . This element of Ron 's character was inspired by actor Nick Offerman , who in addition to comedy runs an independent carpentry business called Offerman Woodshop . This was also referenced in the previous second season episode " Sweetums " , in which Ron builds a harp from scratch to prove to Leslie he is not intoxicated . During one scene , Leslie shows a list of the Pawnee Parks Department 's Most Wanted Pests , which includes several raccoons . This is a reference to a running gag , established from the series , that Pawnee has a terrible raccoon infestation problem . Shortly after " The Possum " originally aired , a downloadable PDF file was made available on NBC 's " City of Pawnee " website of the most wanted pests list , which included images of the 10 most animals including raccoons , the opossum , a bat , a feral cat and a crow . The site also included a PDF file of the front page of the fictional newspaper 's The Pawnee Journal , which included the newspaper article referenced in the episode about Andy 's capture of the opossum . A printed copy of the newspaper article can be seen taped to the wall of Andy 's shoeshine stand in the subsequent episode
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explodes , filling the school lab with green goo , he confesses to Dr. Pryor that he switched tests with Martin . Dr. Pryor realizes that he was never a genius and has him readmitted to Springfield Elementary .
Bart returns home and tells Homer that he cheated on the intelligence test , but that he is glad they are closer than ever . An angry Homer chases Bart through the house , only for Bart to lock the door of his bedroom . Lisa pronounces that Bart is back to being his normal , dumb self .
= = Production = =
The concept for the episode developed from writer Jon Vitti coming up with a long list of bad things Bart would do for attention imagining the potential consequences . The only idea that developed into an interesting episode concept was Bart cheating on an IQ test . This idea was based on an incident from Vitti 's childhood when a number of his classmates did not take an intelligence test seriously and suffered poor academic treatment because of it . Because Bart was already obviously unintelligent , Vitti reversed the problem for his episode . Vitti used all his memories of elementary school behavior to produce a draft script of 71 pages , substantially above the required length of about 45 pages .
It was Vitti 's first script for a 30 @-@ minute television program . Bart 's use of the phrase " Eat my shorts " was intended to reflect his adoption of catchphrases he had heard on TV ; the creative team had told Vitti that he should not come up with original taglines for the character . The scene where the family plays Scrabble was inspired by the 1985 cartoon The Big Snit .
Director David Silverman had difficulty devising a legible Scrabble board for the opening scene that would convey the idea that the Simpsons were only able to devise very simple words . The design of Bart 's visualization of the math problem was partially inspired by the art of Saul Steinberg . The increasing appearance of numbers in that sequence derived from Silverman 's use of a similar tactic when he had to develop a set design for the play The Adding Machine .
Each successive scene in the sequence was shorter than the one before it by exactly one frame . The scene where Bart writes his confession was done as one long take to balance the shorter scenes elsewhere in the episode . It was animated in the United States by Dan Haskett . There were a few problems with the finished animation for the episode . The banana in the opening scene was colored incorrectly , as the Korean animators were unfamiliar with the fruit , and the final bathtub scene was particularly problematic , including issues with lip sync . The version in the broadcast episode was the best of several attempts .
The episode was the first to feature the series ' full title sequence . Creator Matt Groening developed the lengthy sequence in order to cut down on the animation necessary for each episode , but devised the two gags as compensation for the repeated material each week . In the first gag , the camera zooms in on Springfield Elementary School , where Bart can be seen writing a message on the chalkboard . This message , which changes from episode to episode , has become known as the " chalkboard gag " . The other gag is known as a " couch gag " , in which a twist of events occur when the family meets to sit on their couch and watch television . Groening , who had not paid much attention to television since his own childhood , was unaware that title sequences of such length were uncommon by that time . As the finished episodes became longer , the production team were reluctant to cut the stories in order to allow for the long title sequence , so shorter versions of it were developed . The episode also introduced the characters Martin Prince and his parents , Richard , Bart 's teacher Edna Krabappel and Dr. J Loren Pryor .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene , Maggie spells EMCSQU with her blocks , a reference to Albert Einstein 's mass @-@ energy equivalence equation . A picture of Einstein also appears on the wall of Dr. Pryor 's office . At one point Homer erroneously refers to Einstein as the inventor of the light bulb . Dr. Pryor compares Bart 's proposed work among ordinary children to Jane Goodall 's study of chimpanzees . Goodall was pleased to be mentioned in the episode , sending the program a letter , and Vitti an autographed copy of her book . The conductor of the opera the family attends is named Boris Csupowski , a reference to animator Gabor Csupo . The opera attended by the family is Carmen , by French composer Georges Bizet ; the song that Bart mocks is a famous aria called the Toreador Song . Students at the gifted school have lunchboxes that feature images of the 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited and chess grandmaster Anatoly Karpov .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart the Genius " finished 47th place in the weekly ratings for the week of January 8 – January 14 , 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . It was the second highest rated show on the Fox Network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , strongly praised the episode calling it " superbly written and directed , often a literal child 's @-@ eye view of education , the first Simpsons episode proper is a classic . " They went on to say , " these twenty minutes cemented Bart 's position as a cultural icon and a hero to all underachievers , and managed a good few kicks at hothouse schools along the way . Especially worthy of note is the sequence where Bart visualises his maths problem , the viewing of which should be a required part of teacher training . "
In September 2001 , in an DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 2 ½ / 5 and commented that the episode was " wacky and fun , very Bart centered , it 's easy to see with this episode why Bart became the figurehead for a few years of class clowns " . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode " offered another decent but unspectacular episode " and further commented that " its early vintage seems clear both through the awkward animation and the lack of appropriate character development . "
In February 1991 , in an interview , Jon Vitti described " Bart the Genius " as his favorite among the episodes he wrote to that point . James L. Brooks also mentioned the episode among his favorites , saying that " we did things with animation when that happened that just opened doors for us . " The show received mail from viewers complaining that the throwing away of a comic book was an incident of censorship . The invented word " Kwyjibo " in the episode inspired the creator of the Melissa macro virus , as well as the name of an Iron Oxide Copper Gold deposit in Quebec .
= = Home release = =
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom , as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection ; the episode was paired with season one episode " The Call of the Simpsons " . In the United Kingdom , it was once re released as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season , released in November 1999 .
In the United States , the episode would finally see the home video release as a part of The Simpsons Season One DVD set , which was released on September 25 , 2001 . Groening , Brooks , Silverman , and Vitti participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . A digital edition of the series ' first season was published December 20 , 2010 in the United States containing the episode , through Amazon Video and iTunes .
= Outflow ( meteorology ) =
Outflow , in meteorology , is air that flows outwards from a storm system . It is associated with ridging , or anticyclonic flow . In the low levels of the troposphere , outflow radiates from thunderstorms in the form of a wedge of rain @-@ cooled air , which is visible as a thin rope @-@ like cloud on weather satellite imagery or a fine line on weather radar imagery . Low @-@ level outflow boundaries can disrupt the center of small tropical cyclones . However , outflow aloft is essential for the strengthening of a tropical cyclone . If this outflow is undercut , the tropical cyclone weakens . If two tropical cyclones are in proximity , the upper level outflow from the system to the west can limit the development of the system to the east .
= = Thunderstorms = =
For thunderstorms , outflow tends to indicate the development of a system . Large quantities of outflow at the upper levels of a thunderstorm indicate its development . Too much outflow in the lower levels of a thunderstorm , however , can choke off the low @-@ level inflow which fuels it . Squall lines typically bow out the most , or bend the most convex outward , at the leading edge of low level outflow due to the formation of a mesoscale high @-@ pressure area which forms within the stratiform rain area behind the initial line . This high pressure area is formed due to strong descending motion behind the squall line , and could come in the form of a downburst .
The " edge " of the outflow boundary can often be detected by Doppler radar ( especially in clear air mode ) . Convergence occurs along the leading edge of the downdraft . Convergence of dust , aerosols , and bugs at the leading edge will lead to a higher clear air signature . Insects and arthropods are swept along by the prevailing winds , making them good indicators of the presence of outflow boundaries . The signature of the leading edge is also influenced by the density change between the cooler air from the downdraft and the warmer environmental air . This density boundary will increase the number of echo returns from the leading edge . Clouds and new thunderstorms also develop along the outflow 's leading edge . This makes it possible to locate the outflow boundary when using precipitation mode on a weather radar . Also , it makes outflow boundaries findable within visible satellite imagery as a thin line of cumuliform clouds which is known as an arcus , or arc , cloud . The image to the right depicts a particularly strong ouflow boundary ahead of a line of storms . Often , the outflow boundary will bow in the direction it is moving the quickest .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
The development of a significant mesoscale convective complex can send out a large enough outflow boundary to weaken the cyclone as the tropical cyclone center moves into the more stable air mass behind the leading edge of thunderstorm outflow , or outflow boundary . Moderate vertical wind shear can lead to the initial development of the convective complex and surface low similar to the mid @-@ latitudes , but it must relax to allow tropical cyclogenesis to continue .
While the most obvious motion of clouds is toward the center , tropical cyclones also develop an upper @-@ level ( high @-@ altitude ) outward flow of clouds . These originate from air that has released its moisture and is expelled at high altitude through the " chimney " of the storm engine . This outflow produces high , thin cirrus clouds that spiral away from the center . The clouds are thin enough for the sun to be visible through them . These high cirrus clouds may be the first signs of an approaching tropical cyclone . As air parcels are lifted within the eye of the storm the vorticity is reduced , causing the outflow from a tropical cyclone to have anticyclonic motion . If two tropical cyclones are in proximity to one another , the outflow from the system downstream ( normally to the west ) can hinder the development of the system upstream ( normally to the east ) .
= = Local effects = =
Low @-@ level outflow boundaries from thunderstorms are cooler and more moist than the air mass the thunderstorm originally formed within due to its wet bulbing by rain , forming a wedge of denser air which spreads out from the base of the parent thunderstorm . If wind speeds are high enough , such as during microburst events , dust and sand can be carried into the troposphere , reducing visibility . This type of weather event is known as a haboob , and is most common in the late spring within Sudan . Upper @-@ level outflow can consist of thick cirrus clouds which would then obscure the sun and reduce solar insolation around the outermost edge of tropical cyclones .
= Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater =
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater is an action @-@ adventure stealth video game directed by Hideo Kojima . Snake Eater was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and published by Konami for the PlayStation 2 , and was released on November 17 , 2004 , in North America ; December 16 , 2004 , in Japan ; and in March 2005 in Europe and Australia . The game serves as a prequel to the entire Metal Gear series .
Set in 1964 ( three decades before the events of the original Metal Gear ) , the story centers on FOX operative codenamed Naked Snake as he attempts to rescue a weapons designer , sabotage an experimental superweapon , and assassinate his defected former boss . While previous games were set in a primarily urban environment , Snake Eater adopts a 1960s Soviet jungle setting , with the high tech , near @-@ future trappings of previous Metal Gear Solid games being replaced with the wilderness . While the setting has changed , the game 's focus remains on stealth and infiltration , while retaining the series ' self @-@ referential , fourth wall @-@ breaking sense of humor . The story of Snake Eater is told through numerous cut scenes and radio conversations .
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater was critically acclaimed , and sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide by August 2005 . It is now widely considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Snake Eater is similar to that of previous games in the Metal Gear Solid series . Snake , controlled by the player , must move undetected through a hostile , enemy @-@ filled environment . Although Snake acquires various weapons ( ranging from handguns to rocket propelled grenades ) , the emphasis is on using stealth to avoid confrontations . A number of objects and gadgets can be found along the way to aid in this , including motion detectors to track hostile soldiers , and the Metal Gear series ' trademark cardboard box , which Snake can hide under to avoid visual detection .
Despite the fundamental similarities , Snake Eater introduces many new aspects of gameplay not present in previous Metal Gear games , including camouflage , a new hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat system called " close quarters combat " or " CQC " , a stamina gauge , and an injury @-@ and @-@ treatment system .
Approximately two @-@ thirds of the game is set outdoors in a Soviet Union rainforest , and using this varied environment to its fullest potential is often the key to success . Of the new features , particular emphasis is placed on camouflage and using the jungle environment itself ( for example , climbing trees or hiding in tall grass ) to avoid being seen by the enemy . The advanced radar from previous games has been removed in favor of a simple motion detector and sonar system more suitable for the game 's time period .
A percentage value called the " camouflage index " gauges Snake 's exposure , on a scale from negative values ( highly visible and attracting attention ) up to 100 % ( completely invisible to the enemy ) . In order to minimize visibility , the player must switch between different camouflage uniforms and face paints to blend in with the environment ; for example , wearing a bark @-@ patterned uniform while leaning against a tree , or wearing striped face paint while hiding in tall grass . Other devices for camouflage , such as a fake gavial head to decrease chances of being detected in water , are also available .
The basic close combat from previous installments has been heavily refined and expanded into the CQC system . When unarmed or using a one @-@ handed weapon , Snake can grab opponents and put them in a chokehold , at which point a variety of actions can be performed , such as choking the enemy unconscious , slitting the enemy 's throat , or interrogating them at knifepoint to obtain information . The context , pressure applied to the button , and movement of the analog stick determine the action performed .
While previous games used only a simple life bar , Snake Eater also keeps track of injuries over the entire body . For example , a long fall could fracture Snake 's leg , slowing him down until the injury is properly treated with a splint and bandage . Unless these injuries are treated , Snake will not be able to fully recover his health for some time .
The location brings in the need to rely upon native flora and fauna to survive . This is manifested in a stamina gauge , which constantly depletes during gameplay . Failure to restore the gauge by eating has detrimental effects on gameplay , such as decreasing Snake 's ability to aim his weapon and being heard by the enemy due to Snake 's loud stomach grumbles . Food can be stored in the backpack until it is needed . However , some types of food rot over time , and consuming rotten foods may result in Snake developing a stomach ache , causing the stamina gauge to deplete faster .
The PlayStation 2 versions of Snake Eater include a minigame called Snake vs. Monkey , in which Snake has to catch Ape Escape @-@ style monkeys . In addition to containing tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor , bonus items usable in the main game can be unlocked by progressing through various stages .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of Snake Eater , Naked Snake ( David Hayter / Akio Ōtsuka ) , known as Big Boss in subsequent games , is a young former Green Beret assigned to the CIA unit FOX . During his mission , Snake is assisted by fellow FOX members over his radio : Major Zero ( Jim Piddock / Banjō Ginga ) , commander of FOX and a former member of the British Special Air Service , who provides Snake with mission advice and battle tactics ; Para @-@ Medic ( Heather Halley / Houko Kuwashima ) , who provides medical information , as well as advice on flora and fauna ; and Sigint ( James C. Mathis III / Keiji Fujiwara ) , who provides weapon and equipment information .
The two primary antagonists of the game are Colonel Volgin ( Neil Ross / Kenji Utsumi ) , an electricity @-@ controlling GRU colonel and member of the extreme Brezhnev faction , who are attempting to overthrow Nikita Khrushchev to seize power for Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin , and The Boss ( Lori Alan / Kikuko Inoue ) , former mentor to Naked Snake and co @-@ founder of the FOX unit . The Cobra Unit , a Special Forces unit led by The Boss , is composed of The End ( J. Grant Albrecht / Osamu Saka ) , a venerable expert sniper credited as the " father of modern sniping " ; The Fear ( Michael Bell / Kazumi Tanaka ) , who has supernatural flexibility and agility ; The Fury ( Richard Doyle / Masato Hirano ) , a disfigured former cosmonaut armed with a flamethrower and a jetpack ; The Pain ( Gregg Berger / Hisao Egawa ) , who can control hornets to both defend himself and attack his enemies ; and The Sorrow ( David Thomas / Yukitoshi Hori ) , the spirit of a deceased medium .
Other characters include Dr. Sokolov ( Brian Cummings / Naoki Tatsuta ) , a rocket scientist whom Snake must rescue ; EVA ( Suzetta Miñet / Misa Watanabe ) , Snake 's love interest , American defector , and KGB agent sent to assist him , and a young Ocelot ( Josh Keaton / Takumi Yamazaki ) , commander of the elite Ocelot Unit within Volgin 's GRU .
= = = Story = = =
= = = = Virtuous Mission = = = =
Metal Gear Solid 3 is set before the events of first Metal Gear during the Cold War in 1964 , where a CIA agent , codenamed " Naked Snake " , is sent to the jungles of Tselinoyarsk , in the USSR . Aided over radio by Major Zero , Para @-@ Medic , and his former mentor The Boss , his mission is to rescue a defecting Soviet scientist named Sokolov who is secretly developing an advanced nuclear @-@ equipped tank called the " Shagohod " . The mission goes smoothly until The Boss defects and provides her new benefactor , Colonel Volgin , with two Davy Crockett miniature nuclear shells . Sokolov is captured by Cobra Unit and Snake is heavily injured and thrown off a bridge by The Boss , allowing Volgin and his cohorts to escape with Sokolov . Volgin detonates one of the nuclear shells to cover up its theft , which is subsequently blamed on The Boss . Snake is recovered using the Fulton Recovery System .
= = = = Operation Snake Eater = = = =
Having detected the U.S. aircraft which deployed Snake flying over Soviet soil , the Soviet Union declares the United States responsible for the nuclear attack , tipping both nations to the edge of a nuclear war . In a secret conference between U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev , a deal is hatched to prove the U.S. ' s innocence and restore peace . The United States agrees to stop Volgin 's renegade faction , destroy the stolen Shagohod and eliminate the American defector , The Boss .
A week after being rescued from the region , Snake is redeployed into the Soviet jungle as part of " Operation : Snake Eater " , to fulfill the United States ' promises . During the mission , he gains the assistance of another American defector , ex @-@ NSA agent EVA , who defected a few years earlier ( though she is informed she would be helped by ADAM , who defected with her ) . After numerous encounters with the elite Ocelot Unit ( led by a young Revolver Ocelot ) , and defeating nearly every member of Cobra Unit , Snake succeeds in locating Sokolov and the stolen Shagohod , only to be captured in Volgin 's military fortress , Groznyj Grad . After listening to Volgin brutally beat Sokolov to death , Snake is tortured by Volgin and loses his eye while protecting EVA from Ocelot , who was attempting to kill her upon suspecting her of being a spy ; Snake ultimately escapes .
When he returns to the facility to destroy the Shagohod , Snake is once again confronted by Volgin and learns of " The Philosophers " . Made up of the most powerful men in the United States , Soviet Union , and China , they were an Illuminati @-@ like organization who control the world behind the scenes . However , after the end of World War II , they began to fight amongst themselves , and the organization broke down . The Philosopher 's Legacy , a fund the organization had jointly amassed to finance their wars ( $ 100 billion ) , was divided up and hidden in banks all over the world . Volgin had illegally inherited this money , and Snake learns that the U.S. is attempting to retrieve it .
Snake continues his mission , destroying the facility and the Shagohod tank , while engaging Volgin , who is killed by a bolt of lightning during the battle . Snake and EVA travel to a lake , where a WIG ground effect vehicle is hidden . Before they use it to escape the region , Snake confronts his old mentor , The Boss , whom he must assassinate to complete his mission . After an emotional battle , Snake overcomes his feelings and kills The Boss , emerging victorious . He and EVA escape to Alaska , and spend the night together as they make love . During the night , EVA disappears , and leaves behind a tape revealing herself to be a Chinese spy sent to steal the Philosopher 's Legacy for China . The tape continues , and EVA reveals that The Boss did not defect to the Soviet Union ; rather , she was under orders to pretend to defect so she could infiltrate Volgin 's ranks and find the location of the Legacy , which could be brought back to America . The final part of her mission was to sacrifice her honor and die at the hands of Snake , under the guise of a traitor , to prove the U.S. ' s innocence in Volgin 's nuclear attack from the beginning of the game .
Snake is awarded the title of " Big Boss " and given the Distinguished Service Cross for his efforts by President Johnson in front of his FOX Unit and other officials ; however Snake has become so distraught and demoralized after EVA 's revelation that he leaves almost immediately after getting his medal , hardly acknowledging Major Zero , Para @-@ Medic and Sigint . Later , he arrives at an anonymous grave , The Boss 's , just one of thousands located in Arlington National Cemetery . Laying down The Boss 's gun and a bouquet of lilies upon the nameless gravestone , he scans the endless rows before him , salutes , and sheds a single tear , knowing that The Boss 's true patriotism would be known by only EVA , himself , and others who knew of her mission .
After the credits roll , Ocelot is heard talking to an unknown man over the telephone . Ocelot informs him that the microfilm stolen by EVA was a fake and that half of the Philosopher 's Legacy is now in America 's hands , with the other half held by the KGB . It transpires that Ocelot has been triple @-@ crossing everyone from the very beginning . He then reveals that he is in fact ADAM , that he is talking to the director of the CIA , and that he has been working for the said agency all this time .
= = Development = =
Originally , the game was supposed to be developed for the PlayStation 3 , but due to the long wait for the PS3 , the game was developed for the PlayStation 2 instead . From the outset , the game 's director Hideo Kojima wished to drastically change the setting from previous games . He stated that the jungle setting is what both his development team , and the Metal Gear fans , wanted . However , he acknowledged that the elements of a jungle environment , such as the weather , landscape and wildlife , were features that would present problems during the game 's development . Whereas in previous installments the player starts out close to , or even within , the enemy base , Kojima wished Snake Eater to be more realistic , with Snake starting out miles from civilization and having to work his way to the enemy encampment .
Kojima commented that the outside environment was very difficult to create . He explained that the reason previous games were primarily set indoors is because the current consoles were not powerful enough to portray a true jungle environment . In contrast with urban environments , the jungle does not have a flat surface . The protagonist in Snake Eater has to cross uneven terrain , including rocks , dirt mounds , and treestumps . As a result , the collision engine used in previous installments could not be used , and a new one had to be built from scratch . Setting up the motion capture technology so players could walk over these mounds was a problem during development .
Many fans wanted Snake Eater to use a 3D camera , but this was ultimately not implemented in the game . Kojima views Metal Gear Solid , Sons of Liberty and Snake Eater as a trilogy , and wished to keep the camera the same as the previous two in order to keep the feel of the three games the same . He did , however , acknowledge that the current trend for video games is to use the 3D camera . The camera was later implemented in an updated version of Snake Eater titled Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence , and further installments in the franchise .
Kojima designed boss battles of Snake Eater to be totally different from those in previous Metal Gear games , or any other games . He said that the boss battle with sniper The End best represented free , open gameplay in the game . The battle takes place over a large area of dense jungle , and the player must search extensively for The End , who attacks over long range from an unknown position . This battle of attrition can last for hours , and contrasts with other boss fights in which the enemy is right in front of the player and in view the whole time . In addition , the player has the ability to both avoid this boss battle altogether by killing The End earlier in the game ; or save and quit during the fight , wait a week , and reload the game to find The End having died of old age . Kojima commented that features like this do not appear in other games .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score of Snake Eater was composed by Harry Gregson @-@ Williams and Norihiko Hibino , who provided material for both cut scenes and the game itself . Hibino wrote the game 's opening theme , " Snake Eater " , a distinctly Bond @-@ like vocal track which also appears in the game proper , as performed by Cynthia Harrell . Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provides a song called " Don 't Be Afraid " which is played during the ending for the game . The song is performed by Elisa Fiorillo .
In a break from tradition , one of the ending themes of the game was not an in @-@ house production , but Starsailor 's " Way To Fall " . Hideo Kojima later revealed in his blog that he originally wanted to use " Space Oddity " and " Ashes to Ashes " ( by David Bowie ) for the ending themes because of the space development theme of the game , but during the game 's development that theme lost its significance . One of his colleagues then advised him to listen to Stellastarr , but Kojima heard Starsailor . He liked the song " Way To Fall " , and chose it as an ending theme .
= = Reception = =
Snake Eater was a commercial success and sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide by August 2005 . Although this is considerably lower than Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty , which has sold 7 million copies to date , critics were pleased with the new protagonist , Naked Snake — who strongly resembles the series protagonist Solid Snake — after fans were disappointed by Raiden in MGS2 . Some critics , who found the lengthy dialogues and multitude of plot twists in Sons of Liberty to be detrimental to the game experience found the storyline of Snake Eater a pleasing throwback to the original Metal Gear Solid , with less of the " philosophical babble " present in Sons of Liberty .
= = = Critical response = = =
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater was critically acclaimed , and was given high scores by some of the most prominent gaming critics . On the review aggregator GameRankings , the game has an average score of 91 @.@ 77 % based on 86 reviews . On Metacritic , the game had an average score of 91 / 100 , based on 68 reviews . Gaming website IGN awarded a 9 @.@ 6 / 10 and Edge rated it 8 / 10 . GameSpot , who granted it an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 , commented that the game is " richly cinematic " and " a great achievement . " GameSpy hailed it as " probably the best Metal Gear Solid game yet " , and Eurogamer called it " overwhelmingly superior to MGS2 : Sons of Liberty " in their review .
Reviewers had mixed opinions about the game 's camouflage system . Edge commented that " laying , camouflaged , in short grass inches away from a patrolling enemy is a gripping twist on stealth , " while GameSpy criticized it as " just a number to monitor and not a terribly interesting one . " Out of the variety of new features , GameSpot called it " the most important and best implemented . " The game has also been criticized for its low frame rate , which has been reduced to 30 frame / s ( compared with 60 frame / s in Sons of Liberty ) .
The cut scenes of Snake Eater have been called " visually exciting and evocative , beautifully shot " by Edge . However , they commented that the script " ranges from awkward to awful " and criticized David Hayter 's performance as Snake , concluding that " Snake Eater 's speech is not up to the standard of other games , let alone cinema . " GameSpot said that some of the humor " falls flat , as if lost in translation from Japanese " and " should appeal to ... hardcore fans but ... takes you out of the moment . "
= = = Awards = = =
Since its release in 2004 , the game has received numerous awards . Notable ones include " best overall action game " , " best overall story " and " best PS2 use of sound " in IGN 's Best of 2004 awards , and " best story " , " best sound effects " and " best new character " in GameSpot 's Game of the Year 2004 awards .
Snake Eater 's theme song won the " Best Original Vocal Song - Pop " from the Game Audio Network Guild at the Game Developers Conference in August 2005 , while the game itself won the award for " Best PS2 Game " at 2005 's Game Convention in Germany . David Hayter , voice of Snake , was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences award for " Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Snake Eater was developed as a prequel to the entire Metal Gear series , and was followed by several direct sequels : Metal Gear Solid : Portable Ops , Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker , Metal Gear Solid V : Ground Zeroes , and Metal Gear Solid V : Phantom Pain . In 2011 , Kojima revealed that he floated the idea of a Metal Gear Solid 5 set during the World War II invasion of Normandy , showing The Boss and Cobra Unit 's assistance in the fight . However , the team was hesitant about such a big project and Kojima later felt that " simply dropping MGS5 on the younger staff members was a bit heavy . "
The game has since been listed on several " Best of ... " lists by video @-@ gaming publications . In 2009 , IGN placed Subsistence at number 3 on its " The Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " list . GamePro listed Snake Eater and Subsistence at 8th place on its list of " The 36 Best PS2 Games " in 2010 . That same year , IGN ranked Snake Eater 2nd on its list of the " Top 100 PlayStation 2 Games " , and said that it had " the best story in the franchise . " In 2013 , GamesRadar placed the game at number 22 on its " The 100 Best Games of All Time " list . That same year , the game 's story was ranked 10th place on GamesRadar 's list of " The Best Videogame Stories Ever " . In 2015 , the game placed 2nd on USgamer 's " The 15 Best Games Since 2000 " list .
= = Release history = =
Like Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty before it , Snake Eater was first released in North America ; the Japanese release was held back for almost a month after that . However , the Japanese version featured a downloadable camouflage pattern unavailable in North America . A limited edition premium package of Snake Eater was released alongside the standard version in Japan . The premium package came with a video DVD disc featuring all the promotional trailers shown prior to the game 's release ( including a proof of concept video shown internally within Konami ) , two booklets and a painted 1 / 144 @-@ scale model of the Shagohod . A special limited edition CD was given away to those who preordered the Japanese version of Snake Eater , which included several tracks from the game 's soundtrack , as well as computer screensavers and additional camouflage for the main game . The pre @-@ order package allowed cell phone users to access a special site featuring image and music downloads .
For the European release , Konami added several new features , including the " European Extreme " difficulty setting , a Demo Theater of the game 's cut scenes , and a Duel Mode , where players can replay boss battles from the main game , in addition to extra facepaints based on European flags and two new " Snake vs. Monkey " levels .
= = = Subsistence = = =
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence was released in Japan on December 22 , 2005 , later in North America on March 14 , 2006 , in Europe on October 6 , 2006 and in Australia on October 13 , 2006 . Subsistence continues the Metal Gear Solid series tradition of follow @-@ up expanded versions . While previous releases , such as Metal Gear Solid : Integral and Metal Gear Solid 2 : Substance included skill challenge missions and / or side story missions , Subsistence eschews the extra single @-@ player missions to include updated versions of the series ' first two games , Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake , a brand @-@ new competitive online mode , and a fully 3D , user @-@ controlled camera in the main portion of the game .
Subsistence 's online multiplayer component , titled Metal Gear Online , consists of five tournament @-@ style game modes , each with a capacity of up to eight players . This mode pits players , each playing as a generic soldier against each other in deathmatch battles and variations of capture the flag , using stages , items , maneuvers , and units ( such as the KGB , GRU or Ocelot Unit ) from the main game . Depending on server settings , each round the highest @-@ scoring player in each unit automatically assumes the role of one of the main characters ( or Reiko Hinomoto from Rumble Roses ) , along with unique abilities and / or items . For example , the highest scoring player on the GRU team would assume the role of Major Raikov , leader of the GRU , next round . Konami 's Metal Gear Online service for the PlayStation 2 closed in Japan on December 26 , 2006 , followed by in North America on April 2 , 2007 and in Europe on October 30 , 2007 , although a fan community has revived it by emulating the servers . As noted above , the online mode , after one of the players unlocks an animal codename , also allowed for the player to play as either Reiko Hinomoto or Rowdy Reiko from Rumble Roses ( depending if the player in question was of red team or blue team , respectively ) . According to Metal Gear series creator Hideo Kojima , he added the characters into the game as secret characters in part due to opportunity : Kojima had earlier been offered a deal with Rumble Roses producer Akari Uchida to make a crossover between Metal Gear and Rumble Roses . However , the Metal Gear development team at the time refused to work with them . Kojima eventually accepted the offer when trying to decide on secret characters for the online mode for Subsistence to tie up loose ends . He also admitted that he originally considered offering Tomonobu Itagaki , at the time the producer of the Tecmo fighting game series Dead or Alive , the opportunity of using one of his characters as a secret character .
In addition to the older games and the online mode , Subsistence includes many minor features common to international version releases . It includes the downloadable extra camouflage and face paint designs and " Snake vs. Monkey " stages previously exclusive to the European release , the European Extreme difficulty level , parody cut scenes and trailers from the official website , and connectivity with Metal Gear Acid 2 . The Japanese version also includes a URL for a hidden website that allows the download of OtaClock , a PC and Mac clock program that features Metal Gear Solid series recurring character Otacon . This website is now publicly available .
" Limited Edition " copies of Subsistence also include Existence , the game 's cut scenes edited into a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour feature film with additional scenes and remastered sound . The North American " Limited Edition " package was only available to consumers who pre @-@ ordered it before the game 's release . The three disc edition is the standard release of Subsistence in Europe to make up for the title 's lengthy delay .
A bonus documentary DVD video titled Metal Gear Saga Vol . 1 was bundled with pre @-@ orders for Subsistence in North America and with the European Platinum reissue of Snake Eater released in Germany on March 23 , 2006 . The disc includes a five @-@ part , 30 @-@ minute featurette about the entire Metal Gear series interspersed with an interview of Hideo Kojima , as well as trailers for various current Metal Gear games .
Subsistence received marginally higher review scores than the original Snake Eater , averaging 94 % on Metacritic . Reviewers commented that the introduction of the 3D camera removed the " only grade @-@ A problem " and makes the gameplay feel " less restrictive and more natural . " The online mode is considered " impressive for a PS2 game " , though " [ Snake Eater ] ' s distinctive gameplay conventions do not entirely lend themselves to the online action @-@ gaming experience . " Subsistence received IGN 's award for " best online game " for the PlayStation 2 in December 2006 .
= = = HD Edition = = =
Konami released a graphically upgraded version of Snake Eater titled Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater - HD Edition for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles in late 2011 , and early 2012 in Europe . It was released as a stand @-@ alone digital download , as well as part of the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection , which also include Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty and Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker . The PS3 and Xbox 360 versions runs in a resolution of 720p and aims for a target framerate of 60 frames per second , compared to the PS2 version 's maximum of 30 FPS . The HD Edition features some of the content from the Subsistence version , such as the third @-@ person camera , demo theater and the inclusion of the MSX2 Metal Gear games , but lacks the online multiplayer mode and the " Snake vs. Monkey " minigame ( due to this version also being released on the Xbox 360 ) . A PlayStation Vita version of the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection on June 2012 , which features Metal Gear Solid 2 and 3 ; this version of Metal Gear Solid 3 features limited touch controls to take advantage of the Vita 's touch screen , and compared to the PS2 version , the framerate is a more consistent 30 FPS , with less screen tearing .
= = = Metal Gear Solid : Snake Eater 3D = = =
At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 , Konami displayed a technical demo for the Nintendo 3DS entitled Metal Gear Solid 3D : Snake Eater – The Naked Sample . The demo 's subtitle " The Naked Sample " was meant to convey its purpose as just a sample of the 3DS hardware , with no plans to bring a game to production at that point . Series producer Hideo Kojima stated at the time that if a Metal Gear game for the 3DS was actually made they would consider some elements from the PlayStation Portable title Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker , including the game 's cooperative gameplay system . Later in 2010 , Konami announced a full Metal Gear title for release on the 3DS , which was revealed at Nintendo World 2011 to be Metal Gear Solid : Snake Eater 3D . It was released on February 21 , 2012 in North America and March 8 , 2012 worldwide .
Due to the limited interface of the 3DS , as well as to take advantage of the touch screen , 3D has vastly unique controls when compared to other games in the Metal Gear series . While the game has been heavily criticized for these control changes , use of the Circle Pad Pro peripheral has been cited to alleviate much of the control issues of the 3DS . This is done by restoring camera movement to the second analog stick , adding ZL and ZR buttons for aiming and attacking , and allowing the face buttons to be used in a manner more in line with all other releases in the Metal Gear series .
3D also has certain optional in @-@ game differences that affect play , such as the concise over the shoulder third @-@ person view and the addition of crouch @-@ walking . Firing in this third @-@ person view substitutes an open cross @-@ hair for the standard down @-@ the @-@ barrel sighting of the standard FPS view . This method of aiming can seem less precise , but does allow for a greater margin of error in accuracy . 3D makes use of the 3DS console 's gyroscope , which is used to maintain balance when walking across a bridge or standing on tree branches . The camouflage system has also been updated , allowing the player to make use of the 3DS ' camera to make a custom camouflage pattern . The port features numerous graphical improvements over the initial PlayStation 2 version including better character models and the addition of normal mapping . Despite this , the framerate has been criticized for falling far below the other versions of Snake Eater . Snake Eater 3D has met with positive reviews , averaging 77 @.@ 74 % at GameRankings based on 34 reviews , and 78 / 100 at Metacritic based on 46 reviews .
= = = Other re @-@ releases = = =
The 20th Anniversary Edition of Metal Gear released in Japan includes the first disc of Subsistence , with a second disc containing the MSX2 versions of Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 , without the other extra game modes that were featured in Subsistence ( Snake vs. Monkey , Metal Gear Online , Secret Theater and Duel Mode ) . The version of Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence included in the North American Essential Collection box set is missing the MSX2 games .
= = Pachislot = =
KPE , the parlor entertainment subsidiary of Konami , announced a pachislot adaptation of Metal Gear Solid : Snake Eater scheduled to be released in Japan sometime during Autumn 2016 . It will be released on a new type of pachislot cabinet known as the " Big Boss " , which features a 32 @-@ inch LCD monitor in full HD covering its front surface . Scenes from the original video game have been redone in updated CGI to showcase the cabinet 's high @-@ end video capabilities . The announcement of this pachislot has been met with backlash among the Metal Gear following the controversy surrounding the circumstances of Kojima 's departure from Konami , with the official trailer on KPE 's Youtube channel currently holding over 53 @,@ 000 thumbs down after 980 @,@ 000 views .
= Cold Blood ( Doctor Who ) =
" Cold Blood " is the ninth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast on 29 May 2010 on BBC One . It was written by Chris Chibnall and directed by Ashley Way . It is the second episode of a two @-@ part story , the first episode being " The Hungry Earth " , which features the return of the reptilian humanoid Silurians .
Continuing from the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and geologist Nasreen Chaudhry ( Meera Syal ) have taken the TARDIS deep below the ground to the Silurian city where the Doctor 's companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) , a local man named Mo ( Alun Raglan ) , and Mo 's son Elliot ( Samuel Davies ) are being held hostage . Meanwhile , above ground , Amy 's fiancé Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , Mo 's wife Ambrose ( Nia Roberts ) , and Ambrose 's father Tony ( Robert Pugh ) keep watch over Alaya ( Neve McIntosh ) , a captured Silurian who is the key to freeing the hostages . When Ambrose kills Alaya , the Doctor attempts to prevent Alaya 's sister Restac ( McIntosh ) from wiping out the human population as revenge by offering to share the planet with the Silurians .
Chibnall was elected by executive producers Steven Moffat and Piers Wenger to write a two @-@ part episode about the return of the Silurians . Chibnall wanted " Cold Blood " in particular to be about the mistakes people make under pressure , and conflict that could come out of protecting a family . The episode is also connected to the series ' story arc , as the crack in the universe returns at the end of the episode . " The Hungry Earth " and " Cold Blood " were filmed in October and November 2009 , with scenes in " Cold Blood " shot in Llanwynno , Wales , Cardiff 's Temple of Peace , Plantasia , and an array of locations and sets for parts of the Silurian city , which the production team did not want to look like a cave . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 49 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received mixed reviews from critics . Some reviewers were disappointed by the plot and characteristics of the Silurians , but the emotional ending was widely praised .
= = Plot = =
As the Doctor and geologist Nasreen Chaudhry arrive by TARDIS in the massive Silurian underground civilisation , they are captured and taken to the Silurian doctor , Malohkeh . The Silurians ' hostility is increased when the Doctor recalls his previous meeting with a similar race of reptilian humanoids which were destroyed by humans , a reference to the Third Doctor in Doctor Who and the Silurians . Meanwhile , Amy and Mo escape from Malokeh 's experimentation and Mo discovers his son , Elliot , sedated in a chamber and under observation . When Malokeh realises the Doctor is not human , the leader of the Silurian warrior caste , Restac , insists both the Doctor and Nasreen be executed and escorts them to a Silurian court ; though Amy and Mo interrupt the trial with stolen weapons , they too are captured . Eldane , Restac 's superior , is called in by Malohkeh and demands a halt to the hostilities .
The Doctor makes contact with Rory , Mo 's wife Ambrose , and Ambrose 's father Tony , reminding them to keep their captive Silurian , Restac 's sister Alaya , alive . They are unaware that Ambrose has already killed Alaya because she would not help Tony , whom she had infected with Silurian venom . The Doctor arranges a " conference " between the Silurians ( represented by Eldane ) and the humans ( represented by Amy and Nasreen ) ; the three discuss how both
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the Cuban Revolution , followed him to Bolivia , and survived . They interviewed them individually and then Pombo and Benigno together about their experiences in Cuba and Bolivia . Urbano was an adviser while they were filming in Spain and the actors often consulted with him and the others about specific details , like how to hold their guns in a certain situation , and very specific tactical information .
In December 2008 , Ocean Press , in cooperation with the Che Guevara Publishing Project , released Che : The Diaries of Ernesto Che Guevara , with a movie tie @-@ in cover . The book 's aim was to compile all the original letters , diary excerpts , speeches and maps on which Soderbergh relied for the film . The text is interspersed with remarks by Benicio del Toro and Steven Soderbergh .
= = = Financing = = =
Initially , Che was going to be made in English and a strong interest in financing it was met ; however , when the decision was made to make it in Spanish and break it up into two films , the studios ' pay @-@ TV deals , which were for English @-@ language product only , " disappeared " , according to Bickford , " and , at that point , nobody wanted to step up " . The director defended his decision to shoot almost all of the film in Spanish in an interview : " You can 't make a film with any level of credibility in this case unless it 's in Spanish . I hope we 're reaching a time where you go make a movie in another culture , that you shoot in the language of that culture . I 'm hoping the days of that sort of specific brand of cultural imperialism have ended " . Both films were financed without any American money or distribution deal ; Soderbergh remarked , " It was very frustrating to know that this is a zeitgeist movie and that some of the very people who told me how much they now regret passing on Traffic passed on this one too " . Foreign pre @-@ sales covered $ 54 million of the $ 58 million budget . Wild Bunch , a French production , distribution and foreign sales company put up 75 % of the budget for the two films , tapping into a production and acquisition fund from financing and investment company Continental Entertainment Capitol , a subsidiary of the U.S.-based Citigroup . Spain 's Telecinco / Moreno Films supplied the rest of the budget .
= = = Principal photography = = =
In 2006 , shortly before the U.N. Headquarters underwent major renovations , Del Toro and Soderbergh shot the scenes of Guevara speaking to the U.N. General Assembly in 1964 . The director wanted to shoot the first part of The Argentine in Cuba , but was prevented from travelling there by the U.S. government 's embargo . Doubling Santa Clara proved to be difficult because it was a certain size and had a certain look . Soderbergh spent four to five months scouting for a suitable replacement , looking at towns in Veracruz / Yucatán before settling on Campeche , which had the elements they needed .
The original intention was for The Argentine to be shot using anamorphic 16 mm film because , according to the director , it needed " a bit of Bruckheimer but scruffier " . He kept to his plan of shooting The Argentine anamorphically , and Guerrilla with spherical lenses . Soderbergh wanted to use the new RED One rather than 16 mm film because of its ability to replicate film stock digitally but initially , it was not going to be available on time . However , their Spanish work papers and visas were late and Del Toro and Soderbergh were grounded in Los Angeles for a week . The director was meanwhile informed that the prototype cameras were ready .
Each half of the film focuses on a different revolution , both fundamentally the same in theory but vastly different in outcome , reflecting the Marxist notion of dialectics . Soderbergh wanted the film 's two parts to mimic the voice of the two diaries they were based on ; the Cuban diaries were written after the fact and , according to the director , " with a certain hindsight and perspective and a tone that comes from being victorious " , while the Bolivian diaries were " contemporaneous , and they 're very isolated and have no perspective , at all . It 's a much more tense read , because the outcome is totally unclear " .
Soderbergh shot the films back @-@ to @-@ back in the beginning of July 2007 with Guerrilla shot first in Spain for 39 days and The Argentine shot in Puerto Rico and Mexico for 39 days . The director conceived The Argentine as " a Hollywood movie " shot in widescreen ' scope aspect ratio , with the camera either fixed or moving on a dolly or a Steadicam . Guerrilla was shot , according to Soderbergh , " in Super @-@ 16 , 1 @.@ 85 : 1 . No dollies , no cranes , it 's all either handheld or tripods . I want it to look nice but simple . We 'll work with a very small group : basically me , the producer Gregory Jacobs and the unit production manager " . According to the director , the portion set in Cuba was written from the victor 's perspective and as a result he adopted a more traditional look with classical compositions , vibrant color and a warm palette . With Guerrilla , he wanted a sense of foreboding with hand @-@ held camerawork and a muted color palette . Soderbergh told his production designer Antxon Gomez that the first part would have green with a lot of yellow in it and the second part would have green with a lot of blue in it .
At the end of The Argentine , Soderbergh depicts Guevara 's derailment of a freight train during the Battle of Santa Clara . In filming the sequence , Soderbergh balked at the digital effects solution and managed to reallocate $ 500 @,@ 000 from the overall $ 58 million budget to build a real set of tracks and a train powered by two V @-@ 8 car engines . To film the scene , they had six rehearsals , and could only shoot the scene once .
Many aspects of Guevara 's personality and beliefs affected the filming process . For instance , close @-@ ups of Del Toro were avoided due to Guevara 's belief in collectivism , with Soderbergh remarking , " You can 't make a movie about a guy who has these hard @-@ core sort of egalitarian socialist principles and then isolate him with close @-@ ups . " According to Edgar Ramirez , who portrays Ciro Redondo , the cast " were improvising a lot " while making The Argentine , and he describes the project as a " very contemplative movie " , shot chronologically . While filming outdoors , Soderbergh used natural light as much as possible . Del Toro , who speaks Puerto Rican Spanish , tried to speak the best Argentinean Spanish ( Rioplatense Spanish ) he could without sounding " stiff " . Prior to shooting the film 's final scenes that depict Guevara 's time in Bolivia at the end of his life , Del Toro shed 35 pounds to show how ill Guevara had become . The actor shaved the top of his head rather than wear a bald cap for the scenes depicting Guevara 's arrival in Bolivia in disguise .
Soderbergh has said that with Che , he wanted to show everyday tasks , " things that have meaning on a practical level and on an ideological level " , as a " way of showing what it might have been like to be there " . While addressing the issue after at the Toronto International Film Festival , Soderbergh remarked that he was trying to avoid what he felt were typical scenes for a biographical film and that he would tell screenwriter Peter Buchman , that he was " trying to find the scenes that would happen before or after the scene that you would typically see in a movie like this " . Soderbergh was not interested in depicting Guevara 's personal life because he felt that " everybody on these campaigns has a personal life , they all left families behind , that doesn 't make him special and why should I go into his personal life and nobody else 's ? "
Soderbergh decided to omit the post @-@ revolution execution sentences of " suspected war criminals , traitors and informants " that Guevara reviewed at La Cabana Fortress because " there is no amount of accumulated barbarity that would have satisfied the people who hate him " . Soderbergh addressed the criticism for this omission in a post release interview where he stated : " I don 't think anybody now , even in Cuba , is going to sit with a straight face and defend the events . La Cabana was really turned into a Roman circus , where I think even the people in power look back on that as excessive . However , every regime , in order to retain power when it feels threatened , acts excessively ... This is what people do when they feel they need to act in an extreme way to secure themselves " . The filmmaker noted as well that , " with a character this complicated , you ’ re going to have a very polarized reaction " . Furthermore , he was not interested in depicting Guevara 's life as " a bureaucrat " , stating that he was making a diptych about two military campaigns , declaring the pictures " war films " . Soderbergh said , " I 'm sure some people will say , ' That 's convenient because that 's when he was at his worst . ' Yeah , maybe — it just wasn 't interesting to me . I was interested in making a procedural about guerrilla warfare " .
Soderbergh described the Cuban Revolution as " the last analog revolution . I loved that we shot a period film about a type of war that can 't be fought anymore " . Soderbergh has said that he is open to making another film about Guevara 's experiences in the Congo but only if Che makes $ 100 million at the box office .
= = Distribution = =
Theatrical distribution rights were pre @-@ sold to distributors in several major territories , including France , the United Kingdom , Scandinavia , Italy , and Japan ( Nikkatsu ) ; Twentieth Century Fox bought the Spanish theatrical and home video rights . IFC Films paid a low seven @-@ figure sum to acquire all North American rights to Che after production had completed and released it on 12 December 2008 in New York City and Los Angeles in order to qualify it for the Academy Awards . The " special roadshow edition " in N.Y.C. and L.A. was initially planned as a one @-@ week special engagement — complete with intermission and including a full @-@ color printed program — but strong box @-@ office results led to its re @-@ opening for two weeks on 9 January 2009 as two separate films , titled Che Part 1 : The Argentine and Che Part 2 : Guerrilla . Soderbergh said that the program 's inspiration came from the 70 mm engagements for Francis Ford Coppola 's Apocalypse Now . The film was expanded to additional markets on 16 and 22 January both as a single film and as two separate films . IFC made the films available through video on demand on 21 January on all major cable and satellite providers in both standard and high definition versions .
= = = Screenings = = =
Che was screened on 21 May at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival reportedly running over four hours . Following this screening , Soderbergh cut 5 – 7 minutes from each half . It was shown at the 46th New York Film Festival and was shown at the 33rd Toronto International Film Festival as Che with a 15 @-@ minute intermission and as two separate films , The Argentine and Guerrilla , where it was considered the festival 's " must @-@ see " film . Che made its sold @-@ out L.A. premiere at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre on 1 November 2008 as part of the AFI Fest .
Che was screened in Guevara 's homeland of Argentina in November 2008 . To mark the occasion , the streets of Buenos Aires were decorated with large posters of Del Toro in his role as the guerrilla fighter , unprecedented in the city 's history . When questioned by the press on Guevara 's ideas and use of violence , Del Toro stated that if he had lived during the 1960s , he would have agreed with Guevara , and that although he did not support violent revolution now , in the ' 60s he may " have been another person and in agreement with armed war " .
Del Toro and Soderbergh both attended the French premiere in late November 2008 , where they took questions from the press . Del Toro remarked that the " legendary rebel " was still pertinent because " the things that he fought for in the late 1950s and mid 1960s are still relevant today " , adding that " he did not hide behind curtains ... he stood up for the forgotten ones " . When asked why he made the film , Soderbergh stated , " I needed to make the film , and that is a different feeling . I felt like , if I am worth anything , I have to say yes . I can 't say no " . The following day , the Dubai International Film Festival would describe Soderbergh 's narrative as a " magisterial ... compelling experience " , with Del Toro 's performance as " blue @-@ chip " .
Che opened in single theaters in N.Y.C. and L.A. where it made $ 60 @,@ 100 with sellouts of both venues . Based on this success , IFC Films executives added two weekends of exclusive runs for the roadshow version , starting 24 December in N.Y.C. and 26 December in L.A. This successful run prompted IFC Films to show this version in nine additional markets on 16 January . Che will be shown in its entirety , commercial and trailer free with an intermission and limited edition program book at every screening . Soderbergh has said that the film 's roadshow version will not be released on DVD but released in two parts with the animated map that opens the roadshow 's second half missing from Part II , as well as the overture and intermission music .
According to Variety , it had grossed $ 164 @,@ 142 in one weekend , at 35 locations in North America and $ 20 million from a half @-@ dozen major markets around the world , led by Spain at $ 9 @.@ 7 million . As of May 2009 , it has grossed $ 1 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 29 @.@ 8 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $ 30 million . Eventually , Che made good profit for IFC Films .
= = Reception = =
= = = Cannes reaction = = =
Early reviews were mixed , although there were several critics who spoke glowingly of the project . Cinematical 's James Rocchi described the biopic as " expressive , innovative , striking , and exciting " as well as " bold , beautiful , bleak and brilliant " . Rocchi went on to brand it " a work of art " that 's " not just the story of a revolutionary " but " a revolution in and of itself " . Columnist and critic Jeffrey Wells proclaimed the film " brilliant " , " utterly believable " , and " the most exciting and far @-@ reaching film of the Cannes Film Festival " . In further praise , Wells referred to the film as " politically vibrant and searing " while labeling it a " perfect dream movie " .
Todd McCarthy was more mixed in his reaction to the film in its present form , describing it as " too big a roll of the dice to pass off as an experiment , as it 's got to meet high standards both commercially and artistically . The demanding running time forces comparison to such rare works as Lawrence of Arabia , Reds and other biohistorical epics . Unfortunately , Che doesn 't feel epic — just long " . Anne Thompson wrote that Benicio del Toro " gives a great performance " , but predicted that " it will not be released stateside as it was seen here " . Glenn Kenny wrote , " Che benefits greatly from certain Soderberghian qualities that don 't always serve his other films well , e.g. , detachment , formalism , and intellectual curiosity " .
Peter Bradshaw , in his review for The Guardian , wrote , " Perhaps it will even come to be seen as this director 's flawed masterpiece : enthralling but structurally fractured — the second half is much clearer and more sure @-@ footed than the first — and at times frustratingly reticent , unwilling to attempt any insight into Che 's interior world " . In his less favorable review for Esquire , Stephen Garrett criticized the film for failing to show Guevara 's negative aspects , " the absence of darker , more contradictory revelations of his nature leaves Che bereft of complexity . All that remains is a South American superman : uncomplex , pure of heart , defiantly pious and boring " . Richard Corliss had problems with Del Toro 's portrayal of Guevara : " Del Toro — whose acting style often starts over the top and soars from there , like a hang @-@ glider leaping from a skyscraper roof — is muted , yielding few emotional revelations , seemingly sedated here ... Che is defined less by his rigorous fighting skills and seductive intellect than by his asthma " . In his review for Salon.com , Andrew O 'Hehir praised Soderbergh for making " something that people will be eager to see and eager to talk about all over the world , something that feels strangely urgent , something messy and unfinished and amazing . I 'd be surprised if Che doesn 't win the Palme d 'Or ... but be that as it may , nobody who saw it here will ever forget it " .
Soderbergh replied to the criticism that he made an unconventional film : " I find it hilarious that most of the stuff being written about movies is how conventional they are , and then you have people ... upset that something 's not conventional . The bottom line is we 're just trying to give you a sense of what it was like to hang out around this person . That 's really it . And the scenes were chosen strictly on the basis of , ' Yeah , what does that tell us about his character ? ' " .
After Cannes , Soderbergh made a few minor adjustments to the film . This included adding a moment of Guevara and Fidel Castro shaking hands , tweaking a few transitions , and tacking on an overture and entr 'acte to the limited " road show " version . Moreover , he removed the trial of guerrilla Lalo Sardiñas , which Chicago film critic Ben Kenigsberg found " regrettable " , stating that it was " not only one of the film 's most haunting scenes but a key hint at the darker side of Che 's ideology " .
= = = NYFF reaction = = =
In her review for The New York Times , based on a screening at the New York Film Festival , Manohla Dargis observes that " throughout the movie Mr. Soderbergh mixes the wild beauty of his landscapes with images of Che heroically engaged in battle , thoughtfully scribbling and reading , and tending to ailing peasants and soldiers " . According to Dargis , " Che wins , Che loses , but Che remains the same in what plays like a procedural about a charismatic leader , impossible missions and the pleasures of work and camaraderie " , referring to the " historical epic " as " Ocean 's Eleven with better cigars " . However , Dargis notes that " Mr. Soderbergh cagily evades Che 's ugly side , notably his increasing commitment to violence and seemingly endless war , but the movie is without question political — even if it emphasizes romantic adventure over realpolitik — because , like all films , it is predicated on getting , spending and making money " .
Film critic Glenn Kenny wrote , " Che seems to me almost the polar opposite of agitprop . It flat out does not ask for the kind of emotional engagement that more conventional epic biopics do , and that 's a good thing " . In his review for UGO , Keith Uhlich wrote , " The best to say about Del Toro 's Cannes @-@ honored performance is that it 's exhausting — all exterior , no soul , like watching an android run a gauntlet ( one that includes grueling physical exertions , tendentious political speechifying , and risible Matt Damon cameos ) " . Slant magazine gave Che two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and wrote , " The problem is that , despite his desire to sidestep Hollywood bio @-@ hooey , the director is unable to turn his chilly stance into an ideological perspective , like Roberto Rossellini did in his demythologized portraits of Louis XIV , Garibaldi and Pascal " .
In his review for Salon magazine , Andrew O 'Hehir wrote , " What Soderbergh has sought to capture here is a grand process of birth and extinguishment , one that produced a complicated legacy in which John McCain , Barack Obama , and Raúl Castro are still enmeshed . There will be plenty of time to argue about the film 's ( or films ' ) political relevance or lack thereof , to call Soderbergh names for this or that historical omission , for this or that ideological error . He 's made something that people will be eager to see and eager to talk about all over the world , something that feels strangely urgent , something messy and unfinished and amazing " .
= = = Miami screening and protest = = =
On 4 December 2008 , Che premiered at Miami Beach 's Byron Carlyle Theatre , as part of the Art Basel Festival . Taking place only a few miles from Little Havana , which is home to the United States ' largest Cuban American community , the invitation @-@ only screening was met with angry demonstrators . The organization Vigilia Mambisa , led by Miguel Saavedra , amassed an estimated 100 demonstrators to decry what they believed would be a favorable depiction of Guevara . Saavedra told reporters from the El Nuevo Herald that " you cannot offend the sensitivities of the people " , while describing the film as " a disgrace " . A supporter of the demonstration , Miami Beach 's mayor Matti Herrera Bower , lamented that the film was shown , while declaring " we must not allow dissemination of this movie " . When asked days later about the incident , Del Toro remarked that the ability to speak out was " part of what makes America great " while adding " I find it a little weird that they were protesting without having seen the film , but that 's another matter " . For his part , Soderbergh later stated that " you have to separate the Cuban nationalist lobby that is centered in Miami from the rest of the country " .
= = = Cuban homecoming = = =
On 7 December 2008 , Che premiered at Havana 's 5 @,@ 000 + person Karl Marx Theater as part of the Latin American Film Festival . Benicio Del Toro , who was in attendance , referred to the film as " Cuban history " , while remarking that " there 's an audience in there ... that could be the most knowledgeable critics of the historical accuracy of the film " . The official state paper Granma gave Del Toro a glowing review , professing that he " personifies Che " in both his physical appearance and his " masterly interpretation " . After unveiling Che in Havana 's Yara Cinema , Del Toro was treated to a 10 @-@ minute standing ovation from the 2 @,@ 000 + strong audience , many of whom were involved in the revolution .
= = = New York City debut = = =
On 12 December 2008 , Che was screened at New York City 's sold out 1 @,@ 100 person Ziegfeld Theater . Upon seeing the first image on the screen ( a silhouette of Cuba ) , the crowd erupted into a raucous cry of " ¡ Viva , Cuba ! " Following the film , and the standing ovation it received , Soderbergh appeared for a post program Q & A. During the sometimes contentious conversation with the audience , in which Soderbergh alternated between defensiveness and modesty , the director categorized Guevara as " a hard ass " , to which one audience member yelled out , " Bullshit , he was a murderer ! " The filmmaker settled down the crowd and explained , " It doesn 't matter whether I agree with him or not — I was interested in Che as a warrior , Che as a guy who had an ideology , who picked up a gun and this was the result . He died the way you would have him die . He was executed the way you would say he executed other people " . Soderbergh ended the 1 am Q & A session by noting that he was " agnostic " on Che 's standing , but " loyal to the facts " , which he insisted were all rigorously sourced .
= = = Venezuela and President Chávez = = =
On 3 March 2009 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez , himself an avowed Marxist and admirer of Che Guevara , greeted Del Toro and co star Bichir at the Presidential Palace in Caracas . The day prior Del Toro attended a screening of the film at a bullfighting ring @-@ turned cultural center , where he was " mobbed by adoring fans " . Del Toro then visited the state @-@ run Cinema Town , a film production facility President Chávez launched to help Venezuela produce its own movies as an alternative to what Chávez calls Hollywood 's cultural imperialism . Del Toro described Che as " a totally Latin American movie " and stated that he had " a good meeting with the President " .
= = = General reviews = = =
Part One has a 67 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes , while Part Two has an 80 % rating . Scott Foundas of the LA Weekly proclaimed Che " nothing if not the movie of the year " . In his review for the Village Voice , J. Hoberman wrote , " At its best , Che is both action film and ongoing argument . Each new camera setup seeks to introduce a specific idea — about Che or his situation — and every choreographed battle sequence is a sort of algorithm where the camera attempts to inscribe the event that is being enacted " . Hoberman compared Soderbergh 's directing style and " non @-@ personalized " historical approach on the film to Otto Preminger 's observational use of the moving camera , or one of Roberto Rossellini 's " serene " documentaries . Armond White , in his review for the New York Press , wrote , " Out @-@ perversing Gus Van Sant 's Milk , Soderbergh makes a four @-@ hour @-@ plus biopic about a historical figure without providing a glimmer of charm or narrative coherence " . In his review for The New York Times , A.O. Scott writes , " Mr. Soderbergh once again offers a master class in filmmaking . As history , though , Che is finally not epic but romance . It takes great care to be true to the factual record , but it is , nonetheless , a fairy tale " . Sheri Linden , in her review for the Los Angeles Times , wrote , " in this flawed work of austere beauty , the logistics of war and the language of revolution give way to something greater , a struggle that may be defined by politics but can 't be contained by it " . In her review for the Washington Post , Ann Hornaday wrote , " The best way to encounter Che , is to let go of words like ' film ' and ' movie ' , words that somehow seem inadequate to the task of describing such a mesmerizing , fully immersive cinematic experience . By the end of Che , viewers will likely emerge as if from a trance , with indelibly vivid , if not more ambivalent feelings about Guevara , than the bumper @-@ sticker image they walked in with " .
Entertainment Weekly gave a " B + " rating to the first half of the film and a " C- " rating to the second half , and Owen Gleiberman wrote , " As political theater , Che moves from faith to impotence , which is certainly a valid reading of Communism in the 20th century . Yet as drama , that makes the second half of the film borderline deadly ... Che is twice as long as it needs to be , but it is also only half the movie it should have been " . James Verniere of The Boston Herald gave the film a B- , describing the work as a new genre of " arthouse guerrilla nostalgia " , while lamenting Che as the film version of Alberto Korda ’ s iconic 1960 photograph Guerrillero Heroico . In Verniere 's view , so much information was missing , that he recommended one first see The Motorcycle Diaries to fill in the background . In her review for USA Today , Claudia Puig wrote , " With its lyrical beauty and strong performances , the film can be riveting . Its excessive length and rambling scenes also make it maddening . It is worth seeing for its attention to visual detail and ambitious filmmaking , but as a psychological portrait of a compelling historical figure , it is oddly bland and unrevealing " . Anthony Lane , in his review for The New Yorker , wrote , " for all the movie ’ s narrative momentum , Che retains the air of a study exercise — of an interest brilliantly explored . How else to explain one ’ s total flatness of feeling at the climax of each movie ? " Taking a more positive stance , film critic Chris Barsanti compared Che to a " guerrilla take on Patton " , calling it " an exceptionally good " war film , which rivaled The Battle of Algiers in its " you @-@ are @-@ there sensibility " . Roger Ebert awarded the film 3 @.@ 5 our of 4 stars and addressed the film 's length : " You may wonder if the film is too long . I think there 's a good reason for its length . Guevara 's experience in Cuba and especially Bolivia was not a series of events and anecdotes , but a trial of endurance that might almost be called mad " .
Film Comment ranked Che as the 22nd best film of 2008 in their " Best Films of 2008 " poll . Film critics Roger Ebert , and James Rocchi went further , naming Che one of the best films of 2008 . The film appeared on several critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2008 .
Looking back at the experience of making Che , Soderbergh has said that he now wishes that he had not made the film and remarked , " Literally I 'd wake up and think , ' At least I 'm not doing that today . ' " The director blamed piracy for the film 's financial failure and felt that " It 's a film that , to some extent , needs the support of people who write about films . If you 'd had all these guys running around talking in accented English you 'd [ have got ] your head taken off " .
= = Awards = =
Del Toro was awarded the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival for his performance in Che and in his acceptance speech dedicated his award " to the man himself , Che Guevara and I want to share this with Steven Soderbergh . He was there pushing it even when there [ were lulls ] and pushing all of us " . Guevara 's widow Aleida March , who is president of the Che Guevara Studies Center , sent a congratulatory note to Del Toro upon hearing the news of his award . Del Toro was awarded a 2009 Goya Award as the best Spanish Lead Actor for his depiction of Che . Actor Sean Penn , who won an Oscar for his role in Milk , remarked that he was surprised and disappointed that Che and Del Toro were not also up for any Academy Award nominations . During his acceptance speech for the Best Actor 's trophy at the Screen Actors Guild Awards , Penn expressed his dismay stating , " The fact that there aren 't crowns on Soderbergh 's and Del Toro 's heads right now , I don 't understand ... that is such a sensational movie , Che . " In reference to what Penn deemed a snub , he added " Maybe because it 's in Spanish , maybe the length , maybe the politics " .
On 31 July 2009 , Del Toro was awarded the inaugural Tomas Gutierrez Alea prize at a Havana ceremony attended by U.S. actors Robert Duvall , James Caan and Bill Murray . Named after a prolific Cuban filmmaker , the new award was voted for by the National Union of Writers and Artists of Cuba . Del Toro remarked that it was " an honor " to receive the award and thanked Che director Steven Soderbergh .
Che was also awarded " The White Camel " , the top award handed out at the sixth annual Sahara International Film Festival , whose ceremony took place during the spring of 2009 in the Wilaya of Dakhla at the Sahrawi refugee camps of 30 @,@ 000 residents . Executive producer Alvaro Longoria , attended to accept the award when Del Toro couldn 't because of filming for The Wolf Man . After dismounting the prize ( which was a literal camel ) Longoria remarked that " this is real , this is what Benicio and Steven tried to tell in the movie . It ’ s right here , a people fighting a war for their dignity and their land . The principles of Che Guevara are very important to them . " However , Longoria returned the live animal before departing , opting for a camel statuette in its place .
= = Home media = =
The film was released on Region 1 DVD in January 2009 exclusively from Blockbuster for 60 days as per an agreement with IFC . The Criterion Collection was originally scheduled to release the film on Region 1 Blu @-@ ray Disc in December 2009 . However , the release date was re @-@ scheduled to 19 January 2010 . The two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray Disc release features 1080p video and a Spanish DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 soundtrack ( with English subtitles ) .
Additional supplements include audio commentaries on both films featuring Jon Lee Anderson — author of Che Guevara : A Revolutionary Life , and a 20 @-@ page booklet featuring an essay by film critic Amy Taubin . There are also three short documentaries on Guevara : Making Che — a documentary about the film 's production , Che and the Digital Revolution — a documentary about the Red One Camera technology that was used in the film 's production , and End of a Revolution — a 1968 documentary by Brian Moser who was in Bolivia looking for Che when Che was executed .
= Volcanology of Io =
Volcanology of Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the scientific study of lava flows , volcanic pits , and volcanism ( volcanic activity ) on the surface of Io . Its volcanic activity was discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 imaging scientist Linda Morabito . Observations of Io by passing spacecraft ( the Voyagers , Galileo , Cassini , and New Horizons ) and Earth @-@ based astronomers have revealed more than 150 active volcanoes . Up to 400 such volcanoes are predicted to exist based on these observations . Io 's volcanism makes the satellite one of only four known currently volcanically active worlds in the Solar System ( the other three being Earth , Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and Neptune 's moon Triton ) .
First predicted shortly before the Voyager 1 flyby , the heat source for Io 's volcanism comes from tidal heating produced by its forced orbital eccentricity . This differs from Earth 's internal heating , which is derived primarily from radioactive isotope decay and primordial heat of accretion . Io 's eccentric orbit leads to a slight difference in Jupiter 's gravitational pull on the satellite between its closest and farthest points on its orbit , causing a varying tidal bulge . This variation in the shape of Io causes frictional heating in its interior . Without this tidal heating , Io might have been similar to the Moon , a world of similar size and mass , geologically dead and covered with numerous impact craters .
Io 's volcanism has led to the formation of hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava formations , making it the most volcanically active body in the Solar System . Three different types of volcanic eruptions have been identified , differing in duration , intensity , lava effusion rate , and whether the eruption occurs within a volcanic pit ( known as a patera ) . Lava flows on Io , tens or hundreds of kilometres long , have primarily basaltic composition , similar to lavas seen on Earth at shield volcanoes such as Kīlauea in Hawaii . Although most of the lava on Io is made of basalt , a few lava flows consisting of sulfur and sulfur dioxide have been seen . In addition , eruption temperatures as high as 1 @,@ 600 K ( 1 @,@ 300 ° C ; 2 @,@ 400 ° F ) were detected , which can be explained by the eruption of high @-@ temperature ultramafic silicate lavas .
As a result of the presence of significant quantities of sulfurous materials in Io 's crust and on its surface , some eruptions propel sulfur , sulfur dioxide gas , and pyroclastic material up to 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) into space , producing large , umbrella @-@ shaped volcanic plumes . This material paints the surrounding terrain in red , black , and / or white , and provides material for Io 's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter 's extensive magnetosphere . Spacecraft that have flown by Io since 1979 have observed numerous surface changes as a result of Io 's volcanic activity .
= = Discovery = =
Before the Voyager 1 encounter with Io on March 5 , 1979 , Io was thought to be a dead world much like the Moon . The discovery of a cloud of sodium surrounding Io led to theories that the satellite would be covered in evaporites .
Hints of discoveries to come arose from Earth @-@ based infrared observations taken in the 1970s . An anomalously high thermal flux , compared to the other Galilean satellites , was discovered during measurements taken at an infrared wavelength of 10 μm while Io was in Jupiter 's shadow . At the time , this heat flux was attributed to the surface having a much higher thermal inertia than Europa and Ganymede . These results were considerably different from measurements taken at wavelengths of 20 μm , which suggested that Io had similar surface properties to the other Galilean satellites . It has since been determined that the greater flux at shorter wavelengths was due to the combined flux from Io 's volcanoes and solar heating , whereas solar heating provides a much greater fraction of the flux at longer wavelengths . A sharp increase in Io 's thermal emission at 5 μm was observed on February 20 , 1978 by Witteborn , et al . The group considered volcanic activity at the time , in which case the data was fit into a region on Io 8 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 100 sq mi ) in size at 600 K ( 300 ° C ; 600 ° F ) . However , the authors considered that hypothesis unlikely , and instead focused on emission from Io 's interaction with Jupiter 's magnetosphere .
Shortly before the Voyager 1 encounter , Stan Peale , Patrick Cassen , and R. T. Reynolds published a paper in the journal Science predicting a volcanically modified surface and a differentiated interior , with distinct rock types rather than a homogeneous blend . They based this prediction on models of Io 's interior that took into account the massive amount of heat produced by the varying tidal pull of Jupiter on Io caused by its slightly eccentric orbit . Their calculations suggested that the amount of heat generated for an Io with a homogeneous interior would be three times greater than the amount of heat generated by radioactive isotope decay alone . This effect would be even greater with a differentiated Io .
Voyager 1 's first images of Io revealed a lack of impact craters , suggesting a very young surface . Craters are used by geologists to estimate the age of a planetary surface ; the number of impact structures increase with the age of the planetary surface . Instead , Voyager 1 observed a multi @-@ coloured surface , pockmarked with irregular @-@ shaped depressions , which lacked the raised rims characteristic of impact craters . Voyager 1 also observed flow features formed by low @-@ viscosity fluid and tall , isolated mountains that did not resemble terrestrial volcanoes . The surface observed suggested that , just as Peale and colleagues had theorized , Io was heavily modified by volcanism .
On March 8 , 1979 , three days after passing Jupiter , Voyager 1 took images of Jupiter 's moons to help mission controllers determine the spacecraft 's exact location , a process called optical navigation . Although processing images of Io to enhance the visibility of background stars , navigation engineer Linda Morabito found a 300 @-@ kilometre ( 190 mi ) tall cloud along its limb . At first , she suspected the cloud to be a moon behind Io , but no suitably sized body would have been in that location . The feature was determined to be a plume generated by active volcanism at a dark depression later named Pele . Following this discovery , seven other plumes were located in earlier Voyager images of Io . Thermal emission from multiple sources , indicative of cooling lava , were also found . Surface changes were observed when images acquired by Voyager 2 were compared to those taken four months previously by Voyager 1 , including new plume deposits at Aten Patera and Surt .
= = Heat source = =
Io 's main source of internal heat comes from the tidal forces generated by Jupiter 's gravitational pull . This external heating differs from the internal heat source for volcanism on Earth , which is a result of radioactive isotope decay and residual heat from accretion . In the Earth , these internal heat sources drive mantle convection , which in turn causes volcanism through plate tectonics .
The tidal heating of Io is dependent on its distance from Jupiter , its orbital eccentricity , the composition of its interior , and its physical state . Its Laplace orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io 's eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit . The eccentricity leads to vertical differences in Io 's tidal bulge of as much as 100 metres ( 330 ft ) as Jupiter 's gravitational pull varies between the periapsis and apoapsis points in Io 's orbit . This varying tidal pull also produces friction in Io 's interior , enough to cause significant tidal heating and melting . Unlike Earth , where most of its internal heat is released by conduction through the crust , on Io internal heat is released via volcanic activity and generates the satellite 's high heat flow ( global total : 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 × 1014 W ) . Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time , and that the current heat flow is not representative of the long @-@ term average . The observed release of heat from Io 's interior is greater than estimates for the amount presently generated from tidal heating , suggesting that Io is cooling after a period of greater flexing .
= = Composition = =
Analysis of Voyager images led scientists to believe that the lava flows on Io were composed mostly of various forms of molten elemental sulfur . The colouration of the flows was found to be similar to its various allotropes . Differences in the lava colour and brightness are a function of the temperature of polyatomic sulfur and the packing and bonding of its atoms . An analysis of the flows that radiate out from Ra Patera revealed differently colored materials , all associated with liquid sulfur , at different distances from the vent : dark albedo material close to the vent at 525 K ( 252 ° C ; 485 ° F ) , red material in the central part of each flow at 450 K ( 177 ° C ; 350 ° F ) , and orange material at the farthest ends of each flow at 425 K ( 152 ° C ; 305 ° F ) . This colour pattern corresponds to flows radiating out from a central vent , cooling as the lava travels away from it . In addition , temperature measurements of thermal emission at Loki Patera taken by Voyager 1 's Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer and Radiometer ( IRIS ) instrument were consistent with sulfur volcanism . However , the IRIS instrument was not capable of detecting wavelengths that are indicative of higher temperatures . This meant that temperatures consistent with silicate volcanism were not discovered by Voyager . Despite this , Voyager scientists deduced that silicates must play a role in Io 's youthful appearance , from its high density and the need for silicates to support the steep slopes along patera walls . The contradiction between the structural evidence and the spectral and temperature data following the Voyager flybys led to a debate in the planetary science community regarding the composition of Io 's lava flows , whether they were composed of silicate or sulfurous materials .
Earth @-@ based infrared studies in the 1980s and 1990s shifted the paradigm from one of primarily sulfur volcanism to one where silicate volcanism dominates , and sulfur acts in a secondary role . In 1986 , measurements of a bright eruption on Io 's leading hemisphere revealed temperatures of at least 900 K ( 600 ° C ; 1 @,@ 200 ° F ) . This is higher than the boiling point of sulfur ( 715 K or 442 ° C or 827 ° F ) , indicating a silicate composition for at least some of Io 's lava flows . Similar temperatures were also observed at the Surt eruption in 1979 between the two Voyager encounters , and at the eruption observed by Witteborn and colleagues in 1978 . In addition , modeling of silicate lava flows on Io suggested that they cooled rapidly , causing their thermal emission to be dominated by lower temperature components , such as solidified flows , as opposed to the small areas covered by still molten lava near the actual eruption temperature .
Silicate volcanism , involving basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic ( magnesium @-@ rich ) compositions , was confirmed by the Galileo spacecraft in the 1990s and 2000s from temperature measurements of Io 's numerous hot spots , locations where thermal emission is detected , and from spectral measurements of Io 's dark material . Temperature measurements from Galileo 's Solid @-@ State Imager ( SSI ) and Near @-@ Infrared Mapping Spectrometer ( NIMS ) revealed numerous hot spots with high @-@ temperature components ranging from at least 1 @,@ 200 K ( 900 ° C ; 1 @,@ 700 ° F ) to a maximum of 1 @,@ 600 K ( 1 @,@ 300 ° C ; 2 @,@ 400 ° F ) , like at the Pillan Patera eruption in 1997 . Initial estimates during the course of the Galileo mission suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2 @,@ 000 K ( 1 @,@ 700 ° C ; 3 @,@ 100 ° F ) have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to calculate the temperatures . Spectral observations of Io 's dark material suggested the presence of orthopyroxenes , such as enstatite , magnesium @-@ rich silicate minerals common in mafic and ultramafic basalt . This dark material is seen in volcanic pits , fresh lava flows , and pyroclastic deposits surrounding recent , explosive volcanic eruptions . Based on the measured temperature of the lava and the spectral measurements , some of the lava may be analogous to terrestrial komatiites . Compressional superheating , which could increase the temperature of magma during ascent to the surface during an eruption , may also be a factor in some of the higher temperature eruptions .
Although temperature measurements of Io 's volcanoes settled the sulfur @-@ versus @-@ silicates debate that persisted between the Voyager and Galileo missions at Jupiter , sulfur and sulfur dioxide still play a significant role in the phenomena observed on Io . Both materials have been detected in the plumes generated at Io 's volcanoes , with sulfur being a primary constituent of Pele @-@ type plumes . Bright flows have been identified on Io , at Tsũi Goab Fluctus , Emakong Patera , and Balder Patera for example , that are suggestive of effusive sulfur or sulfur dioxide volcanism .
= = Eruption styles = =
Observations of Io by spacecraft and Earth @-@ based astronomers have led to the identification of differences in the types of eruptions seen on the satellite . The three main types identified include intra @-@ patera , flow @-@ dominated , and explosion @-@ dominated eruptions . They differ in terms of duration , energy released , brightness temperature ( determined from infrared imaging ) , type of lava flow , and whether it is confined within volcanic pits .
= = = Intra @-@ patera eruptions = = =
Intra @-@ patera eruptions occur within volcanic depressions known as paterae , which generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls . Paterae resemble terrestrial calderas , but it is unknown whether they form when an empty lava chamber collapses , like their terrestrial cousins . One hypothesis suggests that they are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills , with the overlying material either being blasted out or integrated into the sill . Some paterae display evidence for multiple collapses , similar to the calderas atop Olympus Mons on Mars or Kīlauea on Earth , suggesting that they may occasionally form like volcanic calderas . Because the formation mechanism is still uncertain , the general term for these features uses the Latin descriptor term employed by the International Astronomical Union in naming them , paterae . Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars , these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are larger , with an average diameter of 41 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . Patera depths have been measured for only a few paterae and typically exceed 1 km . The largest volcanic depression on Io is Loki Patera at 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) across . Whatever the formation mechanism , the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that they are structurally controlled , with at least half bounded by faults or mountains .
This eruption style can take the form of either lava flows , spreading across the floor of the paterae , or lava lakes . Except for observations by Galileo during its seven close flybys , it can be difficult to tell the difference between a lava lake and a lava flow eruption on a patera floor , due to inadequate resolution and similar thermal emission characteristics . Intra @-@ patera lava flow eruptions , such as the Gish Bar Patera eruption in 2001 , can be just as voluminous as those seen spreading out across the Ionian plains . Flow @-@ like features have also been observed within a number of paterae , like Camaxtli Patera , suggesting that lava flows periodically resurface their floors .
Ionian lava lakes are depressions partially filled with molten lava covered by a thin solidified crust . These lava lakes are directly connected to a magma reservoir lying below . Observations of thermal emission at several Ionian lava lakes reveal glowing molten rock along the patera margin , caused by the lake 's crust breaking up along the edge of the patera . Over time , because the solidified lava is denser than the still @-@ molten magma below , this crust can founder , triggering an increase in thermal emission at the volcano . For some lava lakes , like the one at Pele , this occurs continuously , making Pele one of the brightest emitters of heat in the near @-@ infrared spectrum on Io . At other sites , such as at Loki Patera , this can occur episodically . During an overturning episode at these more quiescent lava lakes , a wave of foundering crust spreads out across the patera at the rate of about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) per day , with new crust forming behind it until the entire lake has been resurfaced . Another eruption would only begin once the new crust has cooled and thickened enough for it to no longer be buoyant over the molten lava . During an overturning episode , Loki can emit up to ten times more heat than when its crust is stable .
= = = Flow @-@ dominated eruptions ( Promethean Volcanism ) = = =
Flow @-@ dominated eruptions are long @-@ lived events that build up extensive , compound lava flows . The extent of these flows makes them a major terrain type on Io . In this style of eruption , magma emerges onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae , vents surrounding paterae , or from fissures on the plains , producing inflated ,
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